The View From The Road

Încărcat de

Anonymous 0LH6mmD

100% au considerat acest document util (5 voturi)

3K vizualizări66 pagini

Arquitectura

Titlu original

The View From the Road

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Raportați acest document

Arquitectura

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd

Indicator pentru conținut neadecvat

100% au considerat acest document util (5 voturi)

3K vizualizări66 pagini

The View From The Road

Încărcat de

Anonymous 0LH6mmD

Arquitectura

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd

Indicator pentru conținut neadecvat

Salt la pagina

Sunteți pe pagina 1din 66

Căutați în document

The View from the Road bonata Appleyard, Kevin Lynch and John R. Myer©) RCW ACHR UL Maer) Donald Apoleyard. Kevin Lynch and John R. Myer Publishedby The M.LT. Press forthe Joint, Cees eae La! icon eee oe eee ty ee ets ee ene Ce ene en eee ee coy eee eee any eee ae? created an important and controversial book erm eee ee ee es nen ener) eee ee eee eee ee een See ee ae ea eee Pe a EL ee a Donald Apployard isa graduate ofthe Archi tectural Association School in London and ete ee eg eo oe eee era) ee ry Since 1961 he has been Assistant Professor eee en Pees Cees a Ce neta etc eee ey Seen en eee ets Sree een ee ee eee ee Ee eee Re ee ee eee eee ae eee eee ae ate? eee ee eee Ce erence tn Peg red Corey enti te enna) ee eee od one eeeContents: 2 Preface 31. The Highway Landscape 4 The Highway Experience 6 The Elements of Attention 8 The Sense of Motion 10 Road Alignment 11, The Motion of the File 12 The Sense of Space 12: The Extonsion of Selt 14 Goal Approach 18 Orientation 17 Mesning 17 Rhythm and Continuity 18 Sequential Form 18 The Objectives of Design 49 2. Recording Highway Sequences 21. An Abstract Notation of Motion and Space 24 The Notation of Orientation 27 3, Analysis of an Existing Highway 28 The Approach to Central Boston via the Mystic River Bridge 80 Sequence Diagrams 32 A Tip on the Northeast Exoressway 238 The Trip in Review 39 4, Methods of Design {38 The Central Artery. Boston 40 The Boston Image 42 Design Procedure 45 The Size and Eccentricity ofthe Ring 48 Orientation of the Road System 48 The Fixing of the Main Intersections 48 Orientation to tha City {47 Space-Motion and View Diagrams 49 The Riverway 48 The Centerway 49 The Crossing 51 Interpretative Drawings 51 Road Environment 153 Some Comparisons withthe Official Route 54 Road Detail 97 The Night Scone 158 A Running Commentary on a Clockwise Trip 62 5. In Conclusion 164 Bibliography and Photographic Credits bso fr te Jon Caner for Uran Susie ar Harvard Uneraiyyhe MT. Pos. ‘comnisg. Masesenas ‘he suspies of he Joint Com or tan Masechuts Intute of Tecbology end ‘ounded in 1989 organs ané encourage planning. economies edveaton. enginet- Ing histor. pose. oa sence. The View from the Road wy covaio srrtevano, kevin even AND JOKN a, wvERSezend pee, Janay, 1986 copriaht® 1066 bythe Mesachuats tint of Tecnology Foren Preface ‘This monograph deals with the esthetics of highways: the way they look tothe driver and his passongors, and what ths implios for thei < an intervening porta or onstting gateway an abrupt shift § stssotution and chaos bet © dissolution and chaos between two spaces ‘To this wholo epresontationit would be desirable to adda sense ofthe activity which fills and characterizes these spaces, the intensity of accompanying trafic in particular. ‘Since this isa fluctuating quantity ike the lighting, we have yet to find an easy way 10 handle it. Sooner or lator, however. we must find a means of adding the nature and intensity ofthe activity to our analysis er Spee omQe LGD eae Es « >< roma, om career eran ( ) amount meron re Anillustrative total diagram, recording a briet highway sequence, might then look ike this nee 1 is 2B 59 Tho diagram. reading rom bottom to top, canbe transiated in this way: The roadis ‘dropping with gathering speed in an defined space which hasafloor and a screen at the right. and is brightl lit rom the lef ‘and in which the general visual eld is moving past the observer. This space gradually ‘merges into a small. deop, and narrow siot ‘withthe observer at the bottom. Before this ‘transition is completed, however. an object fies rapialy overhead. the road swings right {stil dropping) and the visual field on the left rotates clockwisa. The light becomes simmer and enters fom above, Suddenly. at the lowest elevation of the road, while apparent speed isa itsighes, the observer bursts out ofthe slot into vast, ill-defined plain and rises high above it.The light is bright ‘29nin and comes from the rear. The road rises, ‘and apparent speed slacks of until atthe ‘peak of the ci the observer seams to “oat.” and an important view opens upto the right The road then drops again toward a ‘prominent object on the left which appears to ‘be growing; speed begins to pick up, and the sequence ends. ‘This puts the experience in a concentrated form Ithas at east three deficiencies. Fist, it ‘must be read as three parallel columns. This is probably inescapable, considering the rhumber of elements being presented.” ‘Second, the space sections do not read as easily in sequence as do the other sloments, since they have boon “Iaidflat” on the paper, \while the other symbols are map or point representations. Setting such sections upright ‘long the line, esin simple three-dimensional paper model. would solve this ificulty but ‘would immediately complicate drafting handling, and reproduction. Third. actuating jharacteristis, such as activity and ight are rot adequately handled. Asit stands, the systom has reasonable merit and willbe used below to deserbe areal highway.‘The Notation of Orientation ‘Space and motion isthe immediate essence ofa highway run. But there isan important ‘aspect ofthe trip which is more complex and conceptual. This isthe sense of orientation— the general image ofthe oad and the landscape that developsin the mind, party 858 result of what is prosently visible, partly ‘8 a resultof the memory of past experience, Recording this image demands 2 subjective ‘nrpretation, but we can use some concepts ‘and techniques previously developed In particular, we will use the “image ol ments”: paths, nodes, districts, edges, and landmarks. Paths ae the lines in the mental image ofthe environment along which tho ‘observer foals ha can mave (highways, rail reads, canals, walkways). Edges are those lines which appesr as bariers or boundaries {lake shores, riverbanks, edges of develop: ‘ments walls), Nodes ae the focal points into ‘whieh ne imagines that he ean enter city ‘squares, railroad terminals. intersections). Landmarks ae the points in his image which are only reference positions, and within which he doss not customarily entor tall buildings, distinctive signs, monuments). Districts are the areas of some extent which he imagines 1s being relatively homogeneous and ident fiabe (residential neighborhoods, ofice dis. twcts large parks) All these olaments may be located and remembered from the highway, just s in any other experiance ofthe large- seale environment. The highway itself is of course a path, with more orless clarity of form and dtection. On its course it goos through nodes, breaks through edges, crosses other paths, enters districts, passes land- ‘marks, Thus itis both an image element and a sequence made up of image elements, Since the highway experionce is one of continuous forward-dreeted movement, the approach and attainment of successive goal fn important feature oft. In addition. the driver seeks to gain some sense of the structure ofthe surrounding environment, outside ‘he raad itso An orientation sequence diagram must there: fore show the following things 1. The image strength and continuity ofthe path, plus the sequence of elements that are ‘associated with the path tself and the points [st which the driver must make locational decisions. 2. The principal goals along the trip, showing ‘hon they ae visible. whether they aro at tained, whether there isa "back reference! to them, and how they overlap and succeed ‘one another. '3. The location, relation, and strength of the image elements of the “outside” environ: ‘ment, including periods of loss of contact. | CHURN rete ves oes Za We havo used the shorthand given below. The various elements are shown along a vertical axis tothe same scale of elapsed ime a the space and motion diagram and are sym. bolized as follows paths edges: odes landmarks sitriets ‘They are shown where they are physically located, not where they are perceived. In ‘creasing intensity, clarity, and importance fare incicated by increasing the size and dark ress ofthe nade or landmark symbol. dar ening the district tone, and thickening and ‘darkening the ine of path or edge. Elements ‘directly associated with the path. and the path itself are shown in black. “Outside” elements {are in another color. Loss of continuity. o of ability to recognize the path or its relation toan intersection. is represented by breakin the path ine, plus a {question mark. Loss of contact with the “outside” image (as ina tunnel or cut) is shown by Aan overlay tne of the color ofthe outside lamonts. Major apparent turns ofthe path with respect tothe outside image. or major apparent motions of he outside elements appear as superimposed arrows. Point of de cision are shown by back circles in tho pathco The total distance within which a single goal ‘sat least occasionally visible isinicated by 2a ortical line tothe right of the image siagram. Along it triangular projactions repre ‘sent the periods in which t is potentially Visibio and a triangular "pennant” points to ‘the element which was the goal atthe moment of atival. Visibility marks ater the arrowhead indicate that a backward look is possible, These ines and their projections fre in black Where the goalis never visibly attained, there ‘sno arrowhead, and a dotted lin tas the {908 line tothe element to which itrofers. Where the goalis not only not attained but fades out uncertainly, with ne back reference, the line also fades out in dotted lines. Small red arows superimposed on the viability mark indicate viewing directions other than straight ahead, Darkening of tho line means that the ‘otal approach isan important one. Darkening ‘ofa visibility oratival mark shows that this particular moment is important, These lines ‘canbe arranged rom lef o right in order of length. ¢0 that succassions and overlaps canbe shown, SS een esc a 3 3 Ao Lo ~~ 4 won wer wat name Addi q ‘A portion ofa total diagram might then look lke thie vunteefafinininn MUU 1 om ‘This diagram can be translated inthe follow. ing way: At the beginning, reading from bot. ‘tom totop, thereis a district of indefinite out- ‘ward extension onthe right and a strong ‘edge (perhaps 2 lake shore} on the let, while ‘2 node on the road ahead (an intersection, for ‘example] is visible as @ goal. This goal cis ‘appears, then reappears, while a path whose ‘origin is unclear enters from the left ear. ‘the edge on the lft i losing its visual impor: tance. The node i reached. 4 decision point ‘occurs. and immediately a new and important {08s visible: a strong barier edge in the Fight distance [for example ridge of hills). The road swings right the edge goal disap pears, the edge on the lft begins to fade out. and the path that the drivers on lsesits sense of continuity. Thisis resolved whon a ‘new goal appears: alandmerk such as a tall building) tothe right ofthe road. But this sisappears again.no part ofthe scene beyond the road teetis visible, and there occurs an Image blackout. athough the path maintains its continuity, Suddenly, both the landmark and the strong edge are visible again, and the path thatthe drivers on becomes ronger asa visual element. The landmark ‘isapnears and then is suddenly and visibly arrived at and aiso seen from the rear, while the edge goal maintains is visibly, now straight ahead. The image ofthe path itself becomes very strong, and so does the sight of the approaching edge ithe ridge of hil), Which s reached and piarced at a climactic ‘This seems tobe a satisfactory system, unless the track of the roadis vary complex and ‘the relation of the outside image to the path isnot stable. In that case, the diagram may have tobe broken into parts. With these two diagrams the one symbolizing space and motion and the other orientation, ‘we can quickly record the essence of the view from the road I willbe necessary to read ‘them together since the perception of space ‘motion and of orientation overlap, Ideally, 3 ‘we have noted before, the means used to Clarify both (end to express meaning as welll shouldbe the same. A better notation would ‘Compress both aspects into one diagram. ‘This may be possible in incvidual cases, ‘where the elaments used ara relatively ow. For an example, see the imaginary design in Chapter 4, page 38. It willsomotimes bo necessary to cross-rfer the elements from ‘one diagram to another. of to duplicate in ‘ormation, as when the view of an important landmarks shown an the space-mation ‘diagram ata point where it racicaly influences ‘the motion sequence itself In any case, the two diagrams must be read as one experience ‘The diagrams would be supplemented by @ conventional map, by notations as to signif tant detail and by photographs or perspective ‘sketches. They can also be reinforced by a series of rough study models, or perhaps by ‘motion-picture studies. Undoubtedly, the siagrams would have to be simplified or added to for individual cases in order to be. Come as expressive es possible fora par ‘cular purpose. Since he diagrams contain the kernel ofthe Visual effec, they might be evaluated inde- pendently ofthe ether material. and from them 8 more concrete design may be de: veloped. They wll therefore serve the function ofthe preliminary rough sketch in ordinary sesign procedure. While refering to conven: tional maps showing “fixed” elements mmajor topography, desire lines, connections to be ‘made, a7e88 and structures tobe avoided, ‘existing strong visual elements, the designer can quickly sketch out and evaluate a whole series of altemative compositions of motion and orientation, The chosen scheme wil guide the dotailed design ofthe road, He may wish to use an even more abstract notation, which simply shows the location ‘and timing of major visual events, ofthe level 62 of general visual intensity, without further specification Such a diagram. which would Took like time graph, oF a variously shaded ‘band, would be useful to analyze or express ‘the basic rhythmic structure of a road‘This monograph is based on various tests of ‘the visual impact of the highway. The sub stantive results have been summarized inthe first chapter but we must also describe the tests themselves in order to identify the source of our conclusions. To illustrate both source and method, this chapter will con Centrate on the test results fram one pat- ticular route. ur conclusions wore buitt up from the study ‘of many urban highways in the East Route 2, Storrow Drive, and tha Northeast Expressway in Boston: the approach to Hartford over the Connecticut River: the East River and West Side Drives in New York City: the Jersey “Turnpike trom Newark to New York the Schuyikill Expressway in Philadelphia, a well {8s the approach tothe central part of Phig- dolphia through Fairmount Park: the Rocke {eller Parkway in Clovoland. We have drawn upon the visual experionce of many other roads, but we have studied the above roads Ingome detail All of them were chosen because they have a east some quality ‘as sequences. ‘The basic technique used was the one com- ‘mon to all artistic erticism- numerous repetitions ofthe experience, and ts analysis ‘and evaluation both on the spat and from ‘memory. The process was aided by the use of tape recorder, eamera, and sketch pad to recore momentary impressions, Our concl sions are therefore based largely on th actions of alert and presumably sensitive and ‘educated observers, The reactions of other subjects might be expected tobe less sharp, but what seanty evidence we have indicates. that they would not differ markedly in kind, atloast among other middle-class people to whom the roadis not a matter af lang habit. ‘The greatest civargencos ae kaly 10 occur among people of another class or culture {about which we knaw nothing). or possibly ‘among daily commuters along a highway, on ‘whom we have extremely lite data ‘Our guess as to commuters is that they ‘would rspondin the same tif in a somewhat ‘muted) way wherever the visual sequence was a powerful one. Elsewhere on the road they might be able to shut out the view rom conscious attention, although if they were stimulated to look they would enjoy even ‘hese mild and familiar scenas, much a3 we find pleasure in driving through a wel! ‘known countryside. On the other hand, ex cept again for dramatic sequences, a daily ‘commuter, even fhe chooses to look. may possibly find pleasure or meaning primarily nother kinds of phenomena: novelties such as now construction, changing activity oF signs, new detail, moving traffic We lack information on this, During our investigations, we made all ripe inthe daytime. inthe presence of normal sity traffic, but not at rush hours. Thus they {6 not convay the nighttime view or the ex perience ofthe oad in very heavy trafic Most of our data comes from this subjective evaluation, but other kinds of tests and s2ards ware also made. The use of photo ‘raphs. sketches, and motion pictures has already boen noted. We experimented with recording a continuous stream of verbal i pressions, given without pause and at such speed thatthe observer loses much conscious control of his observations and must say the ‘ist thing that comes into his head, These wore done for a number of the roads, par ticularly the Northeast Expressway in Boston, by several research personnel. These recordings were vanseribed and timed, and analyzed for the tempo of attention forthe objects of attention. and for some af the more obvious ‘signs of emotional reaction. When several runs are compared. they rove tobe valuable indices of where attention i compelled to fecus on a common object and where it ranges more widely. {A similar graphic technique was used on the Northeast Expressway only. and was cartid out by a somewhat wider sample ‘of people [twenty subjects: mostly. but ‘not ently, midle-lass and professional) Hore tho subject was given a small pad ot paper and required to sketch the seene at an ‘extremely rapid tempo, averaging three drawings per minute. Again he is under such pressure that he cannot consciously contro what he records. The sketches were timed {indicat the location in which each ‘was made; they could then be arranged inrows one above another, all drawn toa common time scale, Thus twas possible to ‘see what the entire set of subjects recorded at similar points onthe road. ‘Tho drawings are necessarily orude, ond ‘many ofthe indications are so compressed ‘3s tobe unintligible to those wha do not know the road. Each subjact was asked to ‘identify all ambiguous elements of his drawings immediately after the run was complete. Most of the subjects had atleast ‘minimum graphic sk ita as this may bbe apparent under such conditions!) but a few were completely untrained. The lator ‘drawings exhibit a poor ability to connect parts. They have a fragmentary look, but the Contents stil similar tothe more highly ‘connected drawings. It would be interesting ‘o.expand these tests among ather groups, particularly among the dally users ofa route This skatch technique gave us further data fn the tempo of tention andthe objects of attention At climactic moments, attention |s “forced,” and the drawings by many people are surprisingly similar Considering the vast ‘quantity of objects that could potentially be recotled. the high selectivity and gener concurrence was striking, Features such as the forward view ofthe roadway. spatial ‘confinement atthe side or overhead, outines silhouetted against the sky roadside detail ‘obstacles to vision or movement like large buildings or the rear ends of trucks, and tong axial views appear again and again Detaled results ofthese verbal and graphic recordings are woven ino the anaysia doseribed below. Other tests ofthe subjective impact ofthe ‘08d might be imagined: the correlation of physiological reactions to visual events, or laboratory experiments in which the highway ‘experionceis simulated and varied in 2 ‘move controlled fashion. There might be testing of other groups; those with ciferent degrees of familiarity. or with eifferent temperament or backgraund. Responses fof subjects who are placed in diferent positions in the car might be studied. (Our ‘examination deat primarily withthe case of the front‘seat passenger) None ofthese ‘other tests have been attempted by us.‘The Approach to Central Boston via the Mystic River Bridge Boston affords a least one interesting ‘example ofthe approach tothe contral ‘ity: the Northeast Expressway which comes in at a high evel over the Mystic Fivor Bridge. It traverses strong topo: tgraphical and urban forms and has decided ‘shape ofits own, Inits variety andits tempo itillustrates many ofthe visual possibilities ‘ofurben highweys: panoramas, fast concen- ‘rated motions, the interplay of major and ‘minor goals. thas many visual laws. and Yyetiatfords 9 dramatic approach to the ‘ity. This isthe approach that Whitehill refers toin the opening words of his book ‘onthe history of Boston:* ‘Only residents of Essex County and Mai ‘and New Hampshiremen, traveling by c8t approach Boston with any decency. From the upper deck of the Mystic Rivar Bridge, particularly in the early morning. « marvelous panorama of the city in Monet-lke blues ‘and grays unfolds itself” {A study was made ofthis route from its intersection with Squire Road in Revere to tho Fort Hil exit inthe heart of downtown Boston a distance of 6% miles. This trip ‘takes 12) minutes tan average speed ‘of 22 miles per hour. Map 64 shows the {general layout ofthe road. From the flat ‘round near the Revere airport. it uns south- ‘west through a thinly settled area and then turns southeast to pass around the nose ‘of Fennos Hil. It swings southwest between Mz Washington and Powder Horn Hill, ‘and makes @ similar double turn anc ‘88 enters Chelsea and comes ina ine with the Mystic River Bridge. It crosses the river ata high evel, crosses a smaller channel ‘on another bridge, and descends across the ‘eastern end of Charlestown, to turn south- fast once more asi traverses the mouth ‘of the Charles River ina region of railroad yrds and docks, Passing alongside North Station, it enters Boston proper till at an ‘lovated grade, skirting Haymarket and Dock Squares and curving around the Although the expressway now continues fon south past South Staion, atthe time. ‘of our test it torminated atthe For Hill exit where th off-ramp turns sharply tothe Fight and descends to street level between ‘massive old buildings. “The impressions ofthis road given below are primarily those of two men whe took the tip many times, both as driver and as front eoat passenger. They are bult on the basis of ‘on-the-spot recordings ofthe experience “These recordings were verbal lin both 9 “stroam-of consciousness” and also a more ‘considered style) and graphic (rapid on-the- spot sketches, plus slides and movie so ‘quences). The view is fundamentally that of the front-sest passenger whois paying Conscious attention tothe scene. The analysis by these two observers was supplemented by the rapid sketches of twenty other subjects. ware Wahl Boston A Topographic story, Maran Univers rae Cage 888.‘Sequence Diagrams ponents of his experi> in Figures 65 in whieh the course ofthe road has bean diagrammatically simplified t0 a straight line. The time ma 64 ings on the conventional map. Figure 64, allow the reader to rolate it to these special 5 drawings. Figure 65 is diagram of the passengers sense of motion and space, while 6 Figure 66 illustrates his oriontation—his image of the total landscape. Both of these iagrams follow the conventions developed in the previous chapter. i See moroaranue seavects Le VT 165. Space Motion Diagram for Northeast ExprosswayeS 1 4 ' _ nual AN A ou a HWA FR ‘omg ee renee | 6 Orientation Diagram for Northeast ExpresswayA Trip on the Northeast Exprossway Let us describe a bie tip on this road, ast might impress atypical passenger. At the start, after rising Up onto the road by a short ramp there begins the fist, or familiarization, phase. Attention s confined tothe road itself, to the signs and accompanying wafc, tothe fty-by of small lose objects which give tho basic sensation of speed. In the lato afternoon in winter, when most of the tr were made, the oad paints at a low sun, and the gliston- ing ofthe sky end of tho road and car sur faces isa notable feature, The attention to silhouetted objects is heightened, Inthe beginning there iste to orient the ‘observer and he has to trust the road ford fection. The route lacks those elements of stant direction in which tis so rich farthor ‘on. A forotaste view ofthe Custom House tower, for example, ora eonee of the water ‘edge parallsling the route othe left, would bo of great value ‘Soon the original interest inthe ordinary features ofthe raad and in the basic sense of speed diminishes, while the outside land- seape i stl of weak quality. This part ofthe tip. rom minute 1 to 1, ie most ike the run cof ordinary highvray- driving, Attention stil Ceanters on the road ahead, but the tempo of ‘observation falls off markedly. The tempo of the sketching by the sample group also slackened a this point ’As the road approaches the northern spur of Fennos Hil the interest begins 0 rse again. [Atfirs its nat elear how. ofthe road will ass this barrier. The cutis turned at an angle ta the road andis therefor visible. The ap proachingtbbon of road that may point itout Is obscured by a small mound and dip inthe vertical alignment at minute 1. This mound passes over a road whichis larga invisible to the observer, and so the hump is fr him ‘an inexplicable regularity inthe ine Changes of level ean be quite exciting, but small variations, whose origins are not visu aly explained, act only as minor iitants. ‘Once past this hump, the approach to Fennos Hillsuddenty becomes clear. and excitement ‘mounts a the rosd plunges into the cut Under the two bridges overhead, and makes a sweeping left turn, Visuel speed intensified by the spatial confinement and the bridges passing overhead, and the cut marks the pas- sage of an important edge in the orientation scheme, The turning of the road adds to the intorest, conveying a sense of contig force and apparently causing the far land: . ‘scape (which is famed by the cut and the bridges) t0 move swiftly sidowise. This trang impressions reflected inthe concentration and tempo of attention On bursting out ofthe cut the observer's aves. sweep the far landscape and immediatoly Pick up the next major event. Powder Horn Hill whose principal landmarks (a hospital ‘and a water tower) are soon inthe framed view while the observer is moving through the first bridge. There is an apparent 80: gree tur tothe lof (actualy the turn is nearer 60 degrees, and the observer finds himself moving along the back sie of Fennos Hill whose rocks and slopes make a pleasant contrast tothe urban scene at the rghit. This ‘backward vew of an orientation element l-ready passed gives a satisfying sense of com: pletion and continuity. The spatial contrast between the confinement ofthe cut and the sense ofthe open but still defined valley between the rdgesis equally satisfying Fora time after coming out, the sketches of various ‘observers show a striking similarity as they foous on certain features such a8 the hill op posit. 2 factory onthe left andthe curving swoop of the road ahead. “The basic motion of the road her is intrest: ing and pleasant, Having approached Fennos Hillon the left-hand side, the road hes versed and now approaches Powder Horn Hill fn the right. It shortly reverses itself again, land puts Powder Horn Hill once more on the 3, Thus there is a sense of scouting or probing fora way to cross the barr. This ‘same movement is repeated later. onthe ap proach to the Mystic River Bridge, where the ‘observer feels that he might be searching for the road into Boston Between the two hills there another small and unexplained dip (minute 3). The motion In itself not unpleasant. since itis combined with a sweep to the right. pivoting about a housing project. But ike the mound at minute 1, the dips rather puzzling: the tempo of attention slows down; there ie 2 ‘moment of confusion and doubt as tothe road's intentions. Momentary deprived of vieual interest. the observer awvats his release ‘with heightened attention, On rising to the rast he expects some announcement: & view ofthe ety, anew landmark, or 8 mare Vivid view of a previous goal. But the confine ‘ment ofthe dip is succeeded only by a bland ‘nd featureless horizon. Confinement and hiding, without equivalent visual intensity Upon ralease, i a disappointment to the observer Powder Horn Hillis approached onthe let, to the accompaniment of an increasing fre: {quency of comments and sketches. Like Fennos Hill this new ridge is also traversed by a cut crossed by two overhead bridges, at ‘point where the road swings tothe left. The crossing of this second ridge infact. isan intensified repetition ofthe ear crossing! 2 ‘deeper, narrower eu, a sharper tur, the bridges closer together This intensification of the earlier experience gives sense of both continuity and forward progrossion. Just as before. the framed wiew sides quickly tothe right. Industrial chimnays and gas tanks rol by. then the Mystic River Bridgo then the Custom House tower. These basic themes of orientation now continue tobe visible almost Up tothe end of the route. At this point, the rate of sketching reached a peak. and the notations of cut, bridges, signs and distant landmarks ae notably similar ‘The road passes through an industrial district. ips down, and swings tothe right as before Hore, however. distant objects are still visible there is no break of continuity, Within the larger hythm of major goals. smal wo towered church on the left is sighted and then passed by. The Custom House tower appears ‘over the rooftops and engages in an amusing Sliding mation. first tothe right. then to the loft The Mystic River Bridge is at fist for tothe right and then swings over tothe left, siving that same sense of scouting. Further ‘more since its a ang linear landmark with a distinctive sihouetteiteanbe seen to turn Into lin turning tha persists with mereas ing speed and tension up tothe very moment ‘of entrance, The tempo of sketches andre ‘marks siacked off here, bt certain typical features appear. particularly the church and the approaching mouth of the bridge [At minute 5%, the oad begins along rise. and, witha sudden break-through atthe level of the housotops at minute 6, irises up into-s high world of its own. Attention slows notice ably, and the observer begins to scan right ‘and left and o pay more attention to cistant ‘objects: industry the sea, boats, the Boston panorama, While traveling a the same eal ‘peed, he feels that he is going much more slowly, and that he ie able to enjoy the whole landscape ina leisurely way. He would be able, that is, except forthe wsual annoyance (of a balustrade rail just at eye ove. an annoy: ‘ance that now becomes most imitating since itblocks off sweeping views. This tl rail appears again and again inthe drawings Thisleisureiness isnot yet the boredom of ‘the early stretch at minute 14: there ae in ‘teresting panoramas on all sie. ut since the primary purpose ofa oad is mation, one might guess that the leisure would change to boredom ifit wore too prolonged. unless the landscape were proportionately intense. Our highvvays may be stupefying partly because they fil for long periods to gwve a sense of ‘motion tothe river Although the propertion of distant objects noticed now rose significantly tis interesting tosee that there sill was a regular return to the objacts inthe road itself. Even the non ‘rving passenger seems to check his im ‘mediate, moving environment. “The Mystic River Bridge is finally reached at minute 7, and gives a strong impression of ‘motion while the trussos pass overhead and alongside. Logically enough. the crest ofthe Jong seis in the bridge its, the visible rivor and ocean fully explaining the long climb, One reaches the orest with antcips- tion and, surmounting it, picks up anew goal “The Bunker Hil Manument on the right. At the same time the toll barrier appears, ust atthe end of the Bridge. Coming down over the crest to the tll brter, the observer is brought toa halt at minute & topey his toll Thus the moment of anticipa tion athe crest of the lang rise has been stretched and intensified. and he observer, pausing momentarily is ready fer a climax. Since the road now points down, directly to Ward Boston, it would now be opportune to reveal the entire city Unfortunately. when ‘the tol barrier is passed, a second bridge ‘appears, smaller than the fist. an inexplicable bridge, since the Mystic River is presumably past (The new bridge crosses the Little Mystic Channel This bridge blocks ofthe city panorama, and when the laters re vealed again, its impacts already dulled by the ong wait [tis sila compelling view. however. and the ‘observers sketch as rapidly as they can, be {ore and after the second bridge, noting many ‘common features: the skyline, industrial ‘chimnays, distant landmarks. There is a ‘strong sense ofthe central ity an ite many recogrizabie skyline objects: the Custom House, the State House, the John Hancock Building, the Court House, the Old North ‘Church, North Station the Hote! Madison Unfortunately this view has na recognizable ‘general form, nor its relation tothe water in any way lear,‘The road now swoops down, focusing atten: tion ahead. On the ett are docks, factories, and a sot of brighty painted chimney stacks, ‘Which seem to move and grow in an intorast ing way. Atte right is the Bunker Hill Monument, now drawing abreast, so thatthe ‘oad appears to pass a gate marked by pylons ‘on either side, Both ofthese objects wore ‘drawn by almost everyone. The road seams ‘to gathor speed, pointing ata tangle ot traffic lanes below, which convey the sense ‘of big city, and produce a feeling of doubt [At minute 9, the road enters an exaggerated dip t Charlestown, an unforgettable exper: lence of motion and space occasioned by the intersection at City Square. The road plunges steeply down, directly ata small building hich divides the roadway like the cutwvater lof boat, then veers left to avotd this bul ing and. at the very bottom, sweeps up and ‘over in an ascending raverse curve tothe Fight. The alignment of the road is strongly reinforced bythe litle “eivider” buildin, and then by the lofty windowless wall of a ‘warehouse on the left, seen as the road limbs out of the hole and is prassed back to ‘the right Finally, 98 the road rolls over the top. it again swings let and toward the city. Thisis@ strong motion experience, as well as «8 sharp breakin orientation continuity. It {aused a rapid increase in the tempo of ob servation. both verbal and graphic. The key elements inthe sequence are drawn re- peatedly. More drawings are produced hare than at any other time on the tip. The motion ‘experiance is strong enough to carry the ob server through the reskin orientation, and the break tsolfintensifias the Boston ap proach, last seen as a general panorama and ‘ow. after this momantary hiding tobe fentored directly. Coming up the crest, there is sense of disappointment as before, since the horizon is empty and the expected view ofthe Cherles River does not materialize. ut the pace of movement cares the observer beyond the tur, and as the road swings lft he Sees Boston forthe second time, now ‘lose at hand ‘Atminute 10, stil scanning, he is swept lunder the stub end af a roadway ata higher level. oppressive but exciting. The sketches are typically heavy and biack, This caling ‘comes over him too fas, before he has been able to adjust tohis closeness tothe city There i a sense of darkness, confusion, and strain. Undar the girders he sees the base of the Custom House again, and suddenly he slides sideways tothe right and rushes toward the gap alongside the massive bulk of ‘the North Station, with the Custom House ‘much enlarged and directly on axis, and the signs flying by overhead. This sa climactic ‘moment. Hardly one sketcher filed to record. (On bursting through this apparent wall ‘around the central ity, the observer again scans the landscape. The objects in view are ow all nearby abject: he has arrived. The wide road sags away before him, bending slightly loft (ike an echo of the il eross ings?) The city behind the wall opens out into a rather formless bowl. whose edges are un- distinguished. except forthe presence of the Custom House, now shifting right ———— — bs cae ws ‘The observers elation gradually ebbs away He isnot atthe city center after al, but in some fringe region The tempo of attention slows again though not as drastically as be fore, since there ae a numberof interesting objects and signs around him. While verbal comment drops off, the rate of sketching is ‘maintained for some time. If the observer knows Boston, he may regret his inability to 00 any evidenco of the market activity below him, orto sense the presence ofthe nearby ‘ocean. The bustling market area appears gray and chaotic fom the rooftop level; one ofthe finest harbors on the Atiantic coast is two blocks away but haa disappeared without Meanwhile, the observer is faced with two offramp decisions in rapid succession: the first to Haymarket Square, the second to Dock Square. The tempo of decision, so placid before, has inreatad alarmingly. The ac celeration of his tempo, although perhaps 2 ratural feature ofthe center, has inthis case been extreme The Custom House now slips off othe ight, sinks behind lower buildings, and becomes: visible only flastingly down the side streets, ‘This major goal which has been apparent fom an early stage ofthe trips now neither decisively reached nor visibly passed by since the surrounding buildings block ofthe view ‘2 it comes alongside and falls behind, This failure add tothe disappointment of the arrival, Meanwhile. the road reaches the edge ofthe ‘open bowl, and pivots sharply to the right around the end of an old mercantile bul ing. Attention i focused momentarily an its brick and stone, andthe marks of old sta {weeds on its end wal. This pivot building not only marks the turn but strengthens its snsa tion, much as one an swing quickly eround when one grasps and pivots ona corner post. ‘The building appears frequently in the drawings. ‘Tho road now takes on, fora short time, a pew and pleasant motion, Running level, it weaves gently from side to side, passing close by the upper stories of the commercial build ings atthe inge ofthe ofice district. This ‘weaving mation, pleesurablein tal, directs the attention now to this and now to that side ‘of the building wall. picking aut various features for attention, The closeness of these structures, and the fact that they are already {emir in a different context as seen from the sets below. greatly adds tothe interest of the scene. Forthe moment, one seams to be ‘8 tour. The spatial proportions are quite pleasing A now “divider” appears, a yellow cutwater With ts sign directing the observer to his oxi The path sweeps down tothe right, past {8 new parking garage which slowly ratates on the let The tempo gradually slows, and the vehicle sinks down inta the dark slotted spaces ofthe central city. Forte last time, the sketchers concur in ecording these koy features. [Although this exit lacks the satisfaction of a ‘trong terminus tothe joumey,ithas a com: rmendable featge, While most expressway exits ae quite sudden and plunge quickly into the confusion of he lower streets, the Fort” Hil ext descends straight ahead for some tistance, Ashe gradually enters the heart of the city, the observer has time to adjust him- solfto the new scale, and to reorient hima ‘A short. turning ramp often leaves the ob server dizzy and adit,= pe : — 71. Rhythm and Locus of Attention 532 Total Comments “The Trip in Review Going back over the whole experience, iis Interesting to analyz. ina rough quantitative ‘way, te items mentioned in the rapid recor: ing of verbal impressions. Roughly two-thirds ofthe sightings wore directed straight ahoad, ‘and only ane-thir either to right or lft. Even inthe later case, almost all things seen were ‘obliquely right or lft rather than parpendicw lar tothe line of travel. Vision in motion is apparently strongly focused, even fr the passenger ‘Two-thirds of the remarks had todo with ‘nearby and apparently moving objects, rather than the potentaly lager numberof distant, ‘stable ones. Almost two-thirds ofthe impressions were caused by things in or ac Jacent to the right-of-way. Asa result half of allthe comments had to do with things which were in the right-of-way. were near and ap- parontly moving, and were in the central Sector of vision, This imited portion ofthe landscape was disproportionately important {a3 the source of wsual material. How these characteristics varied during the trip is ilustrated in Figure 71, which shows, in the ‘case of one observer, the timing of his com ments an the relative distance and angle of the things to which he refers, Ifthe total of recorded comments by the two ‘men who studied the toad in details broken down by subject matter, we can summarize them inthe following table: sions ‘the structure of tho road syst toto and texture ofthe age trate 128 The Sense of Space and Motion without Other Specific Reference 94 The Meaning ofthe Surrounding Landscape: activity and use ‘topography, natura features structures at mem distance 81 The Sento of Orientation, {Location and Approach 51 Miscellaneous light wosthor and sky etal nd texture not tthe oad edge pls people et.‘The correspondence ofthese data tothe (general catagories discussed in Chapter 1 ‘may be remarked. Beyond the concentration fon the details ofthe toadscape lin which the signs were particularly important), the funda ‘mental sonstion, continuously refered to throughout the trip, was the visual sonse of ‘motion and space, including the sense of ‘one’s own mation, the apparent motion of surrounding objects, and the shape ofthe space boing moved through, [Attention otherwise centers on orientation lincluding the sense of approach, the location of major urban and natural features with respect 0 sel, and the noting of distant landmarks), and on raading the meaning of the surrounding landscape its activites, buildings, and natural features, These four ‘laments —the roadscape proper in detail the impression of space and motion. the ‘sense of orientation, and the meaning ofthe landscape being traversed—appeared tobe ‘the basic components ofthis particular highway experience. Our studies of other roads lead us to guess that these same four elements are generally the basis of the highway experience. tis itficut to compare the sketches slrectly wth the verbal comments, since parallel catagories are not easy to construct. But we classify al the objects drawn in allthe sketches, and compare the frequency ‘of notations in each class withthe total ‘number of notations, we can construct the table tothe right Almost al the groups above the 5 per cont line appear not only with that average frequency, but with rather similar frequencies in most of the individual sketch sequences. “The repeated appearance ofthe perspective view ofthe roadis expecially striking: to achieve the frequency noted in the table. it ‘appears each time in the great majority of the sketches of every observer. The impact of things passing overhoad is algo notable, asis that of the buildings or other large ‘objects which occur right atthe roadside. Those last are most often either buildings fon the outside ofa curve, toward which the ‘eye is directed by the pointing ofthe car, ‘orbuildings whieh seem to "rect" the course ofthe road: dividers. pivots. or ‘obstacles visibly avoided bythe alignment, It is also remarkable that the isolated objects whieh are recorded, whether lamps, chim- revs. or towers. are typically vertical objects seenin sihouette, Another striking feature 's the importance of abjectsin axial view ‘88 the road comes aut of confinement: the ‘water tower, the Seagram's sign, the Custom House tower Contrary to expectation traffic appeared rather seldom inthe drawings, and very itregulary. Some observers noted it often, ‘most not at all Perhaps it was more dificult to;note oF the subjacts fel that they "weren't ‘supposed to draw such things, Where it ‘did appear, the view most frequently shown ‘was the rear end of large truck which tended to block the vw. There was sub stantial trafic onthe road, butt was not st ‘8 peek Sketches during the rush hour might have shown moze ors § ro2m u oi il ae GE sim BE i Li Se noe ee al 72 Skilled / -onmess Class of objects drawn shape ofthe ood ead objets overnead larg objoct tte age of he 08d ‘senaeof confinement atthe side ‘ards, and other cdge detail iE Ceo Unskilled Observers —Sretnotoocar a yen tetag 4 tmodon ond arcuene Caras nrurnce : Common drawn ss such: the approach to) . sur most mo 04 the bridge, the dip at City Square, the ee Scypiciaes bec motte ae re rewagn threo song tense “ Of spaial character of general orientation ve = i oe and of silhouette, = “The majority of the skotchers were com- costo rn on as DY see ar mae ‘petent draftsmen, but six of the twenty. ‘ ———— saauiaeemneens Sejocuhednoprestc aul ence ere ima maeer dinero — Ch se Theos were coviuny cur ‘than those done by the graphically skilled, ae ee showing lack of ability to connact the un i aw A Sons ean cesT eee iceaaneoemaneenns — sunrise ete eee grou. 2 Sunageortne rush ware see ae SS wat mote olen andso wer sige Tale nlbloweomtctecated Oerwae a Bu ws —— tResore of yrumic mowers ante : importance of sithouette, while the un- | Cumann CEE dom ‘Spittal ainsi i {ewer omens afereraton They ier somatic nf. most sherpiyin the conveyance ofsenee 48) mel A of space, which is strong in the skilled ‘ower ee: Gavi entered cits ates ft mH nat Rely ths spl due oon at lige a ‘Cinens gph te conmectons — oe Fe a Sumiwetiecnceer ¢... fn se then eskechnesinptig se when = — ‘opted th etal whe carsmpeny a acme ea ‘num ioe tesa ee sn i Tied crtverdend where feats —— eae cs ttaoos netfee! the tmpo of amine, a seaeconwameeseremen Stotches are being made tof diverse object, andin others few drawings are ramon io un tmade but of all the same tinge The symbols 7) Slongsie the sketchesindcete the general cr matron ft tempo of drawing 3 ann) Undoubtedly, most ofthese impressions como 0s ‘wore nevereonsdered by the designer of — ‘this highway. He was involved withthe seuss omces ad Droblomsot cont mite capecty stey. ang) NE Via ah Sttvture He can hardly be cansuredfor faire to produce a work ot ar. fhe ‘was never his conscious am, Butit ithe thesis ofthis paper that highways could be Ne conscious works of art, thatthe material ‘is athand with which to make driving gg ‘coherent and delightful esthetic experience. 1 ‘Therefore we have discussed the Northeast 2 = Expressway asifit wore such a deliberate NOTA LB WAT EME OM {attempt analyzing is fallures and applaud Pa omer eee gq i ee "TRUGK FROM REAR (GENERALLY OUSTRIBUTEDI is ras Site on ee 73 Composite Sketch Sequence ‘of Northeast Expressway74 City Approach - Hypothetical Design ANNAMethods of Design we lookat highways as works of art experienced by the driver. what offects of space or sequence might be achieved? {Ass fist illustration, we have constructed ‘an imaginary approach to an imaginary city. This shown in Figure 74, which llostrates how a simplified analysis ofboth space ‘motion and orientation can be shown in one drawing. ‘A radial highway s directed toward the Center ofa large city located onthe banks ‘of river. The raed willenter the metropolitan ‘area from hilly farmland and will pass by an ‘urban subcenter, approaching the main center along the general line of the river How might such an approach be organized? ‘A basic rhythms established as the road 25 and fas over the rollin rural hinterland Inadip. the highway passes a solitary landmark (building, pylon, gateway, sign) which symbolizes the city and announces a view, The pavement rises to ascend the next ridge, the topographic boundary af the main ‘iver system, The oad rises high, yet pen: fetrates the ridge ina deep cut a strong spatial confinement. On the downgrade, ‘ramedin the walls ofthe cut, the ver ‘enjoys 2 sustained axial view ofthe city ‘center to which he is going, marked by some tall buildings He sees a great bridge inthe mide distance, which foretells his future ‘couree, and he senses the entire city before him “The road drops tothe valley bottom: the stant view disappears. The driver makes contact momentarily withthe rver, on his Fight-hand side, and then enters an outlying urban region. From this point. the highway ‘continues to rise and all, ust asitdid inthe rural area, but now irises on artificial lovated structures, ‘Atthe next rise, the driver sees the bridge again in the middie distance, while the subcenter appears close at hand, The road sinks: ho losos sight ofall bu local detail, while activity builds up, When his vehicle Fises once more, the dive finds the subcenter immediatoly before him. He descends Into tina sweeping tun, entering an Urban space where activity reaches an intial peak of visual interest, “The road shoots through a short tunnel and suddenly emerges in a park which recalls tho rural land ofthe approach. Instead of rising again. the approach rhythm is picked up by a sweeping horizontal turn bringing the driver into touch withthe river ance ‘more. He begins to ise out ofthis rverside park. passing another landmark which symbolizes an approaching view ‘Tho toad goes up onto the great bridge which has been foreseen, and erosses the ‘iver From the eras of the bridge, the central cores in view again. Descending tothe at urbanized valley bottom, the ‘oad recalls the original rhythm of sing and falling by making a succession of ‘sweeping horizontal turns. At each turn, structures confine the space onthe inside ‘of the curve, and the view is directed ‘outwards. Thus the spatial opening regulary reverses fram one side to anather. When, looking right. the view is of eity development. while the leftward views are ofthe river and its green banks. Meanwhile the activity ‘radient continues to rse ‘tthe second curve tothe let the road re-enters the park, running directly along ‘the river iso The space is confined: the park contrasts withthe intense activity of the road; and above the trees floats a truncated view ofa tall central building, now very close. ‘A ast landmark announces the final view, ‘The road breaks out ofthe park. ising in 8 ‘great curve which crosses the ver and ‘embraces the center itself. The highway ‘drops down through an intensely active turban space, to plunge into an underground ‘terminus atthe foot of the central building. Leaving his vehicle, the driver may walk out to the riverbank, whore the water skirts the intensive inner core ofthe contra distri, lose under the shadow of the tal ulin which has symbolized the city conter from ‘the beginning, ‘Thisis @ simplified situation, but not an unusual one. Any eal design must ft 9 ‘detailed pattem of topography and development, and must serve particular demands fof circulation. But perhaps the example wil ilastrate that a highway can be thought fof asa sequential experience, and that our diagrams are a convoniont means of ex pressing and designing that experince. Using thor, we were able to consider and ‘organize the structure ofthe moving view, while leaving open the questions of detailed form and character ‘The design illustrates afew simple possbili- tios: sustained progression ta final goal Interwoven with approaches to preliminary ‘goal establishment ofa basic hythm, ‘Wansmuted but not broken: the use of elevation to give distant views, and of curves to give sidewise views: the contrast ‘of rural and.urban development, orof ‘open and closed space: the regular repetition ‘of such features as contact witha river. ‘announcing a view by prior symbol or entering a nodal point via a descending tur: ‘the gradient of activity which leads upto ‘each climax, but which is interrupted by @ ‘moment of hesitation or suspense before ‘the culmination. These techniques of contrast {and development serve to undeine the act ‘of approach, ‘This example is no more than anillustration ‘of method: I lacks real content and neglects ‘mony possibilities of ight and form, of texture and detail The outward tip has not ‘been considered ‘The Central Artery, Boston ‘The foregoing. 2s a purely hypothetical ex: ample, has either the problems nor the visual interest of areal case. To prosent ‘2 more concrete ilustration and to explore specific methods and probloms, let us turn oan existing situation, We proceed to make another imaginary design, but this time it will bbe one which is based on Boston's proposed Contral Artery ‘This atory isan innerringroad of exprossway standard which wil enctele contral Boston, coming tangentially to the central business istrict atone point, and which will receive the major radial expressways draining the ‘metropolitan area, Although part of this, inner rng has now been constructed, the location of other parts is controversial “There is one published route for this artery, however which has been the route used 25 ‘basi for our analysis.” We have accepted the basic concept and, ‘the general pattern and function of the Central Artery. But have relocated and redesigned its fo investment had yet been made in plans, land acquisition, or construction. The criterion governing this imaginary design has been the visual, esthetic ‘experiance of those diving on the road. The ‘only constrain imposed was that of general reasonableness as to cost and traffic function No attempt was made tofind the cheapest or the most efficent layout. above ths level of ‘gonoral reasonableness. ‘The design is therefore a theoretical construction, not advanced as something better than the present official proposal, but used to liystrate how reads might be shaped if visual form were the dominant criterion Its ob vious that in actual practice ather eitria would bo of equa or greater importance. But inthis eary stage of development we can clarity our ideas best by emphasizing the esthetic factor. “The Mater Hihvay Pan or the Barton Metopatan ‘Ars, hares Mage ana mse Baron, Yo48‘The Boston Image ur first step was to put down the basic organization ofthe cantal city, it ean be ‘rasped through land-use maps, topographic ‘maps. area photographs, and general experi- fence. This pattern of organization was charted on a map (Figure 75) ‘The original settlement of Boston was on a peninsula atthe mouths of the Chars and Mystic Rivers, which form a goad harbor as ‘they fun into a combined estuary. The penin sula was made up of several hil, fringed by tidal flats and connected by a narrow neck withthe mainiana In ime, the hill wore level, the tidelands reclaimed, andthe neck. ‘greatly enlarged. The harbor now reaches up ‘the Mystic River, while the Charles River has bean dammed to make an ornamental basin ‘The downtown area has expanded and de veloped into several districts of civerse ‘activity. Shopping has grown down Washing ton and Teemont Streets pivoting round the ‘Common and up Boston to Copley Square, the higher-quality shopping center. The financial district stl centers on State Street ‘and Post Office Square, while anew business center is growing up around Copley Square. ‘othe State House and Court House on Beacon Hill willbe added new city, state, and {federal buildings to form a government center running from Beacon Hill down to Dock ‘Square. Cultural activities have become focused in the Huntington Avenue and Copley ‘Square areas. Anow clustor of offic bul ings is planned on the raliroad yards just west (of Copley Square. “Tho old street system radiates out from the original hub: the majority ofthe radials fan ‘out along the old neck, while afew cross the Charles and he inner harbor on bridges and in tunnels. The railroad lines converge on two ‘termini tthe north and south, the southern lines slashing across the neck in an awkward agonal ine. Just to the north, across the inner harbor, es Logan International Airport, (On this pattem of circulation is now being Jimposed still another element, the new How wollis this organization perceived by the Inhabitants of tho city? From the air the ferm ‘of city might express its function ina rel tively clear way, but on the ground, where it {is soon and experienced by the paople who use it the city may make 8 very confused image in their minds. The nature of this image ‘was deduced from the results of interviews ‘made in connection with another project. A selected group of Boston residents wore asked to indicate ther knowledge ofthe la fut of the central peninsula, and from these interviews a composite map ofthe commonly remembered parts ofthe city was made {Figure 76) These surveys were conducted ‘on limited scale, using smal group of people and covering only the central pat of ‘ur area. But the results have been confirmed ‘nother ways. The charting of such = map provides very useful information for one Drimary aim of this highway design ist re Bair and reinforce this ity image and to frien the driver to it Amang the weaknesses ‘of this image, the following stand out os the ‘most significant 1. The lection of water inthe cityis confus- ing. The Charles Rivers lost soon aterit has flowed past the Longfellow Bridge, because itis interrupted by the Charles River Dam and various ro8d and railroad crossings. The water surface is sliced up into so many fragments that it disappears asa continuous visual form. The Fort Hill Channel on the ‘South Bay suffers froma similar disruption “Tho unknown origin of the Mystic River inthe industil flatlands behind Charlestown aso puzzling. and even the harbor ise is so cut ‘off rom the main ratte stroams that its shape and presence is perpetually elusive Boston sa port. and yet many people never e¢ the sea, even though itis within a short distance ofthe downtown area, 2. The hub or radial pattern of downtown Boston, with its irregularly converging routes, is another source of disorientation. There i no clear compass direction, so that people Use other more local elements in fining theie way. These characteristics willbe trouble ‘some fora ing road 3. Several parts ofthe central city are invisible ‘rom the oficial expressway route: Scolay Square, Tremont and Washington Streets, the Boston Common, Boylston Street. These {ourlackitogral landmarks which ae visible from the “outside.” 4. The bend in the axis ofthe central district at ‘the Common presents its own orientation “ificuty. The loosely clustered cultura! ‘center of Huntington Avenue and the Fenway lacks landmarks or clear connections tothe rest ofthe city. 5. nner-ing “grayness" is a characteristic of, almost every American ety. The central core 's recognizable, familar and often dramatic, but the surroundings are featureless and us ‘known, Thus, although the low hills of Rox bury. Somerville, ast and South Boston surround the central peninsula they are not very tll and their landmarks —local churches {and town halls—are seldom seen from the buiding-enciosed streets. Skyline views are Infrequent in Boston, wth the exception of those seen from the Charles River Basin, 6, Almost the whole southside ofthe peninsula fades away inthe image. for this isan area oftransition, of extensive ralroad yards, of (old and now industry—a region of formless ness, scattered objects. and ragged en closure. From ground level there seems to be no order beyond that f the downtown land- ‘mats in the distance. and the glimpse of the hill of South Boston by the se. Only from the air or from high up off the ground can the lines and directions of the railroad tacks be understood. The lack af visual connection be {ween the north and south side of the penin: sla constitutes a further problem, The strength ofan image in the minds of ity dwellers depends on theee things: ts visual impact its functional or symbolic mesning, and whether anyone is thoro to seit. A {dramatic but relatively meaningless advorts: ing sign may be impressive. ora relatively small but significant church spre may be remembered. But both have to be within the visual each ofa sufficient number of people, “The dock area in Boston, for instance, is both Visually exciting and symbolically important vetitis blocked off fram the main viewing Points remaining blank onthe image map. ‘Some of the vial potentiaitie of Boston can algo be liste! 1. From the air and on a plan the layout ofthe central peninsula, surrounded by water, and leven the radial street layout seer very clear This ordar may at present be very difficult 10 dciphor onthe ground, but atthe scale of an ‘expressway this could be resolve. 2. The presence of large open spaces around the Central peninsula—the Charos River. the harbor, and even the large tacts ofthe ral road yards outside North and South Sta tions maintains a sense of tree space around the center where one can stand beck land look at the city {3 The surrounding hills indicate specific locales, ‘with thei town halls as in Somerville, or churches asin Charlestown, South Boston, nd Mission Hill These landmarks, which ‘greatly increase the apparent height of the hills, could be much better appraciated ifthe road were built high enough to look over the rooftops. 4, The downtown districts are varied and have istinctive landmarks: the Government Conter withthe State House and the Court, House: the financial district with its high buildings: the new office center which to containa fity-story tower over haf again as high a the already overpowering John Hancock Building. Each ofthese clusters of landmarks is quit different in character. possibly excopting the confusion between the Court House and other office buildings. Al: though very much out of scale with Boston asit stands today, the proposed new office center (the Prudential Insurence Company development) will nevertheless provide, to- ‘gether with the Jahn Hancock Building as he bother pole, a clear axis down the peninsula, ‘which will tl travelers how they are oriented to downtown. The square plan ofthe pro posed tower, however, may cause some con fusion when the bulding is seen alone since every sie will appear the same.Map of Structure of Boston Image of BostDeer ence vom soren Yer wit a “fe [Tr 177 Example of Reconnaissance Sketch Design Procedure Detailed explorations wore made along the ‘general alignment ofthe offically proposed route, to study the character ofthe districts passed through, the possible landmarks, odes, vistas etc. Excursions were made off, the route to gain an idea of possible alterna- tive locations. Important views ofthe city wore also studied. Skyline relationships be tween diffrent landmarks were noted fom 17 different positions and different heights." ‘The coincidence and overlapping of land: ‘marks give certain viewpoints 8 more con cantrated importance than others. Thus the ‘lew from the Cottage Farm Bridge, which fakes inthe towers ofthe financial dstit, the State House on Beacon Hill and the Charles Riverin front ofall, sums up a great part of cantral Boston in one glance. This ‘iow would. seized upon as abasic oference point. ‘The form ofthe city has tobe seen from different viewpoints. from different heights ‘and even from different speeds, so thatthe range of possibilities canbe grasped botore ‘hoioes are made. The designer must place himself inthe position of a motorist traveling ‘along @ road that isnt there. He imagines buildings cleared away and new buildings where none now exist He pictures the future {orm of the roadin front of him, placing himself high up in the air helicopter would be of great use, while some sort of mobile ‘extension ladder might also be helpful. This perticular survey was caried out by climb ing buildings of diffrent heights “The static view is also very diferent from the moving ane, and sometimes a study from ‘a moving vehicle is more useful even if not in the precise projected location. Other tech- ‘iques canbe used in addition to direct fel reconnaissance: 8 visual recording of alterna ‘en through a carefully made the layout of routes on oblique aerial or ground photos taken from diferent Angles, or the study of possibilities by means ofthe notation developed in Chapter 2, Present expressway designers who are not accustomed to using these or equivalent ‘methods must have very little idea of the ‘sual experience they are erating, o of the possibiltos that they have within their power ‘They are working bind. and one imagines the surprise with which new vistas opon up to them 8s they travel along their now roads (ur design while the product of extensive personal surveys, must be considered a limited first attompt. The drawings which itustrate it begin with the location of the 19. proposed road on a map of Boston, plus an ‘80 aerial perspective anda section through the road, followed by progressively subjective ‘drawings interpreting different aspoctsof the road experience, ‘The plan. section. and perspective show the proposed road's physical relationship tothe tity. the section illustrating vertical alignment 178 in elation to structures both inside and aut- tide the ring, The feasons for certain basic ecisions must first be given. soporte of ines naam ce 3 Bs a] A, 5 : i Road Sections Looking Inward and Outward28 Location of Proposed Inner Belt81 Comparison of Proposed Route with Official Route “The Size and Eccentricity of the Ring ‘The fist noticeable differance between this propasal and theofficial scheme is that our location encloses the city in tighter rng ‘The official route suffers grave disadvantages ints western portion, since it travels low ‘through residential aroas ands consequently “lost.” The altematives are either to take the ro2d further out onto the slopes and along the summits of Boston's surrounding hills r to bring it elser in Unfortunately, the structure of Boston would not be 80 comprehensible from those hills a= itmight appear. The confused path structure, the donse foreground development, and the lack of any realy high viewing points result, im ebique views of the city which are inde: Ciphorablo atthe speed ofthe motorcar. In ‘this case, a carefully told sequence may be clearer than an overall view. ‘There are advantages in taking the road ex ‘tromely close tothe center: close contacts sways exciting. Unfortunately itis not ak ‘ways comprehensibi: expressway speeds roquire that a certain distance be held ‘between road and cit if tho senso ofthat city is tobe communicated, The ring has therefore boon tightened, in comparison with ‘the offical line, ust enough to allow each part of the road tobe within proper viewing distance ofthe contor city. At the same time, eccentricity has been maintained allowing tho eastern part oun close tothe conte. ‘An equidistant ring would be monotonous, an experience of unvarying impact. and lacking inthe sone of arrival at a goal.” ‘tenes by the econ et nd Questions Orientation of the Road System ‘circular road presents a difficult problem in erientation, The radiate under the of ficial scheme enter the bet at many difer- ‘ent points and would be very troubling to hold in mind, Thisis solved here by gathering these radials together at tree key points ‘on the ring road, the points representing the Girgctions north south, and west The bulge ‘on the eastorn side contacts the seo, with aft ramps at Sumner Tunnel to cross the harbor. “The ring road now becomes # triangle rate than @ circle, with a large three-way inter: section at each apex. It would now be pos: sible to grasp the goneral direction ofthe ralals: those going north leave from the ‘northernmost point. and so on. In the oficial plan, Route 2 traveling west joins and loa the belt at the northernmost point) The clustaring of radials nto three groups of two "would simply decision making" instead of choosing one out of six exits the driver would ‘choose one out of three. The problem of the urban expressway isto reduce the number of \docisions that have to be made at high speed in heavy traffic, rather than to avoid loredorn, ‘a5 on many rural toads. For anyone crossing the conte city it would be necessary to ‘negotiate only one leg ofthe triangle. Each og would have its own recognizabe char ‘2cter: the section passing through Cambridge we shall call the Riverway; the one which ‘sweeps around the city center, the Canter \way: and the third leg, which returns across the old peninsula, the Crossing,< be. Le x Structure of Trip “Tho Fixing of the Main Intersections ‘The location of the intersections becomes. very importantin tis type of schome. The Fiver-crossing atthe Cottage Farm Bridge has, been chosen asthe wostorn apex ofthe t- angle. Thereis already a definite break hore inthe contiouity ofthe river. If new bridge ‘wore built elsewhere, the Charles River would be so broken up into small stretches of water that its breadth and continuity would be lost. Moraover. ftom the Cottage Farm Bridge the river widens into the Basin, to pravide one ofthe finest long views ofthe city skyline, ‘The north and south intersections are located inthe railroad yards outside North and South Stations, open areas where there is space for the construction of large intersections com- ‘manding good views. The harbor isthe climax ofthe Centerway and might be considered as 1 symbolic eastern intersection, wore there roads that went out to sea, Orientation tothe City “The new ring roads related tothe cityin several way, 0 that an incoming traveler wil recognize and comprehend what he is approaching. The city core stretches northeast southwest from the old harbor on the Center ‘Way t0 the midpoint ofthe Crossing. at ‘Symphony Hal, There is @ bend inthis ine core, as noted above, but the Prudantial-John Hancock section parallols the Riverway. So there ae two poles about which the route tune: the older and the newer centers. The ‘river is always approaching some sort of ‘90a, fr ne sooner has he passed through the ‘downtown area atthe eastern end than he is. ‘moving out and along towards the Prudential: Join Hancock pole at the western end, The ‘approximate nature of these directions is por- fectly adequate, since a motorist cannot gauge exact angles. ‘The Riverway and the Canterway emphasize the form ofthe peninsula: the Crossing con- fines it tite neck. This effect would be ‘strengthened ifthe "buried southern edge ‘of the peninsula were more sharply demar- ‘cated by means of open land or the control of building bulk, ‘Two ofthe large intersections have been Jacated inthe raliroad yards, where there wil be no disruption ofthe street and block sys tom, The thied intrsection i also freed from the street pattern by being placed over the river. Wherever possible the lags run with the “grin” ofthe local struct ‘The detailed bearings ofthe oad have boon chosen to direct the traveler's eye to certain ‘aspects ofthe contral area. For example, tis ‘ranged so that he can separate and identity ifferent groups of landmarks. since he sees teach one separately ata certain point on his trip. In this way, a more analytical approach is made tothe city. while the relation be tween parts s maintained by general views ‘and overlapping shots. Greatest rliance must be put on relatively stable features: major ‘activity concentrations, growth directions, basic ceulation, topographic form, or key historic symbols.At tho same time, views ave directed tothe ‘mote important landmarks outside the central area, so thatthe motorist can locate himself ‘with regard to the exterior which willbe help when searching for the desired radial to {get out ofthe city. Thus, the Harvard Uni: versity towers, Somerville's City Hall, the Bunker Hill Monumentin Charlestown, the airport and the harbor, the hil f South Boston, and the Mission Hill Church in Roxbury re built up as important external landmarks “The characteristics of each lag ofthe road should be considered separatoly, since much ‘traffic will probably use only one ofthe logs at ‘atime. Each stretch ofthe road has also been designed twice: a sequence forthe travelers ‘moving in each direction slthough these experiences have been related.” “Te nes have it a etn psn sony nese eran Spahr fected tough wh alas sel area {Spat tat hr wad ony cate more conaion ‘Space-Motion and View Diagrams 83.24 Figures 83 and 84 are diagrams ofthe sence ‘of motion and space prodiced by the reed, 88 it would be experienced when traveling in ‘the two opposing directions. From these siagrams the different aspects ofthe thre legs canbe soon: the Riverway with is kink, ‘the Conterway with tsbulge, and the Crossing with ts close confinement. This space-motion combination tends to direct the eye, and ‘when the intonded views ae inked up to the objects seen, a more complete idea ofthe ‘experience is glen Views are seldom seen at specific points but can be seen over a cor: tain stretch of road, At what part ofthe stretch the object willbe seen cannot neces: sarily be predicted, For this reason a series of sightlines issues from the road along the stretch within which a particular object wi probably be seen. Furthermore, when the view tobe seen is # panoramic one—the hrbor. for example, rather than @ specific landmark—the view lines radiate over the whole area, 183.84 Tho two diagrams of clockwise and counter- clockwise movement emphesize the sp: arateness ofthe two experiences, The same objects may be seen but willbe seen from ‘other directions. and thoretore they will ok ifferent and relate citferently 0 other landmarks. The two main groups of land- ‘marks—on the one hand, the towers of the financial district and ofthe Government Center {which also mark the Washington Street shopping areal, and on the other. ‘the Prudentil-John Hancock towers which ‘mark Copley Square and the Boylston Street shopping—are drawn in distinctive colors, If this route is followed with the sketches and commentary. the pattern of experience should become clear. This drawing in partc- Ula explains the alternate focusing on “inside” and “outside.” the separation and main clusters of landmarks, the relationship between space, motion, and view.The Riverway ‘The Riverway has been consciously related to the Charlos River. At the West Intersection the rad crosses the river at right anges, bout 80 feet inthe air over the existing Cottage Farm Bridge, and comes out ofthe intoreoction Behind M.L.T. at rooftop level This fist par lies paral! to the river. allowing general views of Cambridge, the John Han. ‘cock Building. and the Prudential Conter Passing around MLL. itthen goes briefly into the confinement ofthe East Cambridge indus tral area before turning down the old canal line towards the State House. the Court House. the Government Center, and the Longfellow Bridge. one ofthe historic ent into the ity. The third stretch travels right ‘along the river's edge, then up and over the IMTA bridge, past the Museum of Science and ‘the Charies River Dam, restoring continuity {othe ver by linking up the views of the ‘Toe North Intersection i situated inthe ra: oad yards. The road turns around in font of Charlestown, with views ofthe Bunker Hill ‘Monument, the Mystic River Bridge, ad the harbor in that order, and on the inside with 2 rotating view of dewntown. The road turns slowly to the right into tine with the financial istrict. Following this same log in the opposite di tion, the traveler stats high atthe North Intersection, with views out o Somerville and East Cambridge across the railroad yards “The rt straight stretch down to and along the river gives Prudential and John Hancock ‘a good exposure, with back glances at downtown and the State House, before the road sinks to water level near the Longfellow Bridge. The bridge is seen in profile this time, before the road curves up through an indus ‘al area to give a second view of Cambridge: ‘tho City Hall, Central Square, and the towers ‘of Harvard University. The strotch alongside MLL. is without strong incident, except for ‘the local interest ofthe Institute buildings ‘This section simply follows the rivera ads ‘tance ofa few hundred yards and allows time forpanoramic views of Cambridge and parts ‘ofthe Crossing tis not necessary to fllow ‘along the very banks to maintain af ‘contact with a river. The ote ships that the road has with the river along ‘this og wil toll much more about the nature ‘ofthe river than would a rad that merely paralois it ‘The central kinkin this log enables sideways lor broadside viewing of important landmarks, principally that ofthe State House, which acts as the climax forthe eastward-moving {ravoler. The whole road tipped towards downtown, a8 the outer lane Ie aised above the inner lane atthe intersections and curves, ‘The confined center section servesto contast land hold together the two outer stretches, ‘The Centerway ‘The road takes a wide curve a the North Intersection and then, crossing the iver at some height. plunges through the ver-edge buildings into downtown, swooping towards the Post Ofice Building and descending to slightly below ground level. It passes the Government Center and City Hall very closely fon the right and goes through Dock Square ‘and the food markets, smothering itself in the sity. and passing through a public amphi theater. Ten it swerves left, up and out over the harbor. gaining a view out tothe sea and the airport before turning around and back toward the towers of the financial district At this point the road would look directly ‘down the Prudentil-John Hancock axis. as it ‘desconded into the tunnel. The tunnel would ‘serve asthe second downtown climax point [the food market being the fist), and some underworld environment connected with the city’s nightlife would light up the tunnel. might also be possible to expose some of the insides” ofa ety: the subway track, the masonry “roots” of buildings. or the systom ‘of great conduits. Out inthe open aie again, the rad rises tothe thir-story level, moving freely in the open space ofthe raload yards, winding in relation tothe tracks jst ait dis in relation tothe river, and then turning out towards the sea and Dorchester Bay before ‘ntoring the big South Intersection ‘Tho approach to downtown from the south begins as a long, winding paseage through ‘open space. with the John Hancock Building {and Prudential Center coming closer on the left.South Boston onthe right, and ahead the shapeless mass of towers which isthe financial district. The State House may be seen atone point f the road is high enough This would be an important view to increase the connection betwean the two sides ofthe peninsula. The tunnel and the curve out to the harbors similar tothe southbound expert fence, but the oad tums back to give the traveler a view of the City Hall and Govern- ment Center. descends into the markst ‘area, and as it runs out tothe north intersection itpicks up views of Bunker Hill and the Mystic River Bridge. “The Contorway is dominated bythe two downtown climaxes: market and underworld (day and nigh, withthe bulge out towards the harbor and airport as central elie. The approaches differ one being open and the ‘thar confined, but the type of movement is similar enough for them to be considered ‘symmetrical. The scale ofthis leg ie much larger than the other two, with its views of harbor. ocean airport, shipping. the Mystic River Bridge. and South Boston industry. ‘well as the canal focus ofthe downtown section ite. Allo thse give ita heightened ‘uality not found on the other logs. lies more or les parallel tothe sea as its lend views of harbor and Dorchester Bay ‘emphasize The Crossing From the South Intersection, a turn tothe north is made before entering the confine ‘mont ofthe Roxbury residential area. A view ‘of the Prudential Center and John Hancock Building is taken in, andthe road swerving betwoon a gas tank and a railroad round house, glances up Massachusetts Avenue ‘and cut into tha mass of housing one or two blocks west ofthe avenue. Here the alignment isa straight line, confined on both sides but swinging up and down over the old roads that travel up the peninsula, with both lanes rising and falling independent to femphasiza the obstacles being crossed. At the crossing of Massachusotts Avenue and Huntington Avenue ies the main of ramp for the PrudentialsJohn Hancock center, and after this the road curves left with the changed dtection ofthe street pattern and fontors the Fenway, curving right and lft, low among the tees. The eurves here, be Sides echoing the natural forms, sliow the user to take in views up and down the Fenway for reference. Going north, the dome of MT. indicates that the rivers near again, and after another curve between the Boston Uni: versity staium with ts high electric lamps and Kenmore Square with its advertising sions the road runs parallol othe river and Commonwealth Avenue and soon begins to rise towards the high and narrow West Intersection Traveling tothe south while coming down from the West intersection. one gets apan- coramic view ofthe area tobe averse. cluding the Parr ill Hospital andthe “Mission Hill Church, The road comes in ine with the Prudentiat-John Hancock group. before descending botwacn Kenmore Square land the stadium. Through the Fenway the twin spires of the Mission Hill Church ae seen again as a check reference. Then the road passes the Prudential oft amp, bends, ‘and travels south aver the ellng vertical alignment vo the South Intersection, with a view ofthe sea, of South Boston, and tothe left of downtown. “The Prudential off-ramp and the Symphony Hallnade act asthe central climax on this leg, the south part of which sri straight, confined, and residential, moving only up and own. The north partis more treeiowing, passing horizontally tiwough the Fenway and around circular objects like the stadium and Kenmore Square with ts giant advertising ‘signe facing in all directions. The whole char- actor ofthis strotch is gonorally of small ‘scale, and tightly confined, without contact ‘with water or with large open spaces. The ‘only long views are a the beginning, the ‘alimpses out ofthe Fenvvay inthe middle, and the brit rooftop views on the southern stretchInterpretative Drawings Ourillustrative design is conceived as one complete, sequential experience of motion, st ree space, light texture, and orientation. In do veloping and analyaing the design, we have found it necessary to represent this total subjective experience in some abstract, shorthand way. This problem has been discussed ‘at some length in Chapter 2, but it arises here ‘29ain a3 soon as one wishes to communicate the character of a design. or to weigh it critically against other alternatives. ‘Therefore we made a numberof drawings tointerpret selected aspects ofthe sub: jective experience of driving the new ring ‘oad. Films might presont this materialin ‘the sharpest way. but a graphic technique, reproducible on paper, is needed for speed, ‘economy. and communication toa large audience. However, the presentation of 2 ‘sequontial experiance on a single page requires special fort rom the reader. who should have before him only what can be seen at one point, remembering what has {gone before. and not yet aware of whats tocome, Road Environment ‘Our drawings are drawn toa time scale (minutes at an average speed of 45 miles por sum wren hour), and are lid out in linear sequences, 8 the events are experionced, Since itis dificult to imagine what such ajourneyis ike from a circular plan, the route has been straightoned out by breaking it at the corner Intersections o that team be read 2s 2 continuous sequence, This causes some ‘istortion and confusion, but tis a special problem that would rarely arise, since most routes extend roughly in one direction "Now the environment begins to relate tothe road rather than the road tothe environment as nthe first drawings. We see the spaces and the character of the confining walls the ion ofthe road to iver, hills, andthe ‘pon railroad yards, and th kinds of activities 185.86 and areas which are passed, Figure 85 shows the sense of motion and space, drawn accor: ‘ing tothe conventions of Chapter 2. To the ‘ight is added a diagram ofthe resulting tempo of attention, the basic rhythm ofthe recurrent intersections, each followed by @ double climax of visual intensity, Similarly, figure 86 overpage gives the observer's gen: al orientation to his surroundings, and ilystrates the successive approach to various ‘goals, showing the play of external landmarks {and the road intersections against the major

S-ar putea să vă placă și

Fear: Trump in the White House
De la Everand
Fear: Trump in the White House
Bob Woodward
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (738)
A Man Called Ove: A Novel
De la Everand
A Man Called Ove: A Novel
Fredrik Backman
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (4609)
A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story
De la Everand
A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story
Dave Eggers
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (231)
The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)
De la Everand
The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)
Viet Thanh Nguyen
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (119)
Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It
De la Everand
Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It
Chris Voss
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (838)
Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America
De la Everand
Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America
Gilbert King
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (265)
The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living
De la Everand
The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living
Meik Wiking
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (399)
Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance
De la Everand
Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance
Angela Duckworth
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (587)
The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century
De la Everand
The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century
Thomas L. Friedman
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (2219)
Yes Please
De la Everand
Yes Please
Amy Poehler
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (1891)
The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life
De la Everand
The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life
Mark Manson
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (5794)
Principles: Life and Work
De la Everand
Principles: Life and Work
Ray Dalio
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (599)
Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln
De la Everand
Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln
Doris Kearns Goodwin
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (234)
Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore
De la Everand
Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore
Jay Sekulow
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (137)
Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike
De la Everand
Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike
Phil Knight
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (537)
The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer
De la Everand
The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer
Siddhartha Mukherjee
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (271)
The Glass Castle: A Memoir
De la Everand
The Glass Castle: A Memoir
Jeannette Walls
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (1711)
The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are
De la Everand
The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are
Brene Brown
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (1090)
A Tree Grows in Brooklyn
De la Everand
A Tree Grows in Brooklyn
Betty Smith
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (1929)
Her Body and Other Parties: Stories
De la Everand
Her Body and Other Parties: Stories
Carmen Maria Machado
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (821)
The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers
De la Everand
The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers
Ben Horowitz
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (344)
John Adams
De la Everand
John Adams
David McCullough
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (2409)
The Woman in Cabin 10
De la Everand
The Woman in Cabin 10
Ruth Ware
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (2322)
Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race
De la Everand
Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race
Margot Lee Shetterly
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (890)
Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel
De la Everand
Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel
Jesmyn Ward
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (1103)
Wolf Hall: A Novel
De la Everand
Wolf Hall: A Novel
Hilary Mantel
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (3811)
Angela's Ashes: A Memoir
De la Everand
Angela's Ashes: A Memoir
Frank McCourt
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (440)
Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future
De la Everand
Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future
Ashlee Vance
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (474)
The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel
De la Everand
The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel
Garth Stein
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (4200)
The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America
De la Everand
The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America
George Packer
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (45)
The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)
De la Everand
The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)
Sarah M. Broom
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (98)
The Perks of Being a Wallflower
De la Everand
The Perks of Being a Wallflower
Stephen Chbosky
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (2099)
The Constant Gardener: A Novel
De la Everand
The Constant Gardener: A Novel
John le Carre
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (104)
The Outsider: A Novel
De la Everand
The Outsider: A Novel
Stephen King
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (1839)
The Light Between Oceans: A Novel
De la Everand
The Light Between Oceans: A Novel
M.L. Stedman
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (789)
Little Women
De la Everand
Little Women
Louisa May Alcott
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (104)
On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal
De la Everand
On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal
Naomi Klein
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (73)
Brooklyn: A Novel
De la Everand
Brooklyn: A Novel
Colm Tóibín
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (1937)
Manhattan Beach: A Novel
De la Everand
Manhattan Beach: A Novel
Jennifer Egan
Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele
3.5/5 (792)
Bad Feminist: Essays
De la Everand
Bad Feminist: Essays
Roxane Gay
Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele
4/5 (1015)
Steve Jobs
De la Everand
Steve Jobs
Walter Isaacson
Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele
4.5/5 (806)