Atoms Bonding Guide

BONDING
The
way in which atoms join and combine

with each other is known as bonding.
(or)
The process of holding atoms or molecules
together is known as bonding in solids.
Types of bonds:
Bonds are classified into two types. They are
(1) Primary Bonds or Atomic Bonds.
(2) Secondary Bonds or Molecular Bonds .
Primary Bonds or Atomic Bonds:

The bonds which have bond energies in the range of
0.1-10ev/bond are called as Primary Bonds. These bond are
formed between the atoms only. Primary Bonds are
1. Ionic bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Metallic bond
Secondary Bonds or Molecular Bonds :

The bonds which have bond energies in the range of
0.01-0.5ev/bond are called as Secondary Bonds. These bond
are formed between the molecules only Secondary bonds are
1. Hydrogen bond
2. Van-der waals bond
Ionic Bond
It is formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons
from one atom to another atom (to achieve an inert gas
configuration, forming ions).
Ionic bonds are formed between METALLIC and

NON- METALLIC atoms.
- Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)

- Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)
Group I or II elements are called as electron donors

and Group VI & VII elements are called as electron
acceptors.
Examples: NaCl, KCl, KBr, MgO, MgCl2, KOH, Al2O3,etc.
Explanation for the formation of NaCl molecule:

When neutral atoms Na and Cl are brought close together, the outer
valence electron(3s1) of Na atom gets transferred to the Cl atom(3p5)

for stability.
Hence, Na+ and Cl- ions are formed.
By ionization energy, an electron is removed from Na atom and

when e- is transferred to Cl atom some energy is released known as
electron affinity.
Na+ ions are surrounded by Cl- ions & vice versa.

Due to the electrostatic force of attraction existing between the ions,
a bond is formed between Na+ and Cl- exceeding the repulsive force
due to like charges.
Therfore, NaCl compound is formed.
Schematic representation of
formation of NaCl molecule
Ionic bond
Properties of ionic bond or ionic solids:

1.Ionic solids are crystalline in nature.
2.They are hard and brittle.

3.They have high melting and boiling points.
4.Since all the electronics are tightly bound insulators of
electricity.
5.They are soluble in polar solvents.
6.In an ionic crystal, a cation is surrounded by as many anions as
possible and vice versa.

7.Ionic bonds are non-directional.
8.They are transparent.
Since ions are held strongly in place by the other ions, they cannot move or slip
over each other easily and are hence hard and brittle.
The attraction between opposite ions is very strong. A lot of kinetic

energy is thus required to overcome them , then the melting point
and boiling point of ionic compounds is very high.
Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic

compounds. This is because the ions attract water molecules
which disrupts the crystal structure, causing them separate & go
into solution.
Covalent bonding is the sharing a pair of electrons to gain electronic

configuration of an inert gas.
Covalent bonds occur between NON-METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.
A pair of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms Single bond,
X Y.
Two pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms Double bond,

X = Y.
Three pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms Triple bond,

X = Y.
The simplest case of covalent bonding occurs in hydrogen molecule in

which two H form an electron pair covalent bond. Hence, covalent
bond is called as a single Covalent bond. When they (i.e.) atoms share
two or three electron pairs, then it results in double or triple bond.
Oxygen is an example of double bond and Nitrogen is an example of
triple covalent bond.
Covalent bonds are formed not only due to this overlap of pure s
or p orbitals but also due to the overlap of s & p such bonding is
called Hybrid Bonding. The arrangement of these orbitals is called

Hybridization. At some temperature, covalent solids are semiconductors of electricity. Si and Ge are insulators at O0K.
Properties of Covalent bond & Solids:

1.Covalent bonds are directional. As change in direction results in formation
of different substance.
2.Depending on the bond strength, they exhibit various physical properties.

3.Covalent solids are hard & brittle.
4.When compared with ionic solids, these have relatively low M.P & B.P.
5.Pure covalent solids are good insulators of electricity at low temperatures.

6.They are soluble in non-polar solvents.
7.These are transparent to long wavelengths radiation but opaque to short
wavelengths.
8.When covalent crystals are doped with certain impurities, they become
semi-conductors.
9.E.g.: S, I, Ge, Si, Diamond and Graphite.
Comparison between Ionic and Covalent solids:

Ionic Solids
These are formed when the

atoms
of
two
different
elements transfer the electrons
among them to become +ve
and ve ions.
The bonds are non-directional.
The bonds are relatively
stronger.
Possess high m.p and high b.p.
Soluble in polar solvents.
Not very hard.
Eg: NaCl, KBr, Al2O3.
Covalent solids
Covalent solids are formed

between the atoms of same
elements by the sharing of
electrons between them.
The bonds are directional.
The bonds are relatively
weaker.
Comparatively lower m.p and
b.p.
Soluble in non-polar solvents.
Very hard.
Eg: Diamond, Ge, Si.
Metallic bonding is the attraction between cations and a sea of

delocalised electrons. The cations are arranged to form a lattice,
with the electrons free to move between them.
Eg: Sodium , Copper, Gold, Silver, and Aluminum etc.
Bonding in metals
Motion of free electrons
Properties of Metallic bond:

1.
Metallic bonds hold the atoms together in metals.
2.
Metallic solids are malleable and ductile.
3.
Metallic bonds are relatively weak.
4.
Metallic bond is non-directional.
5.
Metals are opaque to light.
6.
Metallic solids are not soluble in polar and non-polar solvents.
7.
Metallic bonds are weaker than ionic and covalent bonds but
stronger than hydrogen and van-der waals bonds.
Hydrogen bonding
Covalently bonded atoms produce an electric dipole with hydrogen
atom as the positive end of the dipole if a bond arises as a result of electrostatic
force of attraction between atoms, it is known as Hydrogen bonding
E.g.: Water molecule in the form of ice.
Covalent Bond
Water molecule
Water molecules in the form of ice
Explanation of water molecule (H2O):
Because of the greater electro negativity of the oxygen the

electrons tend to stay closer to oxygen atom than the hydrogen
atoms.
Hence the oxygen atoms act as the negative end of the dipole while
hydrogen atoms act as the positive end.
The positive end attracts the negative end of another water
molecule and thus bonding the molecules together.
Properties of Hydrogen bond:

1. The hydrogen bonds are directional.
2. The bonding is relatively strong as compared to other
dipole-dipole interactions.
3. Hydrogen bonded solids have low M.P.
4. Since no valance electrons are available in such solids they
are good insulators of electricity.

5. They are soluble in polar & non-polar solvents.
6. They are transparent to light.
7. Eg: Water molecule in the form of ice, Ammonia molecules.
Vander Waals Bonding

Weak and temporary (fluctuating)
Dipole bonds are known as van der waals

bonds.
E.g.: Solid neon, Solid argon.

If the symmetrical distribution of
electrons around the nucleus is disturbed,
the centers of positive and negative
charges may not coincide at that moment

giving rise to weak fluctuating dipole.
A weak attractive force exists between the opposite ends of the dipoles in the
neighboring atoms, which lead to van der waals bonding.
Properties of solids with vanderwaals bond:

1.
Vander waals bonds are non-directional.
2.
Vander waals bonded solids have very low melting point.
3.
Since no valance electrons are available, such solids are good

insulators of electricity.
4.
They are soluble in both polar and non-polar liquids.
5.
They are usually transparent to light.
6.
Vander waals bonding is weaker than the hydrogen bonding.
Forces between atoms

When two atoms are far away there is no interaction between atoms, when
they approach each other then there exist attractive and repulsive forces.
(i) Attractive force ( Fa): When atoms approach each other first there exist
attractive force between atoms. Attraction force is inversely proportional to
some power of the distance between the atoms.
____________ (1)
Where A and M are constants. r = Interatomic distance.
The variation of attractive force between atoms with distance r
(ii) Repulsive force (Fr): When they approach about few atomic diameters then
their exists repulsive force. Repulsive force is inversely proportional to some
power of the distance between the atoms.
____________ (2)
Where B and N are constants. r = Interatomic distance.
The variation of repulsive force between atoms with distance r
The Resultant force is given by
_____________(3) ( N>M)
Where A, B, M and N are constants that depend on the type of bond.
The first term represents the attractive force and the second the repulsive force.
The variation of forces between atoms with distance r

First there exists attractive force.attraction force dominates until they reach equillibrium
distance.if they approach further repulsive force predominates and pushes back to
equilibrium distance r0.
Equilibrium spacing (r0):

__________(4)
(Since attractive force and repulse force balances each other)
______________(5).
Cohesive Energy
Cohesive Energy: The amount of energy required to dissociate
molecule into its constituent atoms is known as cohesive energy. To find

cohesive energy we have to find lattice energy or equilibrium energy i.e.,
the P.E of molecule at equilibrium spacing.

The potential energy is due to the interaction between the two
atoms and it depends on the interaction spacing. The potential energy is,
The variation of P.E with r.
Calculation of Cohesive Energy

Potential energy for two atoms is given as,
When the distance of separation is r0 the energy is minimum.
The P.E of molecule at equilibrium spacing is known as Cohesive Energy .
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Braggs Law
D
C
Now the Path difference between PAQ and PCQ is

given by
= DC + CE
From ADC , Sin = DC/ AC , DC = AC Sin = d Sin
From ACE , Sin = CE/ AC , CE = AC Sin = d Sin
From above equations = d Sin + d Sin = 2 d Sin
But =
n = 2 d Sin
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Note: The limitation for this law is

2d
otherwise diffraction maximum is not
observed.
[.: If n=1, =90, n =2d sin
=2d.
This Is maximum value of ]
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X - Ray Diffraction methods

There are Two main X -ray diffraction
methods by which crystal structure can be
analyzed.
They are
1.Laue method
2.Powder method
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Laues Method
White XRays
s s
1
Single Crystal
Photographic
film
Laues Pattern
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X-Rays was discovered by Wilhelm

Rontgen in 1895
X-Rays are electromagnetic radiation

having small wavelength (about 1 A)
X-Rays have more energy.
X-Rays have more penetration power.
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When fast moving electrons [or gamma rays] hit on

a metal target, a small percentage of their kinetic
energy is converted into radiation. This radiation is
called X-rays.
These X-Rays are of two types.
(i) Continuous X-Rays:
These rays are not monochromatic and occurs band
of wavelengths or frequencies.
(ii) Characteristic X-Rays:
These rays have specific wavelength and they are
highly intense. These radiations are named as k, k,
k,.etc. k radiation is highly intense and hence
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used in diffraction studies.
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Why we are using X-rays for crystal diffraction?

X-Rays are used to study the structures of crystals
because the wavelengths of X-Rays (1A) is comparable
to inter planar spacing or inter atomic spacing or inter
atomic size (2 to 3A)
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Laue Method
White XRays
s1 s
Plan
e
Single Crystal
Photographic
film
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From figure
Tan 2 = R / D
2 = R / D
(Since is small)
= R / 2D
Knowing and observing Laue pattern we
can analyze the crystal structure of the specimen.
Merits:
1.
2.
Laues Pattern
It is useful to determine the orientation of the internal

arrangement of the atoms in a crystal.
It is used to study the crystal Symmetry.
Demerits:
It is not suitable to determine the crystal structure
and properties of the crystal.
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2. Powder Method
or
( Debye- Scherer method )
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Each Cone is formed due to same set of parallel planes
Specimen
(In the form of Powder)
Monochromatic X- Rays
Circular photographic film

(Debye- Sherrer camera)
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Each Cone is formed due to

same set of parallel planes
( Powder)
Circular photographic film

(Debye- Sherrer camera)
Monochromatic XRays
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From figure
4 = S / R
= S / 4R
By knowing values of different cones, the inter planar spacing(d)
can be calculated. (n = 2dsin)
Knowing inter planar spacing of different planes and match any set
containing three values(d1, d2, d3 ) with standard values of
(d100:d110:d111), try this for different combinations one can find type of
lattice ( SC,BCC,FCC).
Knowing -------------- d can be calculated. (n = 2d100sin)
Knowing d of different planes ----- (d100:d110:d111) One can find type of lattice
(SC,BCC,FCC)
Knowing type of lattice ------ One can know number of atoms n.
Knowing no. of atoms ,molecular weight M , density ---- One can find lattice parameter a
USES: It is used to determine

1. Size of the unit cell a
2.Interplanar spacing d
3.Type of the lattice
4.Presence of impurities, distortions.
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DEFECTS IN
CRYSTALS
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1. Point defects
(0-dimensional)
Defects
(i) INIONIC DEFECTS :

1.Vacancies
2.Interstitial impurity
3.Compositional defects.
a. Substitutional
b. interstitial
4.Electronic defects
(ii) IONIC DEFECTS:
1. Schottky
2.Frenkel
2. Line defects
(1-dimensional)
1. Edge dislocation
2. Screw dislocation
3. Surface defects
(2-dimensional)
1.Grain boundaries
2.Tilt boundaries
3.Twin boundaries
4.Stacking faults
4. Volume defects
(3-dimensional)
1.Cracks
2.Voids or air bubbles
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1. Vacancy Defect :
It is formed by missing of an
atom in the atomic sight.
Missing
of
an atom
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1. Point defects
(0-dimensional)
Defects
(i) INIONIC DEFECTS :

1.Vacancies
2.Interstitial impurity
3.Compositional defects.
a. Substitutional
b. interstitial
4.Electronic defects
(ii) IONIC DEFECTS:
1. Schottky
2.Frenkel
2. Line defects
(1-dimensional)
1. Edge dislocation
2. Screw dislocation
3. Surface defects
(2-dimensional)
1.Grain boundaries
2.Tilt boundaries
3.Twin boundaries
4.Stacking faults
4. Volume defects
(3-dimensional)
1.Cracks
2.Voids or air bubbles
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4.Electronic defects :
It is formed by the errors in charge
distribution in solids
Ex: Zinc Oxide
Zn +2 O-2
O-2
Zn +3 O-1
O-2
Zn +1 O-3
Zn +2
Zn +2 O-2
Zn +2
This is due to presence of a vacancy or

an interstitial impurity or due to high
temperature.
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(ii) IONIC DEFECTS:
1. Schottky Defect
2.Frenkel Defect
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1. Schottky Defect
It is formed by missing of one anion
and one cation. It is a type of
Cation
vacancy.
Anion
Missing of anion & cation
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2.Frenkel Defect
It is formed by occupying the void space by
interstitial ion (usually cations are smaller than
anions. So cations can occupy empty space between
Cation
the atoms)
Anion
Interstitial ion
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1. Edge dislocations
Fig (a): Perfect Crystal: In a perfect crystal, atoms

are arranged in both vertical and horizontal planes
parallel to the side faces.
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1. Edge dislocations
Fig (b): Crystal with Edge dislocation: If one of

these vertical planes does not extended to full
length but ends in between, within the crystal as
shown in figure, it is called edge dislocation.
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Symbol indicates the
dislocation starts from top to
bottom (Positive dislocation)
Symbol indicates the dislocation

starts from bottom to top (Negative
dislocation)
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2. Screw locations
Fig (a): Perfect Crystal
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2. Screw locations
Fig (b): Crystal with Edge dislocation

If some part of the crystal is displaced spirally from the rest of
the crystal then the dislocation is called screw dislocation.
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If the dislocation is clockwise then the

dislocation is called Right hand side
dislocation.
If the dislocation is anti clockwise then the

dislocation is called Left hand side
dislocation.
Burger vector
The magnitude and the direction
of the dislocation is defined by a
vector called the Burgers vector.
Consider two crystals one

perfect and another with edge
dislocation.
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Fig 2: Crystal with

Edge dislocation
Fig 1: Perfect crystal
QP = b
= Burger Vector
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From fig. 1.
Starting from the point P, we go up by x steps, then
move towards right by y steps, and move down by x
steps and finally move towards left by y steps to reach
the starting point P, the burgers circuit gets closed.
From fig 2.
We end up at Q instead of the starting point P.
Now we have to move an extra step QP to return to P
in order to close the burgers circuit.
The magnitude and the direction of the step defines the

Burgers vector (BV)
Burger Vector = QP = b
The Burgers vector is perpendicular to the edge
dislocation line.
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Burgur vector in Screw locations

p
Fig (a): Perfect Crystal
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1. Vacancy Defect :
It is formed by missing of an
atom in the atomic sight.
Missing
of
an atom
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2. Interstitial impurity defect:

It is formed by occupying void space by
interstitial atom.
Void space
Mother
atom
Interstitial
atom
It may be
mother
atom or
foreign
atom
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3. Compositial defects:
Basically these are two types
a) Substitutional Impurity
b) Interstitial Impurity
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a) Substitutional Impurity:
It is formed by occupying
mother atom by foreign
atom
Foreign
atom
Mother
atom
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b) Interstitial impurity defect:

It is formed by occupying void space by
interstitial atom without disturbing the atomic site.
Interstitial
atom
It is foreign
atom
Void space
Mother
atom
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p
Q
The Burgers vector parallel to the screw

dislocation line.
QP = b
= Burger Vector
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INTRODUCTION
Solids can be broadly classified into Crystalline and Noncrystalline or Amorphous.
In crystalline solids the atoms are arranged in a periodic

manner in all three directions, where as in non crystalline the
arrangement is random.
Non crystalline substances are isotropic and they have no

directional properties.
Crystalline solids are anisotropic and they exhibit varying

physical properties with directions.
Crystalline solids have sharp melting points where as

amorphous solids melts over a range of temperature.
A Space lattice is defined as an infinite array of points in

three dimensions in which every point has surroundings
identical to that of every other point in the array.
Three dimensional lattice

Lattice planes
Lattice lines
Lattice points
BASIS
A group of atoms or molecules identical in composition
is called the Basis.
If basis associated with every lattice point, crystal structure is generated.
The basis provides number of atoms per lattice point.

Example: In NaCl the basis is diatomic and in CaF2 the basis is triatomic.
Lattice + basis = Crystal structure
UNIT CELL
A unit cell is the smallest geometric figure, the
repetition of which gives the actual crystal structure.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
AXES
The lines drawn parallel to the
lines of intersection of any three faces of
the unit cell which do not lie in the same
plane are called Crystallographic axes.
PRIMITIVES:
Z
a, b and c are the dimensions

of an unit cell and are known as
Primitives.
INTERFACIAL ANGLES:
The angles between three
crystallographic axes are known as
Interfacial angles , and .
LATTICE PARAMETERS
The primitives and
interfacial angles together
called as lattice parameters.
NOTE
1. Primitives decides the size of the unit cell.

2. Interfacial angles decides the shape of the unit cell.
PRIMITIVE CELL
The unit cell which is formed by primitives is called primitive cell.
A primitive cell contain only one atom per unit cell.
NOTE:
c
All primitive cells are unit cells

but not all unit cells are
primitive cells.
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BRAVIAS LATTICES
There are only fourteen distinguishable

ways of arranging the points independently in
three dimensional space and these space lattices
are known as Bravais lattices and they are
belongs to Seven Crystal Systems.
Crystal System
Relation
between
primitives
Relation between
Interfacial angles
Bravias
lattices
No. of
bravias
lattices
Example
Cubic
a= b= c
= = = 90
P, I, F
NaCl
Tetragonal
a= b c
= = = 90
P,I
TiO2
Orthorhombic
a b c
= = = 90
P,I,F,C
KNo3
Monoclinic
a b c
= = 90, 90
P,C
CaSo42H2o
Triclinic
a b c
90
K2Cr2O7
Trigonal
a= b= c
= = 90
calcite
Hexagonal
a= b c
= = 90, = 120
SiO2
Total=14
P Primitive
C Base Centered
I Body Centered
F Face Centered
1.Cubic crystal system
2.Tetragonal crystal system
3.Ortho Rhombic crystal system
4.Monoclinic crystal system
5.Triclinic crystal system
6.Trigonal crystal system
Rhombohedral or Trigonal System
Hexagonal crystal system
Crystal Structures
1.Nearest neighbour distance:

r
The distance between the centers of two

nearest neighboring atoms is called nearest
neighbour distance.
rr
2.Atomic Radius:
Half the distance between two nearest neighboring atoms in a
crystal
3.Coordination Number:
Co-ordination number is defined as the number of equidistant
nearest neighbors that an atom has in a given structure.
4.Packing Fraction or Atomic

Packing Factor (P.F or A.P.F)
Atomic Packing factor is the ratio of volume occupied by
the atoms in an unit cell to the total volume of the unit
cell. It is also called packing fraction.
Vol. occupied by theatoms in an unit cell
Packing Factor or A.P.F
Total volume of a unit cell
Number of atoms in unit cell Volume of one atom

1.SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE
(i) The unit cell of this structure has atoms only

at the corners of the cube.
(ii) Number of atoms per unit

cell
(8 x 1/8) =1
(iii) Atomic radius r = a / 2
(iv) Co-ordination number = 6
(v) Packing factor

Packing Factor or P.F

4 3
1 r
3
3
a
Where
wherea
2r
4 3
1 r
3
(2r )3
0.52
(52%)
(vii) Example: Polonium.
(i) Structure: The unit cell of this structure has one atom at
each corner and one atom at the center of the cube.

cell
(8 x 1/8) + I = 2
(iii) Atomic radius
r = 3a /4
(iV) Co-ordination number = 8
3a
4r
2a
a
B
2r
C
(v). Atomic packing factor


4 3
2 r
3
a3
3
wherer
a
where
4
4
3 3
2 ( a)
3
4
( a )3
0.68
(68%)
Ex: Na, lithium and Chromium.
(i) Structure: This type of unit cell contains 8 corner atoms

and 6 face centered atoms.
(ii) Number of atoms :
(8 x 1/8) + 1/2 X 6 = 4
6
C
2r
a/2
A
(ii) Atomic radius
r = a / 22
7
10
1
11
12
8
4
(v).Atomic packing factor


4
4 r3
3
a3
where r
a
2 2
4
a 3
4 (
)
3 2 2
( a )3
0.74
(74%)
Ex: Copper , Aluminum, silver and Lead
Diamond structure:
(i) Structure: Diamond is a combination of two
interpenetrating FCC - sub lattices.
One starts from X (0,0,0)

and
the other starts from Z ( a/4 ,a/4, a/4)
How to draw this

difficult structure?
1/2
0
3/4
1/2
1/4
1/2
3/4
1/4
0
1/2
y
X
a
X (0,0,0)
Z( , , )
1/2
0
3/4
1/2
1/4
1/2
3/4
1/4
0
1/2
y
X
a
X (0,0,0)
Z( , , )
(ii)Number of atoms per unit cell

(8 x 1/8) + (1/2 X 6) + 4 = 8.
Z
a/4
X
a/4
(iii) Atomic radius r = 3a / 8.
(iv) Co-ordination number = 4.
a/4


4 3
8 r
3
a3
Where
3
r
a
8
4
3 3
8 (
a)
3
8
( a )3
0.34
(34%)
Ex: Ge, Si and Diamond
Nacl Crystal is an ionic crystal. It consists of two

FCC sub lattices.
One of the chlorine ion having its origin at the

(0, 0, 0) point and other of the sodium ion having
its origin at (a/2,0,0).
Each ion in a NaCl lattice has six nearest

neighboring ions at a distance a/2, i,e its Coordination number is 6.
Sodium Chloride structure
Each unit cell of a sodium chloride having

four sodium ions and four chlorine ions.
Thus there are four molecules in each unit
cell.
Positions :
Cl : (0,0,0) (1/2,1/2,0) (1/2,0,1/2) (0,1/2,1/2)
Na : (1/2,1/2,1/2),(0,0,1/2) (0,1/2,0)(1/2,0,0)
Square brackets [ ] are used to indicate the directions
The digits in a square bracket indicate the indices of

that direction.
A negative index is indicated by a bar over the digit .

Ex: for positive x-axes[ 100 ]
for negative x-axes[ 100 ]
z
[001]
[000]
[010]
y
[100]
x
Fundamental directions in crystals
Reciprocals of intercepts made by the plane which are

simplified into the smallest possible numbers or integers
and represented by (h k l ) are known as Miller Indices.
(or)
The Miller indices are the three smallest integers which
have the same ratio as the reciprocals of the intercepts
having on the three axes.
These indices are used to indicate the different sets of
parallel planes in a crystal.
Find the intercepts of desired plane on the three Coordinate axes.

Ex: (pa, qb, rc)
where a, b, c are the primitives.
Divide the intercepts by the primitive vectors.
(pa/a, qb/b, rc/c) =(p, q, r)
Take the reciprocals of these numbers which is equal
to 1/p:1/q:1/r.
Convert these reciprocals into whole numbers by
multiplying each with their L.C.M , to get the
smallest whole number.
These smallest whole numbers are Miller indices
(h k l) of the crystal.
Important features of miller indices

When a plane is parallel to any axis, the intercept of the
plane on that axis is infinity. Hence its miller index for
that axis is zero.
When the intercept of a plane on any axis is negative, a

bar is put on the corresponding miller index.
All equally spaced parallel planes have the same index
number (h k l).
If a plane passes through origin, it is defined in terms of a
parallel plane having non-zero intercept.
Intercepts of the plane (2a, b, c)

z
After dividing the intercepts by the

primitive vectors then (2,2,1).
b
The reciprocal of these values are

given by (1/2,1/2,1).
LCM is equal to 2.
2a
Multiplying the reciprocals with

LCM we get Miller indices
(1 1 2).
c
y
NOTE: NEVER USE , BETWEEN

(h k l) PARAMETERS
Construction of [100] plane

Intercepts of the Plane are (1, , )
1 1 1
Reciprocals of intercepts are ( , , )
1
Miller indices : (100 )
[1 0 0]
plane
x
y
Set of (100) parallel planes
ALL PARALLEL PLANES HAVING THE SAME MILLER INDICES
Construction of (010) plane

Intercepts of the Plane are (,1, )
1 1 1
Rèciproca ls of intercepts are ( , , )
1
x
[010]
y
plane.
Set of ( 0 1 0 ) parallel planes

Intercepts of the Plane are (, ,1)
1 1 1
1
Miller indices : (001)
[ 001 ]
plane

z
( 001 )
Intercepts of the Plane are (1,1, )

1 1 1
1 1
[110]
x
x
[110]
y
Construction of ( 0 0) planes

1 1 1
, )
zReciprocal s of intercepts are ( ,
1
x
y
Intercepts of the planes are (1,1,1)

Reciprocals of intercepts are (1/1,1/1,1/1)
Miller indices:(111)
x
(111)
plane
How to draw the planes by using Miller Indices?
Step1:
Write the miller indices
Step2:
Take the reciprocals of miller indices
Step3:
Multiply the numbers with their primitives.
Step4:
Draw the three axes with a cube and put a

points on these axes.
Step5:
Join all these points and shade that region

which is our required plane.
Example: Draw (100) plane

Step1:
Step2:
Step3:
Step4:
Step5:
(100)
(1/1 1/0 1/0) = (1 )
(1a b c)
(a )
Draw the axes with cube and represent the
point at a and means which is parallel to
those axes
y
Step2: If step 2 contains fractions

for example (1 1/2 1/3)
Step3: multiply with primitives then (a b/2 c/3)
EXERCISE
Find miller indices of following planes
y
z
y
EXERCISE
y
z
y
Crystal Directions
The general representation of crystal directions are [ h k l ]
z
[ 011 ]
[ 001 ]
[ 101 ]
[ 111 ]
[ 100 ]
[ 200 ]
x
[ 010 ]
[ 110 ]
Let ( h k l ) be the miller indices of the plane

ABC.
Let ON=d be a normal to the plane passing

through the origin 0.
c C
l
Let this ON make angles , and with x, y

and z axes respectively.
Imagine the reference plane passing
through the Origin o and the
next plane cutting the intercepts
a/h, b/k and c/l on x, y and z axes.a
B
b
k
OA = a/h, OB = b/k, OC = c/l

A normal ON is drawn to the plane ABC from the
origin o. the length d of this normal from the origin to
the plane will be the inter planar separation.
ON
d
from
a
OA ONA
( )
h
ON
d
cos
b
OB ONB
from
( )
h
ON
d
cos
c
OC
from ONC
( )
h
cos
Where cos, cos ,cos are directional cosines of

,, angles.
cosines
cos 2According
cos 2 to law
cosof2 directional
1
d 2
d 2
d 2
[
] [
] [
] 1
a
b
c
( )
( )
( )
h
k
l
2
2
2
h
k
l
d 2{ 2 2 2 } 1
a
b
c
1
2
h
k
l
2 2
2
a
b
c
In cubic system as we know that a = b = c, so the

expression becomes
a
h k l
2
Topics
beyond
syllabus
Structure of Cesium chloride:

Cscl is an ionic Compound.
The lattice points of CsCl are two
interpenetrating simple cubic
lattices.
One sub lattice occupied by cesium
ions and another occupied by Cl
ions.
The co-ordinates of the ions are
Cs : (000),(100),(010),(001),(110),
(110),(011),(111).
Cl : (1/2,1/2,1/2).
Structure of a Zinc Sulphide:
ZnS structure is interpenetration of two

FCC lattices where
One of zinc and other is of Sulphor
atoms.
This structure is similar to
Diamond Crystal structure
Zn
Thank
You
INTRODUCTION
The Quantum free electron theory explained all the properties of

metals but it fails to explain why some solids behave as conductors,
semi conductors and insulators. This is the reason for the
development of Band theory.
The quantum free electron theory of metals assumes that a
conduction electron in a metal experiences a constant(zero) potential
and so it is completely free to move about in the crystal, restrained
only by the surface of the crystal.
The environment of the electron is slightly different from what we

assumed in free electron theory, the boundary conditions are
slightly different and those are called cyclic or periodic boundary
conditions.
Inside a real crystal there is a periodic arrangement of positively
charged ions through which the electrons move.
Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the free
electrons moves in a periodic field provided by the lattice. This
theory is also called Band theory of solids.
The periodic potential of the electron in a crystal is shown in below
fig.
The solution of sinusoidal type is not easily tractable, so Kronig and

Penny introduced simpler model for the potential variation.
The concept of discrete allowed electron energies that occur in a

single atom and large number of allowed energies of electrons are
explained by band theory of solids.
Electron in a periodic potential Bloch

theorem
A crystalline solid consists of a lattice which is composed of a large
number of positive ion cores at regular intervals and the conduction

electrons move freely throughout the lattice.
The variation of potential inside the metallic crystal with the periodicity of
the lattice is explained by Bloch theorem.
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
Periodic positive ion cores

Inside metallic crystals.
One dimensional periodic

potential in crystal.
The Schrodinger wave equation for the motion of electron in potential

field is given by
d 2 8 2 m
[ E V ] 0
2
2
dx
h
Where the potential function V(x) has the periodicity of the lattice given
by
V ( x) V ( x a )
Where a is the periodicity of the lattice.

Bloch given the solution for an electron moving in a periodic potential is
( x) U k ( x) exp(ikx)
given by
Where U (x) is a periodic with periodicit y of a crystallattice.
k
U (x) U (x a)
k
k
(x Na) U(x Na) exp (ik(x Na))
(x Na) U (x) exp (ikx) exp (ikNa)
k
(x Na) (x) exp (ikNa)
This is referred to as Bloch theorem
KRONIG PENNEY MODEL
According to Kronig - Penney model the electrons move in a periodic

potential field provided by the lattice.
The potential of the solid varies periodically with the periodicity of

space lattice.
V0
For region 1 & 2

1
V ( x) 0 0 x a
V ( x) v0 b x 0
+
-b
+
a
V0
-b
For region 1
For region 2
d 2
8 2 m
[ E ] 0
2
2
dx
h
d 2
2
0.....(1)
dx 2
8 2 m
2
where
E
2
h
d 2
8 2 m
[ E V0 ] 0
2
2
dx
h
d 2
2
0.....( 2)
dx 2
8 2 m
2

[V0 E ]
2
h
According to Bloch, the electron moving in a periodic potential

then the solution of a Schrodinger equation is
( x) U k ( x)eikx .....(a)
After substituting the Bloch solution in equations (1) & (2) and
then simplify the solution we will get the final equation is
sin a
cos ka P
cos a
a
mV0 ab
where., P
2
Where P is the scattering power of the potential barrier and
Vob is called barrier strength
sin a
P
cos a cos ka
a
Conclusions
1. The motion of electrons in a periodic lattice is characterized
by the bands of allowed energy bands separated by forbidden
regions.
2. As the value of a increases, the width of allowed energy
bands also increases and the width of the forbidden bands
decreases. i.e., the first term of equation decreases on the
average with increasing a .
3.
Let us now consider the effect of varying barrier strength P. if

V0b is large ,i.e. if p is large ,the function described by the left
hand side of the equation crosses +1 and -1 region as shown
in figure. thus the allowed bands are narrower and the
forbidden bands are wider.
n
a n , cos a cos Ka
Ka n ; K
a
when
with
these values of K are points of discontinuity in the E-K curve
for electrons in the crystal.
If P the allowed band reduces to one single energy level; that is we

are back to the case of discrete spectrum existing in isolated atoms.
P then sin a=0;

Or
a=n
n 2 2
2mE

a2
2
n 2 2 2
n2h2
E
2
2ma
8ma 2
2
Here E is independent of K
The energy levels in this case are discrete and the result is similar to the
energy levels of a particle in a constant potential box of atomic
dimensions.
If P 0 no forbidden energy levels exist, all energies are allowed to the

electrons. That is this is the case of completely free particle.
cos a cos ka
p0
k ; 2 k 2
k2 2
2mE
2
2 2
h2
2 2
E ( )k ( 2 )( )
2m
8 m
h2 1
E( ) 2
2m
h2 p 2
p2 1 2
E( ) 2
mv
2m h
2m 2
Brillouin zones
The Brillouin zone is a representation of permissive

values of k of the electrons in one, two and three
dimensions.
Thus the energy spectrum of an electron moving in the

presence of a periodic potential fields is divided into
allowed zones and forbidden zones.
E-k diagram :
Energy gap
Allowed
bands
Energy gap
First
Brillouin zone
2
a
3
a
In One Dimensional case

k= n/a
First Brillouin zone
Second Brillouin zone
k=-/a to +/a
k= -/a to -2/a and +/a to +2/a
In Two Dimensional case

kxn1+kyn2=(n12+n22)/a
First Brillouin zone
Second Brillouin zone
In Three Dimensional case
kx= -/a to +/a and ky=-/a to +/a

kx= -/a to -2/a and +/a to +2/a
ky= -/a to -2/a and +/a to +2/a
kxn1+kyn2 +kzn3=(n12+n22 +n32)/a
a. Variation of E with K
k0
k0
k
v
b. Variation of v with K
k0
k0
Effective mass of the Electron

The effective mass of an electron arises due to periodic potential
provided by the lattice.
When an electron moving in a periodic potential of lattice is
accelerated by an electric field, then the mass of the electron varies, it is
called effective mass of the electron m*.
Consider an electron of charge q and mass m acted on by electric field.
f qE
ma qE
qE
a
m
Acceleration is not a constant in the periodic lattice of the crystal so

mass of the electron replaced by its effective mass m * when it is
moving in a periodic potential or crystal lattice.
d
vg
dk
where
2
angular . frequency
t
k wave.vector
d
vg
dk
d
vg 2
dk
E
where.. 2 .,
h
2 dE
vg
h dk
1 dE
vg
dk
dv g
dt
1 d 2E 1
a
dk dt
1 d 2 E dk
a
dk 2 dt
sin ce., k p
dp
and ..
F
dt
p
)
1d E
)
a
(
dk 2
dt
1 d 2 E dp
a 2
( )
2
dk
dt
1 d 2E
a 2
F
2
dk
2
d(
1 d 2E
a 2 2 F
dk
F
2
2
a d E 2
dk
2
m 2
d E 2
dk
(c)Variation of m* with k
m*
k0
k0
Near k = 0, the effective mass approaches m.

As the value of k increases, the effective mass m* increases, and
reaches its maximum value at the point of inflection on E-k curve.
Above point of inflection, m* is negative and as k/a, it decreases

to a small negative value.
Therefore, near the bottom of the band, the effective mass m* has
constant positive value. Beyond the point of inflection, m* becomes
negative. So, effective mass m* may be greater, or smaller or even
negative than the mass m of the electron.
This effective mass concept introduces the concept of hole.
(d)Degrees of freedom
m m d 2E
f k * 2 2
m
dk
fk
k0
k0
Origin of energy band formation in solids
When we consider isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and
have discrete, sharp energy levels.
When two identical atoms are brought closer the outer most orbits of
these atoms overlap and interact.
If more atoms are brought together more levels are formed and for a
solid of N atoms , each of the energy levels of an atom slipts into N
levels of energy.
The levels are so close together that they form an almost continuous
band.
The width of this band depends on the degree of overlap of electrons

of adjacent atoms and is largest for outer most atomic electrons.
E1
E1
E2
E1
E2
E3
N atoms
N energy levels
The energy bands in solids are important in determining

many of physical properties of solids. The allowed
energy bands
(1) Valance band

(2) Conduction band
The band corresponding to the outer most orbit is called

conduction band and the next inner band is called
valence band. The gap between these two allowed bands
is called forbidden energy gap.
Classifications of materials into

Conductors, Semiconductors & Insulators:
On the basis of magnitude of forbidden band or energy gap the

solids are classified into insulators, semiconductors and conductors.
Insulators:
In case of insulators, the forbidden energy band is very wide as

shown in figure.
Due to this fact the electrons cannot jump from valance band to
conduction band.
Semi conductors:
In semi conductors the forbidden energy ( band ) gap is very

small as shown in a figure.
Ge and Si are the best examples of semiconductors.
Forbidden ( band ) is of the order of 0.7ev & 1.1ev.
Conductors:
In conductors there is no forbidden gap. Valence and conduction

bands overlap each other as shown in figure above.
The electrons from valance band freely enter into conduction
band.
Conduction band
Forbidden gap
INSULATORS
Valance band
Conduction band
SEMI CONDUCTORS
Forbidden gap
Conduction band
Valance band
Valance band
CONDUCTORS
If you cant explain it simply, you dont understand it well

enough ---- Albert Einstein
Classical Mechanics :
This is one of the oldest and
largest subjects in science, technology and
engineering. which deals with the motion of
macroscopic objects such as space crafts,
galaxies, stars, objects on the earth, etc. But it fails
Newton
to explain the motion of microscopic particles.
Quantum Mechanics :
This arises due to the failure of classical
mechanics, in explaining motion of microscopic particles
such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. which can be
possible by using quantum
mechanics.
de Broglie hypothesis:
In 1924 the scientist named de Broglie
introduced the concept of dual nature of matter
Just like radiation.
The material particles like electrons,
protons and neutrons ,when they are in motion behaves
like waves
called matter waves or de Broglie waves.
He derived an expression for the

wavelength of matter waves on the analogy of
radiation.
According to Plancks radiation law

E h
Eh
(1)
Where c is a velocity of light

and is wave length.
According to Einstein mass-energy relation

Max Planck
2
E mc (2), from (1) & (2)
mc h
2
mc
h
Where p is momentum of a photon.

Albert Einstein
The above relation is called de Broglies

relation or matter wave equation. This equation is
applicable to all atomic particles.
If E is kinetic energy of a particle,

1
E mv 2
2
p2
E
2m
p 2mE
Hence the de Broglies wave length,

2mE
de Broglie wavelength associated with electrons:

Let us consider the case of an electron of mass m ,and
charge e being accelerated by a potential V volts.
If v is the velocity attained by the
1
2 eV
m
v
electron due to acceleration
The de Broglie wavelength,

=h/mv and
2eV
v
m
h
2eV
m
m
12.26 0
A
V
Characteristics of matter waves:

1. Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength
associated with it.
2. Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the
wavelength associated with it.
3. For v = 0, = . This means that only with moving
particle matter wave is associated.
4. Whether the particle is charged or not, matter

wave is associated with it. This reveals that these
waves are not electromagnetic but a new kind of
waves .
5. It
can be proved that the matter waves travel faster than

light.
We know that E h
and E mc2
2
mc
h mc2 and
h
mc2
w (
)
h
h
but
mv
mc2 h c 2
w (
)
h mv v
As the particle velocity v cannot exceed velocity of light
The wave velocity () is given by
c, is greater than velocity of light.
6. No single phenomenon exhibits both particle

nature and
wave nature simultaneously.
DAVISSON & GERMERS EXPERMENT:

Davisson and Germer first detected electron waves
in 1927.
They have also measured de Broglie wave lengths of
slow electrons by using diffraction methods.
Principle:
Based on the concept of wave nature of matter
fast moving electrons behave like waves.
Hence accelerated electron beam can be used
for diffraction studies in crystals.
filament
Anode
High
voltage
cathode
Nickel
crystal
Faraday
cylinder
Circular scale
Galvanometer
Experimental arrangement:
The electron gun G produces a fine beam of
electrons.
It consists of a heated filament F,which emits

electrons due to thermo ionic emission.
The accelerated electron beam of electrons are

incident on a nickel plate, called target T.
The target crystal can be rotated about an axis

parallel to the direction of incident electron beam.
The distribution of electrons is measured by using

a detector called faraday cylinder C and which is
moving along a graduated circular scale S.
A sensitive galvanometer connected to the

detector.
Results:
When the electron beam accelerated by 54 volts
was directed to strike the nickel crystal, a sharp
maximum in the electron distribution occurred at
an angle of 500 with the incident beam.
For that incident beam the diffracted angle

becomes 650
For a nickel crystal the inter planer separation ,

d=0.091nm.
650
Current------
V = 54v
500
Scattered angle
250
250
According to Braggs law

2dsin = n
2 x 0.091 x sin650 = n
= 0.165nm.
For a 54 volts , the de Broglie wave length associated

with the electron is given by
= 12.26 / V
= 12.26 / 54
= 0.166nm.
This is in excellent agreement with the experimental
value.
The Davison- Germer experiment provides a direct
verification of de Broglie hypothesis of the wave
nature of moving particle.
Incident beam
incident beam
Variation of Galvanometer current with

variation of angle between incident beam and beam
entering the cylinder is shown below.
500
500
50
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle:

It is impossible to specify precisely and
simultaneously the values of both members of
particular pair of physical variables that describe
the behavior of an atomic system.
This principle states that the product of

uncertainties in determining the both position
and momentum of particle is approximately
equal to h / 4.
i.e.
x p h / 4
where x is the uncertainty in determine the
position and p is the uncertainty in determining
momentum.
The relation shows that it is impossible to

determine simultaneously both the position and
momentum of the particle accurately.
The relation is universal and holds for all

canonically
conjugate physical quantities like angular
momentum- angle and time-energy .
J h / 4 , and
t E h / 4
Physical significance of the wave function:

The wave function has no direct physical meaning.
it is a complex quantity representing the variation of
a matter wave.
The wave function ( r, t ) describes the position of

a particle with respect to time.
It can be considered as probability amplitude since it

is used to find the location of the particle.
* or 2 is the probability density function. *

dx dy dz gives the probability of finding the
electron in the region of space between x and x +
dx, y and y + dy, zand z + dz.
dxdydz 1
*
( or )
dxdydz 1
The above relation shows thats a normalization

condition of particle.
Schrdinger time independent wave equation:

Schrdinger wave equation is a basic
principle of a fundamental quantum
mechanics.
This equation arrives at the equation
stating with de Broglies idea of matter
wave.
According to de Broglie, a particle of mass m and
moving with velocity v has a wavelength .
p
h
...........(1)
mv
According to classical physics, the displacement for a

moving wave along x-direction is given by
( x) A sin(
x) (2)
Where A is amplitude, x is position co-ordinate and

is wave length.
The displacement of debroglie wave associated with a
moving wave along x-direction is given by,
2
(r , t ) A sin( x) (3)
If is total energy of the system,

(4)
E = K.E + P.E ---------
According to de Broglies principle,
= h/p
(or)
p= h/
And
K.E = mv2
K.E = p2 / 2m
(or)
K.E = h2/2m
The total energy is given byE P.E K .E
h2
E V
2m2
h2
(E V )
..........(5)
2
2m
Where V is potential energy
Periodic changes in are responsible for the

wave nature of a moving particle, from (3)
d ( ) d
2
[ A sin
.x ]
dx
dx
d 2
2
A cos
.x
dx
d
2 2
2
[
] A sin(
.x )
2
dx
d
4
2
2 A sin[ .x]
2
dx
d
4
2
2
dx
d 2
2
2
2
4 dx
1
h
1 d
[ 2
] [E V ]
2
2m 4 dx
2
h 2 d 2
[E V ]
2
2
8 m dx
d 2
8 2 m
2 [ E V ]
2
dx
h
d 8 m
2 [ E V ] 0
2
dx
h
2
This is Schrdinger time independent wave

equation in
one dimension.
3-dimensionally it becomes..
2 2 2 8 2 m
2 2 2 [ E V ] 0
2
x
y
z
h
(or)
2 2 2 2m
2 2 2 [ E V ] 0
2
x
y
z
Particle in infinite square well potential :

Consider an electron of mass m in an infinitely
deep one-dimensional potential box with a width
of a units in which potential is constant and zero.
The potential is given by
v( x) 0,0 x L
v( x) , x 0 & x L
V=0
X=0
X=L
The motion of the electron in one dimensional

box can be described by the Schrdinger's
equation.
d 2 2m
2 [ E V ] 0 (1)
2
dx
Inside the box the potential V =0
d 2 2m
2 [ E ] 0 (2)
2
dx
The solution to equation (3) can be written as
( x) A sin kx B cos kx (3)

2
mE
d 2
2
wherek
k 2 0 2 (3)
2
dx
( x) A sin kx B cos kx (4)
Applying boundary conditions to (3)

When
x=0,
x=L,
= 0 i.e. ||2=0
= 0 i.e. ||2=0
0 = A sin k(0) + B cos K(0)

i.e. B = 0
Substitute B value equation (3)

(x) = A sin kx ---------(4)
Applying second boundary condition for

equation (3)
0 = A sin kL + (0)cos kL
A sin kL = 0
sin kL = 0
k L = n
K = n/L
Substitute k value in equation (4)

(x) = A sin (nx) / L ------ -(5)
To calculate unknown constant A, consider the
normalization
condition.
( x)
dx 1
0
L
nx
sin [
]dx 1
L
2
1
2nx
[1 cos(
)]dx 1
2
L
A2
L
2nx L
[x
sin
]0 1
2
2n
L
2
A
L 1
2
A 2/ L
Where normalized wave function is
nx
2 / L sin
(6)
L
The wave functions n and the corresponding

energies En which are often called Eigen functions
and Eigen values, describe the quantum state of
the particle.
The electron wave functions n and the

corresponding probability density functions |n|2
for the ground and first two excited states of an
electron in a potential well are shown in figure.
E3=9h2 / 8mL2
n =3
L/3
2L / 3
E2=4h2/8mL2
n=2
L/2
(2 / L)
E1=h2 / 8mL2
n=1
X=0
L/2
X=L
Particle in 3-D potential box:

Let us consider the case of a single particle, i.e., a
gas molecule of mass m, confined within a
rectangular box with edges parallel to X, Y and Z
axes as shown in fig.
The potential of this particle is given as

V (x, y, z) = 0, for
0<x<a
V (x, y, z) = 0, for
0 < y < b, and
V(x, y, z) = 0, for
0 < z < c , and
it is infinity, outside the box.
Schrodinger equation for this particle inside the

box is given by
2 2 2 2m
2 2 2 E 0
2
x
y
z
Solution to this is given as
( x, y, z ) X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
X ( x)
nx
2
Sin
X
a
a
Y ( y)
ny
2
Sin
Y
b
b
Z ( z)
2
nz
Sin
Z
c
c
Hence the solution now can be written

as
( x, y , z )
n y
nx
2
2
2
n z
Sin
X
Sin
Y
Sin
Z
a
a
b
b
c
c
The energy, eigen values along the 3-axes are given

by
2
nx 2 2
Ex
Ey
2ma 2
2
n y 2 2
2mb 2
2
nz 2 2
Ez
2mc 2
Hence the total energy of the particle in this

case is
E Ex E y Ez
2 2 nx2
n y2
2
nz2
h 2 nx2 n y nz2
E
( 2 2 2)
( 2 2 2)
2m a b c
8m a b c
In case of cube of box ,

a=b=c 2
h
2
2
2
E
(
n
n
x
y
z ), where nx , n y , nz 1, 2, 3,....
2
8ma
The wave function and probability density of this
particle within the box is shown below ____
Introduction
The subject which deals with the relationship between the overall
behavior of the system and the properties of the particles is called
Statistical Mechanics.
Statistical Mechanics provides the necessary mathematical language

for understanding the nature of material systems and formulates the
necessary equations for its behavior in terms of particle parameters
in a statistical way and ultimately arrive at the bulk property
estimations.
In order to solve the complex systems like molecules of gas, the
behavior of individual molecules and ultimately to get the
macroscopic behavior of entire system the statistical mechanics can
be used.
Physical system
Consider a system composed of N identical, non

interacting particles in a volume V .
let n1 particles posses energy E1 ,
n2 particles posses energy E2 . and so on.
Total energy of the system

E n1E1 n2 E2 n3 E3 ..........
E ni Ei & N ni
Macro states and Microstates of systems
Any state of a system as described by actual or

hypothetical observations of its Macroscopic statistical
properties is known as Macro state and it is specified
by ( N, V and E ) .
The state of system as specified by the actual

properties of each individual, elemental components
and it is permitted by the uncertainty principle is known
as Microstate .
To understand the macro states and micro states let us consider the
following example.
Macro states: Let us consider that the compartments represents same
property of the particle such as energy, momentum or velocity.
Here we assume compartments represents energy E of the particles.
Particles with energy E1 occupy compartment1 and the particles with
energy E2 occupy compartment2 and
Total no. of particles N is 3 (say a,b.c )
Compartments
Possible Distribution of Particles
E1
E2
Macro states
(0,3)
(1,2)
(2,1)
(3,0)
For a system with N particles, the possible distributions in two

compartments are (0,N), (1,N-1), (2,N-2),..,(N-1,1), (N,0). Thus the total
no. of macro states for N particle system is N+1
Micro states: the particles a, b, c are distinguishable.
Macro states
(0,3)
(1,2)
(2,1)
(3,0)
Possible Distribution of particles

E1
E2
a, b, c
b, c
c, a
a, b
b, c
c, a
a, b
a, b, c
Total = 4
For N particle system, the total no. of microstates are 2N
No. of Micro
states
1
3
1
Total = 8
Phase space
The three dimensional space in which the location of a particle is

completely specified by the three position coordinates, is known as
Position space.
small volume in a Position space dV dxdydz
The three dimensional space in which the momentum of a particle is

completely specified by the three momentum coordinates Px, Py and Pz is
known as Momentum space. (If the system is dynamic)
small volume in a momentum space d dpx dp y dpz
The combination of the position space and momentum space is known as

Phase space.
small volume in a phase space d dVd
Phase space volume:
pz
Consider pm be the maximum value of

the momentum of the particles in the system.
let px , py , pz represents the three mutually

perpendicular axes in the momentum space
as shown in figure.
Draw a sphere with an origin o as centre
and the maximum momentum pm as radius.p
pm
All the points within this sphere will have their momenta lying
between 0 and pm.
The Phase space volume is
4 3
V pmV
3
py
The total number of cells in phase space
Total volume of phase space

volume of one cell
V
n
d
The minimum volume of the phase space cell
d dVd dxdydzdp x dp y dpz

dxdp x dydp y dzdpz
Where h is a Plancks constant = 6.62510-34 Joule Sec

So the minimum volume can not be less than (6.62510-34 )3
Ensembles
An ensemble is defined as a collection of very large number of
macroscopically identical but essentially independent systems.
Macroscopically identical means that each of the systems constituting

an ensemble satisfies the same macroscopic conditions like volume,
energy, pressure, total number of particles etc.
Independent systems means that the systems constituting an ensemble
are mutually non-interacting.
The important and widely used ensembles are

1. Micro canonical ensemble
2. Canonical ensemble
3. Grand canonical ensemble
Micro Canonical ensemble:
It is the collection of a large number of essentially independent

systems having the same energy E, volume V, and total no. of
particles N.
The individual systems of a micro canonical ensemble are separated
by rigid, impermeable and well insulated walls, such that the values
of E, V, N for a particular system are not affected by the presence of
other systems.
Canonical ensemble:

systems having the same temperature T, volume V, and total no. of
particles N.
The individual systems of a canonical ensemble are separated by
rigid, impermeable and conducting walls, such that heat can be
exchanged between systems. As a result all the systems will arrive at
the common temperature T.
Grand Canonical ensemble:

systems having the same temperature T, volume V, and chemical
potential .
The individual systems of a Grand canonical ensemble are separated
by rigid, permeable and conducting walls, such that heat energy and
no. of particles can be exchanged between systems. As a result all the
systems will arrive at the common temperature T and chemical
potential .
Chemical potential also known as partial
molar free energy, is a form of potential
energy that can be absorbed or released
during a chemical reaction. It may also
change during a phase transition.
To study the different complex systems and their constituents or

particles behavior, it is very important to know the three kinds of
identical particles.
1.
Identical particle s of any spin which are separated in the

assembly and can be distinguish from one another.
Examples: Molecules of a gas of particles of this kind.
2.
Identical particles of zero or integral spin which can not be

distinguished from one another. These particles are known as
Bosons.
Examples: Photons, particles.
3.
Identical particles of Half integral spin and which can not be

distinguish from one another. These particles are known as
Fermions.
Examples: Electrons, protons, neutrons etc.
Statistical Distributions
The study of statistical mechanics can be classified as

1.
Classical Statistics or Maxwell - Boltzmann(M B) statistics
2.
Quantum statistics
The Quantum statistics, developed by Bose, Einstein, Fermi and Dirac,
can again classified into two categories.
(i)
Bose Einstein ( B E ) Statistics
(ii)
Fermi Dirac ( F D ) Statistics
The essential distinction between classical statistics and quantum
statistics is that in classical statistics the particles of a system are
distinguishable among themselves and are individually recognizable,
while in quantum statistics the particles are not distinguishable.
The distinguish between B E statistics and F D statistics, if we
divide a volume accessible to a system into a number of cells, then
according to B E statistics more than one particle can occupy the same
cell, while according to F D statistics, only one particle or none can
occupy the same cell.
Classical statistics (Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution):
Let us consider a system consisting of molecules of an ideal gas

under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure. Such a system
is governed by the law of Classical Maxwell-Boltzmann statistical
Distribution.
The main assumptions of M-B statistics are
The particles are identical and distinguishable.
The volume of each phase space cell chosen is extremely small and
hence chosen volume has very large number of cells.
Since cells are extremely small, each cell can have either one particle
or no particle though there is no limit on the number of particles
which can occupy a phase space cell.
The system is isolated which means that both the total number of
particles of the system and their total energy remains constant.
The state of each particle is specified either by its cell number in
phase space or instantaneous position and momentum co-ordinates.
Energy levels are continuous.
Consider a system having n distinguishable particles. Let these

particles divided into quantum groups such that particles lie in groups
having energies 1, 2, , i respectively. Let gi be the statistical weight
of ith quantum group.
The conditions in Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics are
The particles are distinguishable. i.e there are no symmetry restrictions.

Each eigen states of ith quantum group may contain 0,1,2,.ni
particles.
The no. of particles in the entire system is always constant

i.e n = n1+n2+n3++ ni = ni = constant.
The sum of energies of all the particles in different quantum groups
taken together constitutes the total energy of the system.
The total number of eigen states for the whole system is given by
n! g1n1 g 2n2 ......g ini

g ini
G
n!
n1!n2!n3!.....ni !
ni !
i
ni
gi
e i
Where , = 1/(kT) are multipliers and they depend upon the type of
system.
The most probable distribution of M B statistics are
f M B
ni
1
i
gi
e
Drawbacks of Classical statistics(Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution):

It is failed to explain
The properties of metals (electron gas).
The Black Body radiation (Photon radiation).
Bose Einstein Statistics :

According to Quantum statistics the particles of the system are
indistinguishable. In this statistics the particles which are identical,
indistinguishable and have integral spin. These particles are known as
Bosons.
The assumptions made in this statistics are
The Bosons of the system are identical and indistinguishable.
The Bosons have integral spin angular momentum in units of .
Bosons obey uncertainty principle.
Any number of Bosons can occupy a single cell in phase space.
Bosons do not obey the Pauli Exclusion principle.
The number of phase space cells are comparable with the number of
Bosons.
Wave functions representing the Bosons are symmetric i.e (1,2)=(2,1)
The wave functions of Bosons do overlap slightly i.e weak interaction

exists.
Energy states are discrete.
Suppose a system contains independent identical particles. Let

these particles be divided into quantum groups or levels such that there
are n1, n2, n3, n4,.,ni number of particles in groups whose approximate
constant energies 1, 2, 3, 4,,i respectively.
Energy levels
1, 2, 3, 4,,i
Degeneracy's
g1, g2, g3, g4,.,gi
Occupation number
n1, n2, n3, n4,.,ni
In this statistics the conditions are
The particles are indistinguishable from each other so that there is no

distinction between the different ways in which ni can be chosen.
Each cell or sublevel of ith quantum state may contain 0,1,2,3,ni

identical particles.
The sum of energies of all the particles in the different quantum groups,
taken together constitutes the total energy of the system.
The total number of eigen states for the whole system is given by
G
G
n g i 1!
g 2 1!
.......... i
n1!( g 1 1)! n 2 !( g 2 1)!
ni !( g i 1)!
n1 g1 1! n2
ni
ni
g i 1!
ni !( g i 1)!
gi
e i 1
system.
f BE
ni
1
i
gi e
1
Fermi Dirac statistics :

Fermi Dirac statistics is obeyed by those particles which
are indistinguishable and have half integral spin. These particles are
known as Fermions.
The assumptions in Fermi Dirac statistics are
Fermions are identical and indistinguishable.
They obey Paulis exclusion principle, i.e. there can not be more than
one particle in a single cell in phase space.
Fermions have half integral spin.
Wave function representing Fermions are anti-symmetric i.e
(1,2) = - (2,1)
Weak interaction exists between the particles.

Uncertainty principle is applicable.
Energy states are discrete.
This statistics is applied to indistinguishable particles having half

integral spin. Though the particles are indistinguishable, the restriction
imposed is that only one particle will be occupied by a single cell. The
situation of distribution is as follows.
Energy levels
Degeneracy's
Occupation number
1, 2, 3, 4,,i
g1, g2, g3, g4,.,gi
n1, n2, n3, n4,.,ni
In this statistics the conditions are
The particles are indistinguishable from each other i.e. there is no

restriction between different ways in which particles are chosen.
Each sublevel or cell may contain zero or one particle. Obviously

must be greater than or equal to ni
The sum of energies of all the particles in the different quantum

groups, taken together constitutes the total energy of the system
The total number of eigen states for whole system is given by
gi!
G
i ni !( g i ni )!
ni
gi
e
system.
f F D
ni
1
i
gi e
1
S.N Maxwell Boltzmann statistics

o
Bose-Einstein statistics
1. This statistics comes under Classical This
statistics comes
Quantum statistics.
statistics.
Fermi Dirac statistics
under This statistics comes under

Quantum statistics.
2. Particles obeying this statistics are Particles obeying this statistics are Particles obeying this statistics
identical and distinguishable.
identical, indistinguishable and are identical, indistinguishable

have integral spin. These particles and have half integral spin.
are called Bosons.
These particles are called
Fermions.
Since the volume of the phase space As Bosons do not obey Paulis As Fermions obey Paulis
cell is extremely small, either one or exclusion principle, there can be exclusion
principle,
there
no particle may exist in a single any number of particles in a phase cannot be more than one
phase space cell.
space cell.
particle in a single phase space
cell.
Energy distribution is continuous.
Energy distribution is discrete.
Energy distribution is discrete.
5.
Distribution function
3.
f M B
6.
Molecules
statistics
n
1
i i
gi
e
of
gases
obey
f BE
ni
1
ni
1
f F D i
i
gi e
gi e
1
1
this Photons, phonons, pions, gluons, Protons, electrons, neutrons,

He4 etc. obey this statistics
He3 etc. obey this statistics.
Free Electron Theory

In metals all the valence electrons are moving freely through out the
metal, so these electrons are responsible for all the properties of metals
like resistivity, conductivity, strength and other physical properties.
The metallic systems are successfully explained by this theory.

Classical Free Electron theory:
This theory was explained by Lorentz and Drude.
Concept of Electron Gas: In this theory Lorentz and Drude assumed

that the valence electrons in a metal moving freely through out the
metal like molecules of a gas. So they call the metallic system as
Electron gas system.
Lorentz and Drude applied all the laws of Kinetic theory of gases to
the free electron gas also. Thus the electrons can be assigned a mean
free path, a mean collision time and an average speed.
Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron theory:
It is failed to explain the resistivity of the metal. According to the

classical free electron theory resistivity of the metal is directly
proportional to the square root of the temperature i.e T1/2 but
experimentally T.
The heat capacity value is about hundred times greater than the
experimentally predicted value.
The experimentally observed value for mean free path is nearly 10
times the theoretical value.
It is failed to explain the Wiede mann Franz law. Lorentz number

value is not matched with experimental value.
According to classical free electron theory paramagnetic susceptibility
is inversely proportional to the temperature but experimentally it is
almost independent of temperature.
The quantitative errors in classical free electron theory were removed

by Sommerfeld in 1928, who substituted the quantum statistics of
Fermi-Dirac in place of the classical statistics used by Lorentz.
According to classical theory Maxwell- Boltzmann statistics permits all
the free electrons to gain energy, but actually only 1% of free electrons
absorb energy.
The resulting Specific heat and paramagnetic susceptibility values are
in much better agreement with experimental values.
The introduction of Fermi-Dirac statistics into these calculations,
therefore is the principal accomplishment of the Sommerfeld theory.
This free electron theory is explained by the concept of Density of
States.
To know the actual number of electrons with a given energy, we must know the
number of states in the system which have that energy.
N ( E)dE Z ( E)dEF ( E)
N(E) is the number of electrons in a system the have an
Energy E
Z(E) is the number of states at that energy
Z ( E )dE
8ma
2
2 h2
dE
F(E) is the Fermi Distribution function for electrons.
F (E)
1 exp ( E EF )
k BT
N N ( E )dE
EF
Z ( E )dEF ( E )
whenT 0 K , F ( E ) 1
8m
VE F
2
3 h
Where N represents the total number of electrons.

3
Density of electrons
N 8m 2 3 2
n 2 EF
V 3 h
h 3n

EF
8m
2
Fermi Energy
h 3n

EF
2m 8
2
3.65 10
19
Fermi Distribution Function
Let us consider how the electrons in a real material distribute among

the different possible energy states.
The assembly of electrons may be considered as electron gas behaving

like a system of Fermi particles obeying Fermi - Dirac statistics.
Accordingly, the probability F(E) of an electron occupying an
energy level E is given by
1
F (E)
E EF
1 exp(
)
kT
Where EF is called Fermi energy and is a constant for a given system.
The below figure gives the shape of Fermi function at different

temperatures.
F(E)
T3>T2>T1>0K
At
T3
T2 T1
T 0K
T=0K
for
E EF , F ( E ) 1
0.5
E EF , F ( E ) 0
0
Ef
This means that at 0K, all quantum states with energy below EF are
completely occupied and those above EF are unoccupied as shown in
figure.
At absolute zero (T=0K), F(E)

=
1 for E<EF
and
F(E)
=
0 for E>EF
At 0K, EF is the maximum energy of the occupied state.
As temperature increases, an electron may get energy of the order of

kBT and go to higher vacant state, and so Fermi function falls.
When E=EF at T>0K
F(E)=1/2
So, Fermi level is that level at which the probability occupation is
At T=0K the highest completely occupied state is called Fermi

Energy state or Fermi Level.
Successes of quantum free electron theory
It could explain the specific heat and paramagnetic properties.

It could predict the temperature dependence of the resistivity
correctly.
It could explain the thermionic emission of metals.
Failures of quantum free electron theory
This model could not explain why certain solids behave as

conductors and why certain others behave as insulators and
semiconductors.
The properties of the semiconductors could not be explained on the
basis of this theory.
INTRODUCTION
Solids can be broadly classified into Crystalline and Noncrystalline or Amorphous.
In crystalline solids the atoms are arranged in a periodic

manner in all three directions, where as in non crystalline the
arrangement is random.
Non crystalline substances are isotropic and they have no

directional properties.
Crystalline solids are anisotropic and they exhibit varying

physical properties with directions.
Crystalline solids have sharp melting points where as

amorphous solids melts over a range of temperature.
A Space lattice is defined as an infinite array of points in

three dimensions in which every point has surroundings
identical to that of every other point in the array.
Three dimensional lattice

Lattice planes
Lattice lines
Lattice points
BASIS
A group of atoms or molecules identical in composition
is called the Basis.
If basis associated with every lattice point, crystal structure is generated.
The basis provides number of atoms per lattice point.

Example: In NaCl the basis is diatomic and in CaF2 the basis is triatomic.
Lattice + basis = Crystal structure
UNIT CELL
A unit cell is the smallest geometric figure, the
repetition of which gives the actual crystal structure.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
AXES
The lines drawn parallel to the
lines of intersection of any three faces of
the unit cell which do not lie in the same
plane are called Crystallographic axes.
PRIMITIVES:
Z
a, b and c are the dimensions

of an unit cell and are known as
Primitives.
INTERFACIAL ANGLES:
The angles between three
crystallographic axes are known as
Interfacial angles , and .
LATTICE PARAMETERS
The primitives and
interfacial angles together
called as lattice parameters.
NOTE
1. Primitives decides the size of the unit cell.

2. Interfacial angles decides the shape of the unit cell.
PRIMITIVE CELL
The unit cell which is formed by primitives is called primitive cell.
A primitive cell contain only one atom per unit cell.
NOTE:
c
All primitive cells are unit cells

but not all unit cells are
primitive cells.
Y
BRAVIAS LATTICES
There are only fourteen distinguishable

ways of arranging the points independently in
three dimensional space and these space lattices
are known as Bravais lattices and they are
belongs to Seven Crystal Systems.
Crystal System
Relation
between
primitives
Relation between
Interfacial angles
Bravias
lattices
No. of
bravias
lattices
Example
Cubic
a= b= c
= = = 90
P, I, F
NaCl
Tetragonal
a= b c
= = = 90
P,I
TiO2
Orthorhombic
a b c
= = = 90
P,I,F,C
KNo3
Monoclinic
a b c
= = 90, 90
P,C
CaSo42H2o
Triclinic
a b c
90
K2Cr2O7
Trigonal
a= b= c
= = 90
calcite
Hexagonal
a= b c
= = 90, = 120
SiO2
Total=14
P Primitive
C Base Centered
I Body Centered
F Face Centered
1.Cubic crystal system
2.Tetragonal crystal system
3.Ortho Rhombic crystal system
4.Monoclinic crystal system
5.Triclinic crystal system
6.Trigonal crystal system
Rhombohedral or Trigonal System
Hexagonal crystal system
Crystal Structures
1.Nearest neighbour distance:

r
The distance between the centers of two

nearest neighboring atoms is called nearest
neighbour distance.
rr
2.Atomic Radius:
Half the distance between two nearest neighboring atoms in a
crystal
3.Coordination Number:
Co-ordination number is defined as the number of equidistant
nearest neighbors that an atom has in a given structure.
4.Packing Fraction or Atomic

Packing Factor (P.F or A.P.F)
Atomic Packing factor is the ratio of volume occupied by
the atoms in an unit cell to the total volume of the unit
cell. It is also called packing fraction.
Vol. occupied by theatoms in an unit cell

1.SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE
(i) The unit cell of this structure has atoms only

at the corners of the cube.

cell
(8 x 1/8) =1
(iii) Atomic radius r = a / 2
(v) Packing factor


4 3
1 r
3
3
a
Where
wherea
2r
4 3
1 r
3
(2r )3
0.52
(52%)
(vii) Example: Polonium.
(i) Structure: The unit cell of this structure has one atom at
each corner and one atom at the center of the cube.

cell
(8 x 1/8) + I = 2
(iii) Atomic radius
r = 3a /4
(iV) Co-ordination number = 8
3a
4r
2a
a
B
2r
C


4 3
2 r
3
a3
3
wherer
a
where
4
4
3 3
2 ( a)
3
4
( a )3
0.68
(68%)
Ex: Na, lithium and Chromium.
(i) Structure: This type of unit cell contains 8 corner atoms

and 6 face centered atoms.
(ii) Number of atoms :
(8 x 1/8) + 1/2 X 6 = 4
6
C
2r
a/2
A
(ii) Atomic radius
r = a / 22
7
10
1
11
12
8
4
(v).Atomic packing factor


4
4 r3
3
a3
where r
a
2 2
4
a 3
4 (
)
3 2 2
( a )3
0.74
(74%)
Ex: Copper , Aluminum, silver and Lead
Diamond structure:
(i) Structure: Diamond is a combination of two
interpenetrating FCC - sub lattices.
One starts from X (0,0,0)

and
the other starts from Z ( a/4 ,a/4, a/4)
How to draw this

difficult structure?
1/2
0
3/4
1/2
1/4
1/2
3/4
1/4
0
1/2
y
X
a
X (0,0,0)
Z( , , )
1/2
0
3/4
1/2
1/4
1/2
3/4
1/4
0
1/2
y
X
a
X (0,0,0)
Z( , , )
(ii)Number of atoms per unit cell

(8 x 1/8) + (1/2 X 6) + 4 = 8.
Z
a/4
X
a/4
(iii) Atomic radius r = 3a / 8.
(iv) Co-ordination number = 4.
a/4


4 3
8 r
3
a3
Where
3
r
a
8
4
3 3
8 (
a)
3
8
( a )3
0.34
(34%)
Ex: Ge, Si and Diamond
Nacl Crystal is an ionic crystal. It consists of two

FCC sub lattices.
One of the chlorine ion having its origin at the

(0, 0, 0) point and other of the sodium ion having
its origin at (a/2,0,0).
Each ion in a NaCl lattice has six nearest

neighboring ions at a distance a/2, i,e its Coordination number is 6.
Sodium Chloride structure
Each unit cell of a sodium chloride having

four sodium ions and four chlorine ions.
Thus there are four molecules in each unit
cell.
Positions :
Cl : (0,0,0) (1/2,1/2,0) (1/2,0,1/2) (0,1/2,1/2)
Na : (1/2,1/2,1/2),(0,0,1/2) (0,1/2,0)(1/2,0,0)
Square brackets [ ] are used to indicate the directions
The digits in a square bracket indicate the indices of

that direction.
A negative index is indicated by a bar over the digit .

Ex: for positive x-axes[ 100 ]
for negative x-axes[ 100 ]
z
[001]
[000]
[010]
y
[100]
x
Fundamental directions in crystals
Reciprocals of intercepts made by the plane which are

simplified into the smallest possible numbers or integers
and represented by (h k l ) are known as Miller Indices.
(or)
The Miller indices are the three smallest integers which
have the same ratio as the reciprocals of the intercepts
having on the three axes.
These indices are used to indicate the different sets of
parallel planes in a crystal.
Find the intercepts of desired plane on the three Coordinate axes.

Ex: (pa, qb, rc)
where a, b, c are the primitives.
Divide the intercepts by the primitive vectors.
(pa/a, qb/b, rc/c) =(p, q, r)
Take the reciprocals of these numbers which is equal
to 1/p:1/q:1/r.
Convert these reciprocals into whole numbers by
multiplying each with their L.C.M , to get the
smallest whole number.
These smallest whole numbers are Miller indices
(h k l) of the crystal.
Important features of miller indices

When a plane is parallel to any axis, the intercept of the
plane on that axis is infinity. Hence its miller index for
that axis is zero.
When the intercept of a plane on any axis is negative, a

bar is put on the corresponding miller index.
All equally spaced parallel planes have the same index
number (h k l).
If a plane passes through origin, it is defined in terms of a
parallel plane having non-zero intercept.
Intercepts of the plane (2a, b, c)

z
After dividing the intercepts by the

primitive vectors then (2,2,1).
b
The reciprocal of these values are

given by (1/2,1/2,1).
LCM is equal to 2.
2a
Multiplying the reciprocals with

LCM we get Miller indices
(1 1 2).
c
y
NOTE: NEVER USE , BETWEEN

(h k l) PARAMETERS
Construction of [100] plane

1 1 1
Reciprocals of intercepts are ( , , )
1
[1 0 0]
plane
x
y
ALL PARALLEL PLANES HAVING THE SAME MILLER INDICES

Intercepts of the Plane are (,1, )
1 1 1
1
x
[010]
y
plane.

Intercepts of the Plane are (, ,1)
1 1 1
1
Miller indices : (001)
[ 001 ]
plane

z
( 001 )
Intercepts of the Plane are (1,1, )

1 1 1
1 1
[110]
x
x
[110]
y
Construction of ( 0 0) planes

1 1 1
, )
zReciprocal s of intercepts are ( ,
1
x
y
Intercepts of the planes are (1,1,1)

Reciprocals of intercepts are (1/1,1/1,1/1)
Miller indices:(111)
x
(111)
plane
How to draw the planes by using Miller Indices?
Step1:
Write the miller indices
Step2:
Take the reciprocals of miller indices
Step3:
Multiply the numbers with their primitives.
Step4:
Draw the three axes with a cube and put a

points on these axes.
Step5:
Join all these points and shade that region

which is our required plane.
Example: Draw (100) plane

Step1:
Step2:
Step3:
Step4:
Step5:
(100)
(1/1 1/0 1/0) = (1 )
(1a b c)
(a )
Draw the axes with cube and represent the
point at a and means which is parallel to
those axes
y
Step2: If step 2 contains fractions

for example (1 1/2 1/3)
Step3: multiply with primitives then (a b/2 c/3)
EXERCISE
y
z
y
EXERCISE
y
z
y
Crystal Directions
The general representation of crystal directions are [ h k l ]
z
[ 011 ]
[ 001 ]
[ 101 ]
[ 111 ]
[ 100 ]
[ 200 ]
x
[ 010 ]
[ 110 ]
Let ( h k l ) be the miller indices of the plane

ABC.
Let ON=d be a normal to the plane passing

through the origin 0.
c C
l
Let this ON make angles , and with x, y

and z axes respectively.
Imagine the reference plane passing
through the Origin o and the
next plane cutting the intercepts
a/h, b/k and c/l on x, y and z axes.a
B
b
k
OA = a/h, OB = b/k, OC = c/l

A normal ON is drawn to the plane ABC from the
origin o. the length d of this normal from the origin to
the plane will be the inter planar separation.
ON
d
from
a
OA ONA
( )
h
ON
d
cos
b
OB ONB
from
( )
h
ON
d
cos
c
OC
from ONC
( )
h
cos
Where cos, cos ,cos are directional cosines of

,, angles.
cosines
cos 2According
cos 2 to law
cosof2 directional
1
d 2
d 2
d 2
[
] [
] [
] 1
a
b
c
( )
( )
( )
h
k
l
2
2
2
h
k
l
d 2{ 2 2 2 } 1
a
b
c
1
2
h
k
l
2 2
2
a
b
c
In cubic system as we know that a = b = c, so the

expression becomes
a
h k l
2
Topics
beyond
syllabus
Structure of Cesium chloride:

Cscl is an ionic Compound.
The lattice points of CsCl are two
interpenetrating simple cubic
lattices.
One sub lattice occupied by cesium
ions and another occupied by Cl
ions.
The co-ordinates of the ions are
Cs : (000),(100),(010),(001),(110),
(110),(011),(111).
Cl : (1/2,1/2,1/2).
Structure of a Zinc Sulphide:
ZnS structure is interpenetration of two

FCC lattices where
One of zinc and other is of Sulphor
atoms.
This structure is similar to
Diamond Crystal structure
Zn
Thank
You
Dielectrics are insulation materials.

In dielectrics, all the electrons are bound to their
parent molecules and there are no free charges.
Even with normal voltage or thermal energy
electrons are not released.
Dielectrics are non metallic materials of high
specific resistance and have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Dielectric constant (r) : The ratio between the

permittivity of the medium () and the
permittivity of free space (0).
r=/0
The dielectric characteristics of a material are
determined by the dielectric constant or
relative permittivity r of the material.
Since it is a ratio of same quantity. r has no
unit. It is a measure of polarization in the
dielectric material.
Electric Polarization:
Electric Dipole : Let us consider an atom

placed inside an electric field. The centre of
positive charge is displaced along the applied
field direction while the centre of negative
charge is displaced in the opposite direction.
Thus a dipole is produced.
When a dielectric material is placed inside an
electric field such dipoles are created in all the
atoms inside.
This process of producing electric dipoles

which are oriented along the field direction is
called polarization in dielectrics.
Polarizability (): When the strength of the
electric field E is increased the strength of the
induced dipole also increases. Thus the
induced dipole moment is proportional to the
intensity of the electric field.
i.e. =E
Where , the constant of proportionality is

called Polarizability. It can be defined as
induced dipole moment per unit electric field.
Polarization vector P: The dipole moment per
unit volume of the dielectric material is called
Polarization vector P
If is the average dipole moment per molecule
and N is the number of molecules per unit
volume the polarization vector P = N
The dipole moment per unit volume of the

solid is the sum of all the individual dipole
moments within that volume and is called the
polarization P of the solid.
Electric flux density (or) Electric displacement

D:
D = r0E
When E = electric field,
r= Dielectric constant or permittivity of the
material
o= Dielectric constant or permittivity of the
free space.
As the polarization measures the additional

flux density arising from the presence of the
material as compared to free space, it has the
same units as D and is related to it as
D = oE + P
Since D = r0E
.: r0E = oE + P
P = o(r 1)E
Electric flux density D is similar to magnetic
induction B in magnetism
Electric Susceptibility e :.
The polarization vector P is proportional to the
total electric flux density E and is in the same
direction of E.
Therefore the polarization vector can be written
as
P = o e E
Where the constant e is the electric
susceptibility
e = P / o E
= o(r-1)E / o E
e = r-1
The specimen is placed inside a d.c.

electric field, polarization is due to four
types of process
Electronic polarization
Ionic polarization
Orientation polarization
Space charge polarization
Electronic Polarization: The displacement of the

positively charged nucleus and the (negative)
electrons of an atom in opposite directions, on
application of an electric field, result in electronic
polarization.
Induced dipole moment E
=eE
Where e is the electronic Polarizability.
No
field
Field Applied
Ze
-Ze
Here the Nucleus of charge Ze is

surrounded by an electron cloud
of charge Ze distributed in a
sphere of radius R. The charge
density is given by
When an external field of intensity E is

applied, the nucleus and the electrons
experience Lorentz forces of magnitude ZeE
in opposite directions. Hence the nucleus and
electron cloud are pulled apart.
When they are separated a coulomb force

develops between them, which tends to oppose
the displacement.
When these forces namely Lorentz force and
Coulomb force are equal and opposite,
equilibrium is reached.
Let x be the displacement under the condition
Since nucleus is much heavier than the electron
cloud it is assumed that only the electron cloud
is displaced when the external field is applied
Lorentz force = -ZeE

Coulomb force
= Ze x
The charge enclosed =

=
Hence coulomb force is
In the equilibrium position

-ZeE =
E=
x=
Or
Thus the displacement of the electron cloud is

proportional to the applied field.
Thus the two electric charges +Ze and ze are
separated by a distance x under the action of the
applied field thus consisting induced electric
dipoles.
Induced electric dipole moment
=
i.e.,
Where
is called electronic
Polarizability. The dipole moment per unit
volume is called electronic polarization. It is
independent of temperature.
=N N
Where N is the number of atoms/
From = (
=N
Or
=
=
Ionic polarization
The ionic polarization occurs, when atoms form

molecules and it is mainly due to a relative
displacement of the atomic components of the
molecule in the presence of an electric field.
When a EF is applied to the molecule, the positive

ions displaced by X1 to the negative side electric
field and negative ions displaced by X2 to the
positive side of field.
The resultant dipole moment = q ( X1 + X2)..
+
+
+
Electric field
_
anion
cation
_
_
+
+
x1 x2
_
_
Restoring force constant depend upon the mass of the ion and
natural frequency and is given by
F eE m.w02 x
or
eE
x
m.w02
eE 1 1
x1 x2 2 m M
w0
Where M mass of anion and m is mass of cat ion
e2 E 1 1
ionic e( x1 x2 ) 2 m M
w0
or ionic
ionic
E
e2 1 1
2 m M
w0
This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR).

It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization.
It is independent of temperature.
Orientational Polarization
It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The
molecules such as H2 , N2,O2,Cl2 ,CH4,CCl4 etc., does not carry
any dipole because centre of positive charge and centre of
negative charge coincides. On the other hand molecules like
CH3Cl, H2O,HCl, ethyl acetate ( polar molecules) carries
dipoles even in the absence of electric field.
How ever the net dipole moment is negligibly small since all
the molecular dipoles are oriented randomly when there is no
EF. In the presence of the electric field these all dipoles orient
them selves in the direction of field as a result the net dipole
moment becomes enormous.
It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz.

It is slow process compare to ionic
polarization.
It greatly depends on temperature.
Expression for orientation polarization

N .o2 rie.E
Po N .o rie
N . o .E
3kT
o2 rie
3kT
elec io n ic o ri 4 o R
3
This is called Langevin

dielectrics.
w02
1
M
1
m
3kT
2
o ri
Debye equation for total Polaris ability in
Internal fields or local fields

Local field or internal field in a dielectric is
the space and time average of the electric
field intensity acting on a particular molecule
in the dielectric material.
+ + + + + + + + + ++
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
+
+
+
_
Spherical
Cavity
+ + + +
+ + +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_
E
Dielectric
material
Evaluation of internal field

Consider a dielectric be placed between
the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and
let there be an imaginary spherical cavity
around the atom A inside the dielectric.
The internal field at the atom site A can

be made up of four components E1 ,E2, E3
& E4.
Evaluation of internal field

Consider a dielectric be placed between
the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and
let there be an imaginary spherical cavity
around the atom A inside the dielectric.
The internal field at the atom site A can

be made up of four components E1 ,E2, E3
& E4.
Field E1:
E1 is the field intensity at A due to the charge
density on the plates
E1
0
D 0E P
0E P
E1
0
E1 E
..........(1)
Field E2:
E2 is the field intensity at A due to the charge
density induced on the two sides of the
dielectric.
E2
...........(2)
Field E3:
E3 is the field intensity at A due to the atoms
contained in the cavity, we are assuming a
cubic structure, so E3 = 0.
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
_
_
_
E
dA
+
+
_
_
_
_
_
q
Field E4:
1.This is due to polarized charges on the
surface of the spherical cavity.
dA 2 . pq.qR
dA 2 .r sin .rd
dA 2 .r sin d
2
Where dA is Surface area between &

+d
2.The total charge present on the surface area dA

is
dq = ( normal component of polarization ) X (
surface area )
dq p cos dA
dq 2r p cos . sin .d
2
3.The field due to this charge at A, denoted by dE4 is

given by
dE4
1
4 0
The field in = 0 direction
dq
r2
dq cos
dE4
4 0
r2
1
1
2
dE4
(
2
r
p cos . sin .d ) cos
2
4 0 r
P
dE4
cos 2 . sin .d
2 0
4.Thus the total field

E4 due to the charges
on the surface of the
entire cavity is
E4
dE
P
cos 2 . sin .d
2 0
2 0
2
cos
. sin .d
let ..x cos dx sin d

P
2 0
2
x
.dx
1
P x 3 1
P 11
( )1
(
)
2 0 3
2 0
3
P
E4
3 0
The internal field or Lorentz field can be written as
Ei E1 E2 E3 E4
p
p
p
Ei ( E ) 0
o o
3 o
p
Ei E
3 o
Clausius Mosotti relation:

Consider a dielectric material having cubic
structure , and assume ionic Polarizability &
Orientational polarizability are zero..
i 0 0
polarizati on..P N
P N e Ei ......where., e Ei
P
where., Ei E
3 0
P N e Ei
P
P N e ( E
)
3 0
P
P N e E N e
3 0
P
P N e
N e E
3 0
N e
P (1
) N e E
3 0
N e E
P
...................(1)
N e
(1
)
3 0
We known that the polarization vector

P 0 E ( r 1)............(2)
from eq n s (1) & (2)
N e E
0 E ( r 1)
N e
(1
)
3 0
1
N e
N e E
3 0
0 E ( r 1)
N e
N e E
3 0 0 E ( r 1)
N e
N e
3 0 0 ( r 1)
N e
3
(1
)
3 0
r 1
N e
1
3
3 0
(1
)
r 1
N e r 1
...... Classius M osottirelation

3 0
r 2
Ferro electric materials or Ferro electricity

The dielectric materials which are having
spomtaneous polarrisation in the absence of
electric field are called Ferroelectric
materials. The phenomenon of possesing
spontaneous polarisation in the absence of
ferroelectricity.
All ferro electric materials posses
spontaneous polarisation below a certain
temparature.
Example.
Rochelle salt, ADP,KDP
As the temparature increases the spontaneous

polarisation decreases and at a particular
temparature,the spontaneous polarisation completely
vanishes. This temparature is Known as Curie
temparature.
When a sufficiently strong electric field is applied on
a ferroelctric material then it converted in to electrate
which is eqivalent term to magnet in magnetic
materials.
All ferroelectric materials exhibit the proerty of piezoelectricity and pyro electricity.
Piezo- electricity
The process of creating electric polarization by mechanical
stress is called as piezo electric effect.
This process is used in conversion of mechanical energy

into electrical energy and also electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric
stress is applied, the material becomes strained. This
strain is directly proportional to the applied field.
Examples: quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc.,
Piezo electric materials or peizo electric semiconductors
such as Gas, Zno and CdS are finding applications in
ultrasonic amplifiers.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
&
SUPER CONDUCTIVITY
374
Magnetic materials play a prominent
role in modern
technology.
They are widely used in industrial electronics
and
computer industry.
The traditional methods of information storage and
retrieval are rapidly replaced by magnetic storage.
The magnetism of materials is mainly a consequence of

interactions of uncompensated magnetic moments of
constituent atoms and molecules.
375
Basing on the response of materials in external magnetic field,
and on the alignment of magnetic moments in the materials, they

are classified into five types.
Magnetic field : The space around a magnet where its influence
is felt is called magnetic field.
Magnetic induction or Magnetic flux density (B):
In any material is the number of lines of magnetic force passing

through unit area perpendicularly.
Units of B : Tesla (or) Weber/m2

376
At any point in the magnetic field is the force experienced

by an unit north pole placed at that point.
Or
It is defined as the field that induces magnetism in a
magnetic material.
H is measured in Ampere/meter.
When a medium is exposed to magnetic field of intensity

H it causes an induction B in the medium.
377
Magnetic permeability:
It is defined as the ability of a medium to allow the magnetic lines

of force to pass through it.
=B/H
B = o(H+M)
Relative permeability r = / 0
B =o r H.
r = / 0 = B/H =1+M/H
B/H+M
Where r =1+
Which is called relative permeability.
378
Intensity of magnetization :
It is the magnetic moment per unit volume or pole strength per unit
area.
I=M/V = (2l.m)/(2l.a)
a= area of cross section.
It is measured in Weber/m2
Magnetic flux() Magnetic flux():

It is the total number of lines of induction passing normal to the cross
section.
is a scalar.
S I unit : Weber.
379
It is a product of Magnetic length and pole

strength of a magnet .
Magnetic moment M=2l.m.
S.I unit of Magnetic moment is Weber-meter.
380
Magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of

intensity of magnetization (I) to intensity of
magnetizing field.
Magnetic susceptibility(): = I/H.
Susceptibility() has no units.
381
Magnetism originates from the spin and orbital

magnetic moment of an electron.
Spin and Orbital motion of an electron
The orbital motion of an electron around the nucleus is
analogous to the current in a loop of wire.
382
The magnetic moment of a current carrying

conductor is given by
= I.A
where I is the current and A is the area in m2.
Orbital magnetic moment
The magnetic moment of an electron in orbit is

given by
=r2 (-ev/2r)
= -evr/2------ (1)
where r is the radius of orbit, e -charge and v is the
velocity
The angular momentum of an electron must be an

integral multiple of Planck's const.
383
mvr=nh/2
-- (2)
where m is the mass and h is the Planck's const.
If the electron revolves in the first orbit then n=1
Therefore orbital magnetic moment of an electron is

given by from (1) and (2)
=eh/4m
-- (3)
which is known as Bohr magneton, the smallest

possible orbital magnetic moment
384
Spin magnetic moment
Similarly the smallest possible magnetic moment

due to spin of the electron is
=eh/4m
According to quantum theory the spin of electrons
have only two possibilites +1/2 or -1/2.
Similar to eqn (3) we can write in the form
=(e/2m) S
--(4)
where S is the spin quantum number here given by
(1/2).(h/2)
=g.(e/2m).S
--(5)
385
Here g is the term known as g- factor.

When g=2, the spin contribution arises and when g=1
the orbital contribution arises.
The mass of the nucleus is so large that the magnetic

moment contribution can be neglected compared to the
electronic magnetic moment.
The gryomagnetic ratio is proportional to the g-factor

and 'g' arises due to the precession of the electrons
similar to the precession of a top in a gravitational force.
the value of g tells us whether the origin of magnetic
moment is spin or orbital motion of electrons.
386
These are the substances, which upon which being

introduced into the external magnetic field, change so
that they themselves become sources of an additional
magnetic field.
And they are classified into 5 groups.
Diamagnetic,
Paramagnetic,
Ferromagnetic,
Anti
ferromagnetic, Ferrimagnetic .
387
The materials which when placed in magnetic field

acquire feeble magnetism in the direction opposite to that
of field are known as Diamagnetic substances.
Diamagnetic
materials
exhibit
negative
magnetic
susceptibility.
The magnetization in diamagnetic materials is directed
in opposite direction of the field applied.
388
The relative permeability of
a diamagnetic
substance is slightly less than unity.
r< 1; which implies that substances are repelled

by a magnetic field.
The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic materials

is practically independent of temperature.
Examples: Hydrogen, air, water, gold silver.
389
These are the substances which when placed in

magnetic field acquire feeble magnetism in the direction
of magnetic field.
It is the property of the material which has weak
attractive force.
The property is due to spin of electrons
Spin is random
These materials have permanent dipoles
They possess permanent magnetic dipole moment.
But there is no spontaneous magnetization in the
absence of external field. Due to random spin.
The relative permeability r>1

390
It is property of the material which has strong

attractive force.
The property is due to spin of electrons
Spin is parallel
They have permanent magnetic dipoles
They possess permanent magnetic dipole moment.
Also in the absence of field they have spontaneous
magnetization even in the absence of external field
due to parallel
The relative permeability r>>1
Susceptibility is large and positive

391
Anti Ferro magnetism arises when the spin magnetic

moments of neighboring atoms of the crystal are anti
parallel.
In these materials the distance between two atoms is
very small, hence the exchange force (or) exchange
coupling (or interaction) produce anti parallel alignment
of the adjacent spin of electrons.
The important property of anti Ferro magnetic substance
is that its susceptibility shows a maximum as a
function of temperature below Neel temperature TN as
shown in figure.
This features is explained on the basis of two sublattice model
392
Because of opposite spin moments; we consider that the

antiferromagnetic material
consists of two different types of atoms i.e. A-type atoms, B-type
atoms.
The crystal consists of interpenetration of two cubic sub lattices, one with
A-atoms and other with B atoms. One sub lattice is spontaneously
magnetized in one direction and the other sub-lattice is spontaneously
magnetised in other direction.
These materials possess BCC structure with A atoms occupying at
corner points and B atoms occupying at the centre of the cell as shown
in fig (a).
In the absence of external applied magnetic field the magnetization of the
specimen will be zero, because of antiparallel spins of equal magnitudes.
393
As the temperature is increased, the susceptibility increases with

temperature up to Neel temperature TN.
At Neel temperature is maximum. For further increase of
temperacute decreases. This shows paramagnetic behavior.
At low temperature the interaction between the adjacent spins is more
hence the resulting magnetization is small, is small [due to antiparallels spins] as temperature increases, the interaction between
adjacent atoms decreases [antiparallel spins become parallel spin] and
hence increases up to Neel (TN) temperature.
Above Neel temperature all the atoms are free hence the material
shows paramagnetic behavior.
The susceptibility =
C =Curie constant, T=absolute temperature, TN= Neel
temperature.
394
It is the property of the material which has strong attractive

force.
The property is due to spin of electrons.
Spin is anti parallel but of different magnitudes.
They have permanent magnetic dipoles.
They possess permanent magnetic dipole moment. Also in the
absence of field they have spontaneous magnetization. Since
spin is anti parallel but of different magnitudes.
Bin >> Bout
The relative permeability r>>1
Susceptibility is large and positive
Magnetic susceptibility () depends on temperature.
Hence = . Shown in the figure below.
395
According to Weiss, Ferromagnetic material consists of a

number of regions called Domains [~10-6 mts] which are
spontaneously magnetized.
Spontaneous magnetization is due to parallel alignment of all

magnetic dipoles (in each domain) even when no external
field is applied.
396
Spontaneous magnetization is due to parallel alignment

of all magnetic dipoles (in each domain) even when no
external field is applied.
Different domains possess different orientations hence
net magnetization is zero.
When an external field is applied there are two possible
ways of alignment of domains. They are
1.By motion of domain walls

2.By rotation of domain walls
Domains arise to minimize the energy of the material.
The total internal energy is minimum. The alignment of
domains, parallel to field is discussed as follows:
397
The domains which are parallel to the direction of

applied magnetic field will grow in size than other
domains. This is called Motion of domain walls.
Also other domains which are opposite to the field
direction are reduced.
As the magnetic field is strong, the magnetic
moments of the domains can rotate in the applied
field direction. This is called rotation of domain
walls.
398
Definition: Hysteresis means the lagging of

magnetization B behind the applied magnetizing
field H. The energy supplied to the specimen
during magnetization is not fully used. The balance
of energy left in the material is produced as heat i.e.
loss of heat called Hysteresis Loss.
This phenomenon of magnetic Hysteresis is an
Irreversible characteristic of ferromagnetic
material. The loop (or) area refers to the hysteresis
loop. Hysteresis loss occurs in ferromagnetic
materials below Curie temperature.
399
When the magnetic field is applied on a ferromagnetic

material the magnetization increases slowly and reaches
a constant Ms called saturation magnetization
In figure from point O to A, the displacement of domain
walls takes place. When the field is suddenly off, the
domains again go for original position.
From point A to B, as the field is further increased, the
magnetization also increases. Here when the field is
made off the domain displacement does not return back
to original condition.
400
For higher fields the magnetization reaches maximum ie

saturation magnetization Ms due to rotation of domain walls.
In this case at the region B to P, if the field is suddenly made
off, the domains does not return back to original direction.
But there is some magnetic field remained inside the
specimen.
The point Ms is called saturation of magnetization. When the
field is off, the curve does not go back to O[as shown in
fig] but creates a new path to a point Mr called retentivity
(or) residual (or) remanence Magnetization
To reduce the residual magnetism to zero, a negative field
Hc has to be applied. When the sufficient negative field is
applied, the residual; magnetization becomes zero and this
field is known as negative coercive field (-Hc) or
coercively. Further again if the negative field is applied then
magnetization increases but in negative direction. This is
known as negative saturation magnetization (-Ms).
401
If the negative field is decreased back to zero the negative

saturation of magnetization will not reach the initial path at
0 but creates a new path and reaches a point called negative
residual magnetism -Mr know as negative receptivity.
To decrease the negative residual magnetism to zero some
positive field is applied. The amount of magnetic field
required to bring residual magnetization to zero is known as
positive coercive field (Hc).
Further the increase of positive magnetic field the
magnetization reaches again to positive saturation (Ms) and
this is a cyclic process.
The final conclusion is that when the magnetization vector is
started from origin O will not reach back to that point. The
magnetization lags behind H. This is called magnetic
hysteresis loss measured in the area of the loop (or) curve. If
the loop area of a ferromagnetic material is large, more
energy is wasted. This is also called as dielectric loss for
one complete cyclic operation.
402
Soft magnetic materials are easily magnetized and
demagnetized, and therefore used in ac applications.
The hysteresis loss is low.

Hard magnetic materials retain magnetism on a
permanent basis, and are used in producing permanent
magnets
These materials play an important role in information
storage devices.
403
Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in
certain materials at extremely low temperatures,

characterized by almost zero electrical resistance
and the exclusion of the interior magnetic field
(the Meissner effect).
404
Superconductivity occurs in a wide variety of

materials, including simple elements like tin and
aluminium, various metallic alloys and some
heavily-doped semi-conductors. Superconductivity

does not occur in noble metals like gold and silver,
nor in most ferromagnetic metals.
405
Resistivity
O
Tc
TEMP(K)
Resistance of superconducter suddenly drops to zero

406
The temperature at which the transition from normal

state to superconducting state takes place on cooling
in the absence of magnetic field is called the critical

temperature or the transition temperature
407
A magnet levitating above a high-
temperature superconductor, cooled

with
liquid
nitrogen.
Persistent
electric current flows on the surface

of the superconductor, acting to
exclude the magnetic field of the

magnet (the Meissner effect). This
current
effectively
forms
an
electromagnet that repels the magnet.
408
The electrical current in a superconductor, in

superconducting state remains for a long time .
This current remains for very long period without

attenuation.
The time taken by the super current to reduce 1/e

times of its initial value is more than 1,00,000 years.
This current is called persistent current.

409
By applying magnetic field of sufficient strength,

superconductivity of material can be destroyed.
The minimum magnetic field strength required

to destroy superconductivity of substance,below
Tc is called critical magnetic field (Hc) at that
temperature.
Hc = Ho [1-(T/Tc)2].
410
SUPERCONDUCTER
NORMAL CONDUCTER
B
B
T<Tc
T > Tc
SUPERCONDUCTER EXPELS MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE.
411
Levitation Experiments
Magnets in repulsive mode for

levitation
Meissner Effect
High Tc Superconductor and High Energy

Permanent Magnet
412
Depending on the way of transition from

superconducting state to normal state by the
application of magnetic field, superconductors
are classified into
Type-I superconductors and
Type-II superconductors.
413
Superconductors exhibiting complete Meissner effect
(perfect diamagnetism) are called Type-I

Superconductors.
They are also known as soft Superconductors.
Transition between normal and superconducting

states is sharp and well defined.
There is only one value of critical magnetic field Hc.

414
Critical temperatures are low. Hence these are not

commercially useful but are useful to understand the
exciting phenomenon of superconductivity.
Type-I Superconductors are mostly of pure

specimens.
Examples: Pure specimens of Al, Zn, Hg and Sn.
415
HOME
TYPE-I SUPERCONDUCTERS
SUPER CONDUCTING STATE
NORMAL
STATE.
Hc
RELATION BETWEEN MAGNETIZATION AND APPLIED MAGNETIC FIELD
FOR
TYPE-I SUPER CONDUCTERS.

416
They are developed from alloys, compounds,
ceramics, transition metals etc.
For any Type2
material, two critical values of
applied magnetic field Hc1 and Hc2 can be
identified. In between, there is a thermodynamic

critical magnetic field Hc corresponding to that of
type1 materials.
417
The material behaves as a perfect

superconductor in the range 0<H<Hc1.
When H>Hc2 the material returns to normal
state.
Nb and Zr are some examples of this type.
418
HOME
TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTERS.
SUPERCONDUCTIONG STATE.
MIXED STAT
(OR)
VORTEX STATE
Hc1
NORMAL
STATE.
Hc2
Variation of Magnetization with applied magnetic field for Type II

superconducters
419
It is a basis of new generation of energy saving power

system. Superconducting generators are smaller in size and
less in weight compare with conventional generators.
These generators consume very low energy, hence more

energy will be saved.
All electric power companies are looking forward to the

superconducting transmission system that would save most
of the energy now being last from conventional power lines
in the form of useless radiation and heat.

420
In Japan, Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate an

experimental train above its track and can drive it at a great speed
of 500 Km/h with minimum expenditure of energy. A similar

magnetic propulsion system may be used to launch satellites into
orbits directly from the earth without the use of rockets.
High efficiency ore-separating machines are built using Superconducting magnets, which are also used to separate tumor cells
from healthy cell by High Gradient Magnetic separation method.
Superconducting materials can be used as a memory or storage

device in computers, since the current in it can flow without any
change in its value with time.

421
Using Superconducting elements one can build up

an extremely fast and large-scale computer in a
compact size. The power consumed by this
computer will be less than 0.5 watt.
The Josephon devices are used to produce

microwaves, which are made up of superconductors.
422
423
FIBRE OPTICS
Rebecca Paul. K
Optical Fibre is a flexible, transparent

fiber made of extruded glass (silica) or
plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair.
It can function as a waveguide, or light
pipe, to transmit light between the two
ends of the fiber.
Power over Fiber (POF) optic cables
can also work to deliver an electric
current for low-power electric devices.
Fiber optic bundle
Optical fibers are widely used in fiberoptic communications, where they permit
transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths(data rates) than wire
cables.
Fibers are used instead of metal wires
because signals travel along them with
less loss and are also immune
to electromagnetic interference.
Fibers are also used for illumination,
and are wrapped in bundles so that they
may be used to carry images.
Fibre Optic table lamp
Structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts.

The core, the cladding and the coating (or buffer or outer jacket).
The core:
The core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material.
Light propagates mainly along the core of the fiber.
The core is generally made of glass.
The core is described as having an index of refraction n1.
The Cladding:
The core is surrounded by a layer of material called the cladding, which
is generally made of glass or plastic.
The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with an index of refraction n2.
The index of refraction of the cladding material is less than that of the core
material.
The cladding performs the following

functions:
1. Reduces loss of light from the core
into the surrounding air.
2. Reduces scattering loss at the
surface of the core.
3. Protects the fiber from absorbing
surface contaminants.
4. Adds mechanical strength.
Buffer:
The coating or buffer is a layer of
material used to protect an optical fiber
from physical damage.
The material used for a buffer is a type
of plastic.
The buffer is elastic in nature and
prevents abrasions.
Optical Fibre Structure
Optical fibre carries light from one end of the fibre to the other by total internal
reflection.
When a ray of light passes from an optically denser medium into an optically
rarer medium, the refracted ray bends away from the normal.
critical angle (c):When the angle of incidence is increased angle of

refraction also increases and a stage is reached when the refracted ray just grazes
the surface of separation of core and cladding. At this position the angle of
refraction is 90 degrees. This angle of incidence is called the critical angle (c) of
the denser medium with respect to the rarer medium.
If the angle of incidence is further

increased, then the ray is totally reflected.
This is called total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection: When a

light ray, travelling from an optically
denser medium into an optically rarer
medium, is incident at an angle greater
than the critical angle, then the ray is
totally reflected back into the same
medium by obeying the laws of
reflection. This phenomenon is known as
totally internal reflection.
Total Internal Reflection
Internally reflected light ray
Let the reflective indices of core and cladding materials be n1 and n2 respectively.
According to the law of refraction,
n1 sin1= n2 sin2
Here, 1=, c and 2= 90
n1sinc = n2 sin 90
sinc= n2/n1
c = sin(n2/n1)
(1)
Equation (1) is the expression for condition for total internal reflection.
In case of total internal reflection, there is absolutely no absorption of light energy
at the reflecting surface.
Acceptance angle is the angle at which the beam has to be launched at one of its
ends, in order to enable the entire light to propagate through the core.
The acceptance angle is the maximum angle that a light ray can have with the axis
of the fiber to propagate through the fiber.
Acceptance angle: It is defined as the maximum angle of incidence at the end

face of the optical fibre, for which the ray can be propagated through the core
material. It is also called as Acceptance cone half angle.
Acceptance cone: The cone obtained by rotating a ray at the end face of an
optical fibre, around the fibre axis with the acceptance angle, is known as acceptance
cone.
Light launched at the fiber end within this acceptance cone alone will be accepted
and propagated to the other end of the fiber by total internal reflection.
Larger acceptance angles make launching easier.
Acceptance cone
For light rays to propagate through the optical fibre, by total internal reflection, they
must be incident on the fibre core within the angle o , called the acceptance angle.
Applying Snells law at B,
n1 sin(90o-1) = n2 sin90o
n1 cos 1 = n2
cos 1 = n2/n1
or sin1 = (1-cos21)1/2
={1-(n22/n12)}1/2.. (1)
Applying Snells law at O,

no sin0 = n1sin1
or sin0 = (n1/n0) sin1 (2)
Substituting eq. (1) in eq. (2),
Sin 0 = (n1/n0) (1 -n22/n12)1/2
= (n12-n22)1/2 ....... (3)
n0
As the fibre is in air, n0 = 1
Therefore, eq. (3) becomes
Sin 0 = (n12/n22)1/2 (4)
Eq. (4) is the equation for Acceptance angle.
Light gathering capacity of the fiber is expressed in terms of maximum

acceptance angle and is termed as Numerical Aperture.
Light gathering capacity is proportional to the acceptance angle o.
So, numerical aperture can be represented by the sine of the acceptance angle of
the fibre i.e., sin o.
For example, the light acceptance angle in air is air= 11.5o for a numerical
aperture of NA=0.2.
Expression for Numerical aperture:

According to the definition of Numerical aperture (NA),
NA= Sin 0 = (n12-n22)1/2
(1)
Let , the fractional change in the refractive index, be the ratio between the
difference in the refractive indices of core and cladding material respectively.
i.e., = n1-n2
(2)
n1
or n1= n1- n2
(3)
Eq. (1) can be written as,
NA= (n12-n22)1/2
= {(n1-n2) (n1+ n2) }1/2
(4)
Substituting eq. (3) in eq. (4),
NA = {( n1) (n1+n2)}1/2
As n1 n2, n1+ n2= 2n1
And therefore, Numerical Aperture = (2n12) 1/2= n1 (2) 1/2
(5)
From equation (5) it is seen that numerical aperture depends only on the refractive
indices of core and cladding materials and it is independent on the fiber
dimensions.
Based on the variation of refractive index of core, optical fibers are divided into:
(1) step index and (2) graded index fibers.
In all optical fibers, the refractive index of cladding material is uniform.
Light path through Step- index and Graded index Fibre
Based on the mode of propagation, all the fibers are divided into: (1) single mode
and (2) multimode fibers.
Mode means, the number of paths available for light propagation in the fiber.
If there is only one path for the ray propagation, it is called a single mode fiber.
If the number of paths is more than one, then it is called a multi mode fiber.
Single mode and Multi mode propagation of light
Based on the mode of propagation of light rays, step index fibers are of 2 types:
a) single mode step index fiber & b) multimode step index fibers.
The light rays propagate in zigzag manner inside the core.
Single mode Step index optical Fibre
Multi mode Step index optical Fibre
The refractive index is uniform throughout the core of this fibre.

As we go radially in this fibre, the refractive index undergoes a step change at the
core-cladding interface.
The core diameter of this fibre is about 8 to 10 m and outer diameter of cladding is
60 to 70 m.
In this fibre, the transmission of light is by successive total internal reflections i.e.
it is a reflective type fiber.
These fibres are mainly used in submarine cable system.
Its core and cladding diameters are much larger to have many paths for light
propagation.
The core diameter of this fiber varies from 50 to 200 m and the outer diameter
of cladding varies from 100 to 250 m.
Light propagation in this fiber is by multiple total internal reflections i.e., it is a
reflective type fiber.
It is used in data links, which have lower band width requirements.
Generally the signal is transmitted through the fiber in digital form i.e. in the
form of 1s and 0s.
In multimode fibre, the pulse which travels along path A (straight) will reach first
at the other end of fiber. Next, the pulse that travels along with path B ( zigzag )
reaches the other end.
Hence, the pulsed signal received at the other end is broadened. This is known as
intermodal dispersion.
This imposes limitation on the separation between pulses and reduces the
transmission rate and capacity.
To overcome the problem of inter modal dispersion caused due to step index
optical fibres, graded index fibers are used.
This fiber can be single mode or multimode fiber.
Light rays propagate in the form of skew rays or helical rays. They will not cross
the fiber axis.
Multimode Graded index optical fibre
In this fiber, the refractive index decreases continuously from center radially to the
surface of the core.
The refractive index is maximum at the center and minimum at the surface of core.
The diameter of the core varies from 50 to 200m and the outer diameter of the
cladding varies from 100 to 250 m.
The refractive index profile is circularly symmetric.
Explanation:
As refractive index changes continuously radially in core, light rays suffer
continuous refraction in core.
The propagation of light ray is not due to total internal reflection but by refraction.
In graded index fiber, light rays travel at different speed in different paths of the
fiber.
Near the surface of the core, the refractive index is lower, so rays near the outer
surface travel faster than the rays travel at the center.
Because of this, all the rays arrive approximately at the same time, at the receiving
end of the fiber.
consider ray path 1 along the axis of fiber and another ray paths 2 and 3.
Along the axis of fiber, the refractive index of core is maximum, so the speed of
ray along path 1 is less.
Path 2 is sinusoidal and it is longer. This ray mostly travels in low refractive region
and so the ray 2 moves slightly faster.
Hence, the pulses of signals that travel along path 1, path 2 and path 3 reach the
other end of the fiber simultaneously. Thus, the problem of intermodal dispersion can
be reduced to a large extent using graded index fibers.
Step index Fibre
Graded index Fibre
The refractive index of core is uniform and The refractive index of core is nonstep or abrupt change in refractive index takes uniform. It decreases parabolically from the
place at the core cladding interface
axis of the fiber to its surface.
The light rays propagate in zigzag manner Light rays propagate in the form of skew
inside the core. The rays cross the fiber axis rays or helical rays. They will not cross the
for every reflection.
fiber axis.
Signal distortion is more in multimode step Signal distortion is very low even though
index fibre. There is no distortion in Single the rays travel with different speeds inside the
mode fibre.
fibre.
The bandwidth is about 50 MHz km for The bandwidth of the fibre lies in between
multimode fibre and it is more than 1000 200 MHz km to 600 MHz km, though the
MHz km in case of single mode fibre.
theoretical value is infinity.
Attenuation of light rays is more in
multimode fibres but in Single mode fibres it
is very less.
Attenuation is light rays is less in graded

index fibres.
NA of multimode fibre is more, but in

Single mode fibres, it is very less.
NA of Graded index fibres is less.
Single mode Fibre
Multimode Fibre
In single mode fiber there is only one In multimode fiber, large number of
path for ray propagation.
paths are available for light ray
propagation.
A single mode step index fiber has less
core diameter (<10 m) and the
difference between the refractive indices
of core and cladding is very small.
Multi mode step index fibers have

larger core diameter (50-200m) and the
difference between the refractive indices
of core and cladding is large.
In single mode fibers, there is no Signal distortion and dispersion takes

dispersion.
place in multimode fibers.
Signal transmission capacity is less but Signal transmission capacity is more in

the single mode fibres are suitable for multimode fibres. They are less suitable
long distance communication.
for long distance communication.
Launching of light into single mode Launching of light into multimode
fibers is difficult.
fibers is easy.
Fabrication cost is less.
Fabrication cost is very high.
Attenuation is the loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates

through the fiber.
It is also called fiber loss.

Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of the input optical power (Pi) into the
fiber to the output optical power received (Po) at the other end of the fiber.
The attenuation coefficient of the signal per unit length is given as,
=10/L log (Pi/Po) dB/km
Where, L is the length of the fibre.
The mechanisms through which attenuation takes place are

1.Absorption losses.
2.Scattering losses.
3. Bending losses.
4.Microbending and Wave guide losses.
Optical fibre communication system essentially consists of three parts namely,

(a) Transmitter (b) Optical fibre and (c) Receiver.
The Transmitter includes modulator, encoder, light source, drive circuits and
couplers.
Basically, the fibre optic system simply converts an electrical signal to binary data
by an encoder.
Block diagram of Optical Fibre communication system
This binary data comes out as a

stream of electrical pulses and these
pulses are converted into pulses of
optical power, by modulating the
light emitted by the light source.
This means that the laser drive
circuit directly modulates the
intensity of the laser light with the
encoded digital signal.
This digital optical signal is

launched into the optical fibre cable.
The Couplers in the transmitter,
couple the transmitted light signals
with the fibre.
To transmit signals to long distances,

repeaters are used after certain lengths in
the optical fibre.
An optical repeater consists of a
receiver and a transmitter arranged
adjacently.
The receiver section converts the
optical signal into corresponding
electrical signal.
Further this electric signal is amplified
by means of an electrical regenerator and
is sent into the transmitter section.
In transmitter section, the electrical
signal is again converted back to optical
signal and fed into the optical fibre.
Finally, at the end of the optical fibre, the signal is fed to the receiver.
The Receiver consists of a light detector, which can either be an Avalanche Photo
Diode (ADP) or a Positive Intrinsic Negative( PIN) diode.
In the photo detector, the signal is converted into pulses of electric current, which
is then fed to the decoder, which converts the sequence of binary data stream into
an analogue signal.
Enormous bandwidths:
The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is directly proportional
signal frequency.
Light which has a very high frequency in the range of 1014 to 1015 Hz, can transmit
information at a higher rate.
Smaller diameter and light weight:

Optical fibres are of light weight having smaller diameter and are flexible
compared to that of a copper cable.
This makes them to be used in air crafts and satellites more effectively.
Lack of cross talk between parallel fibres:

Since optical fibers are dielectric wave guides, they are free from any
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
Therefore, cross talk is negligible even when many fibers are cabled together.
Longer life span:

The life span of optical fibres is expected to be 20-30 years as compared to copper
cables, which have a life span of 12-15 years.
Electrical isolation:
Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical insulator.
Therefore they do not pick up any electromagnetic wave or any high
current lightening and so optical fibres are suitable in explosive environment
too.
Signal security:
The transmitted signal through the fiber does not radiate.
Unlike in copper cables, a transmitted signal cannot be drawn from a fiber
without tampering it.
Thus, the optical fiber communication provides 100% signal security.
Low transmission loss:

Due to the usage of ultra low loss fibers and the erbium doped silica fibers as
optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost loss less transmission.
For long distance communication fibers of 0.002db/km are used. Thus the repeater
spacing is more than 100km.
Ruggedness and flexibility:

The fiber cable can be easily bent or twisted without damaging it.
Further the fiber cables are superior than the copper cables in terms of handling,
installation, storage, transportation, maintenance, strength and durability.
Low cost and availability:

Optical fibers are made of silica which is available in abundance.
Hence, there is no shortage of material and optical fibers offer the potential for low
cost communication.
Sensors:
Fibers have many uses in remote
sensing. In some applications, the
sensor is itself an optical fiber.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors
to measure strain, temperature,
pressure and other quantities.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors has the
ability to reach places which are
otherwise inaccessible. An example
is the measurement of temperature
inside aircraft jet engines.
Extrinsic sensors can also be used in
the same way to measure the
internal temperature of electrical
transformers.
Fibre optic temperature sensor using

Phase interference
Power transmission:
Optical fiber can be used to transmit
power using a photovoltaic cell to
convert the light into electricity.
Fiber optics are used to connect users
and servers in a variety of network
settings and help increase the speed and
accuracy of data transmission.
They are also used in military as
hydrophones for seismic and SONAR
uses, as wiring in aircraft, submarines
and other vehicles and also for field
networking.
Broadcast/cable companies are using
fiber optic cables for wiring CATV,
HDTV, internet, video on-demand and
other applications.
Fibre optics used in SONAR
Fibre optic cable system in Internet
Telecommunication:
Optics fiber is used by many
telecommunications companies to
transmit telephone signals, Internet
communication, and cable television
signals.
Unlike electrical cables, fiber optics
transport information far distances
with few repeaters.
Fiber optic cables can carry a large
number
of
different
signals
simultaneously through a technique
called
wavelength
division
Optical fibres used in Telecommunication
multiplexing.
Optical fibers are ideally suited for
carrying digital information, which is
especially useful in computer and
cellular networks.
Medical Applications:
Optical fiber is used in imaging optics.
They are used as light guides in medical
and other applications where bright light
needs to be shone on a target without a
clear line-of-sight path.
A coherent bundle of fibers is used,
along with lenses, for a long, thin
imaging device called an endoscope,
which is used to view objects through a
small hole.
Medical endoscopes are used for
surgical procedures to view the internal
parts of the human body.
Industrial endoscopes are used for Optical fibre enabling the physician
inspecting anything hard to reach, such as
to look and work inside the body
jet engine interiors.
without performing surgery
Based on application, the endoscopes

are classified into:
Gastro scope is used to examine the
stomach.
Bronchoscope is used to see the upper
passage of lungs.
Ortho scope is used to see the small
spaces within joints.
Could scope is used to test female
pelvic organs.
Peritonea scope is used to test the
abdominal cavity , lower parts of liver
and gall bladder.
In Ophthalmology, lasers guided by the
fibres is used to reattach the detached
retina.
A flexible Endoscope
Image of a Bronchoscope
Spectroscopy:
Many microscopes use fiber-optic
light sources to provide intense
illumination of samples being
studied.
In spectroscopy, optical fiber
bundles transmit light from a
spectrometer to a substance that
cannot be placed inside the
spectrometer itself, in order to
analyze its composition.
By using fibers, a spectrometer can
be used to study objects remotely.
Fibre Optics Reflectance

Spectroscopy (FORS) used in art
examination and art conservation
Thank You
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based
on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.
The term LASER" originated as an acronym for "light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation".
Stimulated emission was first used by Townes and Schawlov in USA & Bosov &
Prokhrov in USSR.
Maiman demonstrated the first Laser in 1960.
For atomic systems in thermal equilibrium with their surrounding,

the emission of light is the result of:
Absorption: If a photon of energy h12(E2-E1) collides with an atom
present in the ground state of energy E1, then the atom completely
absorbs the incident photon and makes transition to excited state E2.
E2
Before Absorption
E1
After Absorption
Spontaneous emission: An atom initially present in the excited

state makes transition voluntarily on its own ,without any aid of
external stimulus or an agency ,to the ground state and emits a
photon of energy h=E2-E1. The period of stay of the atom (electron)
in the excited state is called its life time.
This process of emission of light is called spontaneous emission.
E2
E1
Stimulated Emission: A photon having energy h12 (E2-E1)

impinges on an atom present in the excited state and the atom is
stimulated to make transition to the ground state. This gives off a
photon of energy h12. The emitted photon is in phase with the
incident photon. These are coherent. This type of emission is known
as stimulated emission.
E1
E2
Before Stimulated Emission
After Stimulated Emission
Spontaneous Emission of Radiation
Stimulated Emission of Radiation
It is a Polychromatic radiation.
It is a Monochromatic radiation.
It has less intensity.
It has High intensity.
It has less directionality and more angular

spread during propagation.
It has high directionality and so less

angular spread during propagation.
It is Spatially and temporally incoherent

radiation.
It is Specially and temporally coherent

radiation.
In this emission ,light is not amplified.
In this emission , light is amplified.
Spontaneous emission takes place when

excited atoms make a transition to lower
energy level voluntarily without any
external stimulation.
Stimulated emission takes place when a

photon of energy equal to h 12 (=E2-E1)
stimulates an excited atom ,to make
transition to lower energy level.
In a single downward transition,

Spontaneous emission results in the
emission of one photon.
In a single downward transition ,

Stimulated emission results in the
emission of two photons.
Ex: Light from an ordinary electric bulb,

Light from an LED.
Ex: Light from a Laser source.
The
mostMonochromaticity
important characteristics of a Laser beam are,
1.High
2.High degree of coherence
3.High directionality
4.High brightness
1.Monochromaticity:
Laser light is monochromatic or very pure in color.
A Laser beam is in single wavelength i.e., the line width of a laser beam is
extremely narrow.
In conventional light sources, the wavelength spread is usually 1 in 106
In case of laser light, the spread will be 1 in 1015

This means that if the frequency of radiation is 1015 Hz, then the width of the
line will be 1 Hz
2.Directionality:
Laser beam emits light only in one direction.
It travels very long distances without divergence. And so, Laser communication
is carried on between the earth and the moon.
The directionality of a Laser beam is expressed in terms of divergence.
Suppose r1 and r2 are the radii of a laser beam at distances D1 and D2
laser, then the divergence, = (r1 - r2)/ D2-D1
from a
The divergence for a laser beam is 0.01 milliradian where as incase of

light it is 0.5 radian.
search
3. Coherence:
Two sources of light are said to be
coherent if they have zero or a constant
phase difference between them.
Laser beam is both Spatially and
temporally coherent.
Temporal coherence:
Temporal coherence refers to
the
correlation between the light fields at
different times at a point on the wave.
Temporal coherence refers to the fact
that the wave is polarized and retains the
same frequency and phase over the entire
length of the beam. Hence, lasers have a
long coherence length
If there is no change in phase over a
time t at a point on the wave, then it is
said to be temporally coherent during that
time.
since the two points P1 and P2 are on the
same wave train which is continuous, they
have correlation.
P2
P1
Continuous wave
P1
Discontinuous wave
P2
Spatial Coherence:
If a wave maintains a constant phase
difference or is in phase at two different
points on the wave over a time t, then
the wave is said to be in spatial coherence.
Spatial coherence refers to the laser
beam output being narrow and resistant to
diffraction, essentially retaining its narrow
shape.
This allows lasers to be focused in small
spots as well as reach large distances.
Spatially coherent waves
Spatially incoherent waves
4.Brightness:
The Laser beam is highly bright (intense) as compared to the conventional light
because more light is concentrated in a small region.
It is observed that the intensity of 1mV laser light is 10,000 times brighter than the
light from the sun at the earths surface.
The number of photons coming out from a laser per second per unit area is about
1022 to 1034 where as the number of photons coming out per second per unit area of
a black body at 1000K having a wavelength of 6000 is 10 16
Laser light is coherent and so at a time many photons are in phase and they
superimpose to produce a wave of larger amplitude.
The intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude and hence the intensity
of the resultant laser beam is very high.
LetN1 be the number of atoms per unit volume with energy E1 and N2 the number
of atoms per unit volume with energy E2.
Let n be the number of photons per unit volume at frequency such that h =E2E1.
Then the energy density of interacting photons (v) is given by
() = n h
(1)
When these photons interact with atoms, both upward (absorption) and downward
(emission) transitions occur. At equilibrium ,these transition rates must be equal.
Upward Transition( Stimulated Absorption)
Stimulated absorption rate depends on the number of atoms available in the lower
energy state for absorption of these photons as well as the energy density of
interacting radiation.
i.e., stimulated absorption rate N1
()
= B12N1 ()
(2)
Where, the constant of proportionality B12 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated

absorption.
Downward transition
1.Spontaneous Emission:
The spontaneous emission rate depends on the number of atoms in the excited
energy state.
i.e., spontaneous emission rate N2
=N2 A21
(3)
Where the constant of proportionality A21 is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous

emission.
2.Stimulated emission:
stimulated emission rate depends on the number of atoms available in the excited
state as well as energy density of interacting photons.
i.e., stimulated emission rate N2
()
=N2 () B21
(4)
Where, the constant of proportionality B21 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated

emission.
For a system in equilibrium, the upward and down word transition rates must be
equal and hence,
N1 () B12= N2()B21 +N 2A21 (5)
Now, () =[ N2A21]/N1B12-N1B21
(6)
And, () =[(A21/B21)]/[(B12/B21)(N1/N2)]-1
(7)
The population of various energy levels in thermal equilibrium is given by

Boltzmann distribution law as,
Ni=gi No exp (-E i/KT)
(8)
Now,
N 1/N2=g1/g2 exp [h/KT]
()=[A21/B21]/{(B12g1/B21g2)}exp[h/KT]
(8)
From Plancks law of blackbody radiation, the radiation density is given by

()=[8h3/C3][1/exp(h/KT)-1]
(9)
Comparing equations (8) and (9),

g1B12=g2B21
(10)
(10)
And,
A21/B21=83/C3
Equations (10) and (11) are referred to as the Einstein relations.
(11)
Usually in a system, the number of

atoms (N1) present in the ground state
(E1) is larger than the number of atoms
(N2) present in the higher energy state.
The process of making N2>N1 is called
population inversion.
Conditions for population inversion are:
The system should posses at least a pair
of energy levels (E2>E1), separated by an
energy equal to the energy of a photon
(h).
There should be a continuous supply of
energy to the system such that the atoms
must be raised continuously to the
excited state.
Population inversion can be

achieved by a number of ways.
Some of them are,
(i) Optical pumping
(ii) Electrical discharge
(iii) Inelastic collision of atoms
(iv) Chemical reaction and
(v) Direct conversion
An excited state with relatively more

life time(10-3 sec) is called a Meta stable
state.
The necessary condition for population
inversion is the presence of a meta stable
state.
The steps involved in Lasing action are,

1.
Pumping: The process of sending atoms from lower energy state to higher
energy state is called Pumping..Different pumping mechanisms are adopted
depending on the type of the laser. For Ruby laser, Optical pumping is
adopted. For He-Ne laser, the pumping mechanism is Electric discharge. In
Semi-conductor laser, it is Direct conversion and in the case of CO2 laser, the
mechanism is Chemical reaction.
2.
Population inversion : Population inversion can be achieved with the
presence of a meta stable state.
3.
Stimulated emission of radiation : Photons produced by stimulated emission
are in phase and they produce coherent light.
A Laser system consists of three basic parts.

1.
An Active medium, with a suitable set of energy levels to support laser action.
For example, in Ruby laser, Cr3+ ions are the active laser particles.
2.
Energy source, (Source of Pumping) in order to establish population inversion.
3.
An Optical Cavity or Resonator to introduce optical feedback and so maintain
the gain of the system overcoming all losses. Depending on the type of the
system, optical feedback is provided with the help of dielectric mirrors or
polished and coated ends of a crystal rod or cleaved crystal face.
Ruby Laser is the first type of laser,

demonstrated in the year 1960 by
T.H.Maiman.
Ruby Laser is a solid state laser.
It is a pulsed three level pumping
scheme.
Active medium: The active medium in
Ruby rod (Al2O3+Cr2O3) is Cr3+ions.
Some of the Aluminum atoms are
replaced by 0.05% of Chromium atoms.
Lasing action takes place in Chromium
energy levels.
Energy states of a Three level Active medium
Energy Source: The pumping of ions is
through optical pumping, using Xenon
flash lamp.
Construction:
Ruby Laser consists of a cylindrical shaped Ruby crystal rod. One of the end faces
is highly silvered and the other face is partially silvered so that it transmits 10-25%
of the incident light and reflects the rest.
The ruby crystal is placed along the axis of a helical Xenon or Krypton flash lamp
of high intensity. This is surrounded by a reflector.
The ruby rod is protected from heat by enclosing it in a hollow tube, through which
cold water is circulated.
The ends of the flash lamp are connected to a pulsed high voltage source, so that
the lamp gives flashes of an intense light.
Working:
The Chromium ions are responsible for the stimulated emission of radiation,
whereas Aluminum and Oxygen ions are passive, sustaining the lasing action.
The Chromium ions absorb the radiations of wavelength around 5500Ao (Green)
and 4000Ao ( Blue),emitted by the flash lamp and get excited to 4F2 and 4F1 energy
levels respectively, from ground state.
After the life time, the ions make non- radiative transition to the metastable state
2E, consisting of a pair of energy levels (doublet).
Population inversion takes place between metastable and ground state. As a result,
stimulated emission takes place giving rise to the emission of light of wavelengths
6929Ao and 6943Ao , of which 6943Ao is the laser radiation of high intensity.
Ruby laser is used in Distance measurement using pulse echo technique.

Ruby laser is used to create holograms of large objects such as aircraft tires to look
for weaknesses in the lining.
Used in atmospheric ranging, scattering studies and LIDAR measurements.

Used for trimming resistors and integrated circuit masks
Ruby lasers were used mainly in research One of the main industrial uses is drilling
holes through diamond.
Used in military as target designators and range finders
Used in research applications such as Plasma production and fluorescence

spectroscopy.
Ruby lasers were used extensively in tattoo and hair removal.
As Ruby laser is a three level

pumping scheme, it generally
requires very high pumping
power.
Efficiency is very less, as only
green and blue components of
the incident light are absorbed
and the remaining
components are left unused.
The laser output is not

continuous. It is in a pulsed
mode.
The best-known and most widely used

He-Ne laser operates at a wavelength of
632.8 nm in the red part of the visible
spectrum.
It was developed at Bell Telephone
Laboratories in 1962.
Helium-Neon is a gas laser.
It is a continuous four level laser.
Active medium: Helium and Neon gases
in the ratio of 10:1respectively. Ne atoms
are responsible for lasing action.
Energy Source: Two electrodes are fixed
near the ends of the tube to pass electric
discharge through the gas.
Energy states of a Four level Active medium
Construction:
He-Ne laser consists of a long, narrow cylindrical tube made up of fused quartz, of
diameter around 2 to 8 mm and length around 10 to 100 cm.
The tube is filled with helium and neon gases in the ratio of 10:1. The pressure of
the mixture of gases inside the tube is nearly 1 mm of Hg.
Two electrodes are fixed near the ends of the tube to pass electric discharge
through the gas.
Two optically plane mirrors are fixed at the two ends of the tube.
One of the mirrors is fully silvered so that nearly 100% reflection takes place and
the other is partially silvered, so that 1% of the light incident on it will be
transmitted.
Working:
Lasing action is due to the neon atoms. Helium is used for selective pumping of
neon atoms to upper energy levels.
When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture, electrons are accelerated
down the tube. These accelerated electrons collide with the ground state helium
atoms and excite them to two meta stable states 21s and 23s.
The helium atoms in the meta stable state 21s collide with the neon atoms in the
ground state and excite them to 3s level.
Similarly, the helium atoms in the meta stable state 23s collide with the neon
atoms in the ground state and excite them to 2s energy level
During collisions, the helium atoms transfer their energy to neon atoms and come
back to ground state.
Since 3s and 2s levels of neon atoms

are meta stable states, population
inversion takes place at these levels.
Any of the spontaneously emitted
photon will trigger the laser action
The excited neon atoms transit to
ground state in three different ways,
leading to three lasers of different
wavelengths. They are,
Transition from 3s to 3p level, giving
rise to a radiation of 3.39m, which
lies in the infrared region.
Energy band diagram of He-Ne laser
Transition from 3s to 2p level, giving rise to visible radiation of

wavelength 6328Ao, that lies in red region.
Transition from 2s to 2p level giving rise to a wavelength of 1.15m,

which lies in the infrared region.
The atoms in the 3p and 2p levels undergo spontaneous emission to 1s level

by fast decay, giving rise to photons by spontaneous emission.
The atoms in the 1s level return back to the ground state, by non-radiative
diffusion and collisions with the walls of the discharge tube.
After arriving to ground state, the neon atoms raise back to 3s and 2s levels
by excited helium atoms, for getting a continuous output.
He-Ne laser is widely used in laboratories for all interferometric

experiments.
He-Ne lasers are used in super market checkout counters to read bar
codes.
He-Ne laser scanners are used for optical character recognition.
The He-Ne lasers are used by newspapers for reproducing

transmitted photographs.
He-Ne laser is widely used in metrology in surveying and as an
alignment tool.
It is used in Guns for targeting.

They are used in 3D recording of objects called holography.
It is a
relatively
low power
device which
means that
its output
power is
low.
He-Ne laser
is a low gain
system or
device.
To obtain
single
wavelength
laser light, the
other two
wavelengths
of laser need
suppression,
which is done
by many
techniques and
devices. So it
requires extra
technical skill
and cost.
High voltage
requirement
can be
considered
its
disadvantage
Escaping of
gas from
laser plasma
tube is also
its
disadvantage
Semiconductor laser is of two types:

Homo junction Laser: A p-n
junction formed by a single
crystalline material such that the
basic material is same on both the
sides.
Hetero junction Laser:The material
on one side of the junction differs
from that on the other side.
direct recombination of electron and

hole, and the electron emitting a
photon.
Principle:
Among the Direct band gap and the
Indirect band gap semiconductor, a
Direct band gap semiconductor is
used to make light emitting diodes
and lasers.
In Direct band gap semiconductor,
there is a large possibility for the
Direct and Indirect band gap

Semiconductors
Construction:
Active medium:
A p-n junction diode made from
crystalline Gallium Arsenide is the active
medium.
The p-region and n-region in the diode
are obtained by heavily doping
Germanium and Tellurium respectively in
GaAs.
At the junction, the sides through which
emitted light is coming out, are well
polished and are parallel to each other.
Energy Source:
Electric current which is applied to the
crystal platelet through a strip electrode
fixed to its upper surface, is the energy
source.
Upper
electrod
e
Ga As diode laser
Working:
Population inversion is achieved by injecting electrons across the junction from
the n-region to the p-region by means of a forward bias voltage.
When a large amount of current of the order 10 4 amp/cm2 is passed through the
junction to provide excitation, the direct recombination of electrons and holes take
place resulting in the emission of photons. These photons further increase the rate
of recombination .Thus, more number of photons are emitted.
The wavelength of the emitted radiation depends upon the concentration of the
donor and acceptor atoms in Ga As.
In reverse bias, no carrier injection takes place and consequently no light is
emitted.
Energy band diagram of heavily doped p-n junction (a) in equilibrium (b) Forward bias
Explanation:
At thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level
should be uniform throughout the
junction. So the Fermi level in the n-side
lies within the conduction band and in the
p-side, it lies within the valence band.
When the junction is forward biased,
the energy levels shift and the electrons
and
holes are injected across the
depletion layer, existing at the junction.
At low threshold current, recombination
of electrons and holes give spontaneous
emission.
Initially the spontaneously emitted
photon starts the stimulated emission, at a
current beyond the threshold value, and
thus the number of photons increases
with time.
Calculation of wavelength of the emitted radiation:

Suppose the band gap of Ga As is 1.44eV
Therefore, Eg=h=hC/
(or) =hC/Eg = 6.626x10-34x3x108
1.44x1.6x10-19
=8623x10-10 m
=8628 Ao
This wavelength corresponds to the near infrared region.
Taking the wavelength in m and Eg in eV, the above relation reduces to
(m) =1.24/Eg (eV)
Drawbacks of homo-junction lasers:

The threshold current density is very large (400 A/ mm2)
Only pulsed mode output is obtained.
Laser output has large beam divergence.
Laser output has poor coherence and poor stability.
Electromagnetic field confinement is poor.
Advantages of hetero-junction lasers over Homo-junction lasers:
The threshold current density is very low, (10 A/ mm2) at room temperature.
The laser output is continuous.
High output power (10 mW) can be achieved even with low operating current
(< 500 mA)
Very narrow beam with high coherence and monochromaticity is achieved.
The laser output is highly stable with longer life.
Hence hetero-junction laser diodes are used as optical sources in optical fibre
communication.
Lasers in Communication:
Lasers are used in Optical fibre
communication
as light source to
transmit audio, video signals and data to
long distances without attenuation and
distortion.
Laser beam can be used for the
communication between the earth and
the moon or to other satellites.
Lasers in Satellite communication
Laser beam can be used for under water

communication, as laser radiation is not
absorbed by water.
Lasers in under water communication
Lasers in Industry:
Lasers are used for welding. Dissimilar
metals can be welded using lasers.
Holes with controlled precision can be

drilled in steel, ceramics, diamond and
alloys, using lasers.
Lasers used in welding
Lasers are widely used in electronic

industry in trimming the components of
ICs.
Drilling Steel foil for high density filters
Lasers are used in cutting metal sheets,

diamond and cloths. In the mass
production of stitched clothes, lasers are
used to cut the cloth in a desired
dimension, all at once.
Lasers are used for surface treatment.
Laser beam is used in selective heat
treatment for tempering the desired parts
in automobile industry.
Cutting wood using laser
Laser surface treatment to change the micro

structure of metals through controlled
heating and cooling.
The worlds first all-diamond ring,

cut with Laser
Lasers in medicine:
Lasers are used in eye surgery,
especially to attach the detached
retina.
Lasers are used for treatments such
as plastic surgery, skin injuries and to
remove moles, tattoos and tumours
developed in skin tissue.
Lasers are used in stomatology-the
study of mouth and its disease.
Lasers used in stomatology
Lasers in Eye surgery
Lasers in tattoo removal
Laser radiation is sent through optical

fibre to open the blocked artery region.
Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones
and gall stones.
Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and
Red Argon laser used in throat cancer treatment
therapy.
Lasers are used in blood loss less
surgery.
Lasers are used to control hemorrhage.
Using CO2 laser, liver and lung
treatment can be carried out.
Lasers used to open artery block
Lasers are used in endoscopes, to detect
hidden parts.
Laser Doppler velocimetry is used to
measure the velocity of blood in blood
vessels.
Lasers used to destroy kidney stones
Lasers in Military:
Focusing of high energetic laser beam
for few seconds, destroys aircrafts,
missiles, etc. These rays are called death
rays.
The vital part of the enemys body can
be evaporated by focusing a highly
convergent laser beam from a laser gun.
LIDAR (Light Detecting And Ranging)
is used to estimate the size and shape of
distant objects or war weapons.
Laser armed Humvees shooting a Drone

(flying Robot)
Lasers beams of RMR LIDAR at ALOMAR Observatory
Soldiers using laser gun
Lasers in Computers:
By using Lasers, a large amount of
information or data can be stored in CDROM or their storage capacity can be
increased.
Lasers are used in computer printers.
Laser assembly inside a CD burner
Laser Beam Printer (LBP) by Epson
Lasers in thermo nuclear fusion:

A nuclear fusion reaction can be
initiated by concentrating a large amount
of laser energy in a small volume.
For example, in the fusion of deuterium
and tritium, irradiation with a high energy
laser beam, develops a temperature of
1017 oC , which is sufficient to initiate
nuclear fusion reaction.
Lasers used in nuclear fusion reactors
Fusion of deuterium and tritium using 192 lasers
Lasers in Scientific research:

Laser beam can initiate chemical
reactions, study the nature of chemical
bonds and also can break molecules.
Lasers are used to estimate the size and
shape of biological cells such as
erythrocytes.
Lasers are used to find the size of dust
particles.
Laser Scanning Microscope micrograph
Lasers are used in counting the atoms in
of human RBCs
isotope separation.
Las
er
Laser used in isotope separation
Lasers are used in holography, for

recording and reconstructing of a
hologram.
Lasers are used to measure the
constantly changing distance between the
moon and the earth, by astronomers.
Lasers used in Holography
Lasers are used in plastic industries to

unite monomers to form polymers.
Lasers are used to develop hidden finger
prints and to clean delicate pieces of art.
Finger print scanning using Laser
THANK YOU
INTERFERENCE
the process in which two or more

light, sound, or electromagnetic
waves of the same frequency
combine to reinforce or cancel each
other, the amplitude of the
resulting wave being equal to the
sum of the amplitudes of the
combining waves.
Striking colors observed on thin films due to

interference
PRINCIPLES OF SUPERPOSITION
TYPES OF INTERFERENCE
Interference is of two types.
1. Constructive interference / constructive superposition

2. Destructive interference / destructive superposition
1. CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
When crest of one light wave falls on the crest of another wave then the
resultant intensity increases and this type of interference is called constructive

interference. Here we get maximum intensity.
2. DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
When crest of one light wave falls on the trough of another wave then
the resultant intensity decreases. This type of interference is called destructive
interference. Here we get minimum intensity.
Interference in thin films

Optical Path:
The optical path travelled by a light ray in a medium of refractive index '' is
not equal to actual path travel led by the light ray.
Thin film planes can be parallel to each other or inclined. That is why, the concept
of interference in thin films can be studied under two categories, namely,

1.
Interference in parallel plate film and
2.
Interference in wedge-shaped films.
We observes colors in such thin films as

soap bubbles, coatings on camera lenses
and in a butterfly's wings or peacock's
feathers.
Soap Film Why Color?
When ray 1 strikes the top interface, some of the light is partially
reflected, ray 2, and the rest is refracted, ray 3.

When ray 3 strikes the bottom interface, some of it is reflected, ray 4,
and the remainder is refracted, ray 6.
When ray 4 strikes the top interface from underneath, some is reflected
(not shown) and some is refracted, ray 5.
It is the interference between rays 2 and 5 that produces a thin film's

color when the film is viewed from above.
Interference in plane parallel films due to

reflection of light:
Ray 2 undergoes a phase

change of 180 with
respect to the incident
ray
Ray 1, which is reflected

from the lower surface,
undergoes no phase
change with respect to
the incident wave
Interference in plane parallel films due to reflection

of light:
N
Q
i
air
i
C
Interference in plane parallel films due to reflection

of light:
For constructive interference

2 t cos r =(2n1) /2 n = 0, 1, 2
For normal incidence r=00
2 t = (2n1) /2 n = 0, 1, 2
For destruction interference

2 t cos r = n n = 0, 1, 2
For normal incidence r=0
2 t = n n = 0, 1, 2
Interference in plane parallel films due to transmitted

of light:
Content beyond the syllabus The conditions for bright is
2 d cos r = n
n = 0, 1, 2
The conditions for dark is
2 d cos r =(2n1) /2
n = 0, 1, 2
We can say the interference

pattern due to reflected and
transmitted rays are
complementary each other.
Newtons Rings
Newtons rings are formed due to interference between the waves reflected
from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the plano
convex lens and plane glass plate. This phenomenon was first described by
Newton that why they are known as Newtons rings
Newtons Rings
Newtons Rings
Experimental arrangement
L is a planoconvex lens with large radius of curvature .
G is a plane glass plate

L is placed with its convex surface on G.
monochromatic light is incident on L normally by using 45
arrangement of glass plate.

A part of light is reflected from curved surface of lens and another one is
reflected from plane surface of glass plate.
Now interference take place between these two rays

i.e one is reflected from upper surface of air film and another one
reflected from lower surface of air film.
Thus we get alternative bright and dark fringes .
Newtons rings are formed due to interference between the light rays reflected
from the top and bottom surfaces of air film between the plate and the lens.
The formation of Newtons rings can be explained with the help of Fig
Formation of Newtons rings
Theory of Newtons Rings

To find the diameters of dark and bright rings, let L be a lens placed on a
glass plate P. The convex surface of the lens is the part of spherical surface
(Fig) with center at C. Let R be the radius of curvature and r be the radius of
Newtons ring corresponding to the film thickness t.
For dark ring, the condition is
Thus, the diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural
numbers.
With the increase in the order (n), the rings get closer and the fringe width
decreases and are shown in Fig.
Determination of Wavelength of a Light Source
Newtons rings are formed with suitable experimental setup. With the help
of travelling microscope, the readings for different orders of dark rings
were noted from one edge of the rings to the other edge. The diameters of
different orders of the rings can be known. A plot between D2 and
the number of rings gives a straight line as shown in the fig.
Plot of D2 with respect to number of rings
From the graph,
The radius R of the Plano-convex lens can be obtained with the help of a
Spherometer. Substituting these values in the formula, can be calculated.
Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid

The experiment is performed when there is an air film between glass plate
and the Plano-convex lens. The diameters of mth and nth dark rings are
determined with the help of travelling microscope. We have
The system is placed into the container which consists of the liquid whose
refractive index is to be determined. Now, the air film is replaced by the
liquid film. Again, the diameters of the same mth and nth dark rings are to be
obtained. Then we have
Using the above formula, can be calculated.
the bending of waves, esp. sound and light

waves, around obstacles in their path.
Waves tend
to curve
round the
edges of the
barriers.
The diffraction phenomena are broadly classified into two types:
1. Fresnel diffraction,
2. Fraunhofer diffraction
Fresnel diffraction
To study diffraction, there should be a light source, obstacle and screen.
In this class of diffraction, the source and screen are placed at finite
distances from the obstacle. To study this diffraction, lenses are not
necessary as the source and screen are at a finite distance. This diffraction
can be studied in the direction of propagation of light. The incident wave
fronts are either spherical or cylindrical.
Fraunhofer diffraction
In this class of diffraction, the source and screen are placed at infinite
distances from the obstacle. Due to the above fact, lenses are needed to
study the diffraction. This diffraction can be studied in any direction. In
this case, the incident wave front is plane.
Fresnel diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction
S
# German Optician
# Known for the discovery of
dark absorption lines
(Fraunhofer lines)
# 1814- Invented
SPECTROSCOPE
# 1821- developed
DIFFRACTION GRATING
Fraunhofer Diffraction at Single Slit
Fraunhofer diffraction - Single slit
Consider a slit AB of width e.

Let a plane wave front WW of monochromatic light of wavelength
propagating normally towards the slit is incident on it. T
he diffracted light through the slit is focused by means of a convex lens on a
screen placed in the focal plane of the lens.
According to Huygens-Fresnel, every point on the wave front in the plane of
the slit is a source of secondary wavelets, which spread out to the right in all
directions.
Those wavelets travelling normal to the slit, i.e., along the direction OP0
are brought to focus at P0 by the lens. Thus, P0 is a bright central image.
The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle with the normal are
focused at a point P1 on the screen.
Depending on path difference, the point P1 may have maximum or
minimum intensities.
To find the intensity at P1, draw the normal AC from A to the light ray at
B.
Let the width of the slit be divided into n equal parts and the amplitude
of the wave from each part is a. The phase difference between any two
successive waves from these parts would be
Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude R is

given by
Principal Maximum
The resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers of as
I will be maximum, when value of R is maximum. For maximum value of R,

the negative terms must vanish, i.e.,
The condition =0 means that the maximum intensity is formed at P0 and

is known as principal maximum.
Minimum Intensity Positions

I will be maximum, when sin=0
Thus, the points of minimum intensity are obtained on either side of the
principal maximum. For m=0, sin=0, which corresponds to principal
maximum.
Secondary Maxima
In between these minima, we get secondary maxima. The positions can
be obtained by differentiating the expression of I w.r.t and equating to
zero. We get
Plots of y= and y= tan
The values of satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically by

plotting the curves y= and y= tan on the same graph. The points of
intersection of the two curves give the values of which satisfy the above
equation. The plots of y= and y= tan are shown in fig.
The points of intersections are
Substituting the above values in equations (1), the intensities in various

maxima are obtained.
From the above expressions, it is evident that most of the incident light is
concentrated in the principal maximum.
Intensity Distribution
Intensity distribution
Diffraction Grating-Normal incidence(Diffraction at N parallel slits)
Section of a Plane transmission grating

An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same
width and separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating.
Construction
Fraunhofer used the first grating consisting of a large number of parallel
wires placed very closely side by side at regular intervals.
The diameter of the wires was of the order of 0.05mm and their spacing
varied from0.0533 mm to 0.687 mm.
Now gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a
transparent material such as glass with a fine diamond point.
The ruled lines are opaque to light while the space between any two lines
is transparent to light and acts as a slit. This is known as Plane transmission
grating.
On the other hand, if the lines are drawn on a silvered surface (plane or
concave) then the light is reflected from the positions of mirrors in between
any two lines and it forms a plane or concave reflection grating.
When the spacing between the lines is of the order of the wavelength of
light, then an appreciable deviation of light is produced.
Theory
Let e be the width of each slit and d be the width of each opaque part.
Then (e+d) is known as grating element. XY is the screen placed
perpendicular to the plane of a paper.
Suppose a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength
incident normally on the grating.
be
By Huygens principle, each of the slit sends secondary wavelets in all

directions.
The secondary wavelets travelling in the same direction of incident light will
come to a focus at a point P0 of the screen as the screen is placed at the focal
plane of the convex lens. The point P0 will be the central maximum.
Now, consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an

angle with the direction of the incident light.
These waves reach the point P1 on passing through the convex lens in
different phases.
As a result, dark and bright bands on both sides of the central maximum are
obtained.
The intensity at point P1 may be considered by applying the theory of

Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit. The wavelets proceeding from all points
in a slit along the direction are equivalent to a single wave of amplitude (A
sin/) starting from the middle point of the slit, where
= ( e sin/).
If there are N slits, then there will be N diffracted waves, one each from the
middle points of the slits. The path difference between two consecutive slits is
(e+d) sin. Therefore, there is a corresponding phase difference of (2/). (e+d)
sin between the two consecutive waves. The phase difference is constant and
it is 2.
Hence, the problem of determining the intensity in the direction reduces to
finding the resultant amplitude of N vibrations each of amplitude (A sin/ )
and having a common phase difference
Now, by the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the direction of will be
The factor
gives the distribution of intensity due to single slit while the
factor (sin2 N/ sin2) gives the distribution of intensity as a combined
effect of all the slits.
Intensity distribution in N-Slits

Principle maxima
The intensity would be maximum when sin = 0.
but at the same time sin N = 0, so that the factor (sinN/sin) becomes
indeterminate. It may be evaluated by applying the usual method of
differentiating the numerator and the denominator, i.e., by applying the
Hospitals rule. Thus,
The maxima are obtained for
Minima
A series of minima occur, when
Secondary maxima
As there are (N-1) minima between two adjacent principal maxima, there must be (N2) other maxima between two principal maxima. To find out the position of these
secondary maxima, equation (2) must be differentiated with respect to and then
equate it to zero. Thus,
As N increases, the intensity of secondary maxima relative to principal

maxima decreases and becomes negligible when N becomes large.
(a) & (b) Graphs showing the variation of intensity (c) The Resultant
Diffraction Grating
To determine the wavelengths emitted by the atomic element in a
discharge tube and to identify the element
A large number of equally spaced parallel slits is called a diffraction
grating.
When sunlight falls on a diffraction grating, a rainbow of colors is

produced at each principal maximum (m
= 1, 2, ). The central
maximum (m = 0), however, is white but is not shown in the drawing.
2nd order
1st order
Laser
Zero order
1st order
2nd order
A GRATING SPECTROSCOPE
The light to be analyzed passes through a slit and is formed into a

parallel beam by a lens. The diffracted light leaves the grating at angles
that satisfy d sinbright=m
Collimator parallel light diffraction grating

Pattern observed
measured find
Apparatus
The spectrometer is made up of three parts:
the collimator an optical device which produces a parallel

beam of light from your monochromatic light source
the telescope an optical device which focuses a beam of
parallel light in the plane of the crosshairs
the turntable supports the diffraction grating and enables
the angular position of the telescope
measurement of
DO NOT TOUCH THE RULED SURFACE OF THE GRATING
565
Rn
R1
P
diffraction grating
566
The path difference = n

up to produce a bright fringe
the sine waves in phase and the intensities add
The difference is , 3/2 , 5/2,

dark spot or line
Rays diffracted by
Thus for a maximum
the waves 1800 out of phase give a
path difference = d sin
aka. the grating equation

n = 1, 2, are the 1st, 2nd, etc orders
= wavelength of the line
d = grating space i.e., distance between successive slits
= off axis angle measured from the straight through
Set 1/d= N = number of slits per cm
the grating eqn
567
DEFINITION
If the vibration of light are confined in a definite direction or directions by
any means, then this state of light is called polarized light and this
phenomenon is called polarization of light.
Only transverse wave can show this this

property of light.
THERE ARE THREE TYPE OF POLARIZED LIGHT

1) Plane Polarized Light (ppl or lpl)
2) Circularly Polarized Light (cpl)
3) Elliptically Polarized Light (epl)
If the vibration
of light are
confined in a
definite plane to
the direction of
propagation with
respect to
time,then light is
called pplor
lpl.
2) CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT
On the superposition of
two ppl(having
different
amplitude&phase
diffference of /2)if
the magnitude
&orientation of
resultant light both
vary w.r.t time then
this resultant light is
epl.
1) By Reflection
2) By Refraction
3) By Selective
Absorption(Dichroizm)
4) By Scattering
5) By Double Reflection
When ordinary
light is allowed
to pass through a
calcite
or
quartz,it
splits
into
two
refracted beams
(O-ray&Eray)and both ara
ppl.
1)Its vibrations are
perpendicular to the calcites

optic axis.
2)Vibrations are in the plane of
light incident
1)
Its vibration are
parallel to the calcites optic

axis.
2) Vibrations are perpendicular
to the plane of light incident
3) It obey the snells law.
3) It dont obey the snells law.
4) It travels in the crystal with
4) It travels in the crystal with a
the same speed in all the
speed that varies with
directions.
direction.
PRINCIPLE :-It is based on the phenomenon of double refraction made

from calcite to get ppl.
WORKING :-when an unpolarized light is allowed to fall on nicol prism then

due to double refraction it splits into two ppls(O-ray & E-ray) .the Nicol Prism
is designed in such a way that the O-ray is eliminated by TIR . Hence only E-ray
, ppl is transmitted through the prism.
The ref.indux of calcite for O-ray is( =1.65) is greater then E-ray(
=1.48).The ref.indux of canada balsam( =1.55) lies midway the
ref.indices of calcite crystal for the O-ray & E-ray.
O-ray going from denser to rarer medium,will suffer TIR and the E-ray
going from rarer to denser medium ,will eliminate through crystal thus
we get ppl.
ACOUSTI
CS
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with

process of generation , propagation and reception of
sound in room , may be it small rooms, auditorium,
music rooms, sound recording rooms and movie
theaters, what ever may be where the audience
receive the best quality of sound In 1911 , Wallace
C. Sabine ,professor of physics at Harvard university
laid foundation of Acoustic engineering.
REVERBERAT
A sound produced
inside a hall propagate in all directions .Sound
ION
waves incident on the surfaces of walls ,floors ceiling and furniture

inside a hall will be multiply reflected .As shown in figure a listener
inside the hall will receive the sound waves directly from speaker
(source) ,as well as the reflected waves . As the source of sound is
turned off ,the listener hears the sound with gradually reducing
intensity for some time due to persistence of by multiple reflections at
different places in the room. The persistence of audible sound even
after the Source of sound turned off is called REVERBERATION.
REVERBERATION
TIME
The reverberation time
for room is the time required
for the intensity to
drop to one millionth (10-6 ) of its initial intensity.

Reverberation time can be expressed interims of sound level(in dB)
rather than
Intensity .If initial intensity of sound level is Ii and the final level is If ,
,then we can write
Ii
dBi = 10 logI
(standerd)
If
dBf =10 logI
Ii
(standerd)
If
since
= 106
dBi dBf = 10-6

dBi dBf =10 log 106 = 6 10=60 dB
Thus, the reverberation time is the time required for sound intensity to drop by
60 decibels (dB ) after the sound source is turn off.
PH0101 UNIT 1 LECTURE 7
BASIC REQUIRMENT OF ACOUSTICALLY

GOOD
HALL
The following
conditions for acoustically good
hall
1)Shape of the ceiling and walls should be so as to provide uniform distribution of

sound throughout the hall as shown in below figure ,they should not be irregular
surfaces.
1 10066
2).The sound heard must be sufficiently loud in every part of hall and no echoes
should be present.
3).There should not be concentration of sound any part, no resonance ,no Echelon
effect, the reverberation time should be neither too large nor too small ,the quality of
music of the speech and music unchanged.
4).The hall must be full of audience as shown in

picture.
Sound Absorption Coefficient
The effectiveness of a surface in absorbing sound

energy is expressed with the help of absorption
coefficient.
The coefficient of absorption à of a materials is
defined as the ratio of sound energy absorbed by its
surface to that of the total sound energy incident on
the surface.
Sound energy absorbed by the surface

a=
Total sound energy incident on the surface
A unit area of open window is selected as the

standard. All the sound incident on an open
window is fully transmitted and none is reflected.
Therefore, it is considered as an ideal absorber of
sound.
Thus the unit of absorption is the open window
unit (O.W.U.), which is named a sabine after
the scientist who established the unit.
A 1m2 sabin is the amount of sound absorbed by
one square metre area of fully open window.
585
SOUND ABSORPTION COEFFINET OF SOME

MATERIALS
MATERIAL Absorption
Coefficient
O.W.U.
Open window
1.0
Marble
0.01
Carpets
0.30
Human body
0.50
Heavy curtains
0.50
Fiber glass
0.75
SABINES EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR

REVERBERTION TIME
Sabine given a relation between , reverberation time (T), Volume of
the hall (V) and absorption of sound of all materials(a) which are
present in the hall.
The following are Sabines
conclusions:
i). The reverberation time(T) is directly proportional to the volume(V) of

the hall
ii). The reverberation time(T) is inversely proportional to the coefficient of
absorption of different materials and surfaces inside the hall.
iii). The reverberation time(T) depends on the frequency of sound waves

,because absorption coefficient for most of the materials increases with
Volume of the hall, V
frequency.
The reverberation
time(T)
Absorption of sound, A
T
T
V
A
or
T K
0 .1 6 5 V
A
V
A
Where K is known as
proportionality constant and its
value is 0.165
(4)
The above equation is known as SABINES formula for reverberation time.
If the hall consists of different materials of surface areas

of s1,s2,s3, ..sn and absorption coefficients
respectively a1, a2, a3 .., an then the Sabines
formula can be written as follows,
T
0 .1 6 5 V
a1s1 a 2 s 2 a 3 s ....... a n s n
or
0 .1 6 5 V
a S
DETEMINATION OF ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT OF A

MATERIAL
In order to find out the absorption coefficient of a material .Let us consider a
hall of volume V. the reverberation time of hall in absence of the material
T1
is
According to Sabines formula
0.165V
The reverberation
T1
aS
time
Where , S is the surface area of the hall ;
a is the absorption coefficient of the surface of
the hall
1
a S
(1)
or
T1
0.165V
To find out the absorption coefficient of the material, now keep the material
inside the hall then the reverberation timeT(2
) is given by,
a S a 1S1
1
T2
0 .1 6 5 V
(2)
s1
Where a1 is the absorption coefficient of the material and
surface area of the material.
is the
Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) we

get
1
a1
1
0 . 1 6 5 V T2 T1
or
a1
0.165V 1 1

S1 T2 T1
Hence knowing the terms on the right hand side of this above equation the
absorption coefficient a of the material can be calculated.
Sabine derived a mathematical equation for reverberation of time

in hall of volume (V).When sound energy produced inside a hall,
the sound energy is spread out uniformly inside the hall. The
sound energy increases gradually from initial value E and reaches
Em
a maximum
value
of
According to the
definition of reverberation time (T), we can write,
E
1 06
Em
(1)
But it has been proved that the sound energy E at time t is given
by
The following relation,
E
e t
Em
Wher
e
(2)
vA
4V
(3)
Where,
v
is the velocity of the sound in air=333m/s, V is the
volume of the hall ,
A is the Total absorption of the sound.
Comparing equation (1) and (2) we

get,
e T 1 06
At, t=T(reverberation
time)
Taking logarithms both sides of above
equation ,
l oge T l og106
T 6 l o ge 1 0
s i nc e
l o ge 1 0 2 . 3 0 6
Substituting value from question (3) in above equation we

get,
vA
is the velocity of sound in air
T
6 2.302
4V
=333m/s;
4 6 2 .3 0 3 2 6 V
After simplification this equation we
T
3 3 3 A
get,
0 .1 6 5 V
A
(4)
The equation (4) is known as SABINES formula for reverberation of

time.

of f s1,s2,s3, ..sn and absorption coefficients
T
0 .1 6 5 V
a1s1 a 2 s 2 a 3 s ....... a n s n
or
0 .1 6 5 V
a S
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS AND

THEIR REMEDIES
S.No
.
FACTOR
SIGNIFICANCE
REMEDY
1.
Reverberation Neither too long nor

short
Providing heavy curtains with

folds; covering floor with carpets,
providing acoustic tiles; by
providing windows and ventilators
opened or closed.
2.
loudness
Due to large absorption

this create confusion
between the different
Syllables
Quality of speakers; polished

reflecting surface behind source
facing the level of listener; low
ceilings.
3.
Focusing
Concentration at
focused regions
Interference of direct &
refracted waves
Avoiding curved surfaces(if

present covered by a sound
absorbent materials) ,providing
parabolic surfaces behind the
source.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS AND THEIR

REMEDIES
S.No FACTOR SIGNIFANCE
REMEDY
.
4.
Resonanc Due to interference of By hanging large number of curtains
e
sound the original
in
sound gets distorted
the hall
5.
Echoes
6.
Focusing
A musical note is
produced due to
combination of echoes
having regular phase
Differences
Concentration at
focused regions
Interference of direct
&
refracted waves
Covering distant wall and ceiling with

absorbent materials; make roughness
of surface of wall.
Avoiding curved surfaces(if present

covered by a sound absorbent
materials),providing parabolic
surfaces behind the source.
Another factor affecting architectural acoustics is

NOISE.
Generally there are three types.
They are,
(a) Air borne noise
(b) Structure-bore noise
(c) Inside noise
1.AIR-BORNE NOISE: The noise that enters the hall from
outside through open windows ,doors and ventilators is known
as air-borne
noise
REMEDY: This can be reduced by using heavy glass doors,
windows and ventilators ,by fixing windows proper places
,forming double wall construction.

THEIR REMEDIES
2.STRUCTURE-NOISE: The noise that reaches through the structure of
buildings are known as structure noise . This nose is produced due to sound
of foot steps, street traffic, moving furniture , operating machines etc.
REMEDY: This can be reduced by, using double walls with air space between
them, keeping carpets on the floor etc.
3.INSIDE NOISE: The noises are produced inside big halls or offices due
to equipment such as air conditioners, type writers, fans etc. are called
inside noise.
REMEDY: This noise is reduced by covering the floor with carpets the walls
,floors and ceilings should be provided with sound absorbing materials, the
machinery like type writers etc. should be placed on sound absorbent pads.
ACOUSTIC
Acoustic quieting isQUIETING
the process of silencing the noise from machinery
i.e., making machinery quieter by damping vibrations. When
machinery vibrates, it generates sound waves in air, hydro acoustic
waves in water and mechanical stresses in solid matter. By absorbing
the irrational energy or minimizing the source of the vibration, acoustic
quieting
is achieved.
Aspects
of Acoustic quieting
To achieve acoustic quieting, a number of different aspects might be
considered with an aim to minimize the noise heard by the observer. They
are,
1. Reducing the noise generation at its source.
2. Acoustic decoupling to reduce sympathetic vibrations.
3. Increasing acoustic damping or changing the size of the resonator to
avoid
resonance.
4. Reducing transmission using many methods, depending whether the
transmission is through air, liquid or solid.
5.By limiting the reflection by using acoustic absorption

materials, trapping the sound, opening windows to let sound out
etc;
METHODS OF QUIETING
Mechanical acoustic quieting
1.Noise isolation: Noise isolation is the method of isolating noise by
using barriers like deadening materials to trap sound and vibrational
energy. For example, in home and office construction, sound control
barriers such as fiber glass or synthetic rubber are placed in the walls
to stop the transmission of noise through them.
2.Noise absorption: The unwanted sounds or noises that are
produced inside a room can be made to be absorbed by suitable
materials instead of being reflected towards the listener. Thus, the
listener receives only the direct sound but not echo reflections. For
example, sound proofing rooms are constructed using acoustic tiles for
recording studios
3. Acoustic damping: Damping mounts are used to suppress the
vibrations. The damping materials prevent the vibrations from being
transferred from one material to the other. Motors and rotating shafts
are fitted with damping mounts.
METHODS OF
QUIETING
A sound proof room, showing acoustic damping tiles used for noise absorption
METHODS OF
QUIETING
4).Acoustic decoupling: Certain parts of a machine such as

frame, chasis or external shaft are decoupled from receiving
unwanted vibrations from a moving part.
5).Preventing stalls: Whenever a machine undergoes an aero
dynamic stall, it abruptly vibrates and hence this has to be
avoided.
6).Preventing cavitations: The sounds of gas bubbles
imploding is the source of noise, called cavitation (Rapid
formation and vanishing of bubbles produce noise). When a
machine is in contact with a fluid, it may be susceptible to
cavitation. Ships and submarines have screws that cavitate and
this may facilitate their detection through the sonar.
7).Preventing water hammer: In hydraulics and plumbing, water
hammer is a known cause for the failure of piping systems. A valve
that abruptly opens or shuts is the most common cause for water
hammer. It also generates considerable noise.
METHODS OF QUIETING
8). Shock absorption: The shock absorbers present

in vehicles, prevent mechanical shocks from reaching
the passengers. They quieten the shocks.
9). Reduction of resonance: Every object vibrates
with its natural frequency. Many parts of a machine
vibrate and produce waves. These waves resonate
and form noise.
10).Material selection: The transmission of sound
and vibrations can be minimized by using non-metallic
components (ex: flexible plastic pipe fittings) in place
of metal components. This reduces noise. In some
cases, air can be removed from the machine and
sealed. The vacuum inside the machine arrests the
noise transmission.
ACOUSTI
CS
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with

process of generation , propagation and reception of
sound in room , may be it small rooms, auditorium,
music rooms, sound recording rooms and movie
theaters, what ever may be where the audience
receive the best quality of sound In 1911 , Wallace
C. Sabine ,professor of physics at Harvard university
laid foundation of Acoustic engineering.
REVERBERAT
A sound produced
inside a hall propagate in all directions .Sound
ION
waves incident on the surfaces of walls ,floors ceiling and furniture

inside a hall will be multiply reflected .As shown in figure a listener
inside the hall will receive the sound waves directly from speaker
(source) ,as well as the reflected waves . As the source of sound is
turned off ,the listener hears the sound with gradually reducing
intensity for some time due to persistence of by multiple reflections at
different places in the room. The persistence of audible sound even
after the Source of sound turned off is called REVERBERATION.
REVERBERATION
TIME
The reverberation time
for room is the time required
for the intensity to
drop to one millionth (10-6 ) of its initial intensity.

Reverberation time can be expressed interims of sound level(in dB)
rather than
Intensity .If initial intensity of sound level is Ii and the final level is If ,
,then we can write
Ii
dBi = 10 logI
(standerd)
If
dBf =10 logI
Ii
(standerd)
If
since
= 106
dBi dBf = 10-6

dBi dBf =10 log 106 = 6 10=60 dB
Thus, the reverberation time is the time required for sound intensity to drop by
60 decibels (dB ) after the sound source is turn off.
PH0101 UNIT 1 LECTURE 7
BASIC REQUIRMENT OF ACOUSTICALLY

GOOD
HALL
The following
conditions for acoustically good
hall
1)Shape of the ceiling and walls should be so as to provide uniform distribution of

sound throughout the hall as shown in below figure ,they should not be irregular
surfaces.
1 10066
2).The sound heard must be sufficiently loud in every part of hall and no echoes
should be present.
3).There should not be concentration of sound any part, no resonance ,no Echelon
effect, the reverberation time should be neither too large nor too small ,the quality of
music of the speech and music unchanged.
4).The hall must be full of audience as shown in

picture.
Sound Absorption Coefficient
The effectiveness of a surface in absorbing sound

energy is expressed with the help of absorption
coefficient.
The coefficient of absorption à of a materials is
defined as the ratio of sound energy absorbed by its
surface to that of the total sound energy incident on
the surface.
Sound energy absorbed by the surface

a=
Total sound energy incident on the surface
A unit area of open window is selected as the

standard. All the sound incident on an open
window is fully transmitted and none is reflected.
Therefore, it is considered as an ideal absorber of
sound.
Thus the unit of absorption is the open window
unit (O.W.U.), which is named a sabine after
the scientist who established the unit.
A 1m2 sabin is the amount of sound absorbed by
one square metre area of fully open window.
611
SOUND ABSORPTION COEFFINET OF SOME

MATERIALS
MATERIAL Absorption
Coefficient
O.W.U.
Open window
1.0
Marble
0.01
Carpets
0.30
Human body
0.50
Heavy curtains
0.50
Fiber glass
0.75
SABINES EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR

REVERBERTION TIME
Sabine given a relation between , reverberation time (T), Volume of
the hall (V) and absorption of sound of all materials(a) which are
present in the hall.
The following are Sabines
conclusions:
i). The reverberation time(T) is directly proportional to the volume(V) of

the hall
ii). The reverberation time(T) is inversely proportional to the coefficient of
absorption of different materials and surfaces inside the hall.
iii). The reverberation time(T) depends on the frequency of sound waves

,because absorption coefficient for most of the materials increases with
Volume of the hall, V
frequency.
The reverberation
time(T)
Absorption of sound, A
T
T
V
A
or
T K
0 .1 6 5 V
A
V
A
Where K is known as
proportionality constant and its
value is 0.165
(4)
The above equation is known as SABINES formula for reverberation time.

of s1,s2,s3, ..sn and absorption coefficients
T
0 .1 6 5 V
a1s1 a 2 s 2 a 3 s ....... a n s n
or
0 .1 6 5 V
a S
DETEMINATION OF ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT OF A

MATERIAL
In order to find out the absorption coefficient of a material .Let us consider a
hall of volume V. the reverberation time of hall in absence of the material
T1
is
According to Sabines formula
0.165V
The reverberation
T1
aS
time
Where , S is the surface area of the hall ;
a is the absorption coefficient of the surface of
the hall
1
a S
(1)
or
T1
0.165V
To find out the absorption coefficient of the material, now keep the material
inside the hall then the reverberation timeT(2
) is given by,
a S a 1S1
1
T2
0 .1 6 5 V
(2)
s1
Where a1 is the absorption coefficient of the material and
surface area of the material.
is the
Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) we

get
1
a1
1
0 . 1 6 5 V T2 T1
or
a1
0.165V 1 1

S1 T2 T1
Hence knowing the terms on the right hand side of this above equation the
absorption coefficient a of the material can be calculated.
Sabine derived a mathematical equation for reverberation of time

in hall of volume (V).When sound energy produced inside a hall,
the sound energy is spread out uniformly inside the hall. The
sound energy increases gradually from initial value E and reaches
Em
a maximum
value
of
According to the
definition of reverberation time (T), we can write,
E
1 06
Em
(1)
But it has been proved that the sound energy E at time t is given
by
The following relation,
E
e t
Em
Wher
e
(2)
vA
4V
(3)
Where,
v
is the velocity of the sound in air=333m/s, V is the
volume of the hall ,
A is the Total absorption of the sound.
Comparing equation (1) and (2) we

get,
e T 1 06
At, t=T(reverberation
time)
Taking logarithms both sides of above
equation ,
l oge T l og106
T 6 l o ge 1 0
s i nc e
l o ge 1 0 2 . 3 0 6
Substituting value from question (3) in above equation we

get,
vA
is the velocity of sound in air
T
6 2.302
4V
=333m/s;
4 6 2 .3 0 3 2 6 V
After simplification this equation we
T
3 3 3 A
get,
0 .1 6 5 V
A
(4)
The equation (4) is known as SABINES formula for reverberation of

time.

of f s1,s2,s3, ..sn and absorption coefficients
T
0 .1 6 5 V
a1s1 a 2 s 2 a 3 s ....... a n s n
or
0 .1 6 5 V
a S

THEIR REMEDIES
S.No
.
FACTOR
SIGNIFICANCE
REMEDY
1.
Reverberation Neither too long nor

short
Providing heavy curtains with

folds; covering floor with carpets,
providing acoustic tiles; by
providing windows and ventilators
opened or closed.
2.
loudness
Due to large absorption

this create confusion
between the different
Syllables
Quality of speakers; polished

reflecting surface behind source
facing the level of listener; low
ceilings.
3.
Focusing
Concentration at
focused regions
Interference of direct &
refracted waves
Avoiding curved surfaces(if

present covered by a sound
absorbent materials) ,providing
parabolic surfaces behind the
source.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS AND THEIR

REMEDIES
S.No FACTOR SIGNIFANCE
REMEDY
.
4.
Resonanc Due to interference of By hanging large number of curtains
e
sound the original
in
sound gets distorted
the hall
5.
Echoes
6.
Focusing
A musical note is
produced due to
combination of echoes
having regular phase
Differences
Concentration at
focused regions
Interference of direct
&
refracted waves
Covering distant wall and ceiling with

absorbent materials; make roughness
of surface of wall.
Avoiding curved surfaces(if present

covered by a sound absorbent
materials),providing parabolic
surfaces behind the source.
Another factor affecting architectural acoustics is

NOISE.
Generally there are three types.
They are,
(a) Air borne noise
(b) Structure-bore noise
(c) Inside noise
1.AIR-BORNE NOISE: The noise that enters the hall from
outside through open windows ,doors and ventilators is known
as air-borne
noise
REMEDY: This can be reduced by using heavy glass doors,
windows and ventilators ,by fixing windows proper places
,forming double wall construction.

THEIR REMEDIES
2.STRUCTURE-NOISE: The noise that reaches through the structure of
buildings are known as structure noise . This nose is produced due to sound
of foot steps, street traffic, moving furniture , operating machines etc.
REMEDY: This can be reduced by, using double walls with air space between
them, keeping carpets on the floor etc.
3.INSIDE NOISE: The noises are produced inside big halls or offices due
to equipment such as air conditioners, type writers, fans etc. are called
inside noise.
REMEDY: This noise is reduced by covering the floor with carpets the walls
,floors and ceilings should be provided with sound absorbing materials, the
machinery like type writers etc. should be placed on sound absorbent pads.
ACOUSTIC
Acoustic quieting isQUIETING
the process of silencing the noise from machinery
i.e., making machinery quieter by damping vibrations. When
machinery vibrates, it generates sound waves in air, hydro acoustic
waves in water and mechanical stresses in solid matter. By absorbing
the irrational energy or minimizing the source of the vibration, acoustic
quieting
is achieved.
Aspects
of Acoustic quieting
To achieve acoustic quieting, a number of different aspects might be
considered with an aim to minimize the noise heard by the observer. They
are,
1. Reducing the noise generation at its source.
2. Acoustic decoupling to reduce sympathetic vibrations.
3. Increasing acoustic damping or changing the size of the resonator to
avoid
resonance.
4. Reducing transmission using many methods, depending whether the
transmission is through air, liquid or solid.
5.By limiting the reflection by using acoustic absorption

materials, trapping the sound, opening windows to let sound out
etc;
METHODS OF QUIETING
Mechanical acoustic quieting
1.Noise isolation: Noise isolation is the method of isolating noise by
using barriers like deadening materials to trap sound and vibrational
energy. For example, in home and office construction, sound control
barriers such as fiber glass or synthetic rubber are placed in the walls
to stop the transmission of noise through them.
2.Noise absorption: The unwanted sounds or noises that are
produced inside a room can be made to be absorbed by suitable
materials instead of being reflected towards the listener. Thus, the
listener receives only the direct sound but not echo reflections. For
example, sound proofing rooms are constructed using acoustic tiles for
recording studios
3. Acoustic damping: Damping mounts are used to suppress the
vibrations. The damping materials prevent the vibrations from being
transferred from one material to the other. Motors and rotating shafts
are fitted with damping mounts.
METHODS OF
QUIETING
A sound proof room, showing acoustic damping tiles used for noise absorption
METHODS OF
QUIETING
4).Acoustic decoupling: Certain parts of a machine such as

frame, chasis or external shaft are decoupled from receiving
unwanted vibrations from a moving part.
5).Preventing stalls: Whenever a machine undergoes an aero
dynamic stall, it abruptly vibrates and hence this has to be
avoided.
6).Preventing cavitations: The sounds of gas bubbles
imploding is the source of noise, called cavitation (Rapid
formation and vanishing of bubbles produce noise). When a
machine is in contact with a fluid, it may be susceptible to
cavitation. Ships and submarines have screws that cavitate and
this may facilitate their detection through the sonar.
7).Preventing water hammer: In hydraulics and plumbing, water
hammer is a known cause for the failure of piping systems. A valve
that abruptly opens or shuts is the most common cause for water
hammer. It also generates considerable noise.
METHODS OF QUIETING
8). Shock absorption: The shock absorbers present

in vehicles, prevent mechanical shocks from reaching
the passengers. They quieten the shocks.
9). Reduction of resonance: Every object vibrates
with its natural frequency. Many parts of a machine
vibrate and produce waves. These waves resonate
and form noise.
10).Material selection: The transmission of sound
and vibrations can be minimized by using non-metallic
components (ex: flexible plastic pipe fittings) in place
of metal components. This reduces noise. In some
cases, air can be removed from the machine and
sealed. The vacuum inside the machine arrests the
noise transmission.
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Semiconductors are the materials whose

conductivity (or resistivity) values lie between
that of insulators and conductors.
There is a large gap between valance band and

conduction band of an insulator where as both
the bands are partially overlapped in
conductors at room temperature. The gap
between both the bands of a semiconductor is
small.
The electrical conductivity of a conductor

decreases with increase of temperature. But,
the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
increases with increase of temperature.
The semiconductor in its pure form (with no

impurities) is called intrinsic semiconductor or
pure semiconductor.
Germanium and silicon are the best examples
of Intrinsic semi conductors.
In a pure silicon or germanium crystal, each

atom is surrounded by four identical atoms.
Each atom possesses four valence electrons and
forms covalent bonds with its four neighboring
atoms to attain closed shell configuration.
At zero Kelvin, there are no electrons in the

conduction band and hence electrical
conductivity of pure semiconductor is zero.
As the temperature increases, covalent bonds
break, electrons become free to conduct
electricity.
Figure 1. Intrinsic silicon crystal at T =0K (a) 2-D representation of

silicon crystal and b) Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor
As the covalent bonds are broken, electrons

move to conduction band, leaving behind holes
in the valence band.
Therefore, the number of electrons in the
conduction band of a semiconductor is equal to
the number of holes in the valence band.
Figure 2. (a) Silicon crystal at temperature above 0K (a) Due to

thermal energy breaking of Covalent bonds take place (b)
Energy band representation
Figure 3. (a)
Figure 3. (b)
Figure 3. (a) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K and

(b) Energy band diagram of silicon at T > 0K
The expression for Electron concentration in the

conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor is
given by
3
2 me kT
E E
F
C
n2
exp
2
kT
The expression for Electron concentration in

the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor is given by
3
2 mh kT
E E
v
F
p2
exp
2
kT
In
an
intrinsic
semiconductor,
the
concentration of electrons in the conduction
band is equal to the concentration of holes in
the valence band.
n p
i.e., On substituting eq (1) and eq (2) in eq(3) and
simplifying, we get
mh
ln

4
m
e
From eq (4), when T = 0K, then

E
E
E 2
c
Hence, in an intrinsic semiconductor, at 0K,

Fermi level is located exactly half-way between
the top of the valence band and the bottom of
the conduction band.
Generally, mh* > me* and as the temperature
increases, Fermi energy EF increases slightly.
Generally, the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic

semiconductor is low. It can be increased by
adding a small quantity of impurities to an
intrinsic semiconductor.
"The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic
semiconductor to enhance the
electrical
conductivity "is called doping.
"The semiconductor formed after doping" is called
extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types namely,

p-type and n-type.
When pentavalent impurity atom like antimony

or phosphorous or arsenic is added to a pure
silicon (or germanium) crystal, four of its five
valence electrons form covalent bonds with its
neighboring four silicon atoms.
The fifth electron of each impurity atom is
loosely held with its parent atom and can be
easily detached by supplying a little amount of
energy.
Energy levels are introduced to all the fifth

electrons of impurity atoms just below the
bottom of the conduction band. These levels
are called donor levels and the impurities
added are called donor impurities.
At room temperature and temperatures nearer
to room temperature, almost all the electrons in
the donor levels jump to conduction band but
only a few electrons from valence band jump in
to conduction band, leaving behind few holes
in valences band.
Therefore, electrons are the majority charge

carriers and holes are the minority charge
carriers.
As there are excess conducting electrons, "the
semiconductor thus formed after doping
pentavalent
impurities
to
a
pure
semiconductor" is called n-type semiconductor.
Figure 4. (a) Representation of n- type silicon at T = 0K and (b)

Energy band diagram at T = 0 K
Electrons in conduction band are the majority

charge carriers in an n-type semiconductor.
The expression for electron concentration in the
conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor
is given by
3
2 me kT
E E
F
C
n2
exp
2
kT
But, in an n-type semiconductor, concentration

of electrons in conduction band is equal to
concentration of empty donors.
The concentration of empty donors in an ntype semiconductor
1 e
EF Ed
kT
Where Nd is the concentration of donor

levels
2 mekT
2
2
EF E c
kT
1 e
E F Ed
kT
After simplification, we get
EF
KT ln
1
2
Nd
2 me KT
2
h
3
4
It is clear from eq(4) that, when T= 0K,

Ec Ed
EF
2
i.e. At 0K, the Fermi level of an n-type

semiconductor lies exactly half way between
the bottom of the conduction band and the
donor levels. But, as T increases, Fermi level
falls.
Substituting eq (4) in eq (1), we get the

expression for carrier concentration in the ntype semiconductor as
3
E E
1 2
kT
2
m
e
d
C
n 2N d
exp
2
2kT
When trivalent impurity atoms like boron or

aluminium or gallium are added to pure silicon
(or germanium crystal), each impurity atom
forms three covalent bonds with three of its
four neighboring silicon atoms. There is
deficiency of electron to form fourth covalent
bond and attain closed shell configuration.
Energy levels are created to the electron

deficiencies just above the top of the valence
band. These levels are called acceptor levels.
At around room temperatures, many electrons

nearer to the top of the valence band jump into
acceptor levels and only few electrons jump into
conduction band, leaving behind holes in the
valence band.
Therefore, the majority charge carriers are holes in

the valence band and minority charge carriers are
a few electrons that are present in the conduction
band.
As there are excess holes, "the semiconductor thus
formed after doping trivalent impurities to a pure
Figure 5 (a) Representation of p- type silicon at T = 0K and (b)

Energy band diagram at T = 0 K
Holes in the valence band are the majority

charge carriers in a p-type semiconductor.
The expression for hole concentration in the
valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor is
3
2
given by
2 mh kT
p2
2
h
E E
exp V F
kT
But, the concentration of electrons in the

acceptor levels
Na e
E F Ec
kT
where Na is the concentration of acceptor

levels.
Since the acceptor level is very nearer to the

valence band, the effect of conduction band is
negligible. So, the number of electrons in the
acceptor levels is equal to the number of holes
2
E Ec
2 mh kT
E E
kT
V
F
2
exp
e
3
N
a
2
kT
On further simplification, we get

1
Na
E Ev
2
EF a
KT ln
2 mh KT
3
4

It is clear from eq (4) that, when T = 0K,
EF
Ea Ev
2
Therefore, the Fermi level of a p-type

semiconductor lies exactly half-way between
the acceptor levels and top of the valence band.
But , as T increases, the Fermi level rises.
Substituting eq (4) in eq (1), we get the

expression for carrier concentration in the ptype semiconductor as
3
Ev E a
1 2
kT
2
m
2
kT
h
p 2N a
e
Semiconductors can be classified under two

categories namely, a) direct band gap
semiconductors and b) indirect band gap
semiconductors.
The energy of free electron or hole comprises of

both potential energy part and kinetic energy part.
The kinetic energy part is due to their motion
within the solid structure of the semiconductor.
Because of the motion, both the holes and electrons
The momentum values are not random but

depend upon the total energy value E. If a plot
of energy E versus momentum k is made,
typical curves as shown in figures [6(a)] and
[6(b)] are obtained.
In both the figures, lower curves represent
variation of k with E for holes in the valence
band, and the upper curves represent variation
of k with E for electrons in the conduction
band.
In direct band gap semiconductors, minima of

conduction band curve is set right above the
maxima of the valence band curve [Fig 6(a)].
This indicates that the holes in the valence
band corresponding to energy maxima, and the
electron
in
the
conduction
band
corresponding to energy minima possess same
momentum values.
Figure 6. (a) Direct band gap semiconductor : E-k curve
During the transition between the two bands,

emission or absorption of photons takes place
depending on the direction of transition.
The laws of conversation of energy and
momentum are obeyed during such transition.
The momentum value is expected to remain
unaltered in direct band gap transition and the
condition holds good because the momentum
of a photon ( = h/) is very small, and will not
disturb the momentum equality.
In an indirect band gap semiconductors, The

minima of conduction band and the maxima of
valence band are located at different
momentum positions [Fig 6(b)].
Since the photons have essentially zero

momentum, the difference in momentum
appears in the form of phonons which are
quanta of crystal lattice vibrations, thus
satisfying the law of conversation of
momentum.
The phonons dissipate energy Eph in the lattice

before a transition occurs into the valence band.
Figure 6. (b) Indirect band gap semiconductor : E-k curve
When a material carrying current is

subjected to a magnetic field in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of current, an
electric field is developed in a direction
perpendicular to both the directions of
magnetic field and current. This phenomenon
is called Hall effect and the generated voltage
is called Hall voltage.
It was generally believed that the critical

current in solids is due to the flow of only
electrons.
But, in semiconductors, the external effect of
the current is due to the currents of both
negative and positive charge carriers inside the
solid.
It is not possible to assert the sign of the
charges from the direction of current , because,
it is the same whether positive charges flow in
Hall effect discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879 helps to

resolve the dilemma on the sign of the charges.
When a moving charge is subjected to the influence
of a magnetic field, it experiences a force called
Lorentz force.
Flemings left hand rule states that if the first

three fingers of the left hand are stretched mutually
perpendicular to each other in such a way that, the
forefinger is along the magnetic Field, mIddle finger
is along the current ( or charge), then the direction to
Consider a semiconducting specimen or a metallic specimen

carrying a current along the X-direction.
Let the specimen be subjected to magnetic field along the Zdirection. Then a force will be developed along the Ydirection.
Figure 7. A semiconductor applied to current and magnetic field perpendicularly

in Hall Effect
If the specimen is a metal, since it has only one

type of charge carriers, i.e. electrons, the
electrons are forced down into the bottom
surface.
Therefore, the bottom surface becomes more
negative compared to the upper surface.
Hence, a potential difference is developed
between the bottom and upper surfaces.
If the specimen is an n-type semiconductor,

since the electrons are the majority charge
carriers, they are forced down into the bottom
surface. Therefore, the upper surface becomes
positive, whereas the bottom surface becomes
negative.
In a p-type semiconductor, the bottom surface

is occupied by holes and it becomes more
positive compared to the upper surface.
The potential difference between the upper and
The Hall coefficient RH is inversely proportional

to the charge concentration and is negative for
n-type semiconductors and positive for p-type
semiconductors.
1
pe
1
RH (n type )
ne
RH ( p type )
Where p and n represent carrier concentration

in p-type and n-type semiconductors
respectively.
If a magnetic field B is applied to a

specimen carrying current I and a Hall
voltage VH is developed across it, then
the Hall coefficient is given by
VH t
RH
BI
1)
Determination of type of Semiconductor For
an n-type semiconductor, RH is positive

whereas for a p-type semiconductor it is
positive. Thus, from the direction of Hall
voltage developed, one can find out the type
of semiconductor.
2)
Calculation of carrier concentration Once

Hall coefficient is measured, the
concentration can be obtained from
1
RH
ne
carrier
3) Determination of mobility of charge carriers

We know that the electrical conductivity
n
n nee for n type semiconductor e
n RH
ne
p
p pe p for p type semiconductor p
p RH
pe
Therefore, after measuring the Hall coefficient and
electrical conductivity, the mobility can be calculated
4) Measurement of flux density Using a semiconductor
sample of known Hall coefficient, the magnetic flux
density can be deduced from the formulaVH t
B
IRH
When a layer of p-type semiconductor is

placed with a layer of n-type semiconductor
material in such a way that the atoms of p-type
combine with the atoms of n-type across the
surface of contact, such a surface contact or
junction where combination has occurred is
known as p-n junction.
Combined p-type and n-type semiconductors

with p-n junction formation is known as p-n
junction diode or p-n diode.
A p-n junction diode may be obtained in the

following methods.
1) Grown junction type
2) Fused (or alloyed ) junction type and
3) Diffused junction type
1)
Grown junction type: When an extrinsic

semiconductor is grown from melt, during the
middle of the growth process, impurities of
other kind are added to the melt so that the
opposite type of crystal grows further.
2)
Fused ( or alloyed) junction type: In this

process, p-type and n-type materials are kept
in contact and fused together by proper heat
treatment to form the p-n junction.
3) Diffused junction type:

This process involves either gas diffusion
method or solid diffusion method.
a) In gas diffusion method, a wafer of n-type
silicon is heated at about 1000C in a gaseous
atmosphere of high concentration boron atoms .
At that temperature, due to concentration gradient
the boron atoms diffuse in silicon forming p-n
junction.
b) In solid diffusion process, a p-type impurity
(say indium ) is painted on an n-type substrate

and both are heated.
Now impurity atoms diffuse into n-type
substrate for a short time and form p-n
The charges in circles represent impurity ions,

and holes and electrons are represented by +
and - respectively. The atomic plane that joins
p-side and n-side regions is called p-n junction.
In p-region, the electrons present in the upper
energy levels of valence band go to the
acceptor energy levels. Hence a large number
of negative ions and holes are formed.
In the n-region, the electrons present in the
donor energy level go to the conduction band
so that large number of positive ions and free
electrons are formed.
Figure 8(a) Newly made p n junction (b) Formation of P N

Junction with potential barrier
Immediately after the formation of the junction,

a large number of holes near the junction in the
p-region and a large number of free electrons
near the junction in the n-region are seen.
Due to thermal energy, these carriers may
diffuse through the junction. Thus the holes
diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side.
Figure 9. Unbiased p-n junction
The diffused carriers find a large number of opposite

charges,
hence electron-hole recombination takes
place, due to recombination, a pair of opposite charges
are lost soon after the formation of the p-n junction.
The number of free charge carriers are

continuously reduced due to recombinations
and the junction becomes devoid of charge
carriers. Far way from the junction, free
charge carriers are present.
This leaves a negative (or acceptor) ion near the

junction in the p-region and positive (donor) ion
near the junction in the n-region. The region
across the junction in which the free charge
carriers are absent is called 'depletion region' or
'charge free region'.
These ions will form a barrier called potential
barrier or junction barrier for further diffusion of
charge carriers. It is because now the positive ions
on the n-side repel holes to cross from p-type to ntype and negative ions on p-side repel electrons to
If the positive terminal of the battery is

connected to p-side and negative terminal to
the n-side of the p-n junction diode, then the
diode is said to be forward biased.
The applied forward potential establishes an
electric field which acts against the potential
barrier field.
Obviously, the resultant field is weakened and

the barrier height is reduced at the p-n junction
Since the barrier height is very small, a small

forward voltage is sufficient to completely
eliminate the barrier.
Obviously, at some forward voltage, the
potential barrier at the p-n junction can be
eliminated altogether.
Then the junction resistance will become
almost zero, and a low resistance path is
established for the entire circuit.
Thus a large current is generated in the circuit

even for the small potential difference applied.
Such a circuit is called forward biased circuit and
the current is called current.
Figure 10. Forward Biased Circuit
If the positive terminal of the battery is

connected to n-type and negative terminal is
connected to p-type, then the p-n junction is
said to be reverse biased.
In this case, the applied voltage establishes an

electric field in the same direction as that of the
field due to barrier potential.
As a result of this, the resultant field is

strengthened and the barrier height is
increased as shown in figure [11].
It has been observed that the increased barrier
potential prevents the flow of charge carriers
across the junction.
Thus a high resistance path is established for
the entire circuit, and the current does not flow
through the junction, i.e., the effect of reverse
bias is to increase the potential barrier, thus
allowing a very little current to flow.
Figure 11. Reverse Biased Circuit
i) Zero biased or unbiased circuit: When the

junction is not connected to any voltage source, it is
said to be unbiased. There is no flow of charge
carriers and hence there is no current flow through
the junction, due to barrier potential a cross the
junction.
ii) Forward biased circuit: When positive terminal

of the battery is connected to p-type and negative
terminal to n-type, the junction is said to be
forward biased.
Since the potential barrier height is very small

(0.2V), when the applied voltage exceeds that
value, the junction resistance becomes almost
zero and low resistance path is created.
Hence even for small increase in applied
voltage, we observe large increase in circuit
current. Such a circuit is called forward biased
circuit and current is called forward current.
When the applied voltage is above the barrier
potential, the forward current (in MA) is found
to increase linearly with the applied voltages.
iii) Reverse biased circuit: When reverse biased,

(I.e., when the positive terminal is connected to ntype and negative terminal is connected to p-type),
a slight reverse current (in microamperes ) flows in
the circuit. Even for large increase in bias voltage
(20 volts), there is negligible in reverse current.
When the applied reverse voltage is high
enough to break the covalent bonds of the crystal,
the current rises suddenly in the reverse direction.
The breakdown voltage in reverse bias is called
Zener voltage.
Figure 12. V-I curve of p-n diode
Figure 13. energy band diagram of p-n diode
Consider that a p-n junction has p-type and ntype materials in close physical contact at the
junction on an atomic scale. Hence, the energy
band diagrams of these two regions undergo
relative shift to equalize the Fermi level.
The Fermi level should be constant through
throughout the specimen at equilibrium. The
distribution of electrons and holes in allowed
energy states is dependent on the position of
the Fermi level EF.
If this is not so, electrons on one side of the

junction would have an average energy higher
than those on the other side, and this causes
transfer of electrons and energy until the Fermi
levels on two sides get equalized.
However, such a shift does not disturb the
relative positions of conduction band, valence
band and Fermi level in any region. (
Equalization of Fermi levels in the p and n
materials of a p-n junction is similar to
equalization of levels of water in two
The energy band diagram for a p-n junction is

shown in Figure[13], where Fermi level EF is
closer to the conduction band edge Ecn in the ntype material, while it is closer to the valence band
edge Evp in the p-type material.
It is clear that the conduction band edge Ecp in the

p-type material is higher than the conduction
band edge Ecn in the n-type material. Similarly, the
valence band edge Evp in the p-type material is
higher than the valence band edge Evn in the ntype material.
E1 and E2 indicate the shifts in the Femi level

from the intrinsic conditions in the p and n
materials respectively. Then the total shift in
the energy level E0 is given by
E0 = E1 + E2 = Ecp - Ecn = Evp Evn
This energy (in eV) is the potential energy of
the electrons at the p-n junction, and is equal to
eV0, where V0 is the contact potential (in volts)
or contact difference potential or the barrier
potential.
The diode current equation relating the voltage V

and current I is given by
VV
T
I I 0 e 1
Where I = diode current

V = External voltage applied to the diode
= a constant, 1 for germanium and 2 for
silicon
VT = kT/e is volt equivalent temperature, i.e.
thermal voltage.
When a p-n junction diode is forward biased,

the potential barrier is lowered. The majority
carriers start crossing the junction.
. The conduction band electrons from the nregion cross the barrier and enter the p-region.
Immediately n entering the p-regiin, each
electron falls into a hole and recombination
takes place.
Also some holes may cross the junction from

the p region into the n-region. A conduction band electron in the n-region may fall into a
hole even before it crosses the junction. In
either case, recombinations take place around
the junction.
Each recombination radiates energy. In an
ordinary diode (power diode or signal diode),
the radiated energy is in the form of heat. In the
light emitting diode(LED), the radiated energy
is in the form of light( or photons).
Germanium and silicon diodes have less

probabilities of radiating light.
By using materials such as gallium arsenide

phosphide ( GaAsP) gallium phosphide( GaP),
a manufacturer can produce LEDs that radiate
red, green or orange lights.
Figure 14. Light emitting diode
1) Gallium arsenide (GaAs) LEDs emit invisible

(infra red) radiation. These find applications in
burglar-alarm systems.
2) The LEDs that emit visible light find
applications in instrument displays, panel
indicators, digital watches, calculators,
millimeters, intercoms, telephone switch
boards etc.
1.
2.
3.
4.
LEDs are available such that they emit light in

different colours like red, green, yellow.
It has long life and has a high degree of
removability.
The light intensity of the LEDs can be controlled
easily by varying the current flow and the output
intensity is bright.
They can be operated over a wide range of
temperatures 0 to 70C.
Not suited for large area display because of

high cost.
LEDs consume more energy than liquid crystal

display display.
1.
It must have an energy gap of appropriate

width ( the energy gaps greater than or equal
to about 2eV are required to obtain visible
radiation).
2.
Both p and n-type must exist with low

resistivities.
3.
Efficient radiative path ways must be present.
A photo diode is an optoelectronic light

sensitive device which absorbs optical energy
and converts it into electrical energy which
usually appears as a photocurrent.
The diode is made of a semiconductor p-n
junction kept in a sealed plastic or glass casing.
The cover is so designed that the light rays are

allowed to fall on one surface across the
junction. The remaining sides of the casing are
painted to restrict the penetration of light rays.
A lens permits light to fall on the junction.
When light ray falls on the reverse biased p-n

junction, electron-hole pai4 is created for every
light photon absorption such that each photon
energy is greater than the band gap energy.
The movement of these hole-electron pair in a
properly connected circuit results in current
flow.
1.
2.
3.
High conversion efficiency which is the ratio

between the number of electrons produced per
incident photons.
It should have wide frequency response.

It should have low dark current which is the
current flowing in the external circuit when
there is no incidence of light.
1.
Linear response
2.
Faster response
3.
Better stability
Photo diodes are used as light detectors,

demodulators and encoders.
They are also used in optical communication

systems, high speed counting and switching
circuits.
Further, they are used in computer card
punching and tapes, light operated switches,
sound tracking films and electronic control
Basically, a solar cell is a p-n diode, which

converts light energy into electrical energy.
A solar cell consists of thin circular wafer of 3
to 6cm diameter and about 300m thick n-type
(or p-type) silicon on which nearly 0.23m
thick p-type (or n-type) has been formed.
A shallow junction is formed on one side of

wafer face by diffusing other type of impurity.
Ti Ag alloy electrodes are soldered on the top
and bottom surfaces of the solar cell.
The top electrode is in the form of a metal grid

with fingers, which allows the light reach the
diode, where as the bottom electrode is a flat
sheet.
Nearly 0.1m thick antireflection coating of
SiO2
is formed on the top surface of the
solar cell.
The radiation incident on the solar cells is

absorbed by the cells and produces electron-hole
pairs. These carriers are collected by the electrodes
and flows through the external load.
The accumulation of electrons and holes on the
two sides of the junction gives rise to an open
circuit voltage Voc. This is a function of
illumination.
The open circuit voltage produced for silicon solar
cell is 0.6V and short circuit current is about
2
1)
2)
The solar cell works in three steps

Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are
absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as
silicon.
Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked
from their atoms, causing an electric potential
difference. Current starts flowing through the
material to cancel the potential and this
electricity is captured. Due to the special
composition of solar cells, the electrons are only
allowed to move in a single direction.
Figure 16. Solar cell
When a p n junction diode is exposed to light,

the photons are absorbed and electron pairs are
generated in both in both the p side and n
side of the junction, as shown in the figure
below. The electrons and holes that are produced
over a small distance from the junction reach the
space charge region X by diffusion.
The electron hole pairs are then separated by
the strong barrier field that exists across the
region X. The electrons in the p side slide down
the barrier potential to move to the n side while
The electron hole pairs are then separated by the

strong barrier field that exists across the region X.
The electrons in the p side slide down the barrier
potential to move to the n side while the holes in
the n side while the holes in the n side move
towards the p side.
When the p n junction diode is open circuited, the
accumulation of electrons and holes on the two
sides of the junction gives rise to an open circuit
voltage V0. If a load resistance is connected across
the diode, a current will flow in the circuit. The
maximum current, called the short circuit current
is obtained when an electric short is connected
across the diode terminals. Note that the current
For different levels of illumination of sunlight,

the V-I characteristics are as shown in figure.
The maximum power output is obtained at the
knee point of the curve.
Figure 16. V-I Characteristics of solar cell
It is defined as the ratio of total power

converted into electrical power to the solar
power incident on the cell.
Maximum electrical output power

Input light power
max
Light int ensity Area of
the solar cell
100
S. No
Material
Energy gap
( eV)
Si
1.11
GaAs
1.40
CdTe
1.44
CdSe
1.74
ZnTe
2.20
CdS
2.42
ZnSe
2.60

Atoms Bonding Guide

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Atoms Bonding Guide

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BONDING

way in which atoms join and combine

Primary Bonds or Atomic Bonds:

Secondary Bonds or Molecular Bonds :

Ionic bonds are formed between METALLIC and

- Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)

Group I or II elements are called as electron donors

Examples: NaCl, KCl, KBr, MgO, MgCl2, KOH, Al2O3,etc.

Explanation for the formation of NaCl molecule:

valence electron(3s1) of Na atom gets transferred to the Cl atom(3p5)

By ionization energy, an electron is removed from Na atom and

Na+ ions are surrounded by Cl- ions & vice versa.

Therfore, NaCl compound is formed.

Properties of ionic bond or ionic solids:

2.They are hard and brittle.

possible and vice versa.

The attraction between opposite ions is very strong. A lot of kinetic

and boiling point of ionic compounds is very high.

Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic

Covalent bonding is the sharing a pair of electrons to gain electronic

Covalent bonds occur between NON-METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.

A pair of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms Single bond,

Two pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms Double bond,

Three pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms Triple bond,

The simplest case of covalent bonding occurs in hydrogen molecule in

triple covalent bond.

or p orbitals but also due to the overlap of s & p such bonding is

called Hybrid Bonding. The arrangement of these orbitals is called

Properties of Covalent bond & Solids:

2.Depending on the bond strength, they exhibit various physical properties.

5.Pure covalent solids are good insulators of electricity at low temperatures.

Comparison between Ionic and Covalent solids:

These are formed when the

Covalent solids are formed

Metallic bonding is the attraction between cations and a sea of

Motion of free electrons

Properties of Metallic bond:

Metallic bonds hold the atoms together in metals.

Metallic solids are malleable and ductile.

Metallic bonds are relatively weak.

Metallic bond is non-directional.

Metals are opaque to light.

Metallic solids are not soluble in polar and non-polar solvents.

stronger than hydrogen and van-der waals bonds.

Water molecules in the form of ice

Explanation of water molecule (H2O):

Because of the greater electro negativity of the oxygen the

The positive end attracts the negative end of another water

molecule and thus bonding the molecules together.

Properties of Hydrogen bond:

are good insulators of electricity.

Vander Waals Bonding

Dipole bonds are known as van der waals

E.g.: Solid neon, Solid argon.

charges may not coincide at that moment

Properties of solids with vanderwaals bond:

Vander waals bonds are non-directional.

Vander waals bonded solids have very low melting point.

Since no valance electrons are available, such solids are good

They are soluble in both polar and non-polar liquids.

They are usually transparent to light.

Vander waals bonding is weaker than the hydrogen bonding.