1) a system delivers the maximum possible

work as it undergoes a reversible process from the specified initial state to

the state of its environment, that is, the dead state. This represents the useful
work potential of the system at the specified state and is called exergy ( also
called availaibility).
which is the maximum useful work that could be
obtained from the system at a given state in a specified environment.
2) it would be very desirable to have a property to enable us to determine the
useful work
potential of a given amount of energy at some specified state. This property
is exergy, which is also called the availability or available energy.
3) it represents the upper limit on the amount of work a device can
deliver without violating any thermodynamic laws
4) exergy is a property of the systemenvironment combination
and not of the system alone.
Exergy of kinetic energy: xke = ke =v2 /2 (kJ/kg)
Exergy of potential energy: xpe = pe = gz (kJ/kg)
5) The portion of energy that cannot be

converted to work is called unavailable energy (Fig. 86). Unavailable energy

is simply the difference between the total energy of a system at a specified
state and the exergy of that energy.
total energy= available energy (exergy)+ unavailaible energy
6) The difference between the actual work W and the surroundings work

Wsurr is called the useful work

Wu =Wu - Wsurr = W - P0(V2 - V1)
7) Reversible work Wrev is defined as the maximum amount of useful work

that can be produced (or the minimum work that needs to be supplied) as a
system undergoes a process between the specified initial and final states.
8) Any difference between the reversible work Wrev and the useful work Wu
is due to the irreversibilities present during the process, and this difference
is called irreversibility I. It is expressed as
I = Wrev,out -Wu,out or I =Wu,in - Wrev,in

8) W

rev,out

= hth,rev Qin = (1- Tsink / Tsource)Q

in

This is the maximum power that can be produced by a heat engine operating
between the specified temperature limits and receiving heat at the specified
rate.
The irreversibility rate is the difference between the reversible power (maximum
power that could have been produced) and the useful power output:
u

9) we define a second-law efficiency hII as the ratio of the actual

thermal efficiency to the maximum possible (reversible) thermal efficiency
under the same conditions
(
hII = hth / hth,rev )
(heat engines)
h= efficiency
10) The second-law efficiency can also be expressed as the ratio of the useful

work output and the maximum possible (reversible) work output:

hII =
Wu / Wrev
hII =Wrev / Wu

(work-producing devices)
(work-consuming devices)

For cyclic devices such as refrigerators and heat pumps, it can also be
expressed in terms of the coefficients of performance as
hII =COP / COPrev

(refrigerators and heat pumps)

The second-law efficiency is intended to

serve as a measure of approximation to reversible operation and thus its value
should range from zero in the worst case (complete destruction of exergy) to
one in the best case (no destruction of exergy).
hII =Exergy recovered / Exergy expended= (1- (Exergy destroyed / Exergy expended))
hII,electric heater =X .recovered / X .expended = X .heat / W .e={Q.e(1 - T0 /TH) } / W .e = 1 (T0 / TH)
COPHP,rev =1/{1- (TL /TH)}
hII =COP / COPrev
hII,electric heater = {1 (T0 / TH

)}