Formula 2 en Ingles

Appendix A
The Development of
Ground effect is something for nothing.

-Colin Chapman
Ground effect has been around for a very long time. If one watches a swan taking off from a
lake, one will see the swan applying ground-effect aerodynamics as it flies close to the surface of
the water, gaining speed before climbing into the sky. Nature has provided a phenomenon that
enables large, heavy birds to take off. Without it, they would be unable to leave the ground.
Ground effect can be defined broadly as the effect the ground imparts to the free-air aerodynamic characteristics of a body moving through the air. In the case of the swan and airplanes,
ground effect increases the lift at a given incidence and reduces the induced drag. This
increase in aerodynamic efficiency enables the swan to accelerate in ground effect to a speed
where flight away from the ground is possible.
Race cars apply ground effect in the opposite way, by exploiting the fact that as a curved
surface approaches the ground, the speeding up of the air flowing between the surface and the
ground reduces the pressure and creates downforce-a sort of "attraction" between the surface and the ground. There was an awareness ofthis effect in the 1930s, but it was not until
1949 that Milne-Thompson calculated the theoretical effect of the ground on the aerodynamic
characteristics of a sphere (Ref. A. 1). Far away from the ground, the lift coefficient (CL) is
zero because it is a symmetrical body. Milne-Thompson showed that CL became negative as
the ground clearance reduced, reaching a CLmax = -0.375 when it touched.
More than ten years later, people in motor racing started to become interested in using aerodynamics to generate downforce, increasing the load on the tires without increasing the mass of
the car. In 1962, Jim Hall experienced lift on his Chaparral 1 sports car. Chevrolet R&D took
up the problem, and Bill Mitchell, the legendary chief stylist of General Motors inthe 1950s and
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Formula 1 Technology
1960s, suggested an inverted airfoil body shape. Mitchell knew little of aerodynamics (looking
at the wonderful Cadillacs of the late 1950s, he obviously cared even less), and General
Motors did not have its full-size wind tunnel at that time. At speed, the front wheels of the
1963 Chaparral 2 lifted offthe ground until it was fitted with a bib spoiler.
Chaparral went on to develop downforce-generating wings with such effect that the whole
motor racing world was alerted to the enormous increase in cornering, traction, and braking
grip that downforce provided. Also around this time, the speed and size of sports cars led to a
tendency for them to flip over backwards-a particular brow at Mosport gave one or two
drivers some very exciting moments. The same problem was exercising the minds of designers of cars and boats intended for attempting world speed records.
John Stollery's involvement with Donald Campbell's Land Speed Record car Bluebird led to a
key fundamental investigation of the effect of the ground on car-like shapes. The results of
this research were reported in a paper titled "Forces on Bodies in the Presence ofthe Ground"
by J.L. Stollery and W.K. Burns, published in 1969 (Ref. A.2). Using the Imperial College
wind tunnel, with moving ground plane, they tested a streamlined body of typical car proportions. The tail could be cut back to blunt it (as per the cutoff tails of race cars), and various
nose shapes were tested. The lift, drag, and pitching moment characteristics were fully calibrated through a range of incidences and ground clearances. The tests on the "whale," as it
was known, show all the characteristics of a skirtless, ground-effect venturi car (Fig. A. 1).
Problems with separation of the underbody flow and moving centers of downforce are highlighted-the same problems that plague race car aerodynamicists today.
L = 0.72 per. rad.
=q2A:/
-8
-4
-2
/2
1.37 per. rad.

4
/8
10
Incidence -
--0
-0.6
glc=0.0029
0.023 A
.41
Fig. A. I CL versus incidence for a streamlined body near the ground. (Ref. A. 2)
300
Appendix A-Ground Effect

One component of a truly effective ground-effect car was missing-skirts. It would be another
eight years before the whole package came together and appeared on the race track as the
Lotus T78. The lack of skirts limited the maximum CL ofthe "whale" to approximately -0.24
based on plan area. A typical race car of this shape would produce approximately 1.1 kN at
160 kph (100 mph), ignoring any degradation due to wheels, etc.-somewhat less than a good
wing setup of the same era.
Almost simultaneously with Stollery's work and totally unknown to either of us, I had been
working on some similar concepts for BRM in the same Imperial College wind tunnel. My
boss, Tony Rudd, had been appalled at the explosive growth of wings in Formula 1 and their
disastrous effect on the cars when they failed, epitomized by the twin failures on the Lotus
T49's at Barcelona in 1969. He asked me whether it would be possible to generate downforce
without the use of separately mounted wings. I did some quick calculations on my slide rule,
which showed that if we could use the whole plan area of the car to generate downforce,
including filling the permitted area between the wheels, only a CL = -0.35 would be required to
do the same job as a rear wing with CL = -1.0. Tony Rudd agreed that a wind tunnel program
should investigate the possibilities in greater depth.
Working with chassis designer Alec Osborne, I drew an inverted airfoil-shaped body, with a
slender central fuselage for driver and engine. Internal radiators were fed by NACA surface
intakes, while nose wings and a trailing edge flap permitted the overall downforce and its
distribution to be adjusted. Wind tunnel tests at the Imperial College indicated that overall
downforce would be similar to that of a winged car and that L/D would be significantly better.
Cooling might be a problem because the NACA intakes in the top surface were very sensitive
to details of the front suspension. A secret workshop was set up away from the main works to
build cars for the 1969 Italian Grand Prix.
At the time, BRM was running the P126 V-12 cars (Fig. A.2), and one was fitted with stubby,
airfoil-section side panniers, bolted to the sides ofthe monocoque to try and replicate the new
car. Tests at Snetterton were inconclusive due to a lack of measurement equipment. Before
any further work could be conducted, there occurred one of BRM's periodic "palace revolutions." Tony Rudd left BRM to join Lotus, and all work on ground effect halted.
I left BRM shortly afterward and joined Specialised Mouldings, pioneers of composites in
motor racing. One of the first tasks I was given was to work with Robin Herd, chiefdesigner
of the new March company, in the design of bodywork for its Formula 1, 2, and 3 cars. The
Formula 1 car, the March 701 (Fig. A.3), needed additional fuel capacity in certain races, and
I suggested inverted airfoil-shaped side tanks. Robin Herd agreed, and they appeared in
several races fitted to the cars. I doubt that they generated much downforce, but they housed
the fuel at no drag penalty-not really ground effect.
301
Fig. A.2 P126 BRMfitted with wing section side pods.
I'll:,NNZi)-........
:
;
(Author 's collection)
I.
Fig. A. 3 March 701. (Courtesy of Phipps/Sutton)
302

During the four years I spent at Specialised Mouldings, I designed and ran a one-quarter-scale
wind tunnel. Most ofthe work was conducted on sports race cars for Lola, March, and GRD,
among others. I carried out a limited amount of basic R&D into sports car aerodynamics,
investigating the effect of undertray incidence and shape on the pressure distribution under the
car. I also carried out a series of tests on OMC (makers of Johnson-Evinrude outboard
motors) Formula 1 catamaran racing boats and some outboard motor Water Speed Record
boats. These were all lifting, ground-effect craft that had a tendency to flip over backwards at
speeds greater than 160 kph (100 mph). I now appreciate how important was the insight into
the potential of ground effect, both lifting and downforce, that these various test programs
provided.
In 1974, I rejoined Tony Rudd at Lotus to run the Lotus Group's composite R&D facility.
Team Lotus was struggling to replace the phenomenally successful T72, which was made
obsolete by understeer as Goodyear developed tires to suit the new generation of McLarens,
Tyrells, and Ferraris. Toward the end of that year, Colin Chapman asked Tony Rudd to
assemble a team, separate from the day-to-day racing, to rethink the Formula 1 car from first
principles. Tony asked me to plan and conduct a wind tunnel program in support ofthis effort,
working closely with chief designer Ralph Bellamy.
RalphBellamy had drawn the slenderest possible monocoque around the driver and theFordCosworth DFV. We agreed that any additional bodywork or aerodynamic devices would be
included only if they met a certain L/D in the wind tunnel. We knew there had to be some
additional bodywork, because no provision existed yet for radiators or around half the required
fuel. Because of the lack of front end grip in the T72, Chapman had set the target of making
the new car, which was to become the T78, aerodynamically more pitch sensitive than the
T72. He believed that if the downforce on the front increased under braking, it would improve
turn in. We decided that all testing would be conducted in the Imperial College one-quarterscale wind tunnel and that we would always use the moving ground plane. The first task was
to make a model of the T72 and fully calibrate it in the wind tunnel, with special emphasis on
measuring the pitch sensitivity.
Testing started in earnest in 1975, and by late summer the overall configuration ofthe T78 was
defined-slim nose with oil cooler and front wings (the full-width nose had been rejected on
the basis of L/D), airfoil side pods to house fuel and accommodate the water radiators in the
leading edge, similar to those on the de Havilland Mosquito aircraft. Again, the side pods had
been found to generate little downforce, but they packaged fuel and cooling radiators with no
drag penalty. A large conventional rear wing completed the aerodynamic configuration.
Through the winter of 1975, we continued to refine the aerodynamics and tune the pitch
sensitivity. By the end ofa week of tunnel testing, the strong wooden model would have been
so modified with card, modeling clay, and sticky tape (none of the CAD-designed, CFRP
model bodywork used today) that it had usually lost most ofits structural integrity. Toward the
end of one of the weeks in the tunnel, I noticed that it was becoming almost impossible to
303
obtain consistent balance readings. Something was wrong. Looking carefully at the model, it
became clear that the side pods were sagging under load and that as the speed of the tunnel
increased, they sagged even more. That indicated two things: (1) that the side pods had
started to generate downforce, and (2) that it had something to do with the gap between their
edges and the ground.
Thin wire supports restored the side pods to their correct position and stopped them from
sagging-no downforce and consistent balance readings. Next, we taped card skirts to seal
the gap between the edge of the side pods and the ground, leaving only approximately 1 mm
(0.04 in.) gap. The total downforce on the car doubled for only a small increase in drag! Ralph
Bellamy looked somewhat startled, and I do not think either of us believed the results, so we
repeated the tests, with and without the skirts. Ground effect was real, powerful, and efficient,
if the outer edges of the side pods were sealed to the ground.
I contacted the Lotus consultant aerodynamicist at the Imperial College, Frank Irving, to discuss with him the theory behind what we had found. The model was not pressure tapped, so
we were unable really to investigate the effect of skirts and side pod shape. A new model
would be required to do this. Ralph and I also had a lengthy discussion about skirts, theirlegality,
and their practicality, before calling Tony Rudd to give him the news. According to the Technical Regulations, movable aerodynamic devices were not allowed. However, toward the end
of 1974, Gordon Murray had fitted a transverse skirt underneath the Brabham BT44 to generate a low pressure behind it. A precedent had been set.
The T78 was built and shown to the press, fitted with nylon brush skirts similar to big draft
excluders. Initial testing in autumn 1976 indicated that the brushes were quite incapable of
sealing the sides. For winter testing at Kyalami, polypropylene skirts were tried, but they too
sucked inward and became distorted. Andretti and the race engineers wanted to abandon
messing about with all this trick new stuff that did not appear to work and to concentrate on
developing the car. Colin Chapman would have none ofthat and insisted on continuing to work
on the skirts until the potential of the car gradually became apparent. On returning from that
test, Chapman instructed me to spend 100% of my time on skirt development.
The gradual improvement in skirt performance through the development life of the T78 is
reflected in its race performance (Figs. A.4 throughA.7). It was fortuitous that, at the beginning,
its performance was nothing spectacular. Other designers, looking at the wing-shaped side pods,
dismissed them as a gimmick. When the T78 started to go quickly, an elaborate deception
concerning the differential put many people off the scent. It was not until the dominance of the
T79 the following year, that it became obvious to all that ground effect did work.
To create a test rig for skirts, I commandeered one of Team Lotus' Renault 4 parts delivery
vans and attached a skirt mounting rig onto the rear bumper. While it was driven around the
Lotus test track at Hethel, I lay in the back, watching the skirts from the rear doors. We tested
many designs and rounded off a test by driving back to Ketteringham Hall, along the bumpy
304
..
.0...
-, 0,
j
A
3-|
Hh-
'.-i
Fig. A. 4 Lotus T78 brush skirt.
Fig. A. 5 Lotus T78 "suck-up" skirt.
4Y Cmic
Rubbing Strip
Brush
Sels
Coramic Rubbing Strip
Fig. A. 6 Lotus T78 "suck-down " skirt,

with ceramic rubbing strip.
Fig. A. 7 Lotus T79

"board-in-a-box" skirt.
305
and potholed Norfolk lanes. To prevent excessive wear, the skirts had to be sucked up by the
low pressure beneath the car. Steel shim springs loaded them down, and there was a compromise between performance when new and how long they would last before they became so
worn as to be ineffective. PTFE rubbing strips were fitted to their lower edges to limit wear
and reduce friction.
One day, while further investigating and refining underbody shape at the Imperial College, I
visited the ceramics expert in the College of Mining. He suggested various ultra-hard materials we could try to prevent wear. Tipping the skirts with ceramic transformed the wear rate
and allowed the skirts to be spring loaded harder onto the road. So successful were these tests
that I decided it might be possible to devise a skirt that was sucked down instead of sucked up
(Fig. A.4). Designed similar to a twin, unequal link suspension, it took up little width and had a
small area for the suction beneath the car on which to act, to minimize the wearing load. The
Renault 4 tests appeared good, and a T78 was modified for Gunnar Neilson to try at Snetterton.
After only a few laps, he was 1.5 seconds per lap faster and came into the pits with eyes
bulging and a big grin on his face, saying, "I go quicker than I ever go before, and I look over
the side of the car and there is a meter of track left!"
From that point onward, the T78 was the car to beat. However, only Harvey Postlethwaite built
a ground-effect car-the Wolf WR5-to compete with the T79 the following year. Rumor had
it that Ferrari tested a ground-effect model in its wind tunnel, but that the model did not work.
Perhaps Ferrari did not use a moving ground.
Such was Colin Chapman's vision that, even before the T78 showed its true potential, he
returned from an Easter holiday at his villa in Ibiza with sketches ofthe T79, a completely new
car designed to optimize ground effect.
The T78 suffered from the downforce generated by the side pods being located too far forward, with the result that it was always necessary to run a lot of rear wing td balance it. As a
result, the T78 had a reputation for poor top speed. The brief for the T79 was to move the
center of pressure of the underneath of the car rearward and to further increase the pitch
sensitivity. In tunnel tests, the cleaning up ofthe suspension and engine ancillaries that Chapman
had achieved was immediately apparent in better downforce figures. I extended the throat of
the venturi as far rearward as possible and worked on profiles that maintained attached flow
with as sharp a recovery as I dared, bearing in mind that testing was only one-quarter-scale
and at a low Reynolds number.
Postlethwaite's Wolf was fitted with sliding board skirts when it appeared at Monaco. We had
not considered that they would be legal. However, once accepted, they were the only way to go
(Fig. A.8). From its first appearance, the T79 was a sensation and totally dominated the 1978
World Championship, except for a short time when the Brabham BT46B fan-car appeared and
won the Swedish Grand Prix before being banned.
306
Fig. A.8 The first two generations of ground-effect cars: the Lotus T79 heads
the field, while the Lotus T78 flanks the Wolf WR2 (sixth and seventh cars).
(Courtesy of Phipps/Sutton)
The story of fan cars is covered in Chapter 14 of this book, including the Lotus response to the
threat by Brabham to the Lotus World Championship campaign. While Chapman concentrated
on the politics of getting the Brabham fan banned, he tasked me with developing a better fan-car.
A model showed that suction at the exit of the venturi caused sufficient airflow to generate
significant downforce without the car moving through the air. All that was needed was to blend
the back ofthe venturis into a pair offan ducts, and a drive train from the gearbox to power them.
Martin Ogilvie, Team Lotus's Chief Designer, had drawn it all within a week, and we found some
ideal fans. The target for the car was in two races time, only four weeks later.
Meanwhile, Chapman took Polaroid photographs of the model, with its twin fans, to a FOCA
meeting. He always claimed that he showed the photographs to Brabham's owner, Bernie
Ecclestone, after which the constructors agreed to ban fans. I have always wondered whether
the Lotus fan-car would have worked.
Although the T79 was not a good car, it possessed a special ingredient-ground effect. The
monocoque structure was torsionally weak (too narrow), and neither the brakes (magnesium
calipers) nor the exhaust system (inadequate cooling inside the bodywork) would last a race
without deteriorating. Instead of pausing to refine the technology and sort out the new car
systems that ground effect brought upon a race car, Chapman, in true Lotus spirit, demanded
more-more downforce and more pitch sensitivity. While Williams built the FW07, the definitive ground-effect Formula 1 car, Lotus built the T80 and ran into big trouble (Fig. A.9).
307
Fig. A. 9 Lotus T80. (Courtesy of Phipps/Sutton)
The T80 tried to dispense with conventional front and rear wings, and derive all its downforce
from ground effect using the fiull length of the car. Although the downforce and L/D figures
were excellent, the pitch sensitivity rocketed. The "if some was good, more was even better"
approach-combined with sticking curved skirts running from just behind the front wheels,
around the inside of the rear wheels, to the extreme rear of the car-caused that driverfrightening phenomenon known as porpoising. The car would hit a bump and bounce up and
down, pitching at the same time, until the driver applied the brakes. I vividly recollectAndretti
reporting the front wheels leaving the road at high speed at Silverstone. Ultra-stiff springs
made the problem worse-the car bounced, under-damped on its tires.
While Team Lotus stepped back one pace and raced the T8 1 in 1980, I set out to investigate
and attempt to solve the porpoising problem. The T80 proved that more downforce was
possible; however, unless that downforce could be controlled, it was unusable. Since 1977, I
had been working with David Williams, head ofthe Flight Instrumentation Department at the
Cranfield College ofAeronautics. He had designed and built a digital data system for use on
the T78, when it became apparent that it would be absolutely essential to gather data from the
chassis to progress with the development of ground effect. When the T80 porpoising started,
I discussed the phenomenon with David Williams, and he offered to model it and validate the
results with the data we had. He established that it was an aero-elasticity problem, akin to
flutter in an aircraft wing. The changing aerodynamic loads as the car bounced and pitched
excited the pitch and heave modes of the sprung mass on its springs and tires.
308

One day, David said to me, "What you need is an active suspension," and he took me into the
laboratory to demonstrate an artificial-feel control column he was developing for a fly-by-wire
research aircraft. He demonstrated how the control computer could provide any spring rate,
mass, and damping for the system, and that the technology could provide a suspension system
with unique properties. We already had a Plan A-twin chassis-and decided that active
suspension would be Plan B.
By the time we had struggled with the T80 for a year, we realized that while the body and
associated aerodynamic forces required a very stiff suspension, if the remainder of the mass
of the car was attached to that suspension, it would porpoise and the driver would have an
unacceptably rough ride. The main masses and the driver wanted a soft suspension, so why
not build a car with two chassis and two suspensions? At the end of 1980, we built the T86 test
mule to try out the idea. No sooner had testing started, in the greatest secrecy, than skirts
were banned along with the imposition of a 6 cm (2.4 in.) minimum ground clearance to be
measured in the pits. In the twin chassis concept, Lotus had the perfect answer to the new
rules! Chapman realized that coming out with such a car would not be popular because it
drove a coach and horses through the new regulations, but knowing its potential made it almost
impossible for him not to use it.
Security measures to protect the project were stepped up, but such were the rumors concerning
the car that Ferrari persuaded FISA (the then sporting authority of the FIA) to add a new
regulation banning cars with no suspension. At Lotus, we were not worried. We were building
a car with two suspensions!
The T88 twin chassis car never raced, although it attended the Long Beach, Brazilian,
Argentinean, and British Grand Prix. Chapman fought tooth and nail, not only for the car but
also for the fundamental right to innovate. When he finally conceded defeat, he lost much of
his interest in Formula 1, putting his efforts into developing an ultralight aircraft business for the
last two years of his life. The potential of the twin chassis solution for controlling ground effect
was never really tested. Every time it appeared on a racetrack, it was black flagged.
Meanwhile, Brabham pioneered a hydro-pneumatic, self-lowering suspension that allowed its

car to run close to the ground and yet pass the 6 cm (2.4 in.) rule in the pits. By the start ofthe
European season, most of the cars had driver-controlled, hydraulic, or pneumatic raising and
lowering systems and flexible skirts (Fig. A. 10). Full ground effect had returned. It all made
the T88 appear straightforward and completely legal.
Proceed to Plan B. Active suspension is a whole story in its own right, covered in Appendix C.
However, the reason for using it in motor racing is to control the attitude ofthe car relative to
the ground, without having to use very stiff springs. Computer-controlled hydraulic, synthetic
spring/dampers are used, which are insensitive to loads applied from above (aerodynamic and
inertia loads-i.e., cornering, braking, and accelerating) and yet respond conventionally to
loads from below (due to road irregularities and bumps). Lotus, Ligier, and Williams all took
different approaches to applying this technology to ground-effect cars, and Lotus appeared at
309
Fig. A. IO Vethane skirt.
the first races in 1983 with a fully active suspension T92. Two events led to this technology
being shelved by Team Lotus until it reappeared in 1987. First, the day the active T93 first ran
at Snetterton, Colin Chapman died. He never saw it run. The second event was that, only
three months before the start ofthe season, FISA finally banned skirts and shaped undertrays.
The era of flat bottoms had arrived.
A flat plate, at incidence to the airflow, will generate lift or downforce. Nose down, near the
ground, it will be affected by ground effect: the downforce will be increased, L/D will be
improved, and it will become very critical to the flow separating from the flat plate. Since
1983, Formula 1 aerodynamicists had been struggling to gain the most from this mechanism,
with more or less success. In 1987, active suspension technology and the increasing need to
control the attitude of the flat bottom came together on the Lotus and Williams cars. Williams
continued to develop the technology, and the remainder of the teams were forced to follow suit
as its superiority became apparent.
In 1993, the FIA banned all active suspensions as part of a package of measures designed to
slow the cars, reduce costs, and reinstate the role of the driver. Steady development had
increased downforce to levels greater than had ever been achieved in the days ofventuris and
skirts, with the power needed to push the high-drag cars through the air. In the aftermath of
Ayrton Senna's accident at Imola in 1994, the FIA brought emergency measures to drastically
reduce performance. Initially, the diffuser was shortened, the car was raised by attaching a
310

wooden "plank" to the underside ofthe monocoque, and finally the sides ofthe car were raised
an additional 50 mm (2 in.). The effect' of these measures was to reduce downforce by
approximately 40%. However, the relentless march of development has increased it steadily
and will continue to do so, barring further major measures against it.
Ground effect has produced a revolution in race car performance. It has raised aerodynamics
to the same level as power, tires, and weight in the hierarchy of parameters that influence
performance. Cornering and braking levels have risen from slightly more than Ig to more than
5g and have affected the development of all aspects of the car-from its structure to its
brakes. With the increase in cornering speeds and the shortening of braking distances, a whole
new breed ofdrivers has developed, stronger and fitter, to sustain the loads imposed on them.
More controversial has been the effect on safety and the necessary changes in circuit layout
to contain an out-of-control car. The FIA now works closely with the teams' technical personnel to bring in regulation changes that keep in step with technical development, maintaining a
constant performance at minimum cost to car and circuit owners.
Perhaps the biggest challenge that ground effect has wrought is to develop a racing environment in which cars can overtake each other. Ground effect is a natural phenomenon. Having
found a way to harness its power to make a car go faster, it now is impossible to undiscover it.
311
Appendix B
Carbon-Fiber Reinforced
Life exists in the universe only because the

carbon atom possesses certain exceptional properties.
-James Jeans
Anyone who has held a piece of wood in his hands and has marveled at the way nature has
grown fibers embedded in a matrix of lignum to give a supple, strong, and enduring material
understands composites. Skilled craftsmen have used wood to build airplanes, ships, houses,
tools, fishing rods, and even cars, having learned to select the wood according to its properties
from a vast naturally grown range. These craftsmen align and join the parts for the best use of
these properties, to give strength and stiffness where needed. Less than 50 years ago, man
made a type of material that approached the natural properties of wood-composites.
The word "composites" means "made up of two or more materials" and covers a vast range of
materials. In motorsport, it has come to mean materials composed of man-made fibers embedded in synthetic resin. It includes more complex composites that encompass core materials
faced with load-bearing skins, making up a sandwich construction.
The advantages that composites have over homogeneous materials such as metals and plastics
are twofold. First, certain materials (e.g., glass, Kevlar*, carbon, and boron) have extremely
good stiffness and strength-to-weight ratios when formed into long fibers. Second, if these fibers
are aligned with the direction in which the main stress is applied, they can be used most efficiently. This is exactly what a tree accomplishes, growing its fibers along the roots, flowing into
and up the trunk, and then dividing again to flow along the branches. Fibers alone are most useful
structurally if they are straight; however, structures are not composed of only straight lines, and
stresses "flow" around corners. By including fibers in a matrix of a suitable material, the fibers
are stabilized into the desired shape and can transfer loads among individual
313
fibers. In this way, fibers can be laid-up into complex shapes with curved stress paths and can
withstand compression loads without buckling.
The first composites were composed of glass fibers (manufactured by drawing fine fibers
from a pool ofmolten glass) embedded in polyester resin. When the resin is in liquid form, the
fibers (in the form of unidirectional bundles or sheets, woven cloth, or randomly chopped mat)
can be draped over complex curved surfaces of a mold and wetted out with the resin. On
curing of the resin and release from the mold, the laminate becomes a strong and flexible
component. Glass has limitations in both strength and stiffness and is not light enough for
many applications. The search began for higher-performance fibers.
The three fibers that emerged from R&D laboratories and have found extensive applications
are carbon fiber, Du Pont Kevlar, and boron. Of these, carbon fibers were the structural
choice for race cars, although Kevlar has specialized applications because of its extreme
toughness, good tensile properties, and ability to resist tearing. Carbon fibers were first made
at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, by a process of cooking rayon fibers in a
carefully controlled, oxygen-free atmosphere-a process quite similar to making charcoal
from wood. Because of the ability of carbon to form long-chain molecules, carbon is
extremely suitable for making high-modulus strong fibers. These properties led to the extensive use of carbon fiber for race car applications.
First applications, and still by far the largest use of carbon fibers today, were in the leisure
industry, for items such as fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf clubs, and skis. At the same time,
the aerospace industry began investigating the use of carbon fibers for nonstructural components. Carbon fibers are now used widely in aerospace, the second largest user, for all main
structural components in which temperature is not a limitation. The third major industry to take
up carbon fibers was motorsport.
Specialised Mouldings was the first company to use carbon fibers to stiffen and reinforce the
glass fiber body panels it manufactured for race car manufacturers such as Lola, McLaren, and
Chevron. The big Can-Am cars ofthe early 1970s, with their large flat body panels, were ready
applications. Initially, carbon fiber was available only as individual tows-3 mm (0. 12 in.) bundles
of fibers-and these were laid-up as a 50 mm (2.0 in.) square grid on the back ofthe glass fiber
panels. As soon as the textile companies such as Courtaulds began to weave carbon fiber,
the material was used to make whole panels, replacing glass fiber in the lay-up of composite
body panels.
Before carbon fiber was used in high-load-bearing parts ofthe structure of race cars, two other
technologies were needed: (1) honeycomb-core sandwich construction, and (2) preimpregnated fibers. In the mid-1970s, aluminum-skinned, aluminum honeycomb-cored sandwich
panels were starting to be used for the construction of monocoques in Formula 1. Thin, single
aluminum skins were able to carry the loads involved; however, they tended to oilcan or even
buckle when loaded in compression. Splitting the skins to form a sandwich produced a stiff,
314
Appendix B-Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites

stable panel that had the added advantage of being better at energy absorption in an accident.
When the techniques were developed for joining panels and feeding in concentrated loads, sandwich construction became widely accepted and prepared the way for replacing the aluminum
skins with lighter carbon-fiber ones.
Hand lay-up, the process of wetting out the fibers with liquid resin, results in the maximum
weight offiber being approximately 30-35% ofthe total. To optimize for stiffness and strength,
the fiber proportion of the laminate weight should be as high as possible, as long as there is
enough resin to wet the fibers and bond them together. The process of pre-impregnating the
fibers with resin was developed, in a machine-controlled process, and can achieve fiber weight
of 65% or more. The resin is semi-solid when cold, and it flows and then cures only when
heated. When the process for laying-up with "pre-preg" materials was developed, carbon
fiber was ready to take over much of the primary structure of a race car.
The first carbon-fiber monocoques from McLaren and Lotus appeared within a week of each
other in early 1981 (Fig. B. 1). John Barnard's McLaren MP 4/1 used a monocoque molded from
pre-impregnated carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP)/aluminum honeycomb by Hercules
Corporation in the United States. Hercules is a leading aerospace composites manufacturer and
used the most advanced techniques available to mold the monocoques around an internal aluminum mandrel, and then cured it under pressure in an autoclave.
A
...:.:.. -..
Fig. B. I Keith Duckworth (right) of Cosworth inspects the first composite McLaren
monocoque. (Courtesy of Phipps/Sutton)
315
The in-house approach of Lotus was very different for the T88 monocoque. A large sheet of
carbon/Nomex honeycomb sandwich was hand laid-up on a flat table (actually a sheet of plate
glass). When cured, the inner skin was grooved and the sheet was cut out and folded into the
monocoque around ajig. The whole approach was similar to making a card model- "score here;
cut here; fold along A-A; glue B to C." When the joints were reinforced and machined aluminum bulkheads were bolted in, it formed a stiffand lightweight structure (Figs. B.2 through B.4).
Panes Joint
Com Cnaehed
I-
Corner
BulleddM
--FoldPdnt
-|*kCw
NM
Awa-Priorto
loson-ob Core
Flat She Pyor Io e- -
b.
Fig. B. 2 Construction technique used for the first Lotus composite monocoque.
The skins of the Lotus were not solely carbon because of concern over the crash performance
of carbon fiber. Just prior to this development time, the Rolls-Royce aero-engine company had
been forced to restructure financially, due to problems with the bird-strike resistance of the
carbon-fiber fan blades of its new RB2 11 high-bypass engine. As a result, carbon fiber had
gained a poor reputation for sustaining impacts.
A simple impact test rig was built at Lotus to evaluate various lay-ups and compare them with
conventional aluminum construction. A 100 kg (220 lb) concrete block was hoisted to the top of
a 10 m (32.8 ft) pole and allowed to fall onto the end of a 0.5 m (1.64 ft) square tube of the
sample construction. The results were compared, and a carbon-fiber/Kevlar mixed woven
cloth with a NomexO-honeycomb core was found to perform as well as aluminum/alumiinumhoneycomb in the impact test. This is why the monocoques of the T88 (also used on the Lotus
T87) have a black (carbon) and yellow (Kevlar8) woven pattern. This construction was used
by Lotus until 1984. Of the seventeen monocoques made over four years, none was destroyed
in an accident.
316
Fig. B. 3 Lotus T87 monocoque.
However, the techniques used on the McLaren showed the future. Today, all race car composites are made from pre-pregs, autoclave-cured in molds, or on internal mandrels. The
advantages of being able to mold the outer surface of the monocoque were soon exploited by
being able to delete bodywork. The specification and performance of the fibers and resin
systems, and the extent to which CFRP continues to be applied to more components on cars
are the greatest indicators of the progress made in composites during the past 20 years.
The process from precursor (the base fiber from which carbon fibers are made) to molded
component passes through a number of stages, each usually handled by a different company
(Fig. B.5).
Carbon Fiber Manufacture

Most types of carbon fibers used in Formula 1, and indeed other classes of motor racing, are
made by Toray in Japan. The precursor used is polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and a wide range of
fibers with differing properties are produced (Fig. B.6), trading strength against stiffness.
The most commonly used fibers are:
317
Fig. B. 4 The inside of the Lotus T87 monocoque, showing mini-bulkheads fitted
318
Fig. B. 5 CFRP composite component manufacturing stages.
80
-4 ---
-- --
--
70>
i.High-Strength
.0- ......
....
..... .. ...........
..............
Pitc' h-Based
Fib.ers
co
1v0
30 10 ! ..... .. .. .. .... . .. ...
200
600
400
Tensile modulus (GPa)
800
Fig. B. 6 Properties of carbon fibers. (Author illustration;

data courtesy of Toray Ltd.)
319
1000
*
*
*
T800-High-strength applications
M46J-Mixed properties applications
M55J-High-stiffness applications
Even stiffer, pitch-based fibers are becoming available, and no doubt the compromise between
stiffhess and strength will improve steadily.
Some designers prefer to use even stiffer fibers in certain applications. However, the impact
strength falls, and the cost rises sharply. At one time, some Formula 1 teams (notably Benetton
and Ferrari) made monocoques from high-modulus fibers, in the search for torsional stiffness and
low weight. Problems with passing the FIA crash tests and the scrapping of monocoques after
minor impacts, even with curbs, has resulted in the tougher fibers being used more widely.
Textile Weavers
Individual carbon fibers are made up into tows, similar to what is done with any textile fiber.
To enable the carbon to be pre-impregnated and laid-up, it is then processed into cloth or mat.
The straighter the fibers, the better they are able to carry tensile loads. However, weaving
tends to put crimps into the fibers, detracting from optimum strength and stiffness. The number of tows in any given direction (i.e., warp or weft) determines the number and extent of
crimping and hence the properties of the resultant laminate in that direction. This ability to
dictate the properties in a given direction is one of the greatest assets of CFRP.
A number of different weaves have been developed, with different structural properties and
capabilities. In increasing order of strength/stiffness, the weaves most commonly used in race
car components are:
*
*
*
*
Plain weave
Twill
Satin unidirectional
Unidirectional
lx1
2x2
4x 1 or 5x 1
For ultimate strength and stiffness, unidirectional fiber is used. Very high performance is
possible in the direction of the fibers, but there is little strength in other directions. A typical
application is in the spar-caps of wings.
Resins and Pre-Impregnation

Resin systems used in motor racing are almost exclusively epoxies. Since the early days, the
temperature characteristics have changed the most. Initially, 100C (2 12F) was roughly the
maximum usable temperature, and the component had to be cured in the mold to that temperature to achieve this heat-deflection temperature. Now, toughened epoxies can be cured at low
320

temperatures and can achieve up to 400C (752F) by being heated to that temperature in use.
Typically, monocoques use a resin system that has good properties up to 1500C (3020F) to
cater for the temperatures at the rear of the structure where it is joined to the engine. Cytec
950-1 is one of the more popular monocoque resins. The high-temperature resins are used
around the exhaust system and for what is one of the more demanding applications-the
gearbox (e.g., Ferrari, TWR, and Stewart).
Pre-impregnation of the cloth with the chosen resin is a highly controlled process, ensuring a
precise resin-to-fiber ratio. The resin is stable for several months at low temperatures (pre-pregs
are stored in a deep freeze) but cures slowly at room temperature. Elevated temperatures are
used for actual curing.
In racing applications, the other common material used as a matrix for carbon fibers is carbon
itself (i.e., carbon-carbon), as used in brake discs and clutch plates. This is made by cooking
either a laminate of carbon fiber and pitch, or a hydrocarbon such as epoxy, over a long period
in a carbon-rich atmosphere at 1500C (2732F). Altemative methods have been developed
involving vapor deposition of carbon on the fibers. Current processes are slow, expensive, and
critical, and much research is being applied to find alternative, quicker, and cheaper processes.
Carbon-carbon maintains its strength in excess of 20000C (3632F).
Molding
Tooling for CFRP components must be strong enough to withstand the temperature and pressure
ofthe curing cycle, have similar thennal expansion to CFRP, and be easy to shape and finish to
a high gloss. Materials include:
*
*
*
Aluminum-Easy to machine and strong, but offers greater that CFRP thermal
expansion
Graphite-Easy to machine but structurally poor, with similar thermal expansion
CFRP-Used for molded tools, strong with the same thermal expansion
Laminate patterns are either hand cut to templates drawn on CAD, or they are cut on CNC
pattern-cutting tables, directly from CAD. The whole process is almost identical to tailoring,
except for the stickiness ofthe cloth.
When the component is laid-up in the tool, with each layer of cloth or unidirectional fibers
aligned according to the specification laid down by the designer, aluminum inserts are incorporated, and core materials are placed where required. It is then consolidated and cured. A
monocoque may comprise dozens of individually tailored pieces ofvarious cloths and unidirectional fibers. Cores are typically aluminum honeycomb (good shear strength and impact
absorption) or Nomex honeycomb (good drapeability but used mainly for nonstructural components). Depending on the resin system, a glue film may be placed between the honeycomb
and the skins to ensure adequate bonding.
321
Prior to curing, the whole lay-up is covered with a release film (perforated with a number and
size of holes according to how much resin bleed is required), followed by a breather/bleed mat
to spread the vacuum and absorb the resin bleed, and finally the vacuum bag which is sealed to
the mold. If no resin bleed is required, a gas-permeable PTFE release film is used.
Vacuum is applied to consolidate the laminate prior to curing in the autoclave. An autoclave is
in effect a large oven that is able to withstand pressures in excess of 8 bar. Pressures of 7 bar
for solid laminates and approximately 3 bar for sandwich panels (to prevent collapse of the
core) are applied to further consolidate the laminate and promote resin flow. The temperature
is raised progressively at approximately 2C (36F) per minute, to approximately 80C (1 76F),
at which point the resin becomes liquid and flows, ensuring good fiber wet-out and interlayer
adhesion. It is held at 80C (1 76F) for 20-30 minutes, and then ramped up to typically around
135C (275F) and held for 1.5 hours for full curing. On cooling, the laminate can be released
from the mold, trimmed, machined, and finished.
Applications in Formula 1
The first application for both glass-fiber and carbon-fiber laminates was to replace aluminum
fabrications, particularly bodywork. The vibration levels on race cars are such that all fabrications, whether aluminum or steel, tend to fatigue and crack after a time. The almost infinite
fatigue life of composites makes them an ideal replacement when combined with greater panel
stiffness and lower weight. Now it is more a question of which parts are not made of CFRP.
Some limitations have been imposed by the FIA, encouraged by the teams on the basis of cost.
These include brake calipers, wheels, and engine components-pistons, cylinder heads and
blocks, cranks, and camshafts. Apart from these, those parts subjected to concentrated loads,
high rubbing speeds, and/or high temperatures (e.g., gears, shafts, uprights, exhausts, and
bearings) are still metallic.
Recent applications include suspension members, including their flexure pivot attachments to
the monocoque, and the gearbox, probably the most challenging application yet. The gear case
must accurately locate the gear shafts and other assemblies, while subjected to high loads and
temperatures up to 1500C (3020F). Ferrari required several months to resolve the problems
with its combined titanium and CFRP gearbox. Both TWR and Stewart suffered many problems with their new, all-carbon-fiber gearboxes, and Stewart (now Jaguar) has abandoned its
carbon-fiber gearbox.
The biggest influence on the future application of CFRP in Formula 1 is the continuously
improving FEA of composite structures. Conventional FEA of metallic structures uses uniform properties for the material. With composites, it is possible to vary the directional
properties of the material, vary the distribution of properties throughout the structure, and
even vary the properties within the thickness of a skin. This makes for a much more
difficult computational analysis and many more options for the design of the component.
Computer codes are becoming highly developed, and designers are learning to use and apply
322

these powerful tools to explore more innovative uses of composites and to use their unique
properties to realize more ambitious designs.
Predicting the impact performance of a composites structure is even more complex and an
area that the creators of FEA software are now tackling. Metals absorb energy by taking up
a permanent deformation, whereas composites do so by breaking. As Rolls-Royce discovered, the way in which CFRP fails during an impact is extremely complex, depending both on
the structural shape as well as the fiber and resin details.
The process from design to composite part is long and involves much manual work. CAD/CAM
has already speeded the manufacture of patterns and molds, using five-axis NC machines, rapid
prototyping of patterns, and CNC fabric cutting. Machine lay-up of aircraft parts is now
common, but the intricacies and low-volume production of race car parts demand manual
techniques (Fig. B.7).
Fig. B. 7 A CFRP monocoque being manufactured (Courtesy of

Sutton Motorsport Images)
323
Perhaps one of the most interesting carbon fiber applications will be in the use of carboncarbon for exhaust systems. Rumors suggest that a fiber manufacturer is developing such a
system for one ofthe Formula 1 teams. The highly complex shape is manufactured by casting
the exhaust system in a high-temperature salt and then wrapping the pattern in carbon fibers,
impregnated with pitch. Cooked at 1500C (2732F), the salt is melted out to leave a lightweight tubular exhaust system. Reputed to be showing similar durability to Inconel exhaust
systems on the test bed, it cannot be long before they appear on the track.
There seems to be no limit to how these wonderful black fibers, made from one of the most
abundant materials on earth, can be used. Composites have enabled parts to be shaped according to ideal structural design, aerodynamics, or aesthetics, rather than the constraints of the
processes involved in manufacturing them as with sheet metal fabrications, castings, or
machined parts. Structures are becoming more "organic," similar to a tree made from nature's
composite. CNC manufacture ofpatterns and tools, combined with the stability and stiffness of
cured CFRP, has provided a precision that enables fits between parts such as bodywork to equal
or exceed those achieved on production cars. It sometimes appears that Formula 1 cars are
hewn from granite. It is impossible to imagine race cars today without carbon fibers.
324
Appendix C
Active Suspension
The only difference between men and boys
is the cost of their toys!
-Anonymous and Colin Chapman
The characteristics of a ground-effect race car are such that the development of active suspension was inevitable. The effect on the performance ofthe car also made it almost inevitable that
active suspension would be banned.
Appendix A describes the way in which the magnitude and distribution of pressure on the underside of a car in ground effect varies with the attitude of the car relative to the ground. As the ride
height ofthe car diminishes, the pressure initially becomes lower, generating increased downforce.
At some point, however, the flow separates and downforce is reduced. As the car pitches, the
geometry of the venturi-shaped flow path under the car changes, and the pressure and hence
force distributions change. Nose-down pitch moves the center of pressure forward, putting
more of the downforce on the front axle, and vice versa. The magnitudes of the pressure and
forces also increase as the square of the airspeed, and the large resulting forces generated at
high speeds lower the car on its springs, thereby further increasing the downforce due to the
reduced ride height. To control the magnitude and distribution of forces as the car pitches and
bounces due to the inertia forces, during acceleration and braking, road undulations, and speedsquared effects, a suspension medium is needed that does not have the fixed load-extension
charactenstics of a spring. To suspend the car with a system that can raise it against an increasing load requires the addition of energy to the system-hence, active suspension.
The specification for an active suspension system will depend on the functions it is expected to
perform. The vertical loads on a race car suspension have five main components, and each
operates in a particular range of frequencies:
325
Component ofload
Weight change (fuel)
Aerodynamic downforce
Inertial loads
Sprung mass oscillations
Unsprung mass oscillations
Frequency
Very low
<1 Hz
2-3 Hz
3-7 Hz
12-15 Hz
The choice of which ofthese components are to be controlled determines the specification of
the system: full-active or semi-active (Figs. C. 1 through C.3).
A full-active system employs servo-actuators to serve all the functions of the springs, dampers, and anti-roll bars. A spring may be mounted in parallel with the actuator to generate a load
offset, and to reduce the force capability and hence the size and power consumption of the
actuator. In this case, the spring characteristics have no significant effect on the system
characteristics.
If the servo-actuator employs electro-hydraulics, as described in Chapter 11 on control systems,
the bandwidth can be in the range 20-30 Hz and thus is capable of meeting the requirements of
all the previously mentioned components of load. By measuring the load on the actuator and its
displacement, and controlling displacement proportional to load, a spring can be synthesized in the
software ofthe control computer. The spring can have any desired rate from infinitely stiff (ifthe
actuator has sufficient authority for the maximum load to be carried) to zero rate, and even a
negative rate. The latter is a dangerous beast, because any increase in load causes the actuator
to extend, while the inertia force generated by the accelerating actuator increases the load and
causes it to extend faster-maximum velocity is soon reached! Differentiating displacement
gives velocity, and thus the force-velocity characteristics of a hydraulic damper can be synthesized by also controlling velocity.
A full-active suspension can simulate a spring-damper, with any rate, damping, free play, and
stiction characteristics, all of which can be varied continuously. Used as the suspension
medium of a vehicle, it is also possible (by measuring the vertical accelerations ofthe sprung
and unsprung masses) to alter the apparent masses in the system and to provide inertial damping for either mass. In this way, the sprung and unsprung mass can be assigned a frequency
and damping, the latter combining velocity and inertial damping. It is possible to treat the
suspension as four individual wheels or to treat it modally, setting the frequency and damping
for each of the four modes: heave, pitch, roll, and warp (twist). Further control laws deal with
the other components of load in the following ways.
The effect of the change in the weight of the car as the fuel load is used is trimmed using a
very slow self-leveling loop on the average static ride height.
326
Appendix C-Acfive Suspension

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327
Aerodynamic loads are estimated from aero-mapping in the wind tunnel or on the track, and
the total pressure, measured with a pitot tube, used to calculate the individual wheel load
components due to downforce. Each total wheel load is offset by this value, such that the
suspension does not respond to changes in downforce.
The components of wheel load due to the inertial loads caused by acceleration, braking, and
cornering are derived from longitudinal and lateral accelerometers. The calculated wheel
loads are used as offsets of the total load, such that the suspension does not respond to them
and the car does not pitch or roll. One function of anti-roll bars is to set the lateral load transfer
distribution, and this is accomplished by factoring the load offsets appropriately, to simulate
greater roll stiffness at one axle than the roll moment distribution would dictate.
Of course, no response to aerodynamic loads, no pitch, and no roll may be undesirable responses,
in which case each of these can be varied according to any parameters that are measured or
derived. Car speed can be used to set the attitude of the car in any corner and to configure it for
minimum drag on the straights. Individual comers can be identified and the car set up appropriately. Driver controls can be used to vary the gain of any control loop or to switch between
algoritnms.
Such a comprehensive approach, providing the chassis engineer with almost infinite and
decoupled ways of setting up suspension characteristics, is also somewhat complex. Many of
the control loops have high gains and are prone to instability, caused by feedback of resonances in the structure to which the actuators and sensors are mounted. The suspension of
the car depends entirely on the correct functioning of the system, and it is able to distribute
loads among the four wheels, in a way that can have a strong influence on directional control
and stability. If the system malfunctions, the car is left with either no suspension or one that
takes control of the car.
A simpler approach is semi-active suspension, in which the springs, dampers, and usually the antiroll bars are retained, and servo-actuators are mounted in series with the spring/damper units.
The semi-active suspension units can, in theory, perform all the duties of a full-active system.
However, in practice, the bandwidth ofthe actuator and spring in series is unlikely to be greater than
3 Hz. Thus, the suspension is unable to control the sprung and unsprung masses and is at its
performance limits in terms of controlling inertial loads on a race car. (Semi-active systems are
more capable of fulfilling this function on a road car because the requirement is nearer to 1 Hz than
3 Hz.) The springs and dampers provide control ofroad inputs, and the semi-active system handles
weight changes and aerodynamic loads, and may be used to partially control inertia loads.
This simpler approach does not require load measurement and the high gains that cause instability in the system. Instead, the actuators are position servos, and the displacement required
is calculated knowing the spring rate and its change in length for any load variation. Thus, the
328
Appendix C-Active Suspension

spring deflections can be partially, fully, or over-compensated to control the attitude of the car
relative to the road, as required by the aeromap and setup.
The need to control the aerodynamic forces became apparent in 1979, but it was not until 1983
that active systems appeared on Formula 1 cars-a full-active system on the Lotus T92 and a
semi-active system (based on Citroen road car technology) on the Ligier JS 19. Even then,
another four years passed before active suspension was routinely raced and winning Grand
Prix. By 1992, active suspension was an essential part of a competitive Formula 1 car. At the
end of 1993, it was banned, along with a host of control systems that helped the driver to
control the car-namely, driver aids. A decade is a long time in motor racing, and it is unusual
for a new technology to take so long to mature and to show its potential. Turbocharging had a
similarly protracted gestation period, and both technologies suffered for coming along too
early, before enabling technologies were ready.
Both active suspension and turbocharged engines rely heavily on the digital computer for
control and analysis. To understand the functioning of both of these complex dynamic systems
requires modeling and validation on comprehensively instrumented rigs, neither of which are
possible without computers. Both require on-car computers to control them. Renault struggled
from 1977 to tame the turbo-engine. However, significantly, the first five World Championships of the turbo era (1983-1987) were won by either BMW or TAG-Porsche engines, both
of which were controlled by Bosch digital engine management systems.
The problems Lotus experienced with the T80 in 1979, already described inAppendixA, led to
twin approaches to solving the aerodynamic pitching and heaving instability. Plan A was the
twin-chassis T88, which was banned before it could race. Plan B was active suspension.
David Williams, head of the Flight Instrumentation Department at the Cranfield College of
Aeronautics, had introduced me to electro-hydraulic servo systems with load feedback when
he demonstrated an artificial-feel control column for an aircraft. The ability to synthesize any
spring, damper, or mass in the system was convincing, and all I had to do was to convince Coln
Chapman to start an R&D program, without having any idea ofwhat it would take to produce
a viable system. At that time, the computer we had used at Cranfield College for data analysis
filled a room, and Team Lotus had only one desktop computer in the two-person R&D department. Chapman's response to my proposal was to assign a Lotus Esprit Turbo to the project
and tell me to have it running as an active suspension car in six months. His understanding of
the need to solve the aerodynamic problem and his belief that the future lay with computers
(although I do not believe he really liked them) epitomized Colin Chapman as one of the
greatest motor racing visionaries of all time.
The Esprit was modified at Cranfield College with off-the-shelf, double-acting hydraulic cylinders and servo-valves replacing the springs and dampers. No springs were fitted in parallel, and
thus the system had 100% authority. When switched off, the car subsided onto its bump rubbers.
The computer consisted ofthe signal conditioning and data acquisition system used on the Formula 1 cars, as well as analog control loops. To change the loops required a soldering iron, but
329
gains and offsets were adjustable, via sliding potentiometers mounted in a panel in front ofthe
passenger. A gear pump driven by the engine supplied hydraulic power.
Initial problems centered around instability ofthe system. As soon as load feedback gains ("spring"
stiffness) were increased to give rates equivalent to those of a nonnmal car, the system excited the
structure of the car at its natural frequency in torsion, and the whole car disappeared into a blur
with a roaring sound. At the same time, the windshield wipers switched themselves on and then
fell off. Fortunately, the hydraulic system was unable to keep up with the demands of this level
of activity, and the pressure died before the fatigue life of the structure was completely
exhausted. David Williams solved these problems by installing carefully designed electronic
notch filters into the feedback loops; they were the key to making the system work (Fig. C.4).
In an early demonstration to Chapman, in the workshops at the Team Lotus' base in Ketteringham
Hall, I attempted to show him how easy it was to adjust the attitude of the car, by moving the
appropriate slider potentiometer while seated in the car. Unfortunately, I raised the car too
fast, and the resulting vertical acceleration was such that it forced my hand down again on the
potentiometer. The car attempted to lower itself extremely rapidly, and onlookers claimed that
daylight could be seen under all four wheels. Chapman left the scene, shaking his head, and he
was heard to mutter the quotation at the beginning ofthis appendix.
Track testing progressed to the point where Lotus drivers Nigel Mansell and Elio De Angelis
were able to drive the car on test circuits. The first time that De Angelis drove the car at
Snetterton, he was able to describe what he wanted from the handling of the car in such a way
that I was immediately able to make adjustments from the passenger seat, while on the circuit.
It took only five laps to tune the car to his liking, and I learned more about setting up a car for
a driver at that session than I had ever learned in the past. By the end of the day, I was able
to adjust the car between entry to the corner and exit, and to vary its characteristics to optimize
the car at each stage to suit the driver. The concept of adaptive algorithms was conceived
then, although the need for a digital computer also became obvious. The ability and speed with
which different settings could be tried also became apparent-procedures that normally
required pit stops and work by mechanics on a conventional car, by which time the driver had
often forgotten how the car felt, or else the track had changed.
Chapman was driven by De Angelis that day and also drove the car. He immediately gave the
go-ahead on a Formula 1 version ofthe system, only 12 months from his original go-ahead on
the project.
Another 12 months later saw the first test of the Cosworth DFV-powered T92, again at
Snetterton. The car had purpose-designed actuators, manufactured by Dowty, and a hybrid
analog-digital computer, allowing loop gains and offsets to be set up via a plug-in laptop computer. Dave Scott, a young test driver, was to give the car its initial shakedown. While driving
the active Esprit with me as the passenger and to familiarize himself with the active suspension
characteristics, he lost control at the 160 kph (100 mph) corner before the pits, hitting the bank
330
. i -!
..h.
:-'-.'4:
-:-.::-::--.
:..::41:. :...
-%.-
Fig. C.4 (a) Passive suspension Esprit on Lotus' Hethel test track. (b) Active
suspension Esprit prototype, at the same corner at Hethel.
331
hard but without injuring either of us. We had just returned the wreck to the garage when
Peter Warr, team manager of Team Lotus, appeared to announce that Colin Chapman had
died the previous night. He told us to carry on; however, although the car ran, it was a very
bad day.
The car raced in the first two Grand Prix of 1983, perfonning reasonably against the turbos,
although Nigel Mansell was extremely wary of it. I vividly remember checking the car on the
grid in Rio de Janeiro and discovering that the memory of the car's computer was blank! As
the minutes to the start ticked by, I reprogrammed the computer, entry by entry. The sight of
an engineer with a laptop plugged into a car on the grid was extremely rare at that time. Now,
each car has two or three laptops attached whenever it is stationary.
When Team Lotus converted to the Renault turbo-engine after a couple of races, active suspension was discarded, lacking Chapman's support. The two-man team developing active
technology moved to Lotus Engineering to further develop the system for road cars. During
the design phase of the T92, the Technical Regulations had changed, mandating flat bottoms
for the first time. The T92 had been designed with high downforce, full ground-effect side
pods, with aggressive pitch characteristics, which the active suspension would tame! Flatbottom aerodynamics was in its infancy, and the need for active suspension greatly diminished.
However, by 1986, they had been developed to generate considerable downforce and in the
process had gained considerable pitch sensitivity. Team Lotus requested Lotus Engineering to
supply an active suspension system for racing in 1987.
The 1987 system benefited from the development work ofthe intervening years, during which
the technology had had a chance to mature under less demanding pressure. Considerable rig
development work had been done, and a fully digital computer had been designed specifically
for active suspension, by the team under David Williams at Cranfield College. The actuators
were fitted with parallel springs, reducing the power needed to drive the hydraulic system and
providing a measure of safety if the system depressurized. A new system was fitted to the
Honda turbo-powered T99 (Fig. C.5) and included an integral data acquisition system supported by data analysis software, essential for diagnosing and developing the system and for
tuning car handling characteristics.
Ayrton Senna brought his incredibly focused approach to testing and was instrumental in achieving two Grand Prix wins and finishing third in the World Championship. Williams also raced an
active suspension car in certain races that year, winning one Grand Prix. The handwriting was
on the wall.
Williams' system was based on an electronic variation ofthe Automotive Products semi-active
system. It employed pneumatic springs and actuators in series and used accelerometers to
compensate and distribute inertia forces (Fig. C.6).
332
Appendix C-AcHive Suspension
Fig C(5 Active suspension fitted to the Lotus T99-Honda. (Courtesy of

Sutton Motorsport Images)
Team Lotus was unable to fund further development of the Lotus system, and Williams continued
to develop its system into a dominant race-winning technology. The attitude control aspect of
active suspension, with its effects on optimizing the aerodynamics under all conditions, is the
major benefit of the system in racing. This can be achieved with a semi-active system. Control
of inertia loads prevents transient aerodynamic effects under braklng and acceleration, but roll
control has only a small advantage in steering response. Control of the masses by actively
simulating springs and dampers appears to have been a mixed blessing. The effect on the tire
performance was such that in events where tires were on the thennal limit, full-active was less
hard on the tires. This characteristic was exploited by Ayrton Senna during the two races he
won. However, when it was difficult for drivers to raise the tires to their optimum temperature,
it became a disadvantage. This showed up particularly during qualifying, when it is necessary to
bring the tires in quickly, and a stiffly suspended, aggressive car often benefits. A much greater
understanding of the interaction between active suspension and the tires was needed to fully
exploit the potential of a full-active system.
The benefits of Williams' continuous steady development of its system showed in the way it
dominated Formula 1 in the final two years before the technology was banned. Active suspension was lost to racing at the same time as all the driver aids were banned, although active
suspension fell under the regulation on movable aerodynamic devices. Many believe this was
unfortunate because it is not a driver aid, and the technology has real value to the motor
industry as a whole-a racing contribution that is all too rare now.
333
Fig. C. 6 Semi-active suspension fitted to the Williams FW15C-Renault.

When Lotus Engineering took over the ongoing development of its full-active system in 1983,
it set out to demonstrate the technology to the motor industry with a view to building vehicles
suitable for research into suspension and handling characteristics. The system provides a
method of exploring a wide range ofcharacteristics in a short time, many ofwhich are beyond
that of which a passive system is capable. Two ofthe first demonstrations, using the original
active Esprit development car, were to Mercedes and to General Motors Research. It transpired that Mercedes had been investigating active suspension for eight years and had built a
single-corner test rig. Mercedes wished to know whether it should progress to the next stage
of building a car, and its test rides in the Esprit convinced the company that it should!
334

General Motors had been modeling active suspension for almost ten years and was reputedly
quite upset when it heard that Lotus was actually racing a full-active car in 1983. General
Motors sent some researchers to Rio for the Brazilian Grand Prix to see whether it was real. A
close technical relationship developed between Lotus and General Motors, in which Lotus built a
number of active technology vehicles. This pioneering cooperation eventually contributed to
General Motors purchasing Lotus in 1986.
Active suspension is one of the proofs that Formula I can originate and pioneer technologies of
significant benefit to the motor industry, taldng the technical risks necessary to bring the technology
to fruition quickly. Lotus Engineering went on to build numerous active suspension and active
technology vehicles, and to spread the technology widely throughout the industry (Fig. C.7).
Fig. C. 7 An array of active technology research vehicles, including a tracked

vehicle, lined up at Lotus.
335
Appendix D
2001 Formula One

Technical Regulations
Federation Internationale de l'Automobile
[Ref. D. 1
Summary
Article 1: Definitions
1.1
Formula One ca r
1.2
Automobile
1.3
Land vehicle
1.4
Bodywork
1.5
Wheel
1.6
Complete wheel
1.7
Automobile make
1.8
Event
1.9
Weight
1.10 Racing weight
1.11 Cubic capacity
1.12 Supercharging
1.13 Cockpit
1.14 Sprung suspensicon
1.15 Survival cell
1.16 Camera
1.17 Camera housing
1.18 Cockpit padding
1.19 Brake caliper
1.20 Automatic gearb lox
337
Article
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2: General Principles
Role of the FIA
Amendments to the regulations
Dangerous construction
Compliance with the regulations
Measurements
Driving
Duty of Competitor
Article 3: Bodywork and Dimensions

3.1
Wheel centre line
3.2
Height measurements
3.3
Overall width
3.4
Width ahead of the rear wheel centre line
3.5
Width behind the rear wheel centre line
3.6
Overall height
3.7
Front bodywork height
3.8
Height in front of the rear wheels
3.9
Bodywork between the rear wheels
3.10 Height behind the rear wheel centre line
3.11 Bodywork around the front wheels
3.12 Bodywork facing the ground
3.13 Skidblock
3.14 Overhangs
3.15 Aerodynamic influence
3.16 Upper bodywork
Article
4.1
4.2
4.3
4: Weight
Minimum weight
Ballast
Adding during the race
Article 5: Engine
5.1
Engine specification
5.2
Other means of propulsion
5.3
Temperature and pressure of the charge
5.4
Exhaust system
5.5
Engine materials
5.6
Starting the engine
5.7
Throttle control
5.8
Engine control
5.9
Stall prevention systems
5.10 Engine rev limiters
338
Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical Regulations

5.11
5.12
Car speed limiter

Induction system
Article
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6: Fuel System
Fuel tanks
Fittings and piping
Crushable structure
Fuel tank fillers
Refuelling
Fuel sampling
Article
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7: Oil and Coolant Systems

Location ofoil tanks
Longitudinal location ofoil system
Catch tank
Transversal location ofoil system
Oil replenishment
Coolant header tank
Cooling systems
Oil and coolant lines
Article
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8: Electrical Systems
Cockpit controls
Software validation
Fault or error detection
Accident data recorders
Marshal information display
Article 9: Transmission System

9.1
Transmission types
9.2
Propulsion
9.3
Clutch control
9.4
Gear changing
9.5
Gear ratios
9.6
Reverse gear
9.7
Electronically controlled differentials
Article
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10: Suspension and Steering Systems

Sprung suspension
Suspension geometry
Suspension members
Steering
339
Article
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11: Brake System

Brake circuits and pressure distribution
Brake calipers
Brake discs
Air ducts
Brake pressure modulation
Liquid cooling
Article 12: Wheels and Tyres

12.1 Location
12.2 Number of wheels
12.3 Wheel material
12.4 Wheel dimensions
Article
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13: Cockpit
Cockpit opening
Steering wheel
Internal cross section
Position of the driver's feet
Article 14: Safety Equipment

14.1 Fire extinguishers
14.2 Master switch
14.3 Rear view mirrors
14.4 Safety belts
14.5 Rear light
14.6 Cockpit padding
14.7 Wheel retention
14.8 Seat fixing and removal
Article
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15: Safety Structures

Materials
Roll structures
Structure behind the driver
Survival cell specifications
Survival cell safety requirements
Article 16: Impact Testing

16.1 Conditions applicable to all impact tests
16.2 Frontal test
16.3 Side test
340
Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical Regulafions

16.4
16.5
Rear test
Steering column test
Article
17.1
17.2
17.3
17: Roll Structure Testing

Conditions applicable to both roll structure tests
Principal roll structure
Second roll structure
Article 18: Static Load Testing

18.1 Conditions applicable to all the tests in 18.2-18.5
18.2 Survival cell side tests
18.3 Fuel tank floor test
18.4 Cockpit rim test
18.5 Nose push off test
18.6 Side intrusion test
Article 19: Fuel

19.1 Purpose ofArticle 19
19.2 Definitions
19.3 Properties
19.4 Composition ofthe fuel
19.5 Air
19.6 Safety
19.7 Fuel approval
19.8 Sampling and testing
19.9 Amendments to Article 19
Article 20: Television Cameras

20.1 Presence of cameras and camera housings
20.2 Location of camera housings
20.3 Location of camera equipment
20.4 Timing transponders
Article 21: Final Text
Article 22: Changes for 2002
22.1 Changes to Article 15.5.5
22.2 Addition ofan Article 18.7
341
Article 1: Definitions
1.1
1.2
Formula One car:

An automobile designed solely for speed races on circuits or closed courses.
Automobile:
A land vehicle running on at least four non-aligned complete wheels, of which at least
two are used for steering and at least two for propulsion.
1.3
Land vehicle:
A locomotive device propelled by its own means, moving by constantly taking real
support on the earth's surface, of which the propulsion and steering are under the
control of a driver aboard the vehicle.
1.4
Bodywork:
All entirely sprung parts of the car in contact with the external air stream, except
cameras and the parts definitely associated with the mechanical functioning of the
engine, transmission and running gear. Airboxes, radiators and engine exhausts are
considered to be part of the bodywork.
1.5
Wheel:
Flange and rim.
1.6
Complete wheel:
Wheel and inflated tyre.
1.7
Automobile make:
In the case of Formula racing cars, an automobile make is a complete car. When the
car manufacturer fits an engine which it does not manufacture, the car shall be considered a hybrid and the name of the engine manufacturer shall be associated with
that of the car manufacturer. The name of the car manufacturer must always precede that of the engine manufacturer. Should a hybrid car win a Championship Title,
Cup or Trophy, this will be awarded to the manufacturer of the car.
1.8
Event:
An event shall consist of official practice and the race.
1.9
Weight:
Is the weight of the car with the driver, wearing his complete racing apparel, at all
times during the event.
1.10
Racing weight:
Is the weight of the car in running order with the driver aboard and all fuel tanks full.
342

1.11
Cubic capacity:
The volume swept in the cylinders of the engine by the movement ofthe pistons. This
volume shall be expressed in cubic centimetres. In calculating engine cubic capacity,
the number Pi shall be 3.1416.
1.12
Supercharging:
Increasing the weight ofthe charge of the fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber
(over the weight induced by normal atmospheric pressure, ram effect and dynamic
effects in the intake and/or exhaust system) by any means whatsoever. The injection
of fuel under pressure is not considered to be supercharging.
1.13
Cockpit:
The volume which accommodates the driver.
1.14
Sprung suspension:
The means whereby all complete wheels are suspended from the body/chassis unit by
a spring medium.
1.15
Survival cell:
A continuous closed structure containing the fuel tank and the cockpit.
1.16
Camera:
Television cameras, the dimensions ofwhich are defined in Drawing 6.
1.17
Camera housing:
A device which is identical in shape and weight to a camera and which is supplied by
the relevant Competitor for fitting to his car in lieu of a camera.
1.18
Cockpit padding:
Non-structural parts placed within the cockpit for the sole purpose of improving driver
comfort and safety. All such material must be quickly removable without the use of
tools.
1.19
Brake caliper:
All parts of the braking system outside the survival cell, other than brake discs, brake
pads, caliper pistons, brake hoses and fittings, which are stressed when subjected to
the braking pressure. Bolts or studs which are used for attachment are not considered
to be part of the braking system.
1.20
Automatic gearbox:
One in which gears may be changed and used without each one being requested by
the driver.
343
Article 2: General Principles
2.1
Role of the FIA:

The following technical regulations for Formula One cars are issued by the FIA.
2.2
Amendments to the regulations:

Amendments to these regulations will be made in accordance with the Concorde
agreement.
2.3
Dangerous construction:
The Stewards of the Meeting may exclude a vehicle whose construction is deemed to
be dangerous.
2.4
Compliance with the regulations:

Automobiles must comply with these regulations in their entirety at all times during an
Event.
Should a Competitor feel that any aspect of these regulations is unclear, clarification
may be sought from the FIA Formula One Technical Department. If clarification
relates to any new design or system, correspondence must include:
*
A full description of the design or system;
Drawings or schematics where appropriate;

The Competitor's opinion concerning the immediate implications on other parts of
the car of any proposed new design;
The Competitor's opinion concerning any possible long-term consequences or
new developments which may come from using any such new designs or systems;
The precise way or ways in which the Competitor feels the new design or system
will enhance the performance of the car.
*
*
*
2.5
Measurements:
All measurements must be made while the car is stationary on a flat horizontal surface.
2.6
Driving:
The driver must drive the car alone and unaided.
2.7
Duty of Competitor:
It is the duty ofeach Competitor to satisfy the FIA technical delegate and the Stewards
ofthe Meeting that his automobile complies with these regulations in their entirety at all
times during an Event.
344

Article 3: Bodywork and Dimensions
3.1
Wheel centre line:

The centre line of any wheel shall be deemed to be halfway between two straight
edges, perpendicular to the surface on which the car is standing, placed against opposite sides of the complete wheel at the centre of the tyre tread.
3.2
Height measurements:
All height measurements will be taken normal to and from the reference plane.
3.3
Overall width:
The overall width of the car, including complete wheels, must not exceed 1800 mm
with the steered wheels in the straight ahead position.
3.4
Width ahead of the rear wheel centre line:
3.4.1
Bodywork width ahead of the rear wheel centre line must not exceed 1400 mm.
3.4.2 No lateral extremity of any bodywork forward of the front wheels may deflect more
than 5 mm vertically when a 50 kg mass is placed on it. During such a test the centre
of area of the mass will be placed 700 mm forward ofthe front wheel centre line with
its outer edge 700 mm from the car centre line.
The precise dimensions of the mass which will be used are available from the FIA
Technical Department.
3.4.3 In order to prevent tyre damage to other cars, the top and forward edges of the lateral
extremities of any bodywork forward of the front wheels must be at least 10 mm thick
with a radius of at least 5 mm.
3.5
Width behind the rear wheel centre line:

Bodywork width behind the rear wheel centre line must not exceed 1000 mm.
3.6
Overall height:
No part of the bodywork may be more than 950 mm above the reference plane.
3.7
Front bodywork height:

All bodywork situated forward of a point lying 330 mm behind the front wheel centre
line, and more than 250 mm from the centre line ofthe car, must be no less than 100 mm
and no more than 300 mm above the reference plane.
345
3.8
Height in front of the rear wheels:
3.8.1 Other than the rear view mirrors, each with a maximum area in plan view of 9000 mm2,
no bodywork situated more than 330 mm behind the front wheel centre line and more
than 330 mm forward of the rear wheel centre line, which is more than 600 mm above
the reference plane, may be more than 300 mm from the centre line of the car.
3.8.2 No bodywork between the rear wheel centre line and a line 800 mm forward of the
rear wheel centre line, which is more than 500 mm from the centre line ofthe car, may
be more than 500 mm above the reference plane.
3.8.3 No bodywork between the rear wheel centre line and a line 400 mm forward of the
rear wheel centre line, which is more than 500 mm from the centre line ofthe car, may
be more than 300 mm above the reference plane.
3.9
Bodywork between the rear wheels:
3.9.1 No bodywork situated between the rear wheel centre line and a point lying 330 mm
forward of it may be more than 600 mm above the reference plane.
3.9.2 No bodywork situated between the rear wheel centre line and a point lying 150 mm
behind it may be more than 450 mm above the reference plane.
3.10
Height behind the rear wheel centre line:
3.10.1 Any part of the car more than 150 mm behind the centre line of the rear wheels must
not be more than 800 mm above the reference plane.
3.10.2 No bodywork behind the centre line of the rear wheels, and more than 150 mm each side of
the longitudinal centre line ofthe car, may be less than 300 mm above the reference plane.
3.10.3 Any bodywork more than 150 mm behind the rear wheel centre line which is more
than 300 mm above the reference plane, amd between 75 mm and 480 mm from the
car centre line, must lie in one of two areas when viewed from the side of the car.
These areas are situated from 300 mm to 375 mm and 600 mm to 800 mm above the
reference plane. When these areas are viewed from the side ofthe car, no longitudinal cross section may have more than three closed sections in the upper area or more
than one in the lower.
3.11
Bodywork around the front wheels:

With the exception of brake cooling ducts, in plan view, there must be no bodywork in
the area formed by two longitudinal lines parallel to and 400 mm and 900 mm from the
car centre line and two transversal lines, one 350 mm forward of and one 800 mm
behind the front wheel centre line.
346

3.12
Bodywork facing the ground:
3.12.1 All sprung parts of the car situated more than 330 mm behind the front wheel centre
line and more than 330 mm forward of the rear wheel centre line, and which are
visible from underneath, must form surfaces which lie on one of two parallel planes,
the reference plane or the step plane. This does not apply to any parts of rear view
mirrors which are visible, provided each of these areas does not exceed 9000 mm2
when projected to a horizontal plane above the car. The step plane must be 50 mm
above the reference plane.
3.12.2 The surface formed by all parts lying on the reference plane must:
*
*
*
Extend from a point lying 330 mm behind the front wheel centre line to the centre
line of the rear wheels;
Have minimum and maximum widths of 300 mm and 500 mm, respectively;
Be symmetrical about the centre line of the car;

Have a 50 mm radius (2 mm) on each front corner when viewed from directly
beneath the car, this being applied after the surface has been defined.
3.12.3 The surface lying on the reference plane must be joined at its extremities to the surfaces lying on the step plane by a vertical transition. If there is no surface visible on
the step plane vertically above any point around the extremity ofthe reference plane,
this transition is not necessary.
3.12.4 The peripheries of the surfaces lying on the reference and step planes may be curved
upward with maximum radii of 25 and 50 mm, respectively. Where the vertical transition meets the surfaces on the step plane a radius, no greater than 25 mm, is permitted.
A radius in this context will be considered as an arc applied perpendicular to the
periphery and tangential to both surfaces.
The surface lying on the reference plane, the surfaces lying on the step plane and the
vertical transitions between them, must first be fully defined before any radius can be
applied or the skid block fitted. Any radius applied is still considered part of the
relevant surface.
3.12.5 All parts lying on the reference and step planes, in addition to the transition between the
two planes, must produce uniform, solid, hard, continuous, rigid (no degree of freedom in
relation to the body/chassis unit), impervious surfaces under all circumstances.
Fully enclosed holes are permitted in these surfaces provided no part of the car is
visible through them when viewed from directly below.
347
3.12.6 To help overcome any possible manufacturing problems, and not to permit any design
which may contravene any part of these regulations, dimensional tolerances are permitted on bodywork situated between a point lying 330 mm behind the front wheel
centre line and the rear wheel centre line. A vertical tolerance of +5 mm is permissible across the surfaces lying on the reference and step planes, and a horizontal
tolerance of 5 mm is permitted when assessing whether a surface is visible from
beneath the car.
3.12.7 All sprung parts of the car situated behind a point lying 330 mm forward of the rear
wheel centre line, which are visible from underneath and are more than 250 mm from
the centre line of the car, must be at least 50 mm above the reference plane.
3.13
Skid block:
3.13.1 Beneath the surface formed by all parts lying on the reference plane, a rectangular
skid block, with a 50 mm radius (2 mm) on each front corner, must be fitted. This
skid block may comprise more than one piece but must:
a) Extend longitudinally from a point lying 330 mm behind the front wheel centre line
to the centre line of the rear wheels.
b) Be made from a homogeneous material with a specific gravity between 1.3 and 1.45.
c) Have a width of 300 mm with a tolerance of +2 mm.
d) Have a thickness of 10 mm with a tolerance of +1 mm.
e) Have a uniform thickness when new.
f) Have no holes or cut outs other than those necessary to fit the fasteners permitted
by 3.13.2 or those holes specifically mentioned in g) below.
g) Have six precisely placed holes in order that its thickness can be measured at any
time. These holes must be 50 mm in diameter and must be placed in the positions
detailed in Drawing 1. In order to establish the conformity of the skid block after
use, its thickness will only be measured in these holes.
h) Be fixed symmetrically about the centre line of the car in such a way that no air
may pass between it and the surface formed by the parts lying on the reference
plane.
3.13.2 Fasteners used to attach the skid block to the car must:
a) Have a total area no greater than 40,000 mm2 when viewed from directly beneath
the car;
348
Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical Regulaffons

b) Be no greater than 2000 mm2 in area individually when viewed from directly
beneath the car;
c) Be fitted in order that their entire lower surfaces are visible from directly beneath
the car.
When the skid block is new, ten of the fasteners may be flush with its lower surface,
but the remainder may be no more than 8 mm below the reference plane.
3.13.3 The lower edge of the periphery of the skid block may be chamfered at an angle of
300 to a depth of 8 mm. The trailing edge, however, may be chamfered over a
distance of 200 mm to a depth of 8 mm.
3.14
Overhangs:
No part of the car shall be more than 500 mm behind the centre line of the rear wheels
or more than 1200 mm in front of the centre line of the front wheels.
No part of the bodywork more than 200 mm from the centre line of the car may be
more than 900 mm in front of the front wheel centre line.
All overhang measurements will be taken parallel to the reference plane.
3.15
Aerodynamic influence:
Any specific part ofthe car influencing its aerodynamic performance (with the exception ofthe cover described in Article 6.5.2 in the pit lane only):
*
Must comply with the rules relating to bodywork.
Must be rigidly secured to the entirely sprung part of the car (rigidly secured
means not having any degree of freedom).
Must remain immobile in relation to the sprung part of the car.
In order to ensure that this requirement is respected, the FIA reserves the right to
introduce load/deflection tests on any part of the bodywork which appears to be (or is
suspected of) moving whilst the car is in motion.
Any device or construction that is designed to bridge the gap between the sprung part
of the car and the ground is prohibited under all circumstances.
No part having an aerodynamic influence and no part of the bodywork, with the exception of the skid block in 3.13 above, may under any circumstances be located below the
reference plane.
349
3.16
Upper bodywork:
3.16.1 With the exception of the opening described in Article 3.16.3, when viewed from the
side, the car must have bodywork in the triangle formed by three lines, one vertical
passing 1330 mm forward ofthe rear wheel centre line, one horizontal 550 mm above
the reference plane and one diagonal which intersects the vertical at a point 940 mm
above the reference plane and the horizontal 330 mm forward of the rear wheel
centre line.
The bodywork over the whole of this area must be arranged symmetrically about the
car centre line and must be at least 200 mm wide when measured at any point along a
second diagonal line parallel to and 200 mm vertically below the first.
Furthermore, over the whole area between the two diagonal lines, the bodywork must be
wider than a vertical isosceles triangle lying on a lateral plane which has a base 200 mm
wide lying on the second diagonal line.
3.16.2 When viewed from the side, the car must have no bodywork in the triangle formed by
three lines, one vertical 330 mm forward of the rear wheel centre line, one horizontal
950 mm above the reference plane, and one diagonal which intersects the vertical at a
point 600 mm above the reference plane and the horizontal at a point 1030 mm forward
of the rear wheel centre line.
3.16.3 In order that a car may be lifted quickly in the event of it stopping on the circuit, the
principal rollover structure must incorporate a clearly visible unobstructed opening
designed to permit a strap, whose section measures 60 mm x 30 mm, to pass through it.
350

Article 4: Weight
4.1
Minimum weight:
The weight of the car must not be less than 600 kg.
4.2
Ballast:
Ballast can be used provided it is secured in such a way that tools are required for its
removal. It must be possible to fix seals if deemed necessary by the FIA technical
delegate.
4.3
Adding during the race:

With the exception of fuel, nitrogen and compressed air, no substance may be added to
the car during the race. If it becomes necessary to replace any part of the car during
the race, the new part must not weigh any more than the original part.
351
Article 5: Engine
5.1
Engine specification:
5.1.1 Only four-stroke engines with reciprocating pistons are permitted.
5.1.2 Engine capacity must not exceed 3000 cc.

5.1.3 Supercharging is forbidden.
5.1.4 All engines must have 10 cylinders, and the normal section of each cylinder must be
circular.
5.1.5 Engines may have no more than five valves per cylinder.
5.2
Other means of propulsion:
5.2.1 The use of any device, other than the 3 litre, four-stroke engine described in 5.1 above,
to power the car, is not permitted.
5.2.2 The total amount of recoverable energy stored on the car must not exceed 300 kJ, any
which may be recovered at a rate greater than 2 kW must not exceed 20 kJ.
5.3
Temperature and pressure of the charge:
5.3.1 Any device, system, procedure, construction or design the purpose and/or effect of
which is any decrease whatsoever of the temperature of the intake air and/or of the
charge (air and/or fuel) of the engine is forbidden.
5.3.2 Internal and/or external spraying of water or any substance whatsoever is forbidden
(other than fuel for the normal purpose of combustion in the engine).
5.4
Exhaust system:
Variable geometric length exhaust systems are forbidden.
5.5
Engine materials:
5.5.1 The basic structure of the crankshaft and camshafts must be made from steel or cast
iron.
5.5.2 Pistons, cylinder heads and cylinder blocks may not be composite structures which
use carbon or aramid fibre reinforcing materials.
352
5.6
Starting the engine:

A supplementary device temporarily connected to the car may be used to start the
engine both on the grid and in the pits.
5.7
Throttle control:
5.7.1
Other than the specific exceptions mentioned below in 5.7.2, there must be a fixed
relationship between the position of the throttle pedal and the engine throttles. This
relationship need not be linear, but the position of the engine throttles may not be
influenced by anything other than movement of the throttle pedal when operated by
the driver.
This relationship must remain fixed whilst the car is in motion subject only to Article 8.3.
5.7.2 The relationship between the throttle pedal and engine throttles may alter during one
or more ofthe following operations:
*
*
*
*
Idle control;
Stall prevention;
Gear changing;
Car speed limiting.
5.7.3
Engine throttles may be modulated by no more than two individual operating mechanisms.
5.8
Engine control:
Ignition and fuel settings must maintain the same relationship with engine speed and
throttle position whilst the car is in motion, with the following specific exceptions:
*
*
*
*
Compensation for throttle acceleration;

Driver adjustable fuel mixture control with a maximum of three settings;
Compensation for changes in engine intake air temperature and pressure, engine
pressures, or engine temperatures;
Open or closed loop detonation and lambda control.
No engine parameter may be altered so as to diminish the degree of control the driver
has over the propulsion system.
5.9
Stall prevention systems:
5.9.1
The sole purpose of such systems is to prevent the engine stalling when a driver loses
control of the car.
353
5.9.2 Each time such a system is activated, the clutch must be fully dis-engaged and must
remain so until the driver de-activates it by manually operating the clutch with the
normal proportional request.
5.9.3 To avoid the possibility of a car involved in an accident being left with the engine
running, all such systems must be configured to stop the engine no more than ten
seconds after activation.
5.10
Engine rev limiters:

With the exception of the car speed limiter below and subject to Article 8.3, engine rev
limits may vary for differing conditions provided all are significantly above the peak of
the engine power curve.
5.11
Car speed limiter:
5.11.1 The purpose ofthe speed limiter is to improve safety by ensuring a driver is less likely
to exceed the pit lane speed limit.
5.11.2 The car speed limiter may be operated only by the driver when he needs it and must
be deactivated by him at the time it is no longer required.
5.11.3 Car speed limiters may only operate in first, second and third gears and may only be
activated in the pit lane.
5.12
Induction system:
The length and volume of the engine induction system may be modulated by no more
than two individual operating mechanisms.
354

Article 6: Fuel System
6.1
Fuel tanks:
6.1.1 The fuel tank must be a single rubber bladder confonning to or exceeding the specifications of FL/FT5-1999; the fitting of foamn within the tank, however, is not mandatory.
6.1.2 All the fuel stored on board the car must be situated between the front face of the
engine and the driver's back when viewed in lateral projection. When establishing the
front face of the engine, no parts of the fuel, oil, water or electrical systems will be
considered.
Furthermore, no fuel can be stored more than 300 mm forward ofthe highest point at
which the driver's back makes contact with his seat. However, a maximum of 2 litres
of fuel may be kept outside the survival cell, but only that which is necessary for the
normal running ofthe engine.
6.1.3 Fuel must not be stored more than 400 mm from the longitudinal axis of the car.
6.1.4 All rubber bladders must be made by manufacturers recognised by the FIA. In order
to obtain the agreement of the FIA, the manufacturer must prove the compliance of
his product with the specifications approved by the FIA. These manufacturers must
undertake to deliver to their customers exclusively tanks complying to the approved
standards.
A list of approved manufacturers is available from the FIA.
6.1.5 All rubber bladders shall be printed with the name of the manufacturer, the specifications to which the tank has been manufactured and the date of manufacture.
6.1.6 No rubber bladders shall be used more than 5 years after the date of manufacture.
6.2
Fittings and piping:
6.2.1 All apertures in the fuel tank must be closed by hatches or fittings which are secured
to metallic or composite bolt rings bonded to the inside ofthe bladder.
Bolt hole edges must be no less than 5 mm from the edge of the bolt ring, hatch or
fitting.
6.2.2 All fuel lines between the fuel tank and the engine must have a self-sealing breakaway
valve. This valve must separate at less than 50% ofthe load required to break the fuel
line fitting or to pull it out ofthe fuel tank.
355
6.2.3 No lines containing fuel may pass through the cockpit.
6.2.4 All lines must be fitted in such a way that any leakage cannot result in the accumulation of fuel in the cockpit.
6.3
Crushable structure:
The fuel tank must be completely surrounded by a crushable structure, which is an
integral part of the survival cell and must be able to withstand the loads required by the
tests in Articles 18.2. 1 and 18.3.
6.4
Fuel tank fillers:

Fuel tank fillers must not protrude beyond the bodywork. Any breather pipe connecting the fuel tank to the atmosphere must be designed to avoid liquid leakage when the
car is running and its outlet must not be less than 250 mm from the cockpit opening.
All fuel tank fillers and breathers must be designed to ensure an efficient locking
action which reduces the risk of an accidental opening following a crash impact or
incomplete locking after refuelling.
6.5
Refuelling:
6.5.1 All refuelling during the race must be carried out using equipment which has been
supplied by the FIA designated manufacturer. This manufacturer will be required to
supply identical refuelling systems, the complete specification of which will be available from the FIA no later than one month prior to the first Championship Event.
Any modifications to the manufacturer's specification may only be made following

written consent from the FIA.
6.5.2 A cover must be fitted over the car connector at all times when the car is running on
the track. The cover and its attachments must be sufficiently strong to avoid accidental opening in the event of an accident.
6.5.3 Before refuelling commences, the car connector must be connected electrically to earth.
All metal parts of the refuelling system from the coupling to the supply tank must also
be connected to earth.
6.5.4 Refuelling the car on the grid may only be carried out by using an unpressurized
container which is no more than 2 metres above the ground.
356

6.5.5 No fuel on board the car may be more than ten degrees centigrade below ambient
temperature.
6.5.6 The use of any device on board the car to decrease the temperature of the fuel is
forbidden.
6.6
Fuel sampling:
6.6.1
Competitors must ensure that a one litre sample of fuel may be taken from the car at
any time during the Event.
6.6.2 All cars must be fitted with a -2 'Symetrics' male fitting in order to facilitate fuel sampling. If an electric pump on board the car cannot be used to remove the fuel, an
externally connected one may be used provided it is evident that a representative fuel
sample is being taken. If an extemal pump is used, it must be possible to connect the FIA
sampling hose to it and any hose between the car and pump must be -3 in diameter and
not exceed 2 m in length.
6.6.3 The sampling procedure must not necessitate starting the engine or the removal of
bodywork (other than the cover over the refuelling connector).
357
Article 7: Oil and Coolant Systems
7.1
Location of oil tanks:

All oil storage tanks must be situated between the front wheel axis and the rearmost
gearbox casing longitudinally, and must be no further than the lateral extremities of the
survival cell are from the longitudinal axis ofthe car.
7.2
Longitudinal location of oil system:

No other part of the car containing oil may be situated behind the complete rear
wheels.
7.3
Catch tank:
In order to avoid the possibility of oil being deposited on the track, the engine sump
breather must vent into the main engine air intake system.
7.4
Transversal location of oil system:

No part of the car containing oil may be more than 700 mm from the longitudinal
centre line of the car.
7.5
Oil replenishment:
No oil replenishment is allowed during a race.
7.6
Coolant header tank:

The coolant header tank on the car must be fitted with an FIA approved pressure
relief valve which is set to a maximum of 3.75 bar gauge pressure. If the car is not
fitted with a header tank, an alternative position must be approved by the FIA.
7.7
Cooling systems:
The cooling systems ofthe engine must not intentionally make use ofthe latent heat of
vaporisation of any fluid.
7.8
Oil and coolant lines:
7.8.1 No lines containing coolant or lubricating oil may pass through the cockpit.
7.8.2 All lines must be fitted in such a way that any leakage cannot result in the accumulation of fluid in the cockpit.
7.8.3 No hydraulic fluid lines may have removable connectors inside the cockpit.
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Article 8: Electrical Systems
8.1
Cockpit controls:
8.1.1 With the exception ofthe car speed limiter described inArticle 5.11, the cover referred
to in Article 6.5.2 and during gear changes, no driver operated cockpit control may
carry out more than one function at any one time.
8.1.2 There must be no significant delay between a driver requested action and the associated
actuation.
8.2
Software validation:
8.2.1 Prior to the start of each season, the complete electrical system on the car must be
examined and all onboard and communications software must be validated by the FIA
Technical Department.
The FIA must be notified of any changes prior to the Event at which such changes are
intended to be implemented.
8.2.2 All microprocessors and their enclosures will be classified as either:
*
*
*
Sealed and not re-programmable via any external connector;

Re-programmable via a direct connection but limited by an approved mechanism.
Not re-programmable at an Event. This classification will be given if the
microprocessor has no direct communication link to the external connectors of the
unit that are capable of being used for re-programming during an Event.
8.2.3 All re-programmable microprocessors must have a mechanism that allows the FIA to
accurately identify the software version loaded.
8.2.4 Reprogramming of electronic units during an event will be restricted by an approved
mechanism that has been established before the electronic unit is first used at an
event.
8.2.5 All setup and calibration data stored in microprocessor memory must be off-loadable
by the FIA at any time. Appropriate communications equipment, software and analysis
tools must be supplied by the team for FIA use.
8.2.6 The FIA will seal and identify all electronic units on the car that contain a programmable
device.
359
8.2.7 All sealed units must be presented for inspection at the end of an Event.
8.2.8 No version ofsoftware will be approved for use at an Event if it is found to be capable
of controlling any system on the car in a manner inconsistent with these technical
regulations, even if the relevant control software may be disabled.
8.3
Fault or error detection:

If faults or errors are detected by the driver or by onboard software, backup sensors
may be used and different settings may be manually or automatically selected. However,
any backup sensor or new setting chosen in this way must not enhance the performance
of the car, and the original setting may only be restored when the car is stationary in
the pits.
8.4
Accident data recorders:

The recorder must be fitted:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
8.5
Symmetrically about the car centre line and with its top facing upward;
With each of its 12 edges parallel to an axis of the car;
Less than 50 mm above the reference plane;
In a position which is normally accessible at the start and finish of an Event;
In order that the entire unit lies between 40% and 60% ofthe wheelbase of the car;
With its main connector facing forward;
In order that its status light is visible when the driver is in the cockpit;
In order that the download connector is easily accessible without the need to
remove bodywork.
Marshal information display:

All cars must be fitted with cockpit lights to give drivers information concerning track
signals or conditions. The precise specification of the lights and related components
are available from the FIA Technical Department.
360
Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical RegulaHions

Article 9: Transmission System
9.1
Transmission types:
9.1.1 No transmission system may permit more than two wheels to be driven.
9.1.2 Automatic gearboxes are forbidden.
9.2
Propulsion:
9.2.1 No car may be equipped with a system or device which is capable of preventing the
driven wheels from spinning under power or of compensating for excessive throttle
demand by the driver.
9.2.2 Any device or system which notifies the driver of the onset of wheel spin is not
permitted.
9.3
Clutch control:
9.3.1 A system which compensates for clutch wear is permissible provided it is clear that
this is its sole function.
9.3.2 Except during gear changes and stall prevention, or as a result of compensation for
wear, the amount by which the clutch is engaged must be controlled solely and directly
by the driver at all times.
The way in which the clutch is re-engaged during gear change must be such that it is
clear Article 9.2 cannot be contravened.
9.3.3 Other than wear compensation, or if a fault condition is detected (see Article 8.3), the
relationship between the clutch operating device in the cockpit and the amount of clutch
engagement may be non-linear but must remain fixed whilst the engine is running.
9.3.4 Partial clutch re-engagement is permitted during gear change sequences described
under 9.4.3 below.
9.3.5 All cars must be fitted with a means of disengaging the clutch for a minimum of fifteen
minutes in the event of the car coming to rest with the engine stopped. This system
must be in working order throughout the Event even if the main hydraulic, pneumatic
or electrical systems on the car have failed.
In order that the driver or a marshal may activate the system in less than five seconds,
the switch or button which operates it must:
361
*
*
*
9.4
Face upward and be positioned on the survival cell no more than 150 mm from the
car centre line;
Be less than 150 mm from the front of the cockpit opening;
Be marked with a letter "N" in red inside a white circle of at least 50 mm diameter
with a red edge.
Gear changing:
9.4.1 For the purposes of and only during gear changing, the clutch and throttle need not be
under the control of the driver.
9.4.2 Each individual gear change must be initiated by the driver and, within the mechanical
constraints of the gearbox, the requested gear must be engaged immediately unless
over-rev protection is used.
9.4.3 Multiple gear changes may be made following one driver request provided they are
not made before he needs the destination gear and that the car is not driven by any of
the intermediate gears during the sequence. If for any reason the sequence cannot be
completed, the car must be left in neutral or the original gear.
9.4.4 If a gear change fails for mechanical reasons (as opposed to the predicted engine revs
in the target gear being too high), further attempts to engage the gear may be made
automatically without the driver having to make a new request.
9.4.5 If an over-rev protection strategy is used, this may only prevent engagement of the
target gear; it must not induce any significant delay. If a gear change is refused in this
way, engagement may only follow a new and separate request made by the driver.
9.5
Gear ratios:
The minimum number of forward gear ratios is 4 and the maximum is 7.
9.6
Reverse gear:
All cars must have a reverse gear operable any time during the Event by the driver
when the engine is running.
9.7
Electronically controlled differentials:
9.7.1 The design and control of the differential may not permit a greater ratio of torque
distribution than the ratio of grip between the inner and outer driven wheels.
9.7.2 If a differential is controlled electronically, it may only use instantaneous values of one
or more of the following parameters for control purposes:
362

*
*
*
Measured and/or derived input torque;

The difference between the rear wheel speeds;
The difference between the output shaft torque.
In the case of measured and/or derived input torque, only measured engine torque,
gear ratio, engine speed and throttle position may be used; it must also be clear that
this figure is a genuine representation of the input torque.
9.7.3 Subject to Article 8.3, the driver may only make changes to the setup ofan electronically controlled differential whilst the car is stationary.
363
Article 10: Suspension and Steering Systems
10.1
Sprung suspension:
Cars must be fitted with sprung suspension. The springing medium must not consist
solely of bolts located through flexible bushes or mountings.
There must be movement of the wheels to give suspension travel in excess of any
flexibility in the attachments.
The suspension system must be so arranged that its response is consistent at all times
and results only from changes in vertical load applied to the wheels save only for
movement permitted by inherent and fixed physical properties.
10.2
Suspension geometry:
Suspension geometry must remain fixed at all times.
10.3
Suspension members:
10.3.1 Each member of every suspension component must be made from material whose
cross section has an aspect ratio no greater than 3.5: 1. All suspension components
may, however, have sections with an aspect ratio greater than 3.5:1 provided these are
adjacent to their inner and outer attachments and form no more than 25% of the total
distance between the attachments of the relevant member.
All measurements will be made perpendicular to a line drawn between the inner and
outer attachments of the relevant member.
10.3.2 No major axis of a cross section of a suspension member may subtend an angle
greater than 50 to the reference plane when measured parallel to the centre line ofthe
car.
10.3.3 Non-structural parts of suspension members are considered bodywork.

10.3.4 In order to help prevent a wheel from becoming separated in the event of all suspension members connecting it to the car failing, two cables, each with separate attachments, must be fitted to connect each wheel/upright assembly to the main structure of
the car. The cables and their attachments must be designed in order to help prevent a
wheel making contact with the driver's head during an accident.
The length of each cable should be no longer than that required to allow normal suspension movement.
364

Each complete cable restraint system, including their attachments, must have a minimum tensile strength of 50 kN, and each cable must be flexible with a minimum
diameter of 8 mm.
10.4
Steering:
10.4.1 Any steering system which permits the re-alignment of more than two wheels is not
permitted.
10.4.2 Power-assisted steering systems are permitted but may not carry out any function
other than to reduce the physical effort required to steer the car.
If an electronically controlled power steering system is used, the only permissible
inputs are steering torque, steering angle and car speed. Additionally, other than under
Article 8.3, the settings may not be changed whilst the car is in motion.
10.4.3 No part of the steering wheel or column, nor any part fitted to them, may be closer to
the driver than a plane formed by the entire rear edge of the steering wheel rim.
10.4.4 The steering wheel, steering column and steering rack assembly must pass an impact
test; details of the test procedure may be found in Article 16.5.
365
Article 11: Brake System
11.1
Brake circuits and pressure distribution:
11.1.1 All cars must be equipped with one brake system which has two separate hydraulic
circuits operated by one pedal, one circuit operating on the two front wheels and the
other on the two rear wheels. This system must be designed so that if a failure occurs
in one circuit, the pedal will still operate the brakes in the other.
11.1.2 The brake system must be designed in order that brake caliper pressures in each
circuit are the same at all times.
11.1.3 Any powered device which is capable of altering the configuration ofthe brake system
whilst it is under pressure is forbidden.
11.1.4 Any change to, or modulation of, the brake system whilst the car is moving must be
made by the driver's direct physical input, may not be pre-set and must be under his
complete control at all times.
11.2
Brake calipers:
11.2.1 All brake calipers must be made from aluminium materials with a modulus of elasticity
no greater than 80 Gpa.
11.2.2 No more than two attachments may be used to secure each brake caliper to the car.
11.2.3 No more than one caliper, with a maximum of six pistons, is permitted on each wheel.
11.2.4 The section of each caliper piston must be circular.

11.3
Brake discs:
11.3.1 No more than one brake disc is permitted on each wheel.
11.3.2 All discs must have a maximum thickness of 28 mm and a maximum outside diameter
of 278 mm.
11.3.3 No more than two brake pads are permitted on each wheel.
11.4
Air ducts:
Air ducts for the purpose of cooling the front and rear brakes shall not protrude beyond:
A plane parallel to the ground situated at a distance of 140 mm above the horizontal
centre line of the wheel;
366

*
A plane parallel to the ground situated at a distance of 140 mm below the horizontal
centre line of the wheel;
A vertical plane parallel to the inner face ofthe wheel rim and displaced from it by
120 mm toward the centre line of the car.
Furthermore, when viewed from the side the ducts must not protrude forward beyond
the periphery of the tyre or backward beyond the wheel rim.
11.5
Brake pressure modulation:
11.5.1 No braking system may be designed to prevent wheels from locking when the driver
applies pressure to the brake pedal.
11.5.2 No braking system may be designed to increase the pressure in the brake calipers above
that achievable by the driver applying pressure to the pedal under static conditions.
11.6
Liquid cooling:
Liquid cooling of the brakes is forbidden.
367
Article 12: Wheels and Tyres
12.1
Location:
Wheels must be external to the bodywork in plan view, with the rear aerodynamic
device removed.
12.2
Number of wheels:
The number of wheels is fixed at four.
12.3
Wheel material:
All wheels must be made from a homogeneous metallic material.
12.4
Wheel dimensions:
12.4.1 Complete wheel width must lie between 305 and 355 mm when fitted to the front of
the car and between 365 and 380 mm when fitted to the rear.
12.4.2 Complete wheel diameter must not exceed 660 mm when fitted with dry-weather
tyres or 670 mm when fitted with wet-weather tyres.
12.4.3 Complete wheel width and diameter will be measured horizontally at axle height when
fitted with new tyres inflated to 1.4 bar.
12.4.4 Wheel bead diameter must lie between 328 and 332 mm.
368
Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical RegulafHons

Article 13: Cockpit
13.1
Cockpit opening:
13.1.1 In order to ensure that the opening giving access to the cockpit is of adequate size, the
template shown in Drawing 2 will be inserted into the survival cell and bodywork.
During this test the steering wheel, steering column, seat and all padding required by
Articles 14.6.1-6 (including fixings) may be removed and:
*
The template must be held horizontal and lowered vertically from above the car
until its lower edge is 525 mm above the reference plane;
Referring to Drawing 2, the edge ofthe template which lies on the line d-e must
be no less than 1800 mm behind the line A-A shown in Drawing 5.
Any measurements made from the cockpit entry template (when referred to in
Articles 13.1.3, 15.2.2, 15.4.5, 15.4.6, 15.5.4, 16.3, and 18.4) must also be made
whilst the template is held in this position.
13.1.2 The forward extremity of the cockpit opening, even if structural and part of the survival
cell, must be at least 50 mm in front of the steering wheel.
13.1.3 The driver must be able to enter and get out of the cockpit without it being necessary
to open a door or remove any part of the car other than the steering wheel. When
seated normally, the driver must be facing forward and the rearmost part of his crash
helmet may be no more than 125 mm forward of the rear edge of the cockpit entry
template.
13.1.4 From his normal seating position, with all seat belts fastened and whilst wearing his
usual driving equipment, the driver must be able to remove the steering wheel and
get out of the car within 5 seconds and then replace the steering wheel in a total of
10 seconds.
For this test, the position ofthe steered wheels will be determined by the FIA technical
delegate and after the steering wheel has been replaced steering control must be
maintained.
13.2
Steering wheel:
The steering wheel must be fitted with a quick release mechanism operated by pulling
a concentric flange installed on the steering column behind the wheel.
369
13.3
Internal cross section:
13.3.1 A free vertical cross section, which allows the outer template shown in Drawing 3 to
be passed vertically through the cockpit to a point 100 mm behind the face of the
rearmost pedal when in the inoperative position, must be maintained over its entire
length.
The only things which may encroach on this area are the steering wheel and any
padding that is required by Article 14.6.7.
13.3.2 A free vertical cross section, which allows the inner template shown in Drawing 3 to
be passed vertically through the cockpit to a point 100 mm behind the face of the
rearmost pedal when in the inoperative position, must be maintained over its entire
length.
The only thing which may encroach on this area is the steering wheel.
13.3.3 The driver, seated normally with his seat belts fastened and with the steering wheel
removed, must be able to raise both legs together so that his knees are past the plane
of the steering wheel in the rearward direction. This action must not be prevented by
any part of the car.
13.4
Position of the driver's feet:
13.4.1 The survival cell must extend from behind the fuel tank in a rearward direction to a
point at least 300 mm in front of the driver's feet, with his feet resting on the pedals
and the pedals in the inoperative position.
13.4.2 When he is seated normally, the soles of the driver's feet, resting on the pedals in the
inoperative position, must not be situated forward of the front wheel centre line.
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Article 14: Safety Equipment
14.1
Fire extinguishers:
14.1.1 All cars must be fitted with a fire extinguishing system which will discharge into the
cockpit and into the engine compartment.
14.1.2 Any AFFF which has been specifically approved by the FIA is permitted.
14.1.3 The quantity of extinguishant may vary according to the type of AFFF used. A list is
available from the FIA.
14.1.4 When operated, the fire extinguishing system must discharge 95% of its contents at a
constant pressure in no less than 10 seconds and no more than 30 seconds.
If more than one container with extinguishant is fitted, they must be released simultaneously.
14.1.5 Each pressure vessel must be equipped with a means of checking its pressure which
may vary according to the type of AFFF used. A list is available from the FIA.
14.1.6 The following information must be visible on each container with extinguishant:
a) Type of extinguishant
b) Weight or volume of the extinguishant
c) Date the container must be checked which must be no more than two years after
the date of filling.
14.1.7 All parts of the extinguishing system must be situated within the survival cell, and all
extinguishing equipment must withstand fire.
14.1.8 Any triggering system having its own source of energy is permitted, provided it is
possible to operate all extinguishers should the main electrical circuits of the car fail.
The driver must be able to trigger the extinguishing system manually when seated
normally with his safety belts fastened and the steering wheel in place.
Furthermore, a means of triggering from the outside must be combined with the circuit
breaker switch described in Article 14.2.2. It must be marked with a letter "E" in red
inside a white circle of at least 100 mm diameter with a red edge.
371
14.1.9 The system must work in any position, even when the car is inverted.
14.1.10 All extinguisher nozzles must be suitable for the extinguishant and be installed in such
a way that they are not directly pointed at the driver.
14.2
Master switch:
14.2.1 The driver, when seated normally with the safety belts fastened and the steering
wheel in place, must be able to cut off the electrical circuits to the ignition, all fuel
pumps and the rear light by means of a spark-proof circuit breaker switch.
This switch must be located on the dashboard and must be clearly marked by a symbol
showing a red spark in a white edged blue triangle.
14.2.2 There must also be an exterior switch, with a horizontal handle, which is capable of
being operated from a distance by a hook. This switch must be situated at the base of
the main rollover structure on the right-hand side.
14.3
Rear view mirrors:

All cars must have at least two mirrors mounted so that the driver has visibility to the
rear and both sides of the car.
The reflective surface of each mirror must be at least 120 mm wide, this being maintained over a height of at least 50 mm. Additionally, each corner may have a radius no
greater than 10 mm.
The FIA technical delegate must be satisfied by a practical demonstration that the
driver, when seated normally, can clearly define following vehicles.
For this purpose, the driver shall be required to identify any letter or number, 150 mm
high and 100 mm wide, placed anywhere on boards behind the car, the positions of
which are detailed below:
Height:
Width:
Position:
14.4
From 400 mm to 1000 mm from the ground.

2000 mm either side of the centre line of the car.
1O m behind the rear axle line of the car.
Safety belts:
It is mandatory to wear two shoulder straps, one abdominal strap and two straps
between the legs. These straps must be securely fixed to the car and must comply
with FIA standard 8853/98.
372

14.5
Rear light:
All cars must have a red light in working order throughout the Event which:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Has been manufactured as specified by the FIA;

Faces rearward at 90 degrees to the car centre line and the reference plane;
Is clearly visible from the rear;
Is not mounted more than 100 mm from the car centre line;
Is positioned in order to comply with Article 3.10.3;
Is no less than 450 mm behind the rear wheel centre line measured parallel to the
reference plane;
Can be switched on by the driver when seated normally in the car.
The three measurements above will be taken to the centre ofthe rear face ofthe light
unit.
14.6
Cockpit padding:
14.6.1 All cars must be equipped with three areas of padding for the driver's head which:
*
*
*
*
*
Are so arranged that they can be removed from the car as one part;
Are located by two horizontal pegs behind the driver's head and two fixings,
which are clearly indicated and easily removable without tools, at the front corners;
Are made from a material specified by the FIA;
Are fitted with a cover manufactured from 60-240 gsm materials which use
suitable thermosetting resin systems;
Are positioned so as to be the first point of contact for the driver's helmet in the
event of an impact projecting his head toward them during an accident.
14.6.2 The first area of padding for the driver's head must be positioned behind him and be
between 75 mm and 90 mm thick over an area of at least 40,000 mm2.
14.6.3 The two further areas of padding for the driver's head must be positioned directly
alongside each side of his helmet. The upper surfaces of these areas ofpadding must
be at least as high as the survival cell over their entire length.
Each area of padding must be between 75 mm and 90 mm thick over an area of at
least 25,000 mm2 and may have a radius of 10 mm along its upper inboard edge.
When calculating their area, any part which is greater than 75 mm thick and which lies
373
between the front face of the rear area of padding and the forwardmost part of the
driver's helnet whilst he is seated normally, will be taken into account (area 'B' in
Drawing 4). The thickness will be measured perpendicular to the car centre line.
14.6.4 Forward of the side areas of padding, further cockpit padding must be provided on
each side ofthe cockpit rim. The purpose ofthe additional padding is to afford protection to the driver's head in the event of an oblique frontal impact and must therefore be
made from the same material as the other three areas of padding.
These extensions must:
* Be symmetrically positioned about the car centre line and a continuation of the
side areas of padding;
* Be positioned with their upper surfaces at least as high as the survival cell over
their entire length;
* Have a radius on their upper inboard edge no greater than 10 mm;
* Be positioned in order that the distance between the two is no less than 360 mm;
* Be as high as practicable within the constraints of driver comfort.
14.6.5 All ofthe padding described above must be so installed that if movement ofthe driver's
head, in any expected trajectory during an accident, were to compress the foam fully
at any point, his helmet would not make contact with any structural part ofthe car.
Furthermore, for the benefit of rescue crews, all of the padding described above must
be installed using the FIA approved system. The method of removal must also be
clearly indicated.
14.6.6 No part of the padding described above may obscure sight of any part of the driver's
helmet when he is seated normally and viewed from directly above the car.
14.6.7 In order to minimise the risk ofleg injury during an accident, additional areas of padding
must be fitted each side of, and above, the driver's legs.
These areas of padding must:

* Be made from a material specified by the FIA;
* Be no less than 25 mm thick over their entire area;
* Cover the area situated between points lying 50 mm behind the centre of the point
at which the second roll structure test is carried out and 100 mm behind the face
of the rearmost pedal when in the inoperative position, as shown in Drawing 4;
* Cover the area above the line A-A shown in Drawing 3.
374

14.7
Wheel retention:
All cars, whilst under their own power, must be fitted with devices which will retain
any wheel in the event of it coming loose.
After the wheel nut is fastened, these devices must be manually fitted in a separate
action to that of securing the wheel nut.
14.8
Seat fixing and removal:
14.8.1 In order that an injured driver may be removed from the car in his seat following an
accident, all cars must be fitted with a seat which, if it is secured, must be done so with
no more than two bolts. If bolts are used, they must:
*
Be clearly indicated and easily accessible to rescue crews;
Be fitted vertically;
Be removable with the same tool for all Teams and which is issued to all rescue
crews.
14.8.2 The seat must be equipped with receptacles which permit the fitting of belts to secure
the driver and one which will permit the fitting of a neck support.
14.8.3 The seat must be removable without the need to cut or remove any of the seat belts.
14.8.4 Details of the tool referred to above, the belt receptacles and the neck support are
available from the FIA Technical Department.
375
Article 15: Safety Structures
15.1
Materials:
15.1.1 The use of magnesium sheet less than 3 mm thick is forbidden.

15.1.2 No parts of the car may be made from metallic materials which have a specific
modulus of elasticity greater than 40 GPa/(g/cm3).
15.2
Roll structures:
15.2.1 All cars must have two roll structures which are designed to help prevent injury to the
driver in the event of the car becoming inverted.
The principal structure must be at least 940 mm above the reference plane at a point
30 mm behind the cockpit entry template. The second structure must be in front of the
steering wheel but no more than 250 mm forward ofthe top ofthe steering wheel rim
in any position.
The two roll structures must be of sufficient height to ensure the driver's helmet and
his steering wheel are at least 70 mm and 50 mm, respectively, below a line drawn
between their highest points at all times.
15.2.2 The principal structure must pass a static load test, details of which may be found in
Article 17.2. Furthermore, each Team must supply detailed calculations which clearly
show that it is capable of withstanding the same load when the longitudinal component
is applied in a forward direction.
15.2.3 The second structure must pass a static load test, details of which may be found in
Article 17.3.
15.2.4 Both roll structures must have minimum structural cross sections of 10,000 mm2, in
vertical projection, across a horizontal plane 50 mm below their highest points.
15.3
Structure behind the driver:

The parts ofthe survival cell immediately behind the driver which separate the cockpit
from the car's fuel tank, and which lie less than 150 mm from the centre line of the
car, may be situated no further forward than the line a-b-c-d-e shown in Drawing 2.
15.4
Survival cell specifications:
15.4.1 Every survival cell must incorporate three FIA supplied transponders for identification
purposes. These transponders must be a permanent part of the survival cell, be positioned in accordance with Drawing 7 and must be accessible for verification at any time.
376

15.4.2 The survival cell must have an opening for the driver, the minimum dimensions of
which are given in Article 13. 1. Any other openings in the survival cell must be of the
minimum size to allow access to mechanical components.
15.4.3 An impact absorbing structure must be fitted in front ofthe survival cell. This structure need not be an integral part ofthe survival cell but must be solidly attached to it.
Furthermore, it must have a minimum external cross section, in horizontal projection,

of 9000 mm2 at a point 50 mm behind its forward-most point.
15.4.4 Referring to Drawing 5:
The external width of the survival cell between the lines B-B and C-C must be no
less than 450 mm and must be at least 60 mm per side wider than the cockpit opening
when measured normal to the inside of the cockpit aperture. These minimum dimensions must be maintained over a height of at least 350 mm.
The width of the survival cell may taper forward of the line B-B but, if this is the case,
it must do so at a linear rate to a minimum of 300 mm at the line A-A.
Between the lines A-A and B-B the width of the survival cell must be greater than
the width defined by the two lines a-b. This minimum width must be arranged
symmetrically about the car centre line, must be maintained over a height of at least
400 mm at the line B-B and may taper at a linear rate to 275 mm at the line A-A.
When assessing the minimum external cross sections of the survival cell, radii of
50 mm at the line B-B, and reducing at a linear rate of 25 mm at the line A-A, will be
permitted.
The minimum height of the survival cell between the lines A-A and B-B need not be
arranged symmetrically about the horizontal centre line of the relevant section but
must be maintained over its entire width.
The minimum height of the survival cell between the lines B-B and C-D is 550 mm.
15.4.5 When the test referred to in Article 13.1.1 is carried out and the template is in position
with its lower edge 525 mm above the reference plane, the shape of the survival cell
must be such that no part of it is visible when viewed from either side of the car.
The parts of the survival cell which are situated each side of the driver's helmet must
be no more than 550 mm apart and, in order to maintain good lateral visibility the
driver, when seated normally with his seat belts fastened and looking straight ahead,
must have his eyes above the sides of the survival cell.
377
15.4.6 In order to give additional protection to the driver in the event of a side impact, a flat
test panel of uniform construction, which is designed and constructed in order to represent a section of survival cell sides, must pass a strength test. Details of the test
procedure may be found in Article 18.6.
Referring to Drawing 5, with the exception of local reinforcement and/or inserts, all
parts of the survival cell which are as wide or wider than the minimum widths stipulated in Article 15.4.4, including any radii applied, must be manufactured to the same
specification as the panel tested under Article 18.6. Furthermore, parts ofthis tested
specification must cover an area which:
*
*
*
15.5
Begins at least 250 mm high at line A-A;

Tapers at a linear rate to at least 400 mm high at line B-B and which remains at
this height to the rear of the survival cell;
Is no less than 100 mm above the reference plane between the line B-B and the
rear of the survival cell.
Survival cell safety requirements:
15.5.1 The survival cell and frontal absorbing structure must pass an impact test against a
solid vertical barrier placed at right angles to the centre line ofthe car. Details ofthe
test procedure may be found in Article 16.2.
15.5.2 Between the front and rear roll structures, on each side of the survival cell, impact,
absorbing structures must be fitted and must be solidly attached to it. The purpose of
these structures is to protect the driver in the event ofa lateral impact and, in order to
ensure this is the case, a lateral strength test in the vicinity of the driver's seating
position must be carried out successfully. Details of the test procedure may be found
in Article 18.2.2.
The survival cell and one of these impact absorbing structures must pass an impact test.
Details of the test procedure may be found in Article 16.3. If these structures are not
designed and fitted symmetrically about the car centre line, a successful impact test
must be carried out on them both.
15.5.3 An impact absorbing structure must be fitted behind the gearbox symmetrically about
the car centre line with its rearmost point no less than 480 mm behind the rear wheel
centre line. It must also have a minimum external cross section, in horizontal projection, of 9000 mm2 at a point 50 mm forward of its rearmost point. When calculating
this area, only those parts situated less than 100 mm from the car centre line may be
considered and the cross section may not diminish forward ofthis point.
378

This structure must pass an impact test and must be constructed from materials which
will not be substantially affected by the temperatures it is likely to be subjected to
during use. Details of the test procedure may be found in Article 16.4.
15.5.4 The survival cell must also be subjected to five separate static load tests:
1) On a vertical plane passing through the centre of the fuel tank;
2) On a vertical plane passing through the rearmost point at which the outer end of
the front wheel tether would make contact with the survival cell when swung
about the inner attachment;
3) On a vertical plane 375 mm forward of the rear edge of the cockpit entry tem
plate;
4) From beneath the fuel tank;

5) On each side of the cockpit opening.
Details of the test procedures may be found in Article 18.2.
15.5.5 To test the attachments of the frontal impact absorbing structure to the survival cell, a
static side load test must be carried out. Details of the test procedure may be found in
Article 18.5.
379
Article 16: Impact Testing
16.1
Conditions applicable to all impact tests:
16.1.1 All tests must be carried out in accordance with FIA Test Procedure 01/99, in the
presence of an FIA technical delegate and by using measuring equipment which has
been calibrated to the satisfaction of the FIA technical delegate.
16.1.2 Any significant modification introduced into any of the structures tested shall require
that part to pass a further test.
16.2
Frontal test:
All parts which could materially affect the outcome of the test must be fitted to the
test structure which must be solidly fixed to the trolley through its engine mounting
points but not in such a way as to increase its impact resistance.
The fuel tank must be fitted and must be full of water.
A dummy weighing at least 75 kg must be fitted with safety belts described in
Article 14.4 fastened. However, with the safety belts unfastened, the dummy must be
able to move forward freely in the cockpit.
The extinguishers, as described in Article 14.1, must also be fitted.
For the purposes of this test, the total weight of the trolley and test structure shall be
780 kg and the velocity of impact 14.0 metres/sec.
The resistance of the test structure must be such that during the impact:
*
*
*
The average deceleration over the first 150 mm of deformation does not exceed 5g;
The average deceleration of the trolley does not exceed 40g;
The peak deceleration in the chest of the dummy does not exceed 60g for more
than a cumulative 3 ms, this being the resultant of data from three axes.
Furthermore, there must be no damage to the survival cell or to the mountings of the
safety belts or fire extinguishers.
This test must be carried out on the survival cell subjected to the higher loads in the
tests described in Articles 18.24, and on a frontal impact absorbing structure identical
to the one which was subjected to the test described in Article 18.5.
380

16.3
Side test:
All parts which could materially affect the outcome of the test must be fitted to the
test structure which must be solidly fixed to the ground and a solid object, having a
mass of 780 kg and travelling at a velocity of 10 m/s, will be projected into it.
The object used for this test must
*
*
Incorporate an impactor assembly specified by the FIA which is fitted in accordance with their instructions;
Be positioned in order that its centre of area strikes the structure 300 mm above
the reference plane and at a point 500 mm forward of the rear edge of the cockpit
opening template.
During the test the striking object may not pivot in any axis, and the survival cell may
be supported in any way provided this does not increase the impact resistance of the
parts being tested. The impact axis must be perpendicular to the car centre line and
parallel to the ground.
*
*
*
The average deceleration of the object, measured in the direction of impact, does
not exceed 20g;
The force applied to any one of the four impactor segments does not exceed
80 kN for more than a cumulative 3 ms;
The energy absorbed by each of the four impactor segments must be between
15% and 35% of the total energy absorption.
Furthermore, all structural damage must be contained witiin the impact absorbing structure.
This test must be carried out on the survival cell subjected to the higher loads in the
tests described in Articles 18.2-4.
16.4
Rear test:
All parts which will be fitted behind the rear face of the engine and which could
materially affect the outcome of the test must be fitted to the test structure. If suspension members are to be mounted on the structure, they must be fitted for the test. The
structure and the gearbox must be solidly fixed to the ground and a solid object, having
a mass of 780 kg and travelling at a velocity of 12 m/s, will be projected into it.
The object used for this test must be flat, measure 450 mm wide by 550 mm high and
may have a 10 mm radius on all edges. Its lower edge must be at the same level as the
car reference plane and must be so arranged to strike the structure vertically and at
900 to the car centre line.
381
During the test, the striking object may not pivot in any axis, and the crash structure
may be supported in any way provided this does not increase the impact resistance of
the parts being tested.
*
*
The average deceleration of the object does not exceed 35g;

The maximum deceleration does not exceed 60g for more than a cumulative 3 ms,
this being measured only in the directon of impact.
Furthermore, all structural damage must be contained within the area behind the rear
wheel centre line.
16.5
Steering column test:

The parts referred to in Article 10.4.4 must be fitted to a representative test structure.
Any other parts which could materially affect the outcome of the test must also be
fitted. The test structure must be solidly fixed to the ground, and a solid object, having
a mass of 8 kg and travelling at a velocity of 7 m/s, will be projected into it.
The object used for this test must be hemispherical with a diameter of 165 mm.
For the test, the centre of the hemisphere must strike the structure at the centre ofthe
steering wheel along the same axis as the main part of the steering column.
During the test the striking object may not pivot in any axis, and the test structure may
be supported in any way provided this does not increase the impact resistance of the
parts being tested.
The resistance of the test structure must be such that during the impact, the peak
deceleration of the object does not exceed 80g for more than a cumulative 3 ms, this
being measured only in the direction of impact.
After the test, all substantial deformation must be within the steering column and the
steering wheel quick release mechanism must still function normally.
382

Article 17: Roll Structure Testing
17.1
Conditions applicable to both roll structure tests:
17.1.1 Rubber 3 mm thick may be used between the load pads and the roll structure.
17.1.2 Under the load, deformation must be less than 50 mm, measured along the loading
axis, and any structural failure limited to 100 mm below the top ofthe rollover structure when measured vertically.
17.1.3 Any significant modification introduced into any ofthe structures tested shall require
17.2
Principal roll structure:

A load equivalent to 50 kN laterally, 60 kN longitudinally in a rearward direction and
90 kN vertically, must be applied to the top of the structure through a rigid flat pad
which is 200 mm in diameter and perpendicular to the loading axis.
During the test, the roll structure must be attached to the survival cell which is supported on its underside on a flat plate, fixed to it through its engine mounting points and
wedged laterally by any of the static load test pads described in Article 18.2.
17.3
Second roll structure:

A vertical load of 75 kN must be applied to the top ofthe structure through a rigid flat
pad which is 100 mm in diameter and perpendicular to the loading axis.
During the test, the rollover structure must be attached to the survival cell which is
fixed to a flat horizontal plate.
383
Article 18: Static Load Testing
18.1
Conditions applicable to the tests in 18.2-18.5:
18.1.1 All the following tests must be carried out on the survival cell subjected to the impact
tests described in Article 16.
18.1.2 Every subsequent survival cell must also be subjected to all the following tests with
peak loads reduced by 20%. During these subsequent tests (on deflections greater
than 3.0 mm), the deflection across the inner surfaces must not exceed 120% of the
deflection obtained at 80% of the peak load during the first test.
18.1.3 Deflections and deformations will be measured at the centre of area of circular load
pads and at the top of rectangular pads.
18.1.4 All peak loads must be applied in less tianthree minutes, through a balljointedjunction
at the centre of area of the pad, and maintained for 30 seconds.
18.1.5 In the tests described in 18.2, 18.3 and 18.4, permanent deformation must be less than
1.0 mm (0.5 mm in 18.3) after the load has been released for 1 minute.
18.1.6 All tests must be carried out by using measuring equipment which has been calibrated
to the satisfaction of the FIA technical delegate.
18.1.7 A radius of 3 mm is permissible on the edges of all load pads and rubber 3 mm thick
may be placed between them and the test structure.
18.1.8 For the tests described in 18.2, 18.3 and 18.4, the survival cells must always be produced in an identical condition in order that their weights may be compared. If the
weight differs by more than 5% from the one subjected to the impact tests described
in Articles 16.2 and 16.3, further frontal and side impact tests and roll structure tests
must be carried out.
18.1.9 Any significant modification introduced into any of the structures tested shall require
18.2
Survival cell side tests:
18.2.1 For test 1), referred to in Article 15.5.4, pads 100 mm long and 300 mm high, which
conform to the shape of the survival cell, must be placed against the outermost sides
ofthe survival cell with the lower edge of the pad at the lowest part of the survival cell
at that section.
384

A constant transverse horizontal load of 25.0 kN will be applied and, under the load,
there must be no structural failure of the inner or outer surfaces of the survival.
On every survival cell tested after that one, the same tests must be carried out but
with a load ofonly 20.0 kN. During the tests, on deflections greater than 3.0 mm only,
the deflection across the inner surfaces must not exceed 120% of the deflection
obtained at 20.0 kN load during the first test.
18.2.2 For test 2), referred to in Article 15.5.4, pads 200 mm in diameter which conform to
the shape of the survival cell must be placed against the outermost sides of the survival cell.
The centre of the pads must pass through the plane mentioned above and the midpoint
of the height of the structure at that section.
A constant transverse horizontal load of30.0 kN will be applied to the pads, and, under
the load, there must be no structural failure of the inner or outer surfaces of the
survival cell, and the total deflection must not exceed 15 mm.
18.2.3 For test 3), referred to in Article 15.5.4, pads 200 mm in diameter which conform to
the shape of the survival cell, must be placed against the outermost sides of the survival cell.
The centre of the pads must be located 350 mm above the reference plane and on the
vertical plane mentioned in Article 15.5.4.
A constant transverse horizontal load of30.0 kN will be applied to the pads and, under
the load, there must be no structural failure of the inner or outer surfaces of the
survival cell, and the total deflection must not exceed 15 mm.
18.3
Fuel tank floor test:

A pad of 200 mm diameter must be placed in the centre of area ofthe fuel tank floor
and a vertical upward load of 12.5 kN applied.
Under the load, there must be no structural failure ofthe inner or outer surfaces of the
survival cell.
18.4
Cockpit rim test:

Two pads, each of which is 100 mm in diameter, must be placed on both sides of the
cockpit rim with their upper edges at the same height as the top of the cockpit side
with their centres at a point 200 mm forward of the rear edge of the cockpit opening
template longitudinally.
385
A constant transverse horizontal load of 10.0 kN will then be applied at 900 to the car
centre line, and, under the load, there must be no structural failure ofthe inner or outer
surfaces ofthe survival cell, and the total deflection must not exceed 20 mm.
18.5
Nose push off test:

During the test the survival cell must be resting on a flat plate and secured to it solidly
but not in a way that could increase the strength of the attachments being tested.
A constant transversal horizontal load of 40.0 kN must then be applied to one side of
the impact absorbing structure, using a pad identical to the ones used in the lateral
tests in Article 18.2.1, at a point 550 mm from the front wheel axis.
The centre of area of the pad must pass through the plane mentioned above and the
midpoint of the height of the structure at the relevant section. After 30 seconds of
application, there must be no failure of the structure or ofany attachment between the
structure and the survival cell.
18.6
Side intrusion test:

The precise test procedure is yet to be defined but will be based on the tests carried
out recently on test panels supplied by four Teams.
386

Article 19: Fuel
19.1 Purpose of Article 19:
19.1.1 The purpose ofthis Article is to ensure that the fuel used in Formula One is petrol as
this term is generally understood.
19.1.2 The detailed requirements of this Article are intended to ensure the use of fuels which
are predominantly composed of compounds nornally found in commercial fuels and to
prohibit the use of specific power-boosting chemical compounds.
19.1.3 Additionally, and in order to encourage the development of future commercial fuels,
those formulated to achieve one or more of the following objectives will be permitted:
a) Fuels needed to meet advanced passenger car engine designs;
b) Fuels formulated to minimise overall emissions;

c) Fuels suitable to be offered to the commercial market with some special feature
permitting greater efficiency, better driveability or economy to the user;
d) Fuels developed through advances in refinery techniques and suitable for trial by
the general public.
19.1.4 Any petrol which appears to have been formulated in order to subvert the purpose of
this regulation will be deemed to be outside it.
19.2
Definitions:
Paraffins
- Straight chain and branched alkanes.
Olefins
- Straight chain and branched mono-olefins.

Monocyclic mono-olefins (with five or more carbon atoms in the
ring) and saturated aliphatic side chains.
Naphthenes - Monocyclic paraffins (with five or more carbon atoms in the ring)
and saturated aliphatic side chains.
Aromatics
- Monocyclic and bicyclic aromatic rings with and without saturated

aliphatic side chains and/or fused naphthenic rings.
Oxygenates - Specified organic compounds containing oxygen.
387
19.3
Properties:
The only fuel permitted is petrol having the following characteristics:
Property..
RON
MON
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Benzene
RVP
Lead
Density at 150C
Oxidation
stability
Existent gum
Sulphur
Copper
corrosion
Electrical
Units
% m/m
% r/m
%v/v
hPa
g/l
3
minutes
Minimum
95.0
85.0
Maximum
102.0
450
2.7
0.2
1.0
600
0.005
775.0
720.0
360
mg/100 ml
mg/kg
rating
EN 26246
EN-ISO/DIS 14596
ISO 2160
5.0
50
C1
pS/m
Test Method
ASTM D 2699-86
ASTM D 2700-86
Elemental analysis
ASTM D 3228
EN 238
ASTM D 323
ASTM D 3237
ASTM D 4052
ASTM D 525
ASTM D 2624
200
conductivity
Distillation characteristics:
At E700C
At E100C
At E1500C
Final boiling point
Residue
% v/v
% v/v
%v/v
0C
% v/v
20.0
46.0
75.0
_____
_____
48.0
71.0
210
2.0
ISO 3405
ISO 3405
ISO 3405
ISO 3405
ISO 3405
The fuel will be accepted or rejected according to ASTM D 3244 with a confidence
limit of 95%.
19.4
Composition of the fuel:
19.4.1 The petrol must consist solely of substances defined in 19.2 and 19.4.4, and whose
proportions of aromatics, olefins and di-olefins, within the total petrol sample, comply
with those detailed below:
388

Units
Minimum Maximum
Aromatics
% v/v
0*
35*
Olefins
0
% v/v
18*
r
% m/m
0
Total di-olefins
1
* Values when corrected for fuel oxygenate content.
Test Method
ASTM D 1319
ASTM D 1319
GCMS
In addition, the fuel must contain no substance which is capable of exothermic reaction
in the absence of external oxygen.
19.4.2 The total ofindividual hydrocarbon components present at concentrations ofless than
5%rm//m must be at least 30%n
m//m of the fuel.
19.4.3 The total concentration of each hydrocarbon group in the total fuel sample (defined by
carbon number and hydrocarbon type, must not exceed the limits given in the table
below:
%M/m
Paraffins
Naphthenes
Olefins
C4
10
-
[Aromatics
f-
Maximum
15
C5
30
5
20
40
C6
25
10
20
11.2
45
C7
25
10
15
35
50
C8
55
10
10
35
60
C9+
20
10
10
30
45
Unallocated|
-
10
For the purposes of this table, a gas chromatographic technique should be employed
which can cltssify hydrocarbons in the total fuel sample such that all those identified
are allocated to the appropriate cell of the table. Hydrocarbons present at concentrations below 0.5% by mass which cannot be allocated to a particular cell may be
ignored. However, the sum of the unallocated hydrocarbons must not exceed 10.0%
by mass of the total fuel sample.
19.4.4 The only oxygenates permitted are:
Methanol (MeOH)
Ethanol (EtOH)
Iso-propyl alcohol (IPA)
Iso-butyl alcohol (IBA)
Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE)
Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE)
Tertiary Amyl Methyl Ether (TAME)
Di-Isopropyl Ether (DIPE)
n-Propyl Alcohol (NPA)
Tertiary Butyl Alcohol (TBA)
n-Butyl Alcohol (NBA)
Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA)
389
Compounds normally found as impurities in any ofthe above oxygenates are permitted at concentrations below 0.8% /rn of the total petrol sample.
19.5
Air:
Only ambient air may be mixed with the fuel as an oxidant.
19.6
Safety:
19.6.1 Manganese based additives are not permitted.
19.6.2 All competitors must be in possession of a Material Safety Data Sheet for each type
of petrol used. This sheet must be made out in accordance with EC Directive 93/112/
EEC and all information contained therein strictly adhered to.
19.7
Fuel approval:
19.7.1 Before any fuel may be used in an Event, two separate five litre samples, in suitable
containers, must be submitted to the FIA for analysis and approval.
19.7.2 No fuel may be used in an Event without prior written approval of the FIA.
19.8
Sampling and testing:
19.8.1 All samples will be taken in accordance with FIA Formula One fuel samphng procedures.
19.8.2 Fuel samples taken during an Event will be checked for conformity by using densitometry and a gas chromatographic technique which will compare the sample taken
with an approved fuel.
19.9
Amendments to Article 19:
19.9.1 The physical and compositional properties of the fuel described in 19.3 and 19.4 incorporate the currently known limits for 2000, as laid out in European Fuels Directive 98/
70/EC (13 October 1998).
19.9.2 When the Final Directive, as defined by the FIA, is adopted for 2005 (or such other
date as the Directive may specify), the new values will replace those being used in
19.3 and 19.4 no later than one year after the figures are known.
390

Article 20: Television Cameras
20.1
Presence of cameras and camera housings:

All cars must be fitted with either two cameras, two camera housings or one of each
at all times throughout the Event.
20.2
Location of camera housings:

Camera housings, when used, must be fitted in the same location as cameras.
20.3
Location of camera equipment:

All cars must be equipped with five positions in which cameras or camera housings
can be fitted. Referring to Drawing 6, all cars must carry a camera or camera housing in position 4. The position of the remaining camera or camera housing will be
determined by the FIA after consultation with the relevant Competitor.
Once positions are determined in the above manner, any decision as to whether a
camera or camera housing is fitted in those positions will rest solely with the relevant
Competitor.
20.4
Timing transponders
All cars must be fitted with a timing transponder supplied by the officially appointed
timekeepers. This transponder must be fitted in strict accordance with the instructions of the FIA.
Article 21: Final Text

The final text for these regulations shall be the English version should any dispute arise
over their interpretation.
391
Article 22: Changes for 2002
22.1
Changes to Article 15.5.5:
15.5.5 To test the attachments ofthe frontal and rear impact absorbing structures, static side
load tests must be carried out. Details of these test procedures may be found in
Articles 18.5 and 18.7.
22.2
Addition of an Article 18.7:
18.7
Rear impact structure push off test:
During the test, the gearbox and the structure must be solidly fixed to the ground, but
not in a way that could increase the strength of the attachments being tested.
A constant transversal horizontal load of 40 kN must then be applied to one side of the
impact absorbing structure, using a pad identical to the ones used in the lateral tests in
Article 18.2.1 at a point 300 mm from the rear wheel axis.
The centre of area of the pad must pass through the plane mentioned above and the
midpoint of the height of the structure at the relevant section. After 30 seconds of
application, there must be no failure ofthe structure or ofany attachment between the
structure and the gearbox.
?x 080
050
2x 050
080
050
R50
r\
,-TIN
V'\
-:4
or
-4-
L."
I-
50750
1500
-
Centre hle of
tFe reo whees
2250
- -
Drawing I Skid block dimensions.
392
I ---]
-/
Drawing 2 Cockpit entry template.
Drawing 3 Cockpit cross-section template.
393
50 nwn bzhd- fth
uious
Daig C
t ocpi pad
pav
Drawing 4 Cockpit padding.

925
C
b
Rear
of
In
CD
coki
-1
60 PWin.'
1800
Minimum exbmal dimensros

at the secion A-A
Minimum exteral dimensions

at the secton B-B
Drawing 5 Survival cell dimensions.
394
.n,.
li
?LI71'K
Drawing 6 Standard onboard camera positions.
395
Drawing 7 Chassis transponder positions.
396
Appendix E
Relevant Sections of the

2001 Formula One
Sporting Regulations
Federation Internationale de I'Automobile
General Conditions
6)
It is the Competitor's responsibility to ensure that all persons concerned by his entry
observe all the requirements ofthe Agreement, the Code, the Technical Regulations and
the Sporting Regulations. If a competitor is unable to be present in person at the Event,
he must nominate his representative in writing. The person having charge of an entered
car during any part of an Event is responsible jointly and severally with the Competitor
for ensuring that the requirements are observed.
7)
Competitors must ensure that their cars comply with the conditions of eligibility and
safety throughout practice and the race.
8)
The presentation of a car for scrutineering will be deemed an implicit statement of

conformity.
9)
All persons concerned in any way with an entered car or present in any other capacity
whatsoever in the paddock, pits, pit lane, or track must wear an appropriate pass at all
times.
397
Testing
65) No testing is permitted:
a) On any circuit outside Europe except general testing organised by the Commercial
Rights Holder;
b) On any circuit during the seven days preceding and the day following race day at
each Event except for a shakedown test not exceeding 50 km which must be
supervised by the relevant ASN;
c) On any circuit between the last Event of the Championship and 31 December;
d) On any circuit between two Events in the month of August, provided such events
are separated by two clear weekends, except for one shakedown test not exceeding
which must be supervised by the relevant ASN;
e) On any circuit which has hosted, or will host, an Event during the Championship
year other than those hosting the British, French, Italian and Spanish Grand Prix,
provided that testing on the latter four circuits may not take place during the 28 days
preceding the race day of the relevant Event in each case.
f) At sites which are not currently approved for Formula 1.
If any test is to be attended by more than one Team, it is the responsibility of the Teams
concerned to inform the FIA. A representative will then be appointed by the FIA to attend the
test and ensure that track safety standards are maintained and normal running procedures
respected at all times.
Pit Lane
66) a) For the avoidance of doubt and for description purposes, the pit lane shall be divided
into two lanes. The lane closest to the pit wall is designated the "fast lane," and the
lane closest to the garages is designated the "inner lane." Other than when cars are
at the pit exit under Articles 137 or 159, the inner lane is the only area where any
work can be carried out on a car.
b) Competitors may not attempt to enhance the grip of the surface in the pit lane unless
a problem has been clearly identified and a solution agreed by the FIA Safety
Delegate.
c) Competitors must not paint lines on any part of the pit lane.
d) No equipment may be left in the fast lane. A car may enter or remain in the fast lane
only with the driver sitting in the car behind the steering wheel in his normal position,
even when the car is being pushed.
398
Appendix E-FIA 2001 Sporting Regulaffons

e) Team personnel are only allowed in the pit lane immediately before they are required
to work on a car and must withdraw as soon as the work is complete.
f) It is the responsibility ofthe Competitor to release his car after a pit stop only when
it is safe to do so.
Sporting Checks
67) Each competitor must have all relevant Super Licences available for inspection at any
time during the Event.
68) At the first Event of each Championship, the FIA will check all licences.
69) No competitor, driver or other person concerned with a car can be required to sign any
waiver or other document save as provided by the Agreement.
Scrutineering
70) Initial scrutineering of the car will take place three days (Monaco: four days) before the
race between 10.00 and 16.00 in the garage assigned to each team.
71) Unless a waiver is granted by the Stewards, Competitors who do not keep to these
time limits will not be allowed to take part in the Event.
72) No car may take part in the Event until it has been passed by the scrutineers.
73) The scrutineers may:
a) Check the eligibility of a car or of a Competitor at any time during an Event,

b) Require a car to be dismantled by the Competitor to make sure that the conditions of
eligibility or conformity are fully satisfied,
c) Require a Competitor to pay the reasonable expenses which exercise ofthe powers
mentioned in this Article may entail,
d) Require a Competitor to supply them with such parts or samples as they may deem
necessary.
74) Any car which, after being passed by the scrutineers, is dismantled or modified
in a way which might affect its safety or call into question its eligibility, or which is
involved in an accident with similar consequences, must be re-presented for scrutineering
approval.
75) The race director or the clerk of the course may require that any car involved in an
accident be stopped and checked.
399
76) Checks and scrutineering shall be carried out by duly appointed officials who shall also
be responsible for the operation ofthe parcferme and who alone are authorised to give
instructions to the competitors.
77) The Stewards will publish the findings of the scrutineers each time cars are checked
during the Event. These results will not include any specific figure except when a car is
found to be in breach of the Technical Regulations.
Supply of Tyres in the Championship and Tyre Limitation During the Event
78)
Supply oftyres:
a) Any tyre company wishing to supply tyres to Formula One Teams must notify the
FIA of its intention to do so no later than 1 January preceding the year during which
such tyres will be supplied.
Any tyre company wishing to cease the supply of tyres to Formula One Teams must
notify the FIA of its intention to do so no later than 1 January of the year preceding
that in which such tyres were to be supplied.
b) No tyre may be used in the Championship unless the company supplying such tyre
accepts and adheres to the following conditions:
*
*
One tyre supplier present in the Championship: this company must equip
100% of the entered teams on ordinary commercial terms;
Two tyre suppliers present: each of them must, if called upon to do so, be
prepared to equip up to 60% of the entered teams on ordinary commercial
terms;
Three or more tyre suppliers present: each of them must, if called upon to do so,
be prepared to equip up to 40% of the entered teams on ordinary commercial
terms;
Each tyre supplier must undertake to provide only two specifications of dryweather tyre and three specifications of wet-weather tyre at each Event, each
of which must be of one homogenous compound only;
If, in the interests of maintaining current levels of circuit safety, the FIA deems
it necessary to reduce tyre grip, it shall introduce such rules as the tyre suppliers
may advise or, in the absence of advice which achieves the FIA's objectives,
specify the maximum permissible contact areas for front and rear tyres.
400
Appendix E-FIA 2001 Sporting Regulafions

79) Quantity and type of tyres:
a) During the Event, no driver may use more than forty dry-weather tyres and twentyeight wet-weather tyres. From the forty dry-weather tyres, each driver will be
allocated twelve (six front and six rear) for use on the first day of practice, these
tyres may not be used at any other time during the Event. No more than eight (four
front and four rear) ofthe twelve tyres allocated for the first day ofpractice may be
ofone specification.
Before qualifying practice begins, each driver must nominate which specification of
tyre he will use for the remainder of the Event.
b) All dry-weather tyres must incorporate circumferential grooves square to the wheel
axis and around the entire circumference of the contact surface of each tyre.
c) Each front dry-weather tyre, when new, must incorporate 4 grooves which are:
*
*
*
*
Arranged symmetrically about the centre of the tyre tread;

At least 14 mm wide at the contact surface and which taper uniformly to a
minimum of 10 mm at the lower surface;
At least 2.5 mm deep across the whole lower surface;
50 mm (+1.0 mm) between centres.
Furthermore, the tread width of the front tyres must not exceed 270 mm.
d) Each rear dry-weather tyre, when new, must incorporate 4 grooves which are:
*
*
*
*
Arranged symmetrically about the centre of the tyre tread;

At least 14 mm wide at the contact surface and which taper uniformly to a
minimum of 10 mm at the lower surface;
At least 2.5 mm deep across the whole lower surface;
50 mm (+1.0 mm) between centres.
The measurements referred to in c) and d) above will be taken when the tyre is
fitted to a wheel and inflated to 1.4 bar.
e) A wet-weather tyre is one which has been designed for use on a wet or damp track.
All wet-weather tyres must, when new, have a contact area which does not exceed
280 cm2 when fitted to the front of the car and 440 cm2 when fitted to the rear.
401
Contact areas will be measured over any square section of the tyre which is normal
to and symmetrical about the tyre centre line and which measures 200 mm x 200 mm
when fitted to the front of the car and 250 mm x 250 mm when fitted to the rear. For
the purposes of establishing conformity, only void areas which are greater than
2.5 mm in depth will be considered.
Prior to use at an Event, each tyre manufacturer must provide the technical
delegate with a full-scale drawing of each type of wet-weather tyre intended for use.
With the exception of race day, wet-weather tyres may only be used after the track
has been declared wet by the race director and, during the remainder of the relevant
session, the choice of tyres is free.
f) Tyre specifications will be determined by the FIA no later than 1 September of the
previous season. Once determined in this way, the specification ofthe tyres will not
be changed during the Championship season without the agreement ofthe Formula
One Commission.
80)
Control of tyres:
a) All tyres which are to be used at an Event will be marked with a unique identification.
b) At any time during an Event, and at his absolute discretion, the FIA technical delegate
may select the dry-weather tyres to be used by any Team from among the total
stock of tyres which such Team's designated supplier has present at the Event.
c) From among the twenty-eight dry-weather tyres available to each driver following
the first day of practice, the FIA technical delegate will choose at random sixteen
tyres (eight front and eight rear) which are the only dry-weather tyres which such
car may use in qualifying practice.
d) A competitor wishing to replace one unused tyre by another unused one must present
both tyres to the FIA technical delegate.
e) The use of tyres without appropriate identification is strictly forbidden.
81) Wear of tyres:
The Championship will be contested on grooved tyres. The FIA reserves the right to
introduce at any time a method of measuring remaining groove depth if performance
appears to be enhanced by high wear or by the use of tyres which are worn so that the
grooves are no longer visible.
402
Appendix E-FIA 2001 Sporting RegulaHions

Weighing
82) a) During qualifying practice, cars will be weighed as follows:
1) The FIA will install weighing equipment in an area as close to the first pit as
possible, and this area will be used for the weighing procedure;
2) Cars will be selected at random to undergo the weighing procedure. The FIA
technical delegate will inform the driver by means of a red light at the pit entrance
that his car has been selected for weighing;
3) Having been signalled (by means of a red light) that his car has been selected
for weighing, the driver will proceed directly to the weighing area and stop his
engine;
4) The car will then be weighed and the result given to the driver in writing;
5) If the car is unable to reach the weighing area under its own power, it will
be placed under the exclusive control of the marshals who will take the car to be
weighed;
6) A car or driver may not leave the weighing area without the consent ofthe FIA
technical delegate.
7) If a car stops on the circuit and the driver leaves the car, he must go to the
weighing area immediately on his return to the pits in order for his weight to be
established.
b) After the race, each car crossing the Line will be weighed. If a driver wishes to
leave his car before it is weighed, he must ask the technical delegate to weigh him in
that this weight may be added to that of the car.
c) Should the weight ofthe car be less than that specified in Article 4. 1 ofthe Technical
Regulations when weighed under a) or b) above, the car and the driver will be
excluded from the Event save where the deficiency in weight results from the
accidental loss of a component of the car due to force majeure.
d) No solid, liquid, gas or other substance or matter of whatsoever nature may be
added to, placed on, or removed from a car after it has been selected for weighing
or has finished the race or during the weighing procedure (except by a scrutineer
when acting in his official capacity).
e) Only scrutineers and officials may enter the weighing area. No intervention of any
kind is allowed there unless authorised by such officials.
83) Any breach of these provisions for the weighing of cars may result in the exclusion of
the relevant car.
403
General Car Requirements
84) No signal of any kind may pass between a moving car and anyone connected with the
car's entrant or driver save for the following:
a) Legible messages on a pit board.
b) Body movement by the driver.
c) Telemetry signals from the car to the pits.
d) Lap trigger signals from the pits to the car. Lap marker transmitters shall be battery
powered and once operating must be freestanding (not attached to any other pit
equipment by means ofwires or optical fibres) and incapable of receiving external
infonnation.
Such lap triggers shall use a transmitter operating with a carrier frequency above
10 GHz (radio or optical) and a beam half angle of no more than 360 when measured
at the 3 dB point, and shall not be used for the transmission of any data from pit to
the car other than the lap mark. Lap mark data must be transmitted repeatedly and
must be demonstrably consistent.
e) Verbal communication between a driver and his team by radio.

f) Electromagnetic radiation between 2.0 and 2.7 GHz is forbidden save with the written
consent of the FIA.
85) Accident data recording:
a) Each car must be fitted with an FIA accident data recorder during each Event and
all tests which are attended by more than one Team. Teams must use their best
endeavours to ensure that the recorder is in working order at all times. The sole
purpose of these units is to monitor and record data relevant to an accident or
incident.
b) The recorder and any related sensors must be fitted and operated in accordance
with the instructions ofthe FIA.
c) At any time following an accident or incident, competitors must make the data
recorder available and accessible to the FIA. A representative ofthe Team concerned
must be present when data relevant to an accident or incident is being uploaded
from the recorder. A copy of the data will be made available to the Team.
d) Any conclusions as to the cause of an accident, or any data relevant to an accident,

may only be published in the form of a report which has been agreed between the
Team concerned and the FIA.
404
Appendix E-FIA 2001 Sporting RegulaHions

General Safety
89) Official instructions will be given to drivers by means ofthe signals laid out in the Code.
Competitors must not use flags similar in any way whatsoever to these.
90) Drivers are strictly forbidden to drive their car in the opposite direction to the race unless
this is absolutely necessary in order to move the car from a dangerous position. A car
may only be pushed to remove it from a dangerous position as directed by the marshals.
91) Any driver intending to leave the track or to go to his pit or the paddock area must signal
his intention to do so in good time, making sure that he can do this without danger.
92) During practice and the race, drivers may use only the track and must at all times
observe the provisions of the Code relating to driving behaviour on circuits.
93) A driver who abandons a car must leave it in neutral or with the clutch disengaged and
with the steering wheel in place.
94) Repairs to a car may be carried out only in the paddock, pits and on the grid.
95) The organiser must make at least two fire extinguishers of 5 kg capacity available at
each such pit and ensure that they work properly.
96)
Save as provided in Article 138, refuelling is allowed only in the pits.
97) The driver may remain in his car throughout refuelling but, unless an FIA approved race
refuelling system is used, the engine must be stopped.
Race refuelling systems may not be used during, or immediately after, any practice
session. Whilst being used in the race all team personnel working on the car must wear
clothing which will protect all parts of their body from fire. The competitor must ensure
that an assistant with an extinguisher (minimum capacity, 25 kg) ready to work is beside
the car throughout all refuelling operations.
98) Oil replenishment is forbidden during the race. All orifices for oil filling must be designed
in such a way that the scrutineers can seal them.
99)
Save as specifically authorised by the Code or these Sporting Regulations, no one except
the driver may touch a stopped car unless it is in the pits or on the starting grid.
100) At no time may a car be reversed in the pit lane under its own power.
405
101) During the periods commencing 15 minutes prior to and ending 5 minutes after every
practice session and the period between the commencement of the formation lap which
immediately precedes the race and the time when the last car enters the parcferme, no
one is allowed on the track, the pit entry, or the pit exit, with the exception of:
a) Marshals or other authorised personnel in the execution oftheir duty;
b) Drivers when driving or on foot, having first received permission to do so from a

marshal;
c) Team personnel clearing equipment from the grid after all cars have left the grid on
the formation lap;
d) Mechanics under Article 140 only.
102) During a race, the engine may only be started with the starter except:
a) In the pit lane where the use of an external starting device is allowed, or;
b) Under Article 145c) or d).
103) Drivers taking part in practice and the race must always wear the clothes and
helmets specified in the Code.
104) A speed limit of 80 km/h in practice and 80 km/h during the Warm Up and the
race (60 km/h in Monaco), or such other speed limits as the Permanent Bureau
of the Formula One Commission may decide, will be enforced in the pit lane.
Except in the race, any driver who exceeds the limit will be fined US$250 for each
km/h above the limit (this may be increased in the case of a second offence in the same
Championship season). During the race, the Stewards may impose a time penalty on
any driver who exceeds the limit.
105) If a driver has serious mechanical difficulties during practice or the race, he must
leave the track as soon as it is safe to do so.
106) The car's rear light must be illuminated at all times when it is running on wet-weather
tyres. It shall be at the discretion of the race director to decide if a driver should be
stopped because his rear light is not working. Should a car be stopped in this way, it may
re-join when the fault has been remedied.
107) Only six team members per participating car (all of whom shall have been issued
with and wearing special identification) are allowed in the signalling area during
practice and the race.
People under 16 years of age are not allowed in the pit area.
406
Appendix E-FIA 2001 Sporting Regulafions

108) Animals, except those which may have been expressly authorised by the FIA for
use by security services, are forbidden in the pit area and on the track and in any
spectator area.
109) The race director, the clerk of the course or the FIA medical delegate can require a
driver to have a medical examination at any time during an Event.
110) Failure to comply with the general safety requirements of the Code or these Sporting
Regulations may result in the exclusion of the car and driver concerned from the Event.
407
References
0.1
Kingston, William, Innovation, John Calder, 1977.
0.2
Diamond, Jared, Guns, Germs and Steel, Vintage, London, 1998.
0.3
Van Valkenburgh, Paul, Chevrolet Racing? Fourteen Years of Raucous Silence!

1957-1970, Society ofAutomotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2000.
0.4
Milliken, William F., and Milliken, Douglas L., Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Society
ofAutomotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1995.
0.5
Rudd, Tony, It Was Fun!, Patrick Stephens Ltd., Somerset, England, 1993.
1.1
Milliken, William F., and Douglas L.Milliken, Race Car Vehicle Dynamics. Society of
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1995.
4.1
Harris, M.G., "Optic and Retinal Flow," Visual Detection ofMotion, Academic Press
Ltd., London, 1994.
6.1
of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1995.
7.1
of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1995.
8.1
Scibor-Rylski, A.J., Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, The City University, London, 1970.
8.2
Fackrell, J.E., and Harvey, J.K., "The Flow Field and Pressure Distribution of an
Isolated Road Wheel," Paper 10, Advances in Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, BHRA
Fluid Engineering, England, 1973.
8.3
Agathangelou, Ben, and Gascoyne, Mike, "Aerodynamic Design Considerations of a

Formula 1 Racing Car," SAE Paper No. 980399, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1998.
409
8.4
Crewe, C.M., Passmore, M.A., and Symonds, P., "Measurement of Formula One Car
Drag Forces on the Test Track," SAE Paper No. 962517, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1996.
13.1
Best, Tony, Neads, Steve J., Whitehead, John P., and Willows, Ian R., "Design and
Operation of a New Vehicle Suspension Kinematics and Compliance Facility," SAE
Paper No. 970096, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1997.
13.2
Miliken, W.F., and D.L. Miliken, Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warendale, PA, 1995.
14.1
Pomeroy, Laurence, The Grand Prix Car, Temple Press Books Ltd., London, 1954.
15.1
Wright, Peter, and Andrew Mellor, "Barrier Testing," SAE Paper No. 983061, Society
of Automotive Engineers, Warendale, PA, 1998.
15.2
Gramling, Hubert, Hodgman, Peter, and Hubbard, Robert, "Development ofthe HANS
Head and Neck Support for Formula One," SAE Paper No. 983060, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1998.
15.3
Rudd, Tony, It Was Fun!, Patrick Stephens Ltd., Somerset, England, 1993.
16.1
Azzoni, P, Moro, D., and Rizzoni, G., "Reconstruction of Formula 1 Engine Instantaneous Speed by Acoustic Emission Analysis," SAE Paper No. 983047, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1998.
16.2
Crewe, C.M., Passmore, M.A., and Symonds, P., "Measurement of Formula One Car
Drag Forces on the Test Track," SAE Paper No. 962517, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1996.
17.1
The National Survey of Motorsport Engineering and Services-2000, Motorsport

Industry Association, Warwickshire, England, 2001.
A. 1
Milne-Thompson, L.M., Theoretical Hydrodynamics , McMillan, London, 1946.
A.2
Stollery, J.L., and Bums, W.K., "Forces on Bodies in the Presence of the Ground,"
Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, "The" City University, London, 1969.
D. 1
Year Book Automobile Sport 2000, Federation Internationale de l'Automobile,
Geneva, 2000.
410
Index
Acceleration, 8, 107-108, 123-124
Accident data recorder, 247,248,360,404
Active suspension, xvi, 135, 219, 257,309,310,325-335
Actual power, 59,61
Actuators, 86,93,95, 174-176, 194, 195
ADAMS (software), 142, 153, 191
ADR2 accident data recorder, 247, 248
Aerodynamics, xvii, 17,18,121-139
body, 136-137
British motorsport industry, 279
computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 133, 134-135
FIA Technical Regulations, 292-293
First Symposium on Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, 125
front wing, 136
fIll-size testing, 135-139
"g-g" diagram, 2-6, 9,21
"g-g-V' diagram, 6,7-9, 14,23,25, 123
rearwing, 137, 139
systems integration, 34-36
tires and, 119-120
track testing, 257-258
undertray, 136-137
wheels, 137-138
wind tunnels, 122, 125-133
World War II, 15
see also Testing
Air pumps, 70
Airbags, 238,241
Aircraft brakes, 160, 161
Aluminum, 80,163
Analog data systems, 169, 170
Andretti, Mario, 36, 304
AP Racing, 277
Armco, 233
Arrestor beds, 230-232
Audi, 63,212
411
Austin/Morris 1100, suspension, 149
Automatic gear-changing, 211-212
Automatic gearbox, 343
Automotive Products Ltd., 90
Azzoni, P., 255
Banned technologies, 176,205-225,282

active suspension, xvi, 135,219,257,309, 310,325-335
automatic gear-changing, 211-212
brakes, 224
continuously variable transmission (CVT), 212,213
control systems, 224
driver aids, 224,296
fans, 214,216-217
"fiddle brakes," 8,84,87,91,224
four-wheel drive, 4,220
fuel, 209
oval pistons, 210
powerbrakesandABS, 163, 165
rpm, 209-210
six-wheelers, 220,222-223
skirts, 219
stored energy systems, 211
suspension, 219
tires, 219
transmission, 212,220
turbines, 207
turbo-engines, 17-18, 19,59,60,74,208-209,279,329
twin chassis, 217-219,309,329
venturis, 219
volumetric efficiency, 210
weight limit, 212-214
wings,214,215,283
Barnard, John, 80,92,142,280,315
Barriers, for safety, 232-234,235
Bellamy, Rall 303,304
"Belt," tires, 109
Benetton, wind tunnel, 128
Beryllium-aluminum, forbrakes, 163
Bevel gears, 75
Black smoke, turbo-engines, 209,210
"Blippers," 98
Bluebird, 300
Bluebird Land Speed Record, 126
BMEP, 67
BMW, turbo-engines, 18,208,209
412
Index
"Board-in-a-box" skirt, 305
Bodywork
aerodynamics, 136-137
banned technologies, 214
carbon-fiber reinforced plastic, 18,315
FIA definition, 342
monocoque construction, 55,282,315,316,321,323
safety, 235
Bore-to-stroke ratio, 64
Brabham
fan car, 216
skirt, 309, 310
suspension, 151
BrabhamBT44,151
BrabhamBT46,151
Brake caliper, 343
Brakes, 159-168
aircraft brakes, 160,161
balance, 164,166
carbon-carbon discbrakes, 160-161, 162, 163,282,321
carbon-fiber reinforced carbon matrix materials, 160
cooling, 161-162
design of, 163
differential brakes, 8
Ferrari, F300,166
FLATechnical Regulations, 87,366-367
"fiddle brakes," 8,84,87,91,224
karts, 164-165
lateral-biasing rear brake system, 168
left-foot braking, 165, 166
Lotus Elan+2, 165
Lotus T56B, 165
Lotus T76, 165
Lotus T78, 165
materials for, 162, 163
powerbrakesandABS, 163, 165
servo-brakes, 163
test rigs, 203
Braking, 146,159-160
friction ellipse, 4-7
"g-g-V" diagram, 8
tires and, 107-108
Brawn, Ross, 36,280,286
British motorsport industry, 275-280
BRM, high wings, 215
BRMP126 V-12 cars, 301,302
413
BRMT139 V-12 car, 126
Broadley, Eric, 14,277
Browning, John, 122
Brundle, Martin, 242
Brush skirt, 305
Burn rate, 65
Burns, WK., 300
Byrne, Rory, 36,41,153,280
Calibration, track testing for, 252-253

Calspan, TIRF facility, 203
Cameras, FIATechnical Regulations, 391,395
Campbell, Donald, 126,300
Can-Am cars, 122, 125
Car model, lap simulation, 185
Carbonfiber, 317,319,320
Carbon-carbon clutch, 100
Carbon-carbon composites, 321, 324
Carbon-carbon disc brakes, 160-163,282,321
Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP),3,13-324
for body, 18,315,316,321,322,323
for brakes, 160
for clutch, 75
for gearbox, 80,322
molding with, 321-322
resin systems, 320-321
for suspension, 155, 322
technology tree, 30, 31
textile weaves, 320
Casing, gearbox, 80-81
Catch fences, 231,232
Center of gravity, 50,52,54-55
CFD. See Computational fluid dynamics
CFRP. See Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic
Champcar, 241
Chaparal Can-Am cars, 122,125,300
Chapman, Colin, 14,36, 126,277,303,304,307
commercial sponsorship, 278
death of, 310,332
Ford-Cosworth DFV engine, 34
Lotus Esprit Turbo,,329, 330
Lotus T56B, 165,207
Lotus T72, 15, 17, 150
Lotus T78,126
Lotus T79, 52
Lotus T88, 218
414
Index
Chassis
compliance, 144-145,153,196, 199
cornering and, 44-46
Mercedes W196, 12
structural performance, 72
timing tLansponders, 391,396
tire characteristics and, 119
track testing, 258
Chassis design, 43-56
aerodynamics, 53
banned technologies, 217-219
center of gravity, 52,54-55
control system, 44-49
design technology tree, 27-30
history of, 278
key parameters, 50
lateral load transfer, 50
roll stiffness distribution, 50,52,53
tires and, 119
torsional stiffness, 72
twin chassis, 217-219,309, 329
Chemical grip, 117
Chevrolet, 122,,125,198
Chevrolet Active Concept Demonstrator, 88
Chrysler, stored energy systems, 211
Circuit model, lap simulation, 184-185
Closed-circuit racing tracks, 245
Closed-circuit wind tunnels, 130
Clutch, 75,100, 101, 102
Clutch control, 95-96,361-362
Coast-down tests, 257
Cockpit, 343,369-370,393,394
Cockpit padding, 235,236,343,373-374,394
Cockpit rim test, 385-386
Coil springs, 147-153
Collapsible steering wheel, 236
Compliance, 144-145,153,196,199
Component replacement, 56
Composites, 109,323-324
see also Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP)
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 68,122,133, 134-135
Computer control, 169-176
active suspension, 329
fueling and ignition system, 69, 174
gear-changing system, 91
hardware, 174
heat treatment processes, 81
sensors, 96, 173-174
turbocharged engines, 329
415
Computer modeling. See Modeling; Simulation
Computer software
control systems, 297
FIATechnical Regulations, 296
linkage system analysis, 153
testing of, 259
Computers, xvi, 18,56, 142, 153
Continuously variable transmission (CVT), 212,213
Control systems, 44-49, 169-181
actuators, 93, 95, 174-175
banned technologies, 224, 329
computer hardware, 174
computer software, 297
driver aids, 224
measurement, 169-171
sensors, 96, 173-174
test rigs, 200-201
see also Computer control
Cooling system, 358
Cooper, John, 14,277,282
Cornering
chassis and, 44-46
friction ellipse, 4, 5
"g-g-V' diagram, 8
suspension and, 145
tires and, 107-108
Costin, Frank, 122
Cosworth Engineering, 277,279,287
Ford-CosworthDFV engine, 15, 34,35,38,61,63,64,67,72-74,278
Ford-Cosworth DFY engine, 61
Coventiy Climax, 277
Crash dununies, 229,238
Crash helmets, 226
Crash tests, 228,229
Cross-ply tire, 109
Cubic capacity, FIA definition, 343
CVT. See Continuously variable transmission
Cylinder, design of, 69
Dampers, 148-150,154,156-158
semi-active suspension, 327, 328, 334
test rigs, 196
Data logging, 99
Data monitoring, 171
416
Index
Data systems, 169-176
analog, 169,170
digital, 171
sensors, 96, 173-174
telemetiy, 171-172
DeAngelis, Elio, 330
Deceleration, 228,230,257
Design
ofbrakes, 163
ofcylinder, 69
for greater rpm, 66
key parameters, 50
requirements of, 43-44
simulation. See Modeling; Simulation
oftires, 1 17, 118-119
see also Chassis design
Deutsch, Carl, 126
Diagnostic tools, 56
Die casting, 80
Differential, 72,84-91
FIATechnical Regulations, 87,362-363
final drive and open differential, 90
limited-slip differential, 84-85
"steering" differential, 89
"tank steer" controlled differential, 88
Differential brakes, 8
Diffuser angle, 137
Digital data systems, 171
Direct yaw control system, 88-89
Dog-rings, 95
Double wishbone suspension, 142, 149
Downforce, xvii, 122-125
front wing, 136
ground-effect, 129
power and, 23,24
Downforce actuator, 194, 195
Downforce distribution, 50
Downshifts, 98
Drag coefficient, 124
Drive shaftjoints, 82,83
Drive-by-wire throttle, 98
Driver aids, 224,296
Driver displays, measurement, 170-171
Driver model, lap simulation,186
Driver restraint systems, 235-242,372
417
Drivers
comparing, 259
injuries to, 228-229
licensing of, 245
pre-race schedule, 260-268
testing of, 253-254,259
Duckworth, Keith, 15, 34,277,287,315
Dynamometer, 74, 119,201-202
Ecclestone, Bernie, 278,284,285

Electrical systems, 359-360
Electro-hydraulic servo-valve, 176, 177,326,329
Electro-hydraulic transmission, 76,85
Electronic fuel injection, 74
Engine oil tank, 77
Engines, 57-73
bore-to-stroke ratio, 64
capacity, 294
changing, 56
Ferrari flat-12 engine, 63
Ferrari V-8, 61,62
Ferrari V-12, 63
FIATechnical Regulations, 294,352-354
Fiat 1.2-liter, 61,62
Ford-CosworthDFV engine, 15,34,35,38,61,63,64,67,72-74,278,279
four-stroke piston engine, 57,60
front-engined cars, 12, 13, 34,49
gas-turbine engine, 57,60
layout, 37-39
Lotus T56B, 57
Lotus T95,19-20
Lotus T99, 208
materials for, 70,72
Mercedes M196, 61,62
Mercedes W196, 12
Mercedes-IllmorV-10 engine, 39,61,72,73
peak engine speed, 69
performance of,59
piston engines, 57, 58,60
placement of, 72,75
racing engine cycles, 59-60
research and development, 73-74
rpm, 63,65-70,71
test rigs, 202
418
Index
Engines (continued)
turbochargedengine, 17-18,19,59,60,74,208-209,279,329
V-8,34-35,37,38,61,62,63,279
V-10, 37,39,61,63,64,72,73,282
V-12, 37,38,63,80
W-12,37-39,63
weight of, 70,71
England, motorsport industry, 275-280
Euro-SID dummies, 229
Exhaust system, 68,69,324
Fans, banned technologies, 214,216-217

Fatigue test rigs, 200
FEA. See Finite element analysis
Fenari, 278,279,280,286
driver-adjustable wing, 215
exhaust system, 69
flat-12 engine, 63
hydraulic actuator, 95
suspension, 142
transmission, 76,77,80,91
undertray, 138
V-8 engine,61,62
V-12 engine, 38, 63
Ferrari 639,92
Ferrari 640,92
Ferrari 1511,76
Ferrari F300, 23-24
"g-g-V" diagram, 23,25
gearbox, 102
left-foot braking, 166
steering wheel, 180,181
suspension, 153, 155
FIA Sporting Regulations, 397-407
accident data recording, 404
pit lane, 398-399
safety, 405-407
scrutineering, 399-400
sporting checks, 399
testing, 398
tires, 400-402
weighing, 403
FLATechnical Regulations, xv, 337-396
aerodynamic devices, 292-293
bodywork, 345-350
brakes, 87,366-367
419
FIA Technical Regulations (continued)
changes for 2002,392-396
checking dimensions, 292-293
cockpit, 369-370,393,394
cockpit padding, 373-374,394
computer software, 296
control systems, 296-297
cooling system, 358
development of, 283
differentials, 87,362-363
driver aids, 296
electrical systems, 359-360
engines, 294,352-354
fire extinguishers, 371-372
fuel sampling, 357,390
fuel system, 355-357
fuel tanks, 355, 385
fuels, 294-2%, 357,387-390
master switch, 372
monitoring enforcement of, 289-291
oil system, 358
overhangs, 349
performance envelope, 8
rear light, 373
rear view mirrors, 372
refueling, 297,356-357
rigidity, 292
roll structures, 376, 383
safety, 371-379
scrutineering, 289-291,399-400
seat fixing and removal, 375
skid block, 348,392
steering, 365
steering wheel, 369
survival cell, 376-379,384-385,394
suspension, 364-365
testing, 380-386,392
throttle control, 353
tires, 297,368
transmission, 361-363
weight, 291-292,351
wheels, 368,375
Fiat 1.2-liter engine, 61,62
"Fiddle brakes," 8,84, 87,91,224
Final drive and open differential, 90
Finite element analysis (FEA), 191
CFRP applications, 322
chassis design, 55
420
Index
Finite element analysis (FEA) (continued)
composite failure, 235
gears and shafts, 81
tire design, 118
Fire extinguishers, 371-372
First Symposium on Road Vehicle Aerodynamics, 125
Fittipaldi, Emerson, 207
Flat-Trac III Tire Test System, 203,204
Flywheel stored energy system, 211
Foam padding, 235,236
FOCA. See Formula One Constructors Association
Ford-Cosworth DFVengine, 15,34,35,38,61,63,64,67,72-74,278
Forghieri, Mauro, 36
Formula 1 racing
British motorsport industry, 275-280
in the future, 281-288
German motor racing, 276
historyof, xii, 1 1-25
Italian motor racing, 276,280
NASCAR, 284
organizational structure of racing team, xiii
pit stops, 271-273
Sporting Regulations. See FIA Sporting Regulations
Technical Regulations. See FIA Technical Regulations
Formula 1 racing cars
aerodynamics. See Aerodynamics
banned technologies. See Banned technologies
brakes. See Brakes; Braking
chassis. See Chassis; Chassis design
components of, 20, 135-138
computers and, xvi, 18,56
control systems, 44-49, 169-181
data systems, 169-176
dimensions of, 37
engine. See Engines
half-scale models, 127, 130-132
history of, xii, 1 1-25
layout of, 37, 282
measurement systems, 169-170
performance envelope, 1-10, 1 1-25
research and development, 73-74
safety. See Safety; Safety equipment
six-wheelers, 220,222-223
suspension. See Suspension
421
Formula 1 racing cars (continued)
systems integration, 32, 34-41
technology trees, 27-34
tires. See Tires
transmission. See Transmission
see also Formula 1 racing
Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), 278
Four-stroke piston engine, 57,60
Four-wheel drive, 4,220
Four-wheel independent suspension, 144
Friction ellipse, tires, 3-4
Friction reduction, 70
Front wing, 136
Front-engined cars, 12, 13, 34,49
Fuel sampling, 357,390
Fuel system, 355-357
Fuel tanks, 355, 385
Fuel testing, 390
Fuels, 66
analysis of, 294-296
composition of, 388-389
FIATechnical Regulations, 294-296,387-390
refueling, 297,356-357
Full-active suspension, 326-329
Full-size testing, 135-139
Full-tank run, 265
"g-g" diagram, 2-6,9,21

"g-g-V' diagram, 6,7-9,14,21,25,123
Gas chromatography, for fuel analysis, 295
Gas-turbine engine, 57,60
Gear ratios, FIATechnical Regulations, 362
Gear-change systems, 40,91,93,96,97-99
automatic, 211-212
downshifts, 98
neutral, 99
retries, 99
reverse, 99
semi-automatic, 211
switches, 96-97
upshifts, 97-98
422
Index
Geaibox
casing, 80-81
Ferrari F300, 102
Jordan gearbox, 101
selector forks, 93
systems integration, 39, 55
test rigs, 201
transverse gearbox, 76,78
WIlUiamsFWlI, 212,213
WiIliamsFW21, 98, 101
see also Gear-change systems; Transmission
General Motors Corp., active suspension, 334, 335
German motor racing, 276
Gogomobile bubble car, 91
GrandPrixracing, 11, 122
see also Formula 1 racing; Formula 1 racing cars
Gravel beds, 231-232, 233
Great Britain, motorsport industry, 275-280
Grooved tires, 118
Groundeffect, 17,18,36,129,299-311
GSJjoints, 82,83
H-pattern gear-selection mechanism, 40,91,93

Hakkinen, Mka, 232,237
Half-scale models, 127, 130-132
Hall, Jim, 124,299
HANS yoke, 238-241
Haynes, Walter, 278
Head, Patrick; 36
Head injuries, 235-247
Heading angle, 44
Heat engines, 58
Herbert, Johnny, 229
Hercules, 315
Herd, Robin, 301
Hewland, 277,279
Hi Ge sled,237,238
Eill, Graham, 207
Honda
direct yaw control system, 88-89
oval pistons, 210
"steering" differential, 89
turbo-engine, 208
V-10 engine, 63,282
Hubbard, Dr. Robert, 238,239
Hybrid Ill dunmies, 229,238
423
Hydraulic actuator, 86,95, 175-176
Hydraulic amplifier,178
Hydraulic damper, 196
Hydraulic valve, racing damper, 157
Hydraulics
hydraulic system requirements, 76,96
uses of, 175-176
Hydro-pneumatic self-lowering suspension, 309
Mien, Mario, 72
Impact performance, of composite structure, 323
Impact rigs, 201
Impact testing, 380-382
Inboard spring/damper suspension, 149
Induction system, 354
Injuries to drivers, 228-229
head injuries, 235-247
medical service standards and, 246
see also Safety; Safety equipment
Investment casting, 80
Irving, Frank, 304
Italian motor racing, 276,280
Jenkins, Alan, 80
"Jerk," 46
Jordan gearbox, 101
K&C machine, 156,196-200

Karts
brakes, 164-165
wheel load control, 143-144
Kinematics, 196
Kinematics and compliance test machine. See K&C machine
Lap simulation,183-191
Lateral acceleration, "g-g" diagram, 3,9
Lateral load transfer, chassis design, 50
Lateral-biasing rear brake system, 168
Left-foot braking, 165, 166
Lift coefficient, 124
424
Index
Ligier JSl9, suspension, 329
Limited-slip differentials, 84-85
Lola, chassis design, 278
Longitudinal acceleration, "g-g" diagram, 3,9
Longitudinal center of gravity position, 52, 54-55
Longitudinal transmission, 77,79
Lotus Elan+2, brakes, 165
Lotus Engineering
chassis design, 278
differential, 88
"queerbox," 91, 165
Lotus Esprit, suspension, 329-330, 331
Lotus T2 1, suspension, 150
Lotus T25, 282
Lotus T49, 15,35,76,282,301
Lotus T56,207
Lotus T56B, 57, 165,207
Lotus T63, 220,221
LotusT72, 15, 16, 17,25,34,36, 150, 151,279,303
Lotus T76, 165
Lotus T78, 36,91, 126,165,301,303,304,305,306
Lotus T79, 35,52,127,216,282,304,305,306,307
Lotus T80, 36,307,308
Lotus T81, 308
Lotus T87, 316-318
Lotus T88, 217-219,309,315,316,329
Lotus T92,329,330,332
Lotus T93, 310
LotusT95, 19-20, 25
Lotus T99, 208,333
Lotus T1O1-Honda, 253
Lubrication, gearbox, 81-82,201
MADYMO-3D (software), 191,237

Maintenance and servicing, 55-56
Maneuver envelope. See Performance envelope
Mansell, Nigel, 98,330,332
March 701, 301,302
March six-wheeler, 222,223
Maserati 250F, 13
Master switch, 372
Materials
forbrakes, 162, 163
carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP). See Carbon-fiber reinforced plastic
for clutch, 75
for engines, 70,72
425
Materials (continued)
for exhaust systems, 324
fortires, 109, 112, 113, 117
for transmission casing, 80
MATLAB (software), 191
Maximum longitudinal force, tires, 160
Maximum theoretical power equation, 58
McLaren, 84, 87, 91, 139
four-wheel drive, 220
Hakkinen accident, 232
lateral-biasing rear brake system, 168
McLarenMP4/1, 315
Measurement, 169-170
driver displays, 170-171
sensors, 96, 173-174
techniques, 133
timing mechanisms, 268-270
Mechanical efficiency, 59,61,67,69
Mechanical grip, 117
Medical service standards, 246
Mercedes
airbags, 238
HANS yoke, 238,239
stored energy systems, 211
Mercedes M196 engine, 61,62
Mercedes W196, 12-14,25
Mercedes-Illmor V-10 engine, 39,61,72,73
Metal-matrix aluminum, forbrakes, 163
Micro-switches, transmission, 96-97
Milliken Moment Method, 3
Milne-Thompson, L.M., 299
Minardi, 80
MIRA. See Motor Industry Research Association
Mitchell, Bill, 299-300
Modeling, 191,193
head injury during crash, 237-238
piston engines, 68
track test process, 172
validation of results, 253
see also Simulation
Molding, with carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP), 321-322
Moment of inertia, 50
Monocoque, 55,282,315,316,321,323
Moog electro-hydraulic servo-valve, 177
Moog valves, 95, 96
Moore, Greg, 241
Moro, D., 255
Mosley, Max, 206,223,227,249,278,284,285
426
Index
Moss, Stirling, 48
Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA), 126
Moulton, Alec, 149
MSR magnesium, 80
MTfS Flat-Trac III Tire Test System, 203, 204
Multi-lobe pumps, 82
Murray, Gordon, 36, 151,216,304
NASCAR, 284
Newey, Adrian, 36,41, 139
Nose push off test, 386
Ogilvie, Martin, 307

Oil system, 70
engine oil tank, 77
gearbox lubrication, 81-82, 201
Open-circuit wind tunnels, 130
Optimization, 40-41
Osborne, Alec, 301
Outboard spring/damper suspension, 150
Oval pistons, 210
Over-revving, 40,69
Overhangs, FIA Technical Regulations, 349
Padding, for safety, 235, 236

Panoz, stored energy systems, 211
Paris-Dakar cars, 82
Passive suspension, 327, 331
Peak engine speed, 69
Perbury system, 212
Performance envelope
aerodynamics, 121
function of, 1-2
"g-g" diagram, 2-6,9
"g-g-V' diagram, 6,7-9,14,21,23,25,123
Mercedes W196, 14
Performance parameters, 22-23
Peugeot 205 Turbol6 Rally car, 88
Pin-jointed links, 142
427
Piston engines, 57, 58,60
bore-to-stroke ratio, 64
piston acceleration, 64,65
piston velocity, 64,65,66
power of, 60-63
rpm, 63,65-70,71
simulation and modeling, 68
V-8 engine, 34-35,37,38,61,62,63,279
V-10 engine, 37,39,61,63,64,72,73,282
V-12 engine, 37,38,63,80
Pistons
acceleration, 64,65
oval pistons, 210
velocity, 64,65,66
Pit lane, FIA Sporting Regulations, 398-399
Pit stop practice, 266
Pit stops, 271-273
Pneumatic actuators, 175
Pneumatic valve spring system, 66,67
Polypropylene skirts, 304
Pomeroy, Laurence, 205
"Porpoising," 36, 308
Porsche 959, 91
Porsche GT2, 234
Post-season testing, 254
Postlethwaite, Harvey, 23,280,306
Power, 44
absorbed by tires, 107
actual power, 59,61
downforce and, 23,24
maximum theoretical power equation, 58
versus rpm, 61,63,65-70,71
see also Gearbox; Gear-change system; Transmission
Power brakes, 163, 165
Pre-impregnation, with CFRP resin, 321
Pre-season testing, 254
Pull-rods, 150,151,152
Pumps, 70
Push-rod suspension, 142, 151, 152
Quasi-static test rig, 156

"Queerbox," 91, 165
428
Index
Race control, 246-247
Race engineer, 267
Racing weight, 342
Radial tires, 13, 19, 109-111
Radiator, 52-53
Real-time monitoring, 172
Rear impact structure push off test, 392
Rear light, 373
Rearview mirrors, 372
Rearwing, 137,139
Rear-wheel drive cars, "g-g-V" diagram, 8
Refueling, 297,356-357
Reinforced fiber composites, for tires, 109
Renault
pneumatic valve spring system, 66,67
tires, 13, 19
turbochargedengine, 17-18,208,279,329
Resonance test rigs, 200
Restraint system, 235-242, 372
Reynolds number, 126-127
Rigidity, 292
Rizzoni, G,255
Road simulator, 194-196
Rodriguez, Gonzalo, 241
Roll stiffness distribution, 50,52,53
Roll structures, 376,383
Roll-rock, 148
Routine servicing, 55-56
rpm, 209-210
Rubber,fortires, 112, 113, 117
Rudd, Tony, xi, xii, xviii, 126,244,301,303
Safety, 52,227-249
accident data recorder, 247,248
bodywork, 235
car construction and, 245
closed-circuit racing tracks, 245
driver licensing and, 245
fatalities, 227,237,242
future developments, 247
head injury, 235-247
injuries, 228-229
medical service standards and, 246
race control, 246-247
regulations, 247-249
429
Safety barriers, 232-234,235
Safety belts, 372
Safety equipment
airbags, 238,241
arrestor beds, 230-232
barriers, 232-234,235
catch fences, 231, 232
cockpit padding, 235,236,343,373-374,394
crash helmets, 226
FIATechnical Regulations, 371-375
gravel beds, 231-232,233
HANS yoke, 238-241
padding, 235,236
restraint system, 235-242, 372
tire barriers, 233
wheel tethers, 241-242, 375
Safety structures, 376-379
Sauber, 80
Scale models, 126-127
Scavenge pumps, 70
Schumacher, Michael, 229,230,234
Scott, Dave, 330
Scrutineering, 289-291, 399-400
Seat fixing and removal, 375
Selector forks, 93
Semi-active suspension, 327, 328, 334
Semi-automatic gear-change system, 40
Senna,Ayrton, 21,61,227,242,253,310,332,333
Sensors, 96, 173-174
Servicing and maintenance, 55-56
Servo-actuator, 326, 329
Servo-brakes, 163
Servo-test rig, 156
Seven-post road simulator, 194-196
Side intrusion test, 386
Sidewalls, tires, 111-112
Simulation, 172
exhaust system, 68
lap simulation, 183-191
piston engines, 68
research and development programs, 188
track test process, 172
see also Modeling
Single-corner rig, 196
Six-link independent suspension, 149
Six-wheelers, 220,222-223
Skid block, 348,392
Skirts, 219,304-306
430
Index
Slip angle, 107-108
Slip ratio, 107-108
Software. See Computer software
Specialized Mouldings, 277,314
Speed, "g-g-V' diagram, 8
Speed limiter, 354
"Spoiler," 137
Sporting checks, 399
Springs, 147-153,327,328,343
Spur gears, 75
Stall prevention system, 353-354
Stapp, Col. John P., 228
Static load testing, 384-386
Steady-state dynamometer, 201-202
Steering, 46-47,365
Steering column test, 382
"Steering" differential, 89
Steering torque, 47
Steering wheel, 180, 181,236,369
Stewart (company), 80-81
Stewart, Jackie, 244
Stollery, John, 300
Stored energy systems, 211
Structural test rigs, 200
"Suck-up" skirt 305
Supercharging, 59,343
Survival cell, 343,376-379,384-385,394
Suspension, 141-158
active suspension, xvi, 135,219,257,309,310,325-335
BrabhamBT, 151
coil springs, 147-153
compliance, 144-145,153,196,199
cornering and, 145
dampers, 148, 149, 150, 154, 156-158

double wishbone suspension, 142, 149
FerraiF300,153,155
four-wheel independent suspension, 144
full-active suspension, 326-329
hydro-pneumatic self-lowering suspension, 309
LotusT72,15,150,151
passive suspension, 327, 331
pull-rods, 150,151,152
push-rods, 142, 151, 152
semi-active suspension, 327,328,334
six-link independent suspension, 149
431
Suspension (continued)
three-spring suspension, 146-149
top rocker, 150
torsion bars, 153, 154
two-spring suspension, 146
vertical loads on, 325-326
WilliansFW-19,148
Swept volume, 61
Switches, transmission, 96-97
Systems integration, 32, 34-41
chassis design, 55-56
engine design, 37-39, 55
gear-change systems, 40
gearbox design, 39,55
TAG-Porsche, 18
"Tank steer" controlled differential, 88
Tauranac, Ron, 36
Technology trees, 27-34
Telemetry, data systems, 171-172
Television cameras, 391, 395
Test rigs, 193-204
brakes, 203
control system rigs, 200-201
damper test rigs, 196
dynamometers, 74, 119,201-202
engine sub-assembly and component rigs, 202
fatigue test rigs, 200
gearbox rigs, 201
impact rigs, 201
K&C machine, 156,196-200
quasi-static test rig, 156
resonance test rigs, 200
servo-test rig, 156
seven-post road simulator, 194-196
single-corner rig, 196
skirts, 304
structural test rigs, 200
tires, 203-204
windtunnels, 122,125-133,194
see also Testing; Track testing
Testing, 73-74
coast-down tests, 257
cockpit rim test, 385-386
ofcomputer software, 259
432
Index
Testing (continued)
crash tests, 228,229
of drivers, 253-254,259
FIA Sporting Regulations, 398
of fuel, 390
full-size testing, 135-139
half-scale models, 127, 130-132
impact testing, 380-382
measurement techniques, 133
nose push off test, 386
post-season, 254
pre-season, 254
rear impact structure push off test, 392
scale models, 126-127
side intrusion test, 386
static load testing, 384-386
steering column test, 382
tires, 119-120,135,203,204
see also Test rigs; Track testing
Thermal efficiency, 61,67,69
Three-spring suspension, 146-149
Throttle control, 353
Timing mechanisms, 268-270
Timing transponders, 391, 396
Tire barriers, 233
Tire contact patch forces, 143
Tires, 56, 103-120,282
"belt" 109
characteristics of, 107-109
construction of, 109-113
cross-ply tire, 109
design, 117,118-119
FIATechnical Regulations, 297,368
force generationby, 103-106, 116
friction ellipse, 3-4
"g-g-V" diagram, 8
grooved, 118
history of, 21
lap simulation, 190-191
lateral force, 105-106
longitudinal load, 104-105
materials for, 109, 112,113,117
maximum longitudinal force, 160
radialtires, 13, 19,109-111
rubber for, 112, 113, 117
433
Tires (continued)
sidewalls, 1 1-1 12
six-wheelers, 220,222
testing, 1 19-120,135,203,204
tire contact patch forces, 143
tracktesting, 119-120,135,258-259,262,272
tread, 112,113
tread width, 5 1-52
vertical loadand, 108-109, 146, 147
wet surfaces, 113-118
wet tires, 117
TIRF, 203
Todt, Jean, 280
Top rocker suspension, 150
Torsionbars, 153,154
Torsional stiffness, 72
Total drag force, 135
Track surface, rain tires, 117
Track testing
active suspension, 330
aerodynamics, 257-258
for calibration, 252-253
chassis, 258
coast-down tests, 257
ofdrivers, 253-254,259
engine, 256-257
flow sheet, 172
full-tank run, 265
for modeling validation, 253
pit stop practice, 266
post-season, 254
pre-season, 254
timing and information, 268-273
tires, 1 19-120.,135,258-259,262,272
Transient dynamometer, 202
Transmission, 75-102
actuator systems, 93, 95
banned technologies, 212,220
casing, 80-81
clutch, 75, 100, 101, 102
clutch control, 95-96,361-362
data logging, 99
differential, 72,,84-91
dog-rings, 95
drive shaftjoints, 82, 83
electro-hydraulic transmission, 76,85
Ferrari, 76,77,80,91
434
Index
Transmission (continued)
FLATechnical Regulations, 361-363
four-wheel drive, 220
future developments, 100-101
gear-change systems, 40,91,93,96,97-99
gears and shafts, 81
hydraulic system requirements, 76,96
layout, 76-79
longitudinal layout, 77,79
lubrication, 81-82
materials for, 80
neutral, 99
regulatory restrictions, 97
reverse, 99,362
selection of, 91-93
sensors, 96
switches, 96-97
transverse gearbox, 76, 78
see also Gearbox; Gear-change systems
Transverse gearbox, 76,78
Tread, tires, 112,113
Tread width, tires, 51-52
Turbines, banned technologies, 207
Turbo-engines, 17-18,19,59,60,74,208-209,279,329
Twin chassis, 217-219,309,329
"Twin-clutch" gearbox, 89
Two-spring suspension, 146
Two-wheel drive, friction ellipse, 4
Tyrell six-wheeler, 220,222
Tyres. See Tires
Undertray, 136-137, 138

United Kingdom, motorsport industry, 275-280
Upshifts, 97-98
V-8 engine, 34-35,37,38,61,62,63,279

V-10 engine, 37,39,61,63,64,72,73,282
V-12 engine, 37,38,63,80
Valve closure, pneumatic, 66
Valve spool, 178
Van Doorne, 212
Vehicle statics model, 3
Venturis, banned technologies, 219
Volumetric efficiency, 61,67,69,210
435
W-12 engine, 37-39,63
Warr, Peter, 332
Water, tire action on, 113-118
Weighing, 403
Weight, 291-292,342,351
Wenham, Francis, 122
Wet surfaces, tires, 113-118
Wheel load control, karts, 143-144
Wheel tethers, 241-242, 375
Wheels, 137-138,141-142,342,368
Williams, David, 308,329,330,332,333
WllhiamsFW07,307
WilliamsFW14B, 176,180
Wlliams FW15, 25,212,213
Willians FW- 15C, 21-22, 334
Williams FW-19, front suspension, 148
WilliamsFW21, 98, 101
Wllliams six-wheeler, 222,223
Wmchel, Frank, 124
Windtunnels, 122, 125-133, 194
Wmgs, 56,136,137,139,214,215,283
WolfWR2,307
WolfWR5, 306
World Rally cars, 84
Yaw velocity, 46
Yawing frequency, 46
436
About the Author

Peter Wright earned a Master of Arts degree studying
mechanical sciences at the Cambridge University in
England. Upon leaving the university, he joined BRM as
a research engineer on chassis and aerodynamics.
Peter's subsequent jobs included work at Specialised

Mouldings, where he designed and commissioned a
onequarter-scale wind tunnel for race car testing. At
Specialised Mouldings, he also worked on the design and
development of composite bodywork for a variety of race
cars.
In 1974, Peter joined the Lotus group ofcompanies, where
he rose to become managing director of Lotus Engineering and subsequently technical director of Team Lotus.
During his 21 years at Lotus, Peter worked on advanced
composites, ground-effect aerodynamics, and active control systems, involving diverse vehicles
which included road and racing cars, pleasure and racing boats, ultralight aircraft, tracked and
off-road vehicles, and, for a short period, flying saucers.
In 1995, Peter joined the FIA as Technical Advisor, working on safety issues for road and
racing cars. He is a member of the FIA Safety Commission and Research Group, and the
EuroNCAP Assembly and Technical Working Group.
Peter writes technical articles for a number of motorsport publications worldwide and has had
papers published on aerodynamics, active suspension, and safety. He lives in southwestern
France and flies gliders for relaxation.
ISBN:978-0-7680-2887-4 Copyright 2001 SAE International
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Appendix A

Ground effect is something for nothing.

L = 0.72 per. rad.

1.37 per. rad.

Appendix A-Ground Effect

Fig. A.2 P126 BRMfitted with wing section side pods.

(Author 's collection)

Fig. A. 3 March 701. (Courtesy of Phipps/Sutton)

Appendix A-Ground Effect

Appendix A-Ground Effect

Fig. A. 4 Lotus T78 brush skirt.

Fig. A. 5 Lotus T78 "suck-up" skirt.

Coramic Rubbing Strip

Fig. A. 6 Lotus T78 "suck-down " skirt,

Fig. A. 7 Lotus T79

Appendix A-Ground Effect

Fig. A. 9 Lotus T80. (Courtesy of Phipps/Sutton)

Appendix A-Ground Effect

Meanwhile, Brabham pioneered a hydro-pneumatic, self-lowering suspension that allowed its

Fig. A. IO Vethane skirt.

Appendix A-Ground Effect

Life exists in the universe only because the

Appendix B-Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites

Flat She Pyor Io e- -

Appendix B-Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites

Fig. B. 3 Lotus T87 monocoque.

Carbon Fiber Manufacture

Appendix B-Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites

Fig. B. 5 CFRP composite component manufacturing stages.

Fig. B. 6 Properties of carbon fibers. (Author illustration;

Resins and Pre-Impregnation

Appendix B-Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites

Appendix B-Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites

Fig. B. 7 A CFRP monocoque being manufactured (Courtesy of

Appendix C-Acfive Suspension

Appendix C-Active Suspension

Appendix C-Active Suspension

Appendix C-AcHive Suspension

Fig C(5 Active suspension fitted to the Lotus T99-Honda. (Courtesy of

Fig. C. 6 Semi-active suspension fitted to the Williams FW15C-Renault.

Appendix C-Active Suspension

Fig. C. 7 An array of active technology research vehicles, including a tracked

2001 Formula One

Article 3: Bodywork and Dimensions

Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical Regulations

Car speed limiter

7: Oil and Coolant Systems

Article 9: Transmission System

10: Suspension and Steering Systems

11: Brake System

Article 12: Wheels and Tyres

Article 14: Safety Equipment

15: Safety Structures

Article 16: Impact Testing

Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical Regulafions

17: Roll Structure Testing

Article 18: Static Load Testing

Article 19: Fuel

Article 20: Television Cameras

Formula One car:

Appendix D-FIA 2001 Technical Regulations

Role of the FIA:

Amendments to the regulations:

Compliance with the regulations: