TheProjectGutenbergEBookofEnglishLiterature,byWilliamJ.

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Title:EnglishLiterature
ItsHistoryandItsSignificancefortheLifeoftheEnglishSpeakingWorld
Author:WilliamJ.Long
ReleaseDate:January6,2004[EBook#10609]
Language:English
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ENGLISHLITERATURE
ITSHISTORYANDITSSIGNIFICANCE
FORTHELIFEOFTHEENGLISHSPEAKING
WORLD
ATEXTBOOKFORSCHOOLS
BY
WILLIAMJ.LONG,PH.D.(Heidelberg)
*****
TO
MYFRIEND
CHT
INGRATITUDEFOR
HISCONTINUEDHELPINTHE
PREPARATIONOF
THISBOOK
*****
PREFACE
Thisbook,whichpresentsthewholesplendidhistoryofEnglishliterature
fromAngloSaxontimestothecloseoftheVictorianEra,hasthree
specificaims.Thefirstistocreateortoencourageineverystudentthe
desiretoreadthebestbooks,andtoknowliteratureitselfratherthan
whathasbeenwrittenaboutliterature.Thesecondistointerpret
literaturebothpersonallyandhistorically,thatis,toshowhowagreat
bookgenerallyreflectsnotonlytheauthor'slifeandthoughtbutalsothe
spiritoftheageandtheidealsofthenation'shistory.Thethirdaimis
toshow,byastudyofeachsuccessiveperiod,howourliteraturehas
steadilydevelopedfromitsfirstsimplesongsandstoriestoitspresent

complexityinproseandpoetry.
Tocarryouttheseaimswehaveintroducedthefollowingfeatures:
(1)Abrief,accuratesummaryofhistoricaleventsandsocialconditionsin
eachperiod,andaconsiderationoftheidealswhichstirredthewhole
nation,asinthedaysofElizabeth,beforetheyfoundexpressionin
literature.
(2)Astudyofthevariousliteraryepochsinturn,showingwhateach
gainedfromtheepochpreceding,andhoweachaidedinthedevelopmentofa
nationalliterature.
(3)Areadablebiographyofeveryimportantwriter,showinghowhelived
andworked,howhemetsuccessorfailure,howheinfluencedhisage,and
howhisageinfluencedhim.
(4)Astudyandanalysisofeveryauthor'sbestworks,andofmanyofthe
booksrequiredforcollegeentranceexaminations.
(5)Selectionsenoughespeciallyfromearlierwriters,andfromwriters
notlikelytobefoundinthehomeorschoollibrarytoindicatethe
spiritofeachauthor'swork;anddirectionsastothebestworkstoread,
andwheresuchworksmaybefoundininexpensiveeditions.
(6)Afrank,untechnicaldiscussionofeachgreatwriter'sworkasawhole,
andacriticalestimateofhisrelativeplaceandinfluenceinour
literature.
(7)Aseriesofhelpstostudentsandteachersattheendofeachchapter,
includingsummaries,selectionsforreading,bibliographies,alistof
suggestivequestions,andachronologicaltableofimportanteventsinthe
historyandliteratureofeachperiod.
(8)ThroughoutthisbookwehaverememberedRogerAscham'ssuggestion,made
overthreecenturiesagoandstillpertinent,that"'tisapoorwaytomake
achildlovestudybybeginningwiththethingswhichhenaturally
dislikes."Wehavelaidemphasisuponthedelightsofliterature;wehave
treatedbooksnotasmereinstrumentsofresearchwhichisthedangerin
mostofourstudiesbutratherasinstrumentsofenjoymentandof
inspiration;andbymakingourstudyasattractiveaspossiblewehave
soughttoencouragethestudenttoreadwidelyforhimself,tochoosethe
bestbooks,andtoformhisownjudgmentaboutwhatourfirstAngloSaxon
writerscalled"thethingsworthytoberemembered."
Tothosewhomayusethisbookintheirhomesorintheirclassrooms,the
writerventurestoofferoneortwofriendlysuggestionsoutofhisown
experienceasateacherofyoungpeople.First,theamountofspacehere
giventodifferentperiodsandauthorsisnotanindexoftherelative
amountoftimetobespentuponthedifferentsubjects.Thus,totellthe
storyofSpenser'slifeandidealsrequiresasmuchspaceastotellthe
storyofTennyson;buttheaverageclasswillspenditstimemore
pleasantlyandprofitablywiththelatterpoetthanwiththeformer.
Second,manyauthorswhoareandoughttobeincludedinthishistoryneed
notbestudiedintheclassroom.Atextbookisnotacatechismbuta
storehouse,inwhichonefindswhathewants,andsomegoodthingsbeside.
FewclasseswillfindtimetostudyBlakeorNewman,forinstance;butin
nearlyeveryclasstherewillbefoundoneortwostudentswhoare
attractedbythemysticismofBlakeorbytheprofoundspiritualityof
Newman.Suchstudentsshouldbeencouragedtofollowtheirownspirits,and
tosharewiththeirclassmatesthejoyoftheirdiscoveries.Andthey
shouldfindintheirtextbookthematerialfortheirownstudyand
reading.
Athirdsuggestionrelatestothemethodofteachingliterature;andhere

itmightbewelltoconsiderthewordofagreatpoet,thatifyouwould
knowwheretheripestcherriesare,asktheboysandtheblackbirds.Itis
surprisinghowmuchayoungpersonwillgetoutofthe_Merchantof
Venice_,andsomehowarriveatShakespeare'sopinionofShylockandPortia,
ifwedonotbotherhimtoomuchwithnotesandcriticaldirectionsasto
whatheoughttoseekandfind.Turnachildandadonkeylooseinthesame
field,andthechildheadsstraightforthebeautifulspotswherebrooks
arerunningandbirdssinging,whilethedonkeyturnsasnaturallytoweeds
andthistles.Inourstudyofliteraturewehaveperhapstoomuchsympathy
withthelatter,andweeveninsistthatthechildcomebackfromhisown
questoftheidealtojoinusinourcriticalcompanionship.Inreading
manytextbooksoflate,andinvisitingmanyclassrooms,thewriterhas
receivedtheimpressionthatwelaytoomuchstressonsecondhand
criticism,passeddownfrombooktobook;andwesetourpupilsto
searchingforfiguresofspeechandelementsofstyle,asifthegreat
booksoftheworldweresubjecttochemicalanalysis.Thisseemstobea
mistake,fortworeasons:first,theaverageyoungpersonhasnonatural
interestinsuchmatters;andsecond,heisunabletoappreciatethem.He
feelsunconsciouslywithChaucer:
Andasforme,thoughthatmywitbelyt,
OnbooksfortoredeImedelyt.
Indeed,manymaturepersons(includingthewriterofthishistory)are
oftenunabletoexplainatfirstthecharmorthestyleofanauthorwho
pleasesthem;andthemoreprofoundtheimpressionmadebyabook,themore
difficultitistogiveexpressiontoourthoughtandfeeling.Toreadand
enjoygoodbooksiswithus,aswithChaucer,themainthing;toanalyze
theauthor'sstyleorexplainourownenjoymentseemsofsecondaryand
smallimportance.Howeverthatmaybe,westatefranklyourownconviction
thatthedetailedstudyandanalysisofafewstandardworkswhichisthe
onlyliterarypabulumgiventomanyyoungpeopleinourschoolsbearsthe
samerelationtotrueliteraturethattheologybearstoreligion,or
psychologytofriendship.Oneisamoreorlessunwelcomemental
discipline;theotheristhejoyoflife.
Thewriterventurestosuggest,therefore,that,sinceliteratureisour
subject,webeginandendwithgoodbooks;andthatwestandasidewhile
thegreatwritersspeaktheirownmessagetoourpupils.Instudyingeach
successiveperiod,letthestudentbeginbyreadingthebestthattheage
produced;lethimfeelinhisownwaythepowerandmysteryof_Beowulf_,
thebroadcharityofShakespeare,thesublimityofMilton,theromantic
enthusiasmofScott;andthen,whenhisowntasteispleasedandsatisfied,
anewonewillarise,toknowsomethingabouttheauthor,thetimesin
whichhelived,andfinallyofcriticism,which,initssimplicity,isthe
discoverythatthemenandwomenofotherageswereverymuchlike
ourselves,lovingaswelove,bearingthesameburdens,andfollowingthe
sameideals:
Lo,withtheancient
Rootsofman'snature
Twinestheeternal
Passionofsong.
EverLovefansit;
EverLifefeedsit;
Timecannotageit;
Deathcannotslay.
Toanswerthequestionswhicharisenaturallybetweenteacherandpupil
concerningthebooksthattheyread,isoneobjectofthisvolume.Itaims
notsimplytoinstructbutalsotoinspire;totracethehistorical
developmentofEnglishliterature,andatthesametimetoallureits
readerstothebestbooksandthebestwriters.Andfrombeginningtoend
itiswrittenupontheassumptionthatthefirstvirtueofsuchaworkis
tobeaccurate,andthesecondtobeinteresting.

Theauthoracknowledges,withgratitudeandappreciation,hisindebtedness
toProfessorWilliamLyonPhelpsfortheuseofhisliterarymapof
England,andtothekeencritics,teachersofliteratureandhistory,who
havereadtheproofsofthisbook,andhaveimproveditbytheirgood
suggestions.
WILLIAMJ.LONGSTAMFORD,CONNECTICUT
*****

CONTENTS
CHAPTERI.INTRODUCTIONTHEMEANINGOFLITERATURE
TheShellandtheBook.QualitiesofLiterature.TestsofLiterature.The
ObjectinstudyingLiterature.ImportanceofLiterature.Summaryofthe
Subject.Bibliography.
CHAPTERII.THEANGLOSAXONOROLDENGLISHPERIOD
OurFirstPoetry."Beowulf.""Widsith.""Deor'sLament.""TheSeafarer."
"TheFightatFinnsburgh.""Waldere."AngloSaxonLife.OurFirstSpeech.
ChristianWriters.NorthumbrianLiterature.Bede.Cdmon.Cynewulf.Decline
ofNorthumbrianLiterature.Alfred.Summary.Bibliography.Questions.
Chronology.
CHAPTERIII.THEANGLONORMANPERIOD
TheNormans.TheConquest.LiteraryIdealsoftheNormans.Geoffreyof
Monmouth.WorkoftheFrenchWriters.Layamon's"Brut."MetricalRomances.
ThePearl.MiscellaneousLiteratureoftheNormanPeriod.Summary.
Bibliography.Questions.Chronology.
CHAPTERIV.THEAGEOFCHAUCER
HistoryofthePeriod.FiveWritersoftheAge.Chaucer.Langland."Piers
Plowman."JohnWyclif.JohnMandeville.Summary.Bibliography.Questions.
Chronology.
CHAPTERV.THEREVIVALOFLEARNING
PoliticalChanges.LiteratureoftheRevival.WyattandSurrey.Malory's
"Morted'Arthur."Summary.Bibliography.Questions.Chronology.
CHAPTERVI.THEAGEOFELIZABETH
PoliticalSummary.CharacteristicsoftheElizabethanAge.TheNonDramatic
Poets.EdmundSpenser.MinorPoets.ThomasSackville.PhilipSidney.George
Chapman.MichaelDrayton.TheOriginoftheDrama.TheReligiousPeriodof
theDrama.MiracleandMysteryPlays.TheMoralPeriodoftheDrama.The
Interludes.TheArtisticPeriodoftheDrama.ClassicalInfluenceuponthe
Drama.Shakespeare'sPredecessorsintheDrama.ChristopherMarlowe.
Shakespeare.DeclineoftheDrama.Shakespeare'sContemporariesand
Successors.BenJonson.BeaumontandFletcher.JohnWebster.Thomas
Middleton.ThomasHeywood.ThomasDekker.Massinger,Ford,Shirley.Prose
Writers.FrancisBacon.RichardHooker.SidneyandRaleigh.JohnFoxe.
CamdenandKnox.HakluytandPurchas.ThomasNorth.Summary.Bibliography.
Questions.Chronology.
CHAPTERVII.THEPURITANAGE
ThePuritanMovement.ChangingIdeals.LiteraryCharacteristics.The

TransitionPoets.SamuelDaniel.TheSongWriters.TheSpenserianPoets.
TheMetaphysicalPoets.JohnDonne.GeorgeHerbert.TheCavalierPoets.
ThomasCarew.RobertHerrick.SucklingandLovelace.JohnMilton.TheProse
Writers.JohnBunyan.RobertBurton.ThomasBrowne.ThomasFuller.Jeremy
Taylor.RichardBaxter.IzaakWalton.Summary.Bibliography.Questions.
Chronology.
CHAPTERVIII.PERIODOFTHERESTORATION
HistoryofthePeriod.LiteraryCharacteristics.JohnDryden.Samuel
Butler.HobbesandLocke.EvelynandPepys.Summary.Bibliography.
Questions.Chronology.
CHAPTERIX.EIGHTEENTHCENTURYLITERATURE
HistoryofthePeriod.LiteraryCharacteristics.TheClassicAge.Alexander
Pope.JonathanSwift.JosephAddison."TheTatler"and"TheSpectator."
SamuelJohnson.Boswell's"LifeofJohnson."LaterAugustanWriters.Edmund
Burke.EdwardGibbon.TheRevivalofRomanticPoetry.ThomasGray.Oliver
Goldsmith.WilliamCowper.RobertBurns.WilliamBlake.TheMinorPoetsof
theRomanticRevival.JamesThomson.WilliamCollins.GeorgeCrabbe.James
Macpherson.ThomasChatterton.ThomasPercy.TheFirstEnglishNovelists.
MeaningoftheNovel.PrecursorsoftheNovel.DiscoveryoftheModern
Novel.DanielDefoe.SamuelRichardson.HenryFielding.Smollettand
Sterne.Summary.Bibliography.Questions.Chronology.
CHAPTERX.THEAGEOFROMANTICISM
HistoricalSummary.LiteraryCharacteristicsoftheAge.ThePoetsof
Romanticism.WilliamWordsworth.SamuelTaylorColeridge.RobertSouthey.
WalterScott.Byron.PercyByssheShelley.JohnKeats.ProseWritersofthe
RomanticPeriod.CharlesLamb.ThomasDeQuincey.JaneAusten.Walter
SavageLandor.Summary.Bibliography.Questions.Chronology.
CHAPTERXI.THEVICTORIANAGE
HistoricalSummary.LiteraryCharacteristics.PoetsoftheVictorianAge.
AlfredTennyson.RobertBrowning.MinorPoetsoftheVictorianAge.
ElizabethBarrett.Rossetti.Morris.Swinburne.NovelistsoftheVictorian
Age.CharlesDickens.WilliamMakepeaceThackeray.GeorgeEliot.Minor
NovelistsoftheVictorianAge.CharlesReade.AnthonyTrollope.Charlotte
Bront.BulwerLytton.CharlesKingsley.Mrs.Gaskell.Blackmore.Meredith.
Hardy.Stevenson.EssayistsoftheVictorianAge.Macaulay.Carlyle.
Ruskin.MatthewArnold.Newman.TheSpiritofModernLiterature.Summary.
Bibliography.Questions.Chronology.
GENERALBIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
*****

CHAPTERI
INTRODUCTIONTHEMEANINGOFLITERATURE
Holdthehyewey,andlatthygosttheelede.
Chaucer's_Truth_
On,on,younoblestEnglish,...
Followyourspirit.
Shakespeare's_HenryV_

THESHELLANDTHEBOOK.Achildandamanwereonedaywalkingonthe
seashorewhenthechildfoundalittleshellandheldittohisear.
Suddenlyheheardsounds,strange,low,melodioussounds,asiftheshell
wererememberingandrepeatingtoitselfthemurmursofitsoceanhome.The
child'sfacefilledwithwonderashelistened.Hereinthelittleshell,
apparently,wasavoicefromanotherworld,andhelistenedwithdelightto
itsmysteryandmusic.Thencametheman,explainingthatthechildheard
nothingstrange;thatthepearlycurvesoftheshellsimplycaughta
multitudeofsoundstoofaintforhumanears,andfilledtheglimmering
hollowswiththemurmurofinnumerableechoes.Itwasnotanewworld,but
onlytheunnoticedharmonyoftheoldthathadarousedthechild'swonder.
Somesuchexperienceasthisawaitsuswhenwebeginthestudyof
literature,whichhasalwaystwoaspects,oneofsimpleenjoymentand
appreciation,theotherofanalysisandexactdescription.Letalittle
songappealtotheear,oranoblebooktotheheart,andforthemoment,
atleast,wediscoveranewworld,aworldsodifferentfromourownthat
itseemsaplaceofdreamsandmagic.Toenterandenjoythisnewworld,to
lovegoodbooksfortheirownsake,isthechiefthing;toanalyzeand
explainthemisalessjoyousbutstillanimportantmatter.Behindevery
bookisaman;behindthemanistherace;andbehindtheracearethe
naturalandsocialenvironmentswhoseinfluenceisunconsciouslyreflected.
Thesealsowemustknow,ifthebookistospeakitswholemessage.Ina
word,wehavenowreachedapointwherewewishtounderstandaswellasto
enjoyliterature;andthefirststep,sinceexactdefinitionisimpossible,
istodeterminesomeofitsessentialqualities.
QUALITIESOFLITERATURE.Thefirstsignificantthingistheessentially
artisticqualityofallliterature.Allartistheexpressionoflifein
formsoftruthandbeauty;orrather,itisthereflectionofsometruth
andbeautywhichareintheworld,butwhichremainunnoticeduntilbrought
toourattentionbysomesensitivehumansoul,justasthedelicatecurves
oftheshellreflectsoundsandharmoniestoofainttobeotherwise
noticed.Ahundredmenmaypassahayfieldandseeonlythesweatytoiland
thewindrowsofdriedgrass;buthereisonewhopausesbyaRoumanian
meadow,wheregirlsaremakinghayandsingingastheywork.Helooks
deeper,seestruthandbeautywhereweseeonlydeadgrass,andhereflects
whatheseesinalittlepoeminwhichthehaytellsitsownstory:
Yesterday'sflowersamI,
AndIhavedrunkmylastsweetdraughtofdew.
Youngmaidenscameandsangmetomydeath;
Themoonlooksdownandseesmeinmyshroud,
Theshroudofmylastdew.
Yesterday'sflowersthatareyetinme
Mustneedsmakewayforalltomorrow'sflowers.
Themaidens,too,thatsangmetomydeath
Mustevensomakewayforallthemaids
Thataretocome.
Andasmysoul,sotootheirsoulwillbe
Ladenwithfragranceofthedaysgoneby.
Themaidensthattomorrowcomethisway
WillnotrememberthatIoncedidbloom,
Fortheywillonlyseethenewbornflowers.
Yetwillmyperfumeladensoulbringback,
Asasweetmemory,towomen'shearts
Theirdaysofmaidenhood.
Andthentheywillbesorrythattheycame
Tosingmetomydeath;
Andallthebutterflieswillmournforme.
Ibearawaywithme
Thesunshine'sdearremembrance,andthelow
Softmurmursofthespring.
Mybreathissweetaschildren'sprattleis;
Idrankinallthewholeearth'sfruitfulness,

Tomakeofitthefragranceofmysoul
Thatshalloutlivemydeath.[1]
Onewhoreadsonlythatfirstexquisiteline,"Yesterday'sflowersamI,"
canneveragainseehaywithoutrecallingthebeautythatwashiddenfrom
hiseyesuntilthepoetfoundit.
Inthesamepleasing,surprisingway,allartisticworkmustbeakindof
revelation.Thusarchitectureisprobablytheoldestofthearts;yetwe
stillhavemanybuildersbutfewarchitects,thatis,menwhoseworkin
woodorstonesuggestssomehiddentruthandbeautytothehumansenses.So
inliterature,whichistheartthatexpresseslifeinwordsthatappealto
ourownsenseofthebeautiful,wehavemanywritersbutfewartists.In
thebroadestsense,perhaps,literaturemeanssimplythewrittenrecordsof
therace,includingallitshistoryandsciences,aswellasitspoemsand
novels;inthenarrowersenseliteratureistheartisticrecordoflife,
andmostofourwritingisexcludedfromit,justasthemassofour
buildings,meresheltersfromstormandfromcold,areexcludedfrom
architecture.Ahistoryoraworkofsciencemaybeandsometimesis
literature,butonlyasweforgetthesubjectmatterandthepresentation
offactsinthesimplebeautyofitsexpression.
Thesecondqualityofliteratureisitssuggestiveness,itsappealtoour
emotionsandimaginationratherthantoourintellect.Itisnotsomuch
whatitsaysaswhatitawakensinusthatconstitutesitscharm.When
MiltonmakesSatansay,"MyselfamHell,"hedoesnotstateanyfact,but
ratheropensupinthesethreetremendouswordsawholeworldof
speculationandimagination.WhenFaustusinthepresenceofHelenasks,
"Wasthisthefacethatlaunchedathousandships?"hedoesnotstatea
factorexpectananswer.Heopensadoorthroughwhichourimagination
entersanewworld,aworldofmusic,love,beauty,heroism,thewhole
splendidworldofGreekliterature.Suchmagicisinwords.When
ShakespearedescribestheyoungBironasspeaking
Insuchaptandgraciouswords
Thatagedearsplaytruantathistales,
hehasunconsciouslygivennotonlyanexcellentdescriptionofhimself,
butthemeasureofallliterature,whichmakesusplaytruantwiththe
presentworldandrunawaytoliveawhileinthepleasantrealmoffancy.
Theprovinceofallartisnottoinstructbuttodelight;andonlyas
literaturedelightsus,causingeachreadertobuildinhisownsoulthat
"lordlypleasurehouse"ofwhichTennysondreamedinhis"PalaceofArt,"
isitworthyofitsname.
Thethirdcharacteristicofliterature,arisingdirectlyfromtheother
two,isitspermanence.Theworlddoesnotlivebybreadalone.
Notwithstandingitshurryandbustleandapparentabsorptioninmaterial
things,itdoesnotwillinglyletanybeautifulthingperish.Thisiseven
moretrueofitssongsthanofitspaintingandsculpture;though
permanenceisaqualityweshouldhardlyexpectinthepresentdelugeof
booksandmagazinespouringdayandnightfromourpressesinthenameof
literature.Butthisproblemoftoomanybooksisnotmodern,aswe
suppose.IthasbeenaproblemeversinceCaxtonbroughtthefirstprinting
pressfromFlanders,fourhundredyearsago,andintheshadowof
WestminsterAbbeyopenedhislittleshopandadvertisedhiswaresas"good
andchepe."Evenearlier,athousandyearsbeforeCaxtonandhisprinting
press,thebusyscholarsofthegreatlibraryofAlexandriafoundthatthe
numberofparchmentswasmuchtoogreatforthemtohandle;andnow,when
weprintmoreinaweekthanalltheAlexandrianscholarscouldcopyina
century,itwouldseemimpossiblethatanyproductioncouldbepermanent;
thatanysongorstorycouldlivetogivedelightinfutureages.But
literatureislikeariverinflood,whichgraduallypurifiesitselfintwo
ways,themudsettlestothebottom,andthescumrisestothetop.When
weexaminethewritingsthatbycommonconsentconstituteourliterature,

theclearstreampurifiedofitsdross,wefindatleasttwomore
qualities,whichwecallthetestsofliterature,andwhichdetermineits
permanence.
TESTSOFLITERATURE.Thefirstoftheseisuniversality,thatis,the
appealtothewidesthumaninterestsandthesimplesthumanemotions.
Thoughwespeakofnationalandraceliteratures,liketheGreekor
Teutonic,andthougheachhascertainsuperficialmarksarisingoutofthe
peculiaritiesofitsownpeople,itisneverthelesstruethatgood
literatureknowsnonationality,noranyboundssavethoseofhumanity.It
isoccupiedchieflywithelementarypassionsandemotions,loveandhate,
joyandsorrow,fearandfaith,whichareanessentialpartofourhuman
nature;andthemoreitreflectstheseemotionsthemoresurelydoesit
awakenaresponseinmenofeveryrace.Everyfathermustrespondtothe
parableoftheprodigalson;wherevermenareheroic,theywillacknowledge
themasteryofHomer;whereveramanthinksonthestrangephenomenonof
evilintheworld,hewillfindhisownthoughtsintheBookofJob;in
whateverplacemenlovetheirchildren,theirheartsmustbestirredbythe
tragicsorrowof_Oedipus_and_KingLear_.Allthesearebutshining
examplesofthelawthatonlyasabookoralittlesongappealsto
universalhumaninterestdoesitbecomepermanent.
Thesecondtestisapurelypersonalone,andmaybeexpressedinthe
indefiniteword"style."Itisonlyinamechanicalsensethatstyleis
"theadequateexpressionofthought,"or"thepeculiarmannerofexpressing
thought,"oranyotherofthedefinitionsthatarefoundintherhetorics.
Inadeepersense,styleistheman,thatis,theunconsciousexpressionof
thewriter'sownpersonality.Itistheverysoulofonemanreflecting,as
inaglass,thethoughtsandfeelingsofhumanity.Asnoglassis
colorless,buttingesmoreorlessdeeplythereflectionsfromitssurface,
sonoauthorcaninterprethumanlifewithoutunconsciouslygivingtoit
thenativehueofhisownsoul.Itisthisintenselypersonalelementthat
constitutesstyle.Everypermanentbookhasmoreorlessofthesetwo
elements,theobjectiveandthesubjective,theuniversalandthepersonal,
thedeepthoughtandfeelingoftheracereflectedandcoloredbythe
writer'sownlifeandexperience.
THEOBJECTINSTUDYINGLITERATURE.Asidefromthepleasureofreading,of
enteringintoanewworldandhavingourimaginationquickened,thestudy
ofliteraturehasonedefiniteobject,andthatistoknowmen.Nowmanis
everadualcreature;hehasanoutwardandaninnernature;heisnotonly
adoerofdeeds,butadreamerofdreams;andtoknowhim,themanofany
age,wemustsearchdeeperthanhishistory.Historyrecordshisdeeds,his
outwardactslargely;buteverygreatactspringsfromanideal,andto
understandthiswemustreadhisliterature,wherewefindhisideals
recorded.WhenwereadahistoryoftheAngloSaxons,forinstance,we
learnthattheyweresearovers,pirates,explorers,greateatersand
drinkers;andweknowsomethingoftheirhovelsandhabits,andthelands
whichtheyharriedandplundered.Allthatisinteresting;butitdoesnot
telluswhatmostwewanttoknowabouttheseoldancestorsofours,not
onlywhattheydid,butwhattheythoughtandfelt;howtheylookedonlife
anddeath;whattheyloved,whattheyfeared,andwhattheyreverencedin
Godandman.Thenweturnfromhistorytotheliteraturewhichthey
themselvesproduced,andinstantlywebecomeacquainted.Thesehardypeople
werenotsimplyfightersandfreebooters;theyweremenlikeourselves;
theiremotionsawakeninstantresponseinthesoulsoftheirdescendants.
Atthewordsoftheirgleemenwethrillagaintotheirwildloveoffreedom
andtheopensea;wegrowtenderattheirloveofhome,andpatrioticat
theirdeathlessloyaltytotheirchief,whomtheychoseforthemselvesand
hoistedontheirshieldsinsymbolofhisleadership.Oncemorewegrow
respectfulinthepresenceofpurewomanhood,ormelancholybeforethe
sorrowsandproblemsoflife,orhumblyconfident,lookinguptotheGod
whomtheydaredtocalltheAllfather.Alltheseandmanymoreintensely
realemotionspassthroughoursoulsaswereadthefewshiningfragments
ofversesthatthejealousageshaveleftus.

Itissowithanyageorpeople.Tounderstandthemwemustreadnotsimply
theirhistory,whichrecordstheirdeeds,buttheirliterature,which
recordsthedreamsthatmadetheirdeedspossible.SoAristotlewas
profoundlyrightwhenhesaidthat"poetryismoreseriousand
philosophicalthanhistory";andGoethe,whenheexplainedliteratureas
"thehumanizationofthewholeworld."
IMPORTANCEOFLITERATURE.Itisacuriousandprevalentopinionthat
literature,likeallart,isamereplayofimagination,pleasingenough,
likeanewnovel,butwithoutanyseriousorpracticalimportance.Nothing
couldbefartherfromthetruth.Literaturepreservestheidealsofa
people;andidealslove,faith,duty,friendship,freedom,reverenceare
thepartofhumanlifemostworthyofpreservation.TheGreekswerea
marvelouspeople;yetofalltheirmightyworkswecherishonlyafew
ideals,idealsofbeautyinperishablestone,andidealsoftruthin
imperishableproseandpoetry.ItwassimplytheidealsoftheGreeksand
HebrewsandRomans,preservedintheirliterature,whichmadethemwhat
theywere,andwhichdeterminedtheirvaluetofuturegenerations.Our
democracy,theboastofallEnglishspeakingnations,isadream;notthe
doubtfulandsometimesdishearteningspectaclepresentedinourlegislative
halls,butthelovelyandimmortalidealofafreeandequalmanhood,
preservedasamostpreciousheritageineverygreatliteraturefromthe
GreekstotheAngloSaxons.Allourarts,oursciences,evenourinventions
arefoundedsquarelyuponideals;forundereveryinventionisstillthe
dreamof_Beowulf_,thatmanmayovercometheforcesofnature;andthe
foundationofalloursciencesanddiscoveriesistheimmortaldreamthat
men"shallbeasgods,knowinggoodandevil."
Inaword,ourwholecivilization,ourfreedom,ourprogress,ourhomes,
ourreligion,restsolidlyuponidealsfortheirfoundation.Nothingbutan
idealeverenduresuponearth.Itisthereforeimpossibletooverestimate
thepracticalimportanceofliterature,whichpreservestheseidealsfrom
fatherstosons,whilemen,cities,governments,civilizations,vanishfrom
thefaceoftheearth.Itisonlywhenwerememberthisthatweappreciate
theactionofthedevoutMussulman,whopicksupandcarefullypreserves
everyscrapofpaperonwhichwordsarewritten,becausethescrapmay
perchancecontainthenameofAllah,andtheidealistooenormously
importanttobeneglectedorlost.
SUMMARYOFTHESUBJECT.Wearenowready,ifnottodefine,atleastto
understandalittlemoreclearlytheobjectofourpresentstudy.
Literatureistheexpressionoflifeinwordsoftruthandbeauty;itis
thewrittenrecordofman'sspirit,ofhisthoughts,emotions,aspirations;
itisthehistory,andtheonlyhistory,ofthehumansoul.Itis
characterizedbyitsartistic,itssuggestive,itspermanentqualities.Its
twotestsareitsuniversalinterestanditspersonalstyle.Itsobject,
asidefromthedelightitgivesus,istoknowman,thatis,thesoulof
manratherthanhisactions;andsinceitpreservestotheracetheideals
uponwhichallourcivilizationisfounded,itisoneofthemostimportant
anddelightfulsubjectsthatcanoccupythehumanmind.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.(NOTE.Eachchapterinthisbookincludesaspecial
bibliographyofhistoricalandliteraryworks,selectionsforreading,
chronology,etc.;andageneralbibliographyoftexts,helps,andreference
bookswillbefoundattheend.Thefollowingbooks,whichareamongthe
bestoftheirkind,areintendedtohelpthestudenttoabetter
appreciationofliteratureandtoabetterknowledgeofliterary
criticism.)
_GENERALWORKS_.Woodberry'sAppreciationofLiterature(Baker&Taylor
Co.);Gates'sStudiesinAppreciation(Macmillan);Bates'sTalksonthe
StudyofLiterature(Houghton,Mifflin);Worsfold'sOntheExerciseof
JudgmentinLiterature(Dent);Harrison'sTheChoiceofBooks(Macmillan);
Ruskin'sSesameandLilies,PartI;MatthewArnold'sEssaysinCriticism.

_ESSAYS_.Emerson'sBooks,inSocietyandSolitude;Dowden'sThe
InterpretationofLiterature,inTranscriptsandStudies(KeganPaul&
Co.),andTheTeachingofEnglishLiterature,inNewStudiesinLiterature
(Houghton,Mifflin);TheStudyofLiterature,EssaysbyMorley,Nicolls,
andL.Stephen,editedbyA.F.Blaisdell(WillardSmall).
_CRITICISM_.GayleyandScott'sAnIntroductiontotheMethodsand
MaterialsofLiteraryCriticism(GinnandCompany);Winchester'sPrinciples
ofLiteraryCriticism(Macmillan);Worsfold'sPrinciplesofCriticism
(Longmans);Johnson'sElementsofLiteraryCriticism(AmericanBook
Company);Saintsbury'sHistoryofCriticism(Dodd,Mead).
_POETRY_.Gummere'sHandbookofPoetics(GinnandCompany);Stedman'sThe
NatureandElementsofPoetry(Houghton,Mifflin);Johnson'sTheFormsof
EnglishPoetry(AmericanBookCompany);Alden'sSpecimensofEnglishVerse
(Holt);Gummere'sTheBeginningsofPoetry(Macmillan);Saintsbury's
HistoryofEnglishProsody(Macmillan).
_THEDRAMA_.Caffin'sAppreciationoftheDrama(Baker&TaylorCo.).
_THENOVEL_.Raleigh'sTheEnglishNovel(Scribner);Hamilton'sThe
MaterialsandMethodsofFiction(Baker&TaylorCo.).
*****

CHAPTERII
THEANGLOSAXONOROLDENGLISHPERIOD(4501050)
I.OURFIRSTPOETRY
BEOWULF.HereisthestoryofBeowulf,theearliestandthegreatestepic,
orheroicpoem,inourliterature.Itbeginswithaprologue,whichisnot
anessentialpartofthestory,butwhichwereviewgladlyforthesakeof
thesplendidpoeticalconceptionthatproducedScyld,kingoftheSpear
Danes.[2]
AtatimewhentheSpearDaneswerewithoutaking,ashipcamesailing
intotheirharbor.Itwasfilledwithtreasuresandweaponsofwar;andin
themidstofthesewarlikethingswasababysleeping.Nomansailedthe
ship;itcameofitself,bringingthechild,whosenamewasScyld.
NowScyldgrewandbecameamightywarrior,andledtheSpearDanesfor
manyyears,andwastheirking.WhenhissonBeowulf[3]hadbecomestrong
andwiseenoughtorule,thenWyrd(Fate),whospeaksbutoncetoanyman,
cameandstoodathand;anditwastimeforScyldtogo.Thisishowthey
buriedhim:
ThenScylddeparted,atwordofWyrdspoken,
Theherotogotothehomeofthegods.
Sadlytheyborehimtobrinkoftheocean,
Comrades,stillheedinghiswordofcommand.
Thererodeintheharbortheprince'sship,ready,
Withprowcurvingproudlyandshiningsailsset.
Shipwardtheyborehim,theirherobeloved;
Themightytheylaidatthefootofthemast.
Treasuresweretherefromfarandneargathered,
Byrniesofbattle,armorandswords;
Neverakeelsailedoutofaharbor
Sosplendidlytrickedwiththetrappingsofwar.
Theyheapedonhisbosomahoardofbrightjewels

Tofarewithhimforthontheflood'sgreatbreast.
NolessgifttheygavethantheUnknownprovided,
Whenalone,asachild,hecameinfromthemere.
Higho'erhisheadwavedabrightgoldenstandard
Nowletthewavesbeartheirwealthtotheholm.
Sadsouledtheygavebackitsgifttotheocean,
Mournfultheirmoodashesailedouttosea.[4]
"Andnoman,"saysthepoet,"neithercounselornorhero,cantellwho
receivedthatlading."
OneofScyld'sdescendantswasHrothgar,kingoftheDanes;andwithhim
thestoryofourBeowulfbegins.Hrothgarinhisoldagehadbuiltnearthe
seaameadhallcalledHeorot,themostsplendidhallinthewholeworld,
wherethekingandhisthanesgatherednightlytofeastandtolistento
thesongsofhisgleemen.Onenight,astheywereallsleeping,afrightful
monster,Grendel,brokeintothehall,killedthirtyofthesleeping
warriors,andcarriedofftheirbodiestodevourtheminhislairunderthe
sea.Theappallingvisitwasspeedilyrepeated,andfearanddeathreigned
inthegreathall.Thewarriorsfoughtatfirst;butfledwhenthey
discoveredthatnoweaponcouldharmthemonster.Heorotwasleftdeserted
andsilent.FortwelvewintersGrendel'shorribleraidscontinued,andjoy
waschangedtomourningamongtheSpearDanes.
AtlasttherumorofGrendelcrossedovertheseatothelandoftheGeats,
whereayoungherodweltinthehouseofhisuncle,KingHygelac.Beowulf
washisname,amanofimmensestrengthandcourage,andamightyswimmer
whohaddevelopedhispowersfightingthe"nickers,"whales,walrusesand
seals,intheiceboundnorthernocean.Whenheheardthestory,Beowulfwas
stirredtogoandfightthemonsterandfreetheDanes,whowerehis
father'sfriends.
Withfourteencompanionshecrossesthesea.Thereisanexcellentbitof
oceanpoetryhere(ll.210224),andwegetavividideaofthehospitality
ofabravepeoplebyfollowingthepoet'sdescriptionofBeowulf'smeeting
withKingHrothgarandQueenWealhtheow,andofthejoyandfeastingand
storytellinginHeorot.ThepictureofWealhtheowpassingthemeadcupto
thewarriorswithherownhandisanobleone,andplainlyindicatesthe
reverencepaidbythesestrongmentotheirwivesandmothers.Nightcomes
on;thefearofGrendelisagainupontheDanes,andallwithdrawafterthe
kinghaswarnedBeowulfofthefrightfuldangerofsleepinginthehall.
ButBeowulfliesdownwithhiswarriors,sayingproudlythat,sinceweapons
willnotavailagainstthemonster,hewillgrapplewithhimbarehanded
andtrusttoawarrior'sstrength.
Forthfromthefens,fromthemistymoorlands,
GrendelcameglidingGod'swrath[5]hebore
Cameunderclouds,untilhesawclearly,
Glitteringwithgoldplates,themeadhallofmen.
Downfellthedoor,thoughfastenedwithfirebands;
Openitsprangatthestrokeofhispaw.
Swollenwithrageburstinthebalebringer;
Flamedinhiseyesafiercelight,likestfire.[6]
Atthesightofmenagainsleepinginthehall,Grendellaughsinhis
heart,thinkingofhisfeast.Heseizesthenearestsleeper,crusheshis
"bonecase"withabite,tearshimlimbfromlimb,andswallowshim.Then
hecreepstothecouchofBeowulfandstretchesoutaclaw,onlytofindit
clutchedinagripofsteel.Asuddenterrorstrikesthemonster'sheart.
Heroars,struggles,triestojerkhisarmfree;butBeowulfleapstohis
feetandgrappleshisenemybarehanded.Toandfrotheysurge.Tablesare
overturned;goldenbenchesrippedfromtheirfastenings;thewholebuilding
quakes,andonlyitsironbandskeepitfromfallingtopieces.Beowulf's
companionsareontheirfeetnow,hackingvainlyatthemonsterwithswords
andbattleaxes,addingtheirshoutstothecrashingoffurnitureandthe

howling"warsong"ofGrendel.OutsideinthetowntheDanesstand
shiveringattheuproar.Slowlythemonsterstrugglestothedoor,dragging
Beowulf,whosefingerscrackwiththestrain,butwhoneverrelaxeshis
firstgrip.Suddenlyawidewoundopensinthemonster'sside;thesinews
snap;thewholearmiswrenchedoffattheshoulder;andGrendelescapes
shriekingacrossthemoor,andplungesintotheseatodie.
Beowulffirstexultsinhisnight'swork;thenhehangsthehugearmwith
itsterribleclawsfromacrossbeamovertheking'sseat,asonewould
hangupabear'sskinafterahunt.AtdaylightcametheDanes;andallday
long,intheintervalsofsinging,storytelling,speechmaking,andgift
giving,theyreturntowonderatthemighty"gripofGrendel"andto
rejoiceinBeowulf'svictory.
WhennightfallsagreatfeastisspreadinHeorot,andtheDanessleep
oncemoreinthegreathall.Atmidnightcomesanothermonster,ahorrible,
halfhumancreature,[7]motherofGrendel,ragingtoavengeheroffspring.
Shethundersatthedoor;theDanesleapupandgrasptheirweapons;but
themonsterenters,seizesAeschere,whoisfriendandadviseroftheking,
andrushesawaywithhimoverthefens.
Theoldscenesofsorrowarereviewedinthemorning;butBeowulfsays
simply:
Sorrownot,wiseman.Itisbetterforeach
Thathisfriendheavengethanthathemournmuch.
Eachofusshalltheendawait
Ofworldlylife:lethimwhomaygain
Honoreredeath.Thatisforawarrior,
Whenheisdead,afterwardsbest.
Arise,kingdom'sguardian!Letusquicklygo
ToviewthetrackofGrendel'skinsman.
Ipromiseitthee:hewillnotescape,
Norinearth'sbosom,norinmountainwood,
Norinocean'sdepths,gowherehewill.[8]
Thenhegirdshimselfforthenewfightandfollowsthetrackofthesecond
enemyacrossthefens.HereisHrothgar'sdescriptionoftheplacewhere
livethemonsters,"spiritsofelsewhere,"ashecallsthem:
Theyinhabit
Thedimlandthatgivessheltertothewolf,
Thewindyheadlands,perilousfenpaths,
Where,undermountainmist,thestreamflowsdown
Andfloodstheground.Notfarhence,butamile,
Themerestands,overwhichhangdeathchillgroves,
Awoodfastrootedovershadestheflood;
Thereeverynightaghastlymiracle
Isseen,fireinthewater.Nomanknows,
Notthemostwise,thebottomofthatmere.
Thefirmhornedheathstalker,thehart,whenpressed,
Weariedbyhounds,andhuntedfromafar,
Willratherdieofthirstuponitsbank
Thanbendhisheadtoit.Itisunholy.
Darktothecloudsitsyeastywavesmountup
Whenwindstirshatefultempest,tilltheair
Growsdreary,andtheheavenspourdowntears.[9]
Beowulfplungesintothehorribleplace,whilehiscompanionswaitforhim
ohtheshore.Foralongtimehesinksthroughtheflood;then,ashe
reachesbottom,Grendel'smotherrushesoutuponhimanddragshimintoa
cave,whereseamonstersswarmathimfrombehindandgnashhisarmorwith
theirtusks.Theedgeofhisswordisturnedwiththemightyblowhedeals
the_merewif_;butitharmsnotthemonster.Castingtheweaponaside,he
gripsherandtriestohurlherdown,whileherclawsandteethclashupon

hiscorsletbutcannotpenetratethesteelrings.Shethrowsherbulkupon
him,crusheshimdown,drawsashortswordandplungesitathim;butagain
hissplendidbyrniesaveshim.Heisweariednow,andoppressed.Suddenly,
ashiseyesweepsthecave,hecatchessightofamagicsword,madebythe
giantslongago,tooheavyforwarriorstowield.Strugglingupheseizes
theweapon,whirlsitandbringsdownacrashingblowuponthemonster's
neck.Itsmashesthroughtheringbones;the_merewif_falls,andthefight
iswon.
Thecaveisfulloftreasures;butBeowulfheedsthemnot,fornearhim
liesGrendel,deadfromthewoundreceivedthepreviousnight.Again
Beowulfswingsthegreatswordandstrikesoffhisenemy'shead;andlo,as
thevenomousbloodtouchestheswordblade,thesteelmeltslikeicebefore
thefire,andonlythehiltisleftinBeowulf'shand.Takingthehiltand
thehead,theheroenterstheoceanandmountsuptotheshore.
Onlyhisownfaithfulbandwerewaitingthere;fortheDanes,seeingthe
oceanbubblewithfreshblood,thoughtitwasalloverwiththeheroand
hadgonehome.Andtheretheywere,mourninginHeorot,whenBeowulf
returnedwiththemonstrousheadofGrendelcarriedonaspearshaftby
fourofhisstoutestfollowers.
Inthelastpartofthepoemthereisanothergreatfight.Beowulfisnow
anoldman;hehasreignedforfiftyyears,belovedbyallhispeople.He
hasovercomeeveryenemybutone,afiredragonkeepingwatchoveran
enormoustreasurehiddenamongthemountains.Onedayawandererstumbles
upontheenchantedcaveand,entering,takesajeweledcupwhilethe
firedrakesleepsheavily.Thatsamenightthedragon,inafrightfulrage,
belchingforthfireandsmoke,rushesdownuponthenearestvillages,
leavingatrailofdeathandterrorbehindhim.
AgainBeowulfgoesforthtochampionhispeople.Asheapproachesthe
dragon'scave,hehasapresentimentthatdeathlurkswithin:
Satontheheadlandtherethewarriorking;
Farewellhesaidtohearthcompanionstrue,
ThegoldfriendoftheGeats;hismindwassad,
Deathready,restless.AndWyrdwasdrawingnigh,
Whonowmustmeetandtouchtheagedman,
Toseekthetreasurethathissoulhadsaved
Andseparatehisbodyfromhislife.[10]
Thereisaflashofillumination,likethatwhichcomestoadyingman,in
whichhismindrunsbackoverhislonglifeandseessomethingofprofound
meaningintheelementalsorrowmovingsidebysidewithmagnificent
courage.Thenfollowsthefightwiththefiredrake,inwhichBeowulf,
wrappedinfireandsmoke,ishelpedbytheheroismofWiglaf,oneofhis
companions.Thedragonisslain,butthefirehasenteredBeowulf'slungs
andheknowsthatWyrdisathand.Thisishisthought,whileWiglaf
removeshisbatteredarmor:
"OnedeepregretIhave:thattoason
ImaynotgivethearmorIhaveworn,
Tobearitafterme.Forfiftyyears
Iruledthesepeoplewell,andnotaking
Ofthosewhodwellaroundme,daredoppress
Ormeetmewithhishosts.AthomeIwaited
ForthetimethatWyrdcontrols.MineownIkept,
Norquarrelssought,noreverfalselyswore.
Now,woundedsore,Iwaitforjoytocome."[11]
HesendsWiglafintothefiredrake'scave,whofindsitfilledwithrare
treasuresand,mostwonderfulofall,agoldenbannerfromwhichlight
proceedsandilluminesallthedarkness.ButWiglafcareslittleforthe
treasures;hismindisfullofhisdyingchief.Hefillshishandswith

costlyornamentsandhurriestothrowthemathishero'sfeet.Theoldman
lookswithsorrowatthegold,thanksthe"Lordofall"thatbydeathhe
hasgainedmorerichesforhispeople,andtellshisfaithfulthanehowhis
bodyshallbeburnedontheWhaleness,orheadland:
"Mylifeiswellpaidforthishoard;andnow
Careforthepeople'sneeds.Imaynomore
Bewiththem.Bidthewarriorsraiseabarrow
Aftertheburning,onthenessbythesea,
OnHronesness,whichshallrisehighandbe
Foraremembrancetomypeople.Seafarers
Whofromafaroverthemistsofwaters
DrivefoamykeelsmaycallitBeowulf'sMount
Hereafter."Thentheherofromhisneck
Putoffagoldencollar;tohisthane,
Totheyoungwarrior,gaveitwithhishelm,
Armletandcorslet;badehimusethemwell.
"ThouartthelastWaegmundingofourrace,
Forfatehassweptmykinsmenallaway.
EarlsintheirstrengtharetotheirMakergone,
AndImustfollowthem."[12]
BeowulfwasstilllivingwhenWiglafsentamessengerhurriedlytohis
people;whentheycametheyfoundhimdead,andthehugedragondeadonthe
sandbesidehim.
ThentheGoth'speoplerearedamightypile
Withshieldsandarmourhung,ashehadasked,
Andinthemidstthewarriorslaidtheirlord,
Lamenting.Thenthewarriorsonthemount
Kindledamightybalefire;thesmokerose
BlackfromtheSwedishpine,thesoundofflame
Mingledwithsoundofweeping;...whilesmoke
Spreadoverheaven.Thenuponthehill
ThepeopleoftheWederswroughtamound,
High,broad,andtobeseenfaroutatsea.
Intendaystheyhadbuiltandwalleditin
Asthewisethoughtmostworthy;placedinit
Rings,jewels,othertreasuresfromthehoard.
Theylefttheriches,goldenjoyofearls,
Indust,forearthtohold;whereyetitlies,
Uselessasever.Thenaboutthemound
Thewarriorsrode,andraisedamournfulsong
Fortheirdeadking;exaltedhisbravedeeds,
Holdingitfitmenhonourtheirliegelord,
Praisehimandlovehimwhenhissoulisfled.
Thusthe[Geat's]people,sharersofhishearth,
Mournedtheirchief'sfall,praisedhim,ofkings,ofmen
Themildestandthekindest,andtoall
Hispeoplegentlest,yearningfortheirpraise.[13]
Oneistemptedtolingeroverthedetailsofthemagnificentending:the
unselfishheroismofBeowulf,thegreatprototypeofKingAlfred;the
generousgriefofhispeople,ignoringgoldandjewelsinthethoughtof
thegreatertreasuretheyhadlost;thememorialmoundonthelowcliff,
whichwouldcauseeveryreturningmarinertosteerastraightcourseto
harborintheremembranceofhisdeadhero;andthepurepoetrywhichmarks
everynobleline.Buttheepicisgreatenoughandsimpleenoughtospeak
foritself.Searchtheliteraturesoftheworld,andyouwillfindnoother
suchpictureofabraveman'sdeath.
Concerningthehistoryof_Beowulf_awholelibraryhasbeenwritten,and
scholarsstilldiffertooradicallyforustoexpressapositivejudgment.
Thismuch,however,isclear,thatthereexisted,atthetimethepoemwas
composed,variousnorthernlegendsofBeowa,ahalfdivinehero,andthe

monsterGrendel.Thelatterhasbeeninterpretedinvarious
ways,sometimesasabear,andagainasthemalariaofthemarshlands.
Forthoseinterestedinsymbolsthesimplestinterpretationofthesemyths
istoregardBeowulf'ssuccessivefightswiththethreedragonsasthe
overcoming,first,oftheoverwhelmingdangerofthesea,whichwasbeaten
backbythedykes;second,theconqueringoftheseaitself,whenmen
learnedtosailuponit;andthird,theconflictwiththehostileforcesof
nature,whichareovercomeatlastbyman'sindomitablewilland
perseverance.
Allthisispurelymythical;buttherearehistoricalincidentstoreckon
with.Abouttheyear520acertainnorthernchief,calledbythechronicler
Chochilaicus(whoisgenerallyidentifiedwiththeHygelacoftheepic),
ledahugeplunderingexpeditionuptheRhine.Afterasuccessionof
battleshewasovercomebytheFranks,butandnowweenteralegendary
regiononcemorenotuntilagiganticnephewofHygelachadperformed
heroicfeatsofvalor,andhadsavedtheremnantsofthehostbya
marvelousfeatofswimming.Themajorityofscholarsnowholdthatthese
historicaleventsandpersonageswerecelebratedintheepic;butsome
stillassertthattheeventswhichgaveafoundationfor_Beowulf_occurred
whollyonEnglishsoil,wherethepoemitselfwasundoubtedlywritten.
Therhythmof_Beowulf_andindeedofallourearliestpoetrydependedupon
accentandalliteration;thatis,thebeginningoftwoormorewordsinthe
samelinewiththesamesoundorletter.Thelinesweremadeupoftwo
shorthalves,separatedbyapause.Norimewasused;butamusicaleffect
wasproducedbygivingeachhalflinetwostronglyaccentedsyllables.Each
fullline,therefore,hadfouraccents,threeofwhich(i.e.twointhe
firsthalf,andoneinthesecond)usuallybeganwiththesamesoundor
letter.Themusicaleffectwasheightenedbytheharpwithwhichthe
gleemanaccompaniedhissinging..Thepoeticalformwillbeseenclearlyin
thefollowingselectionfromthewonderfullyrealisticdescriptionofthe
fenshauntedbyGrendel.Itwillneedonlyoneortworeadingsaloudto
showthatmanyofthesestrangelookingwordsarepracticallythesameas
thosewestilluse,thoughmanyofthevowelsoundswerepronounced
differentlybyourancestors.
...Hiedygellond
Warigeath,wulfhleothu,windigenssas,
Frecnefengelad,thrfyrgenstream
Undernssagenipunithergewiteth,
Flodunderfoldan.Nisthtfeorheonon,
Milgemearces,thaetsemerestandeth,
Oferthmhongiathhrindebearwas
...They(a)darksomeland
Ward(inhabit),wolfcliffs,windynesses,
Frightfulfenpathswheremountainstream
Undernesses'mistsnether(downward)wanders,
Afloodunderearth.Itisnotfarhence,
Bymilemeasure,thatthemerestands,
Overwhichhangrimygroves.
WIDSITH.Thepoem"Widsith,"thewidegoerorwanderer,isinpart,at
least,probablytheoldestinourlanguage.Theauthorandthedateofits
compositionareunknown;butthepersonalaccountoftheminstrel'slife
belongstothetimebeforetheSaxonsfirstcametoEngland.[14]It
expressesthewanderinglifeofthegleeman,whogoesforthintotheworld
toabidehereorthere,accordingasheisrewardedforhissinging.From
thenumerousreferencestoringsandrewards,andfromthepraisegivento
generousgivers,itwouldseemthatliteratureasapayingprofessionbegan
veryearlyinourhistory,andalsothatthepaywasbarelysufficientto
holdsoulandbodytogether.Ofallourmodernpoets,Goldsmithwandering
overEuropepayingforhislodgingwithhissongsismostsuggestiveof
thisfirstrecordedsingerofourrace.Hislastlinesread:

Thuswandering,theywhoshapesongsformen
Passovermanylands,andtelltheirneed,
Andspeaktheirthanks,andever,southornorth,
Meetsomeoneskilledinsongsandfreeingifts,
Whowouldberaisedamonghisfriendstofame
Anddobravedeedstilllightandlifearegone.
Hewhohasthuswroughthimselfpraiseshallhave
Asettledgloryunderneaththestars.[15]
DEOR'SLAMENT.In"Deor"wehaveanotherpictureoftheSaxonscop,or
minstrel,notingladwandering,butinmanlysorrow.Itseemsthatthe
scop'slivingdependedentirelyuponhispowertopleasehischief,and
thatatanytimehemightbesupplantedbyabetterpoet.Deorhadthis
experience,andcomfortshimselfinagrimwaybyrecallingvarious
examplesofmenwhohavesufferedmorethanhimself.Thepoemisarranged
instrophes,eachonetellingofsomeafflictedheroandendingwiththe
samerefrain:_Hissorrowpassedaway;sowillmine_."Deor"ismuchmore
poeticthan"Widsith,"andistheoneperfectlyric[16]oftheAngloSaxon
period.
Welandforawomanknewtoowellexile.
Strongofsoulthatearl,sorrowsharphebore;
Tocompanionshiphehadcareandwearylonging,
Winterfreezingwretchedness.Woehefoundagain,again,
AfterthatNithhadinaneedhadlaidhim
Staggeringsinewwoundssorrowsmittenman!
_Thatheoverwent;thisalsomayI_.[17]
THESEAFARER.Thewonderfulpoemof"TheSeafarer"seemstobeintwo
distinctparts.Thefirstshowsthehardshipsofoceanlife;butstronger
thanhardshipsisthesubtlecallofthesea.Thesecondpartisan
allegory,inwhichthetroublesoftheseamanaresymbolsofthetroubles
ofthislife,andthecalloftheoceanisthecallinthesoultobeup
andawaytoitstruehomewithGod.Whetherthelastwasaddedbysomemonk
whosawtheallegoricalpossibilitiesofthefirstpart,orwhethersome
sealovingChristianscopwroteboth,isuncertain.Followingareafew
selectedlinestoshowthespiritofthepoem:
Thehailflewinshowersaboutme;andthereIheardonly
Theroarofthesea,icecoldwaves,andthesongoftheswan;
Forpastimethegannets'cryservedme;thekittiwakes'chatter
Forlaughterofmen;andformeaddrinkthecalloftheseamews.
Whenstormsontherockycliffsbeat,thentheterns,icyfeathered,
Madeanswer;fullofttheseaeagleforebodinglyscreamed,
Theeaglewithpinionswavewet....
Theshadowsofnightbecamedarker,itsnowedfromthenorth;
Theworldwasenchainedbythefrost;hailfelluponearth;
'Twasthecoldestofgrain.Yetthethoughtsofmyheartnowarethrobbing
Totestthehighstreams,thesaltwavesintumultuousplay.
Desireinmyhearteverurgesmyspirittowander,
Toseekoutthehomeofthestrangerinlandsafaroff.
Thereisnoonethatdwellsuponearth,soexaltedinmind,
Butthathehasalwaysalonging,aseafaringpassion
ForwhattheLordGodshallbestow,beithonorordeath.
Noheartfortheharphashe,norforacceptanceoftreasure,
Nopleasurehasheinawife,nodelightintheworld,
Norinaughtsavetherollofthebillows;butalwaysalonging,
Ayearninguneasiness,hastenshimontothesea.
Thewoodlandsarecapturedbyblossoms,thehamletsgrowfair,
Broadmeadowsarebeautiful,earthagainburstsintolife,
Andallstirtheheartofthewanderereagertojourney,
Sohemeditatesgoingafaronthepathwayoftides.
Thecuckoo,moreover,giveswarningwithsorrowfulnote,
Summer'sharbingersings,andforebodestotheheartbittersorrow.
Nowmyspirituneasilyturnsintheheart'snarrowchamber,

Nowwandersforthoverthetide,o'erthehomeofthewhale,
Totheendsoftheearthandcomesbacktome.
Eagerandgreedy,
Thelonewandererscreams,andresistlesslydrivesmysoulonward,
Overthewhalepath,overthetractsofthesea.[18]
THEFIGHTATFINNSBURGHANDWALDERE.Twootherofouroldestpoemswell
deservemention.The"FightatFinnsburgh"isafragmentoffiftylines,
discoveredontheinsideofapieceofparchmentdrawnoverthewooden
coversofabookofhomilies.Itisamagnificentwarsong,describingwith
HomericpowerthedefenseofahallbyHnf[19]withsixtywarriors,
againsttheattackofFinnandhisarmy.Atmidnight,whenHnfandhismen
aresleeping,theyaresurroundedbyanarmyrushinginwithfireand
sword.Hnfspringstohisfeetatthefirstalarmandwakenshiswarriors
withacalltoactionthatringslikeabugleblast:
Thisnoeastwarddawningis,norishereadragonflying,
Norofthishighhallarethehornsaburning;
Buttheyrushuponusherenowtheravenssing,
Growlingisthegraywolf,grimthewarwoodrattles,
Shieldtoshaftisanswering.[20]
Thefightlastsfivedays,butthefragmentendsbeforewelearnthe
outcome:ThesamefightiscelebratedbyHrothgar'sgleemanatthefeastin
Heorot,aftertheslayingofGrendel.
"Waldere"isafragmentoftwoleaves,fromwhichwegetonlyaglimpseof
thestoryofWaldere(WalterofAquitaine)andhisbetrothedbride
Hildgund,whowerehostagesatthecourtofAttila.Theyescapedwitha
greattreasure,andincrossingthemountainswereattackedbyGuntherand
hiswarriors,amongwhomwasWalter'sformercomrade,Hagen.Walterfights
themallandescapes.ThesamestorywaswritteninLatininthetenth
century,andisalsopartoftheoldGerman_Nibelungenlied_.Thoughthe
sagadidnotoriginatewiththeAngloSaxons,theirversionofitisthe
oldestthathascomedowntous.Thechiefsignificanceofthese"Waldere"
fragmentsliesintheevidencetheyaffordthatourancestorswerefamiliar
withthelegendsandpoetryofotherGermanicpeoples.
II.ANGLOSAXONLIFE
Wehavenowreadsomeofourearliestrecords,andhavebeensurprised,
perhaps,thatmenwhoaregenerallydescribedinthehistoriesassavage
fightersandfreebooterscouldproducesuchexcellentpoetry.Itisthe
objectofthestudyofallliteraturetomakeusbetteracquaintedwith
men,notsimplywiththeirdeeds,whichisthefunctionofhistory,but
withthedreamsandidealswhichunderliealltheiractions.Soareading
ofthisearlyAngloSaxonpoetrynotonlymakesusacquainted,butalso
leadstoaprofoundrespectforthemenwhowereourancestors.Beforewe
studymoreoftheirliteratureitiswelltoglancebrieflyattheirlife
andlanguage.
THENAMEOriginallythenameAngloSaxondenotestwoofthethreeGermanic
tribes,Jutes,Angles,andSaxons,whointhemiddleofthefifth
centurylefttheirhomesontheshoresoftheNorthSeaandtheBalticto
conquerandcolonizedistantBritain.Angelnwasthehomeofonetribe,and
thenamestillclingstothespotwhencesomeofourforefatherssailedon
theirmomentousvoyage.TheoldSaxonword_angul_or_ongul_meansahook,
andtheEnglishverb_angle_isusedinvariablybyWaltonandolderwriters
inthesenseoffishing.Wemaystillthink,therefore,ofthefirstAngles
ashookmen,possiblybecauseoftheirfishing,moreprobablybecausethe
shorewheretheylived,atthefootofthepeninsulaofJutland,wasbent
intheshapeofafishhook.ThenameSaxonfrom_seax,sax_,ashortsword,
meanstheswordman,andfromthenamewemayjudgesomethingofthetemper
ofthehardyfighterswhoprecededtheAnglesintoBritain.TheAngleswere

themostnumerousoftheconqueringtribes,andfromthemthenewhomewas
calledAnglalond.BygradualchangesthisbecamefirstEnglelondandthen
England.
Morethanfivehundredyearsafterthelandingofthesetribes,andwhile
theycalledthemselvesEnglishmen,wefindtheLatinwritersoftheMiddle
AgesspeakingoftheinhabitantsofBritainas_Anglisaxones_,thatis,
SaxonsofEngland,todistinguishthemfromtheSaxonsoftheContinent.
IntheLatinchartersofKingAlfredthesamenameappears;butitisnever
seenorheardinhisnativespeech.Therehealwaysspeaksofhisbeloved
"Englelond"andofhisbrave"Englisc"people.Inthesixteenthcentury,
whentheoldnameofEnglishmenclungtothenewpeopleresultingfromthe
unionofSaxonandNorman,thenameAngloSaxonwasfirstusedinthe
nationalsensebythescholarCamden[21]inhis_HistoryofBritain_;and
sincethenithasbeeningeneraluseamongEnglishwriters.Inrecent
yearsthenamehasgainedawidersignificance,untilitisnowusedto
denoteaspiritratherthananation,thebrave,vigorous,enlargingspirit
thatcharacterizestheEnglishspeakingraceseverywhere,andthathas
alreadyputabroadbeltofEnglishlawandEnglishlibertyaroundthe
wholeworld.
THELIFE.Iftheliteratureofapeoplespringsdirectlyoutofitslife,
thenthestern,barbarouslifeofourSaxonforefatherswouldseem,at
firstglance,topromiselittleofgoodliterature.Outwardlytheirlife
wasaconstanthardship,aperpetualstruggleagainstsavagenatureand
savagemen.Behindthemweregloomyforestsinhabitedbywildbeastsand
stillwildermen,andpeopledintheirimaginationwithdragonsandevil
shapes.Infrontofthem,thunderingattheverydikesforentrance,was
thetreacherousNorthSea,withitsfogsandstormsandice,butwiththat
indefinablecallofthedeepthatallmenhearwholivelongbeneathits
influence.Heretheylived,abig,blond,powerfulrace,andhuntedand
foughtandsailed,anddrankandfeastedwhentheirlaborwasdone.Almost
thefirstthingwenoticeaboutthesebig,fearless,childishmenisthat
theylovethesea;andbecausetheyloveittheyhearandansweritscall:
...Nodelighthasheintheworld,
Norinaughtsavetherollofthebillows;butalwaysalonging,
Ayearninguneasiness,hastenshimontothesea.[22]
Asmightbeexpected,thisloveoftheoceanfindsexpressioninalltheir
poetry.In_Beowulf_alonetherearefifteennamesforthesea,fromthe
_holm_,thatis,thehorizonsea,the"upmounding,"tothe_brim_,whichis
theoceanflingingitswelterofsandandcreamyfoamuponthebeachat
yourfeet.Andthefiguresusedtodescribeorglorifyit"theswanroad,
thewhalepath,theheavingbattleplain"arealmostasnumerous.Inall
theirpoetrythereisamagnificentsenseoflordshipoverthewildsea
eveninitshouroftempestandfury:
Oftenitbefallsus,ontheocean'shighways,
Intheboatsourboatmen,whenthestormisroaring,
Leapthebillowsover,onourstallionsofthefoam.[23]
THEINNERLIFE.Aman'slifeismorethanhiswork;hisdreamisever
greaterthanhisachievement;andliteraturereflectsnotsomuchman's
deedasthespiritwhichanimateshim;notthepoorthingthathedoes,but
ratherthesplendidthingthatheeverhopestodo.Innoplaceisthis
moreevidentthanintheagewearenowstudying.Thoseearlyseakings
wereamarvelousmixtureofsavageryandsentiment,ofroughlivingandof
deepfeeling,ofsplendidcourageandthedeepmelancholyofmenwhoknow
theirlimitationsandhavefacedtheunansweredproblemofdeath.Theywere
notsimplyfearlessfreebooterswhoharriedeverycoastintheirwar
galleys.Ifthatwereall,theywouldhavenomorehistoryorliterature
thantheBarbarypirates,ofwhomthesamethingcouldbesaid.These
strongfathersofoursweremenofprofoundemotions.Inalltheirfighting
theloveofanuntarnishedglorywasuppermost;andunderthewarrior's

savageexteriorwashiddenagreatloveofhomeandhomelyvirtues,anda
reverencefortheonewomantowhomhewouldpresentlyreturnintriumph.
Sowhenthewolfhuntwasover,orthedesperatefightwaswon,these
mightymenwouldgatherinthebanquethall,andlaytheirweaponsaside
wheretheopenfirewouldflashuponthem,andtherelistentothesongsof
ScopandGleeman,menwhocouldputintoadequatewordstheemotionsand
aspirationsthatallmenfeelbutthatonlyafewcaneverexpress:
Musicandsongwheretheheroessat
Thegleewoodrang,asonguprose
WhenHrothgar'sscopgavethehallgoodcheer.[24]
ItisthisgreatandhiddenlifeoftheAngloSaxonsthatfindsexpression
inalltheirliterature.Briefly,itissummedupinfivegreat
principles,theirloveofpersonalfreedom,theirresponsivenessto
nature,theirreligion,theirreverenceforwomanhood,andtheirstruggle
forgloryasarulingmotiveineverynoblelife.
InreadingAngloSaxonpoetryitiswelltorememberthesefiveprinciples,
fortheyarelikethelittlespringsattheheadofagreatriver,clear,
purespringsofpoetry,andoutofthemthebestofourliteraturehas
alwaysflowed.Thuswhenweread,
Blastofthetempestitaidsouroars;
Rollingofthunderithurtsusnot;
Rushofthehurricanebendingitsneck
Tospeeduswhitherourwillsarebent,
werealizethatthesesearovershadthespiritofkinshipwiththemighty
lifeofnature;andkinshipwithnatureinvariablyexpressesitselfin
poetry.Again,whenweread,
Nowhaththeman
O'ercomehistroubles.Nopleasuredoeshelack,
Norsteeds,norjewels,northejoysofmead,
Noranytreasurethattheearthcangive,
Oroyalwoman,ifhehavebutthee,[25]
weknowwearedealingwithanessentiallynobleman,notasavage;weare
facetofacewiththatprofoundreverenceforwomanhoodwhichinspiresthe
greaterpartofallgoodpoetry,andwebegintohonoraswellas
understandourancestors.Sointhematterofgloryorhonor;itwas,
apparently,nottheloveoffighting,butrathertheloveofhonor
resultingfromfightingwell,whichanimatedourforefathersinevery
campaign."Hewasamandeservingofremembrance"wasthehighestthing
thatcouldbesaidofadeadwarrior;and"Heisamandeservingofpraise"
wasthehighesttributetotheliving.ThewholesecretofBeowulf'smighty
lifeissummedupinthelastline,"Everyearningforhispeople's
praise."Soeverytribehaditsscop,orpoet,moreimportantthanany
warrior,whoputthedeedsofitsheroesintotheexpressivewordsthat
constituteliterature;andeverybanquethallhaditsgleeman,whosangthe
scop'spoetryinorderthatthedeedandthemanmightberemembered.
Orientalpeoplesbuiltmonumentstoperpetuatethememoryoftheirdead;
butourancestorsmadepoems,whichshouldliveandstirmen'ssoulslong
aftermonumentsofbrickandstonehadcrumbledaway.Itistothisintense
loveofgloryandthedesiretoberememberedthatweareindebtedfor
AngloSaxonliterature.
OURFIRSTSPEECH.Ourfirstrecordedspeechbeginswiththesongsof
WidsithandDeor,whichtheAngloSaxonsmayhavebroughtwiththemwhen
theyfirstconqueredBritain.Atfirstglancethesesongsintheirnative
dresslookstrangeasaforeigntongue;butwhenweexaminethemcarefully
wefindmanywordsthathavebeenfamiliarsincechildhood.Wehaveseen
thisin_Beowulf_;butinprosetheresemblanceofthisoldspeechtoour
ownisevenmorestriking.Here,forinstance,isafragmentofthesimple

storyoftheconquestofBritainbyourAngloSaxonancestors:
HerHengestandschissunugefuhtonwithBryttas,onthaere
stowetheisgecwedenCreccanford,andthrofslogonfeowerthusendawera.
AndthaBryttasthaforletonCentlond,andmidmyclumegeflugonto
Lundenbyrig.(AtthistimeHengestandAesc,hisson,foughtagainstthe
BritonsattheplacewhichiscalledCrayfordandthereslewfourthousand
men.AndthentheBritonsforsookKentland,andwithmuchfearfledto
Londontown.)[26]
Thereaderwhouttersthesewordsaloudafewtimeswillspeedilyrecognize
hisowntongue,notsimplyinthewordsbutalsointhewholestructureof
thesentences.
FromsuchrecordsweseethatourspeechisTeutonicinitsorigin;and
whenweexamineanyTeutoniclanguagewelearnthatitisonlyabranchof
thegreatAryanorIndoEuropeanfamilyoflanguages.Inlifeandlanguage,
therefore,wearerelatedfirsttotheTeutonicraces,andthroughthemto
allthenationsofthisIndoEuropeanfamily,which,startingwithenormous
vigorfromtheiroriginalhome(probablyincentralEurope)[27]spread
southwardandwestward,drivingoutthenativetribesandslowlydeveloping
themightycivilizationsofIndia,Persia,Greece,Rome,andthewilderbut
morevigorouslifeoftheCeltsandTeutons.Inallthese
languagesSanskrit,Iranian,Greek,Latin,Celtic,Teutonicwerecognize
thesamerootwordsforfatherandmother,forGodandman,forthecommon
needsandthecommonrelationsoflife;andsincewordsarewindowsthrough
whichweseethesoulofthisoldpeople,wefindcertainidealsoflove,
home,faith,heroism,liberty,whichseemtohavebeentheverylifeofour
forefathers,andwhichwereinheritedbythemfromtheiroldheroicand
conqueringancestors.ItwasonthebordersoftheNorthSeathatour
fathershaltedforunnumberedcenturiesontheirwestwardjourney,and
slowlydevelopedthenationallifeandlanguagewhichwenowcallAnglo
Saxon.
ItisthisoldvigorousAngloSaxonlanguagewhichformsthebasisofour
modernEnglish.IfwereadaparagraphfromanygoodEnglishbook,andthen
analyzeit,aswewouldaflower,toseewhatitcontains,wefindtwo
distinctclassesofwords.Thefirstclass,containingsimplewords
expressingthecommonthingsoflife,makesupthestrongframeworkofour
language.Thesewordsarelikethestemandbarebranchesofamightyoak,
andifwelookthemupinthedictionarywefindthatalmostinvariably
theycometousfromourAngloSaxonancestors.Thesecondandlargerclass
ofwordsismadeupofthosethatgivegrace,variety,ornament,toour
speech.Theyareliketheleavesandblossomsofthesametree,andwhenwe
examinetheirhistorywefindthattheycometousfromtheCelts,Romans,
Normans,andotherpeopleswithwhomwehavebeenincontactinthelong
yearsofourdevelopment.Themostprominentcharacteristicofourpresent
language,therefore,isitsdualcharacter.Itsbestqualitiesstrength,
simplicity,directnesscomefromAngloSaxonsources;itsenormousadded
wealthofexpression,itscomprehensiveness,itsplasticadaptabilityto
newconditionsandideas,arelargelytheresultofadditionsfromother
languages,andespeciallyofitsgradualabsorptionoftheFrenchlanguage
aftertheNormanConquest.Itisthisdualcharacter,thiscombinationof
nativeandforeign,ofinnateandexoticelements,whichaccountsforthe
wealthofourEnglishlanguageandliterature.Toseeitinconcreteform,
weshouldreadinsuccession_Beowulf_and_ParadiseLost_,thetwogreat
epicswhichshowtherootandtheflowerofourliterarydevelopment.
III.CHRISTIANWRITERSOFTHEANGLOSAXONPERIOD
Theliteratureofthisperiodfallsnaturallyintotwodivisions,pagan
andChristian.TheformerrepresentsthepoetrywhichtheAngloSaxons
probablybroughtwiththemintheformoforalsagas,thecrudematerial
outofwhichliteraturewasslowlydevelopedonEnglishsoil;thelatter

representsthewritingsdevelopedunderteachingofthemonks,afterthe
oldpaganreligionhadvanished,butwhileitstillretaineditsholdon
thelifeandlanguageofthepeople.Inreadingourearliestpoetryitis
welltorememberthatallofitwascopiedbythemonks,andseemstohave
beenmoreorlessalteredtogiveitareligiouscoloring.
ThecomingofChristianitymeantnotsimplyanewlifeandleaderfor
England;itmeantalsothewealthofanewlanguage.Thescopisnow
replacedbytheliterarymonk;andthatmonk,thoughhelivesamongcommon
peopleandspeakswiththeEnglishtongue,hasbehindhimalltheculture
andliteraryresourcesoftheLatinlanguage.Theeffectisseeninstantly
inourearlyproseandpoetry.
NORTHUMBRIANLITERATURE.Ingeneral,twogreatschoolsofChristian
influencecameintoEngland,andspeedilyputanendtothefrightfulwars
thathadwagedcontinuallyamongthevariouspettykingdomsofthe
AngloSaxons.Thefirstofthese,undertheleadershipofAugustine,came
fromRome.ItspreadinthesouthandcenterofEngland,especiallyinthe
kingdomofEssex.Itfoundedschoolsandpartiallyeducatedtherough
people,butitproducednolastingliterature.Theother,underthe
leadershipofthesaintlyAidan,camefromIreland,whichcountryhadbeen
forcenturiesacenterofreligionandeducationforallwesternEurope.
ThemonksofthisschoollaboredchieflyinNorthumbria,andtotheir
influenceweoweallthatisbestinAngloSaxonliterature.Itiscalled
theNorthumbrianSchool;itscenterwasthemonasteriesandabbeys,suchas
JarrowandWhitby,anditsthreegreatestnamesareBede,Cdmon,and
Cynewulf.
BEDE(673735)
TheVenerableBede,asheisgenerallycalled,ourfirstgreatscholarand
"thefatherofourEnglishlearning,"wrotealmostexclusivelyinLatin,
hislastwork,thetranslationoftheGospelofJohnintoAngloSaxon,
havingbeenunfortunatelylost.Muchtoourregret,therefore,hisbooks
andthestoryofhisgentle,heroiclifemustbeexcludedfromthishistory
ofourliterature.Hisworks,overfortyinnumber,coveredthewholefield
ofhumanknowledgeinhisday,andweresoadmirablywrittenthattheywere
widelycopiedastextbooks,orrathermanuscripts,innearlyallthe
monasteryschoolsofEurope.
Theworkmostimportanttousisthe_EcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglish
People_.Itisafascinatinghistorytoreadevennow,withitscurious
combinationofaccuratescholarshipandimmensecredulity.Inallstrictly
historicalmattersBedeisamodel.Everyknownauthorityonthesubject,
fromPlinytoGildas,wascarefullyconsidered;everylearnedpilgrimto
RomewascommissionedbyBedetoransackthearchivesandtomakecopiesof
papaldecreesandroyalletters;andtothesewereaddedthetestimonyof
abbotswhocouldspeakfrompersonalknowledgeofeventsorrepeatthe
traditionsoftheirseveralmonasteries.
Sidebysidewiththishistoricalexactnessaremarvelousstoriesofsaints
andmissionaries.Itwasanageofcredulity,andmiracleswereinmen's
mindscontinually.Themenofwhomhewrotelivedlivesmorewonderfulthan
anyromance,andtheircourageandgentlenessmadeatremendousimpression
ontherough,warlikepeopletowhomtheycamewithopenhandsandhearts.
Itisthenaturalwayofallprimitivepeoplestomagnifytheworksof
theirheroes,andsodeedsofheroismandkindness,whichwerepartofthe
dailylifeoftheIrishmissionaries,weresoontransformedintothe
miraclesofthesaints.Bedebelievedthesethings,asallothermendid,
andrecordsthemwithcharmingsimplicity,justashereceivedthemfrom
bishoporabbot.Notwithstandingitserrors,weowetothisworknearlyall
ourknowledgeoftheeightcenturiesofourhistoryfollowingthelanding
ofCsarinBritain.

CDMON(SeventhCentury)
NowmustwehymntheMasterofheaven,
ThemightoftheMaker,thedeedsoftheFather,
ThethoughtofHisheart.He,Lordeverlasting,
Establishedofoldthesourceofallwonders:
Creatorallholy,Hehungthebrightheaven,
Aroofhighupreared,o'erthechildrenofmen;
TheKingofmankindthencreatedformortals
Theworldinitsbeauty,theearthspreadbeneaththem,
He,Lordeverlasting,omnipotentGod.[28]
If_Beowulf_andthefragmentsofourearliestpoetrywerebroughtinto
England,thenthehymngivenaboveisthefirstverseofallnativeEnglish
songthathascomedowntous,andCdmonisthefirstpoettowhomwecan
giveadefinitenameanddate.Thewordswerewrittenabout665A.D.and
arefoundcopiedattheendofamanuscriptofBede's_Ecclesiastical
History_.
LIFEOFCDMON.WhatlittleweknowofCdmon,theAngloSaxonMilton,as
heisproperlycalled,istakenfromBede'saccount[29]oftheAbbessHilda
andofhermonasteryatWhitby.Hereisafreeandcondensedtranslationof
Bede'sstory:
Therewas,inthemonasteryoftheAbbessHilda,abrotherdistinguishedby
thegraceofGod,forthathecouldmakepoemstreatingofgoodnessand
religion.Whateverwastranslatedtohim(forhecouldnotread)ofSacred
Scriptureheshortlyreproducedinpoeticformofgreatsweetnessand
beauty.NoneofalltheEnglishpoetscouldequalhim,forhelearnednot
theartofsongfrommen,norsangbytheartsofmen.Ratherdidhe
receiveallhispoetryasafreegiftfromGod,andforthisreasonhedid
nevercomposepoetryofavainorworldlykind.
Untilofmatureagehelivedasalaymanandhadneverlearnedanypoetry.
Indeed,soignorantofsingingwashethatsometimes,atafeast,whereit
wasthecustomthatforthepleasureofalleachguestshouldsinginturn,
hewouldrisefromthetablewhenhesawtheharpcomingtohimandgohome
ashamed.Nowithappenedoncethathedidthisthingatacertain
festivity,andwentouttothestalltocareforthehorses,thisduty
beingassignedtohimforthatnight.Ashesleptattheusualtime,one
stoodbyhimsaying:"Cdmon,singmesomething.""Icannotsing,"he
answered,"andthatiswhyIcamehitherfromthefeast."Buthewhospake
untohimsaidagain,"Cdmon,singtome."Andhesaid,"WhatshallI
sing?"andhesaid,"Singthebeginningofcreatedthings."Thereupon
Cdmonbegantosingversesthathehadneverheardbefore,ofthisimport:
"NowshouldwepraisethepowerandwisdomoftheCreator,theworksofthe
Father."Thisisthesensebutnottheformofthehymnthathesangwhile
sleeping.
Whenheawakened,Cdmonrememberedthewordsofthehymnandaddedtothem
manymore.Inthemorninghewenttothestewardofthemonasterylandsand
showedhimthegifthehadreceivedinsleep.Thestewardbroughthimto
Hilda,whomadehimrepeattothemonksthehymnhehadcomposed,andall
agreedthatthegraceofGodwasuponCdmon.Totesthimtheyexpoundedto
himabitofScripturefromtheLatinandbadehim,ifhecould,toturnit
intopoetry.Hewentawayhumblyandreturnedinthemorningwithan
excellentpoem.ThereuponHildareceivedhimandhisfamilyintothe
monastery,madehimoneofthebrethren,andcommandedthatthewhole
courseofBiblehistorybeexpoundedtohim.Heinturn,reflectingupon
whathehadheard,transformeditintomostdelightfulpoetry,andby
echoingitbacktothemonksinmoremelodioussoundsmadehisteachershis
listeners.Inallthishisaimwastoturnmenfromwickednessandtohelp
themtotheloveandpracticeofwelldoing.
[ThenfollowsabriefrecordofCdmon'slifeandanexquisitepictureof

hisdeathamidstthebrethren.]Andsoitcametopass[saysthesimple
record]thatasheservedGodwhilelivinginpurityofmindandserenity
ofspirit,sobyapeacefuldeathhelefttheworldandwenttolookupon
Hisface.
CDMON'SWORKS.ThegreatestworkattributedtoCdmonisthesocalled
_Paraphrase_.ItisthestoryofGenesis,Exodus,andapartofDaniel,
toldinglowing,poeticlanguage,withapowerofinsightandimagination
whichoftenraisesitfromparaphraseintotherealmoftruepoetry.Though
wehaveBede'sassurancethatCdmon"transformedthewholecourseofBible
historyintomostdelightfulpoetry,"noworkknowncertainlytohavebeen
composedbyhimhascomedowntous.Intheseventeenthcenturythis
AngloSaxon_Paraphrase_wasdiscoveredandattributedtoCdmon,andhis
nameisstillassociatedwithit,thoughitisnowalmostcertainthatthe
_Paraphrase_istheworkofmorethanonewriter.
Asidefromthedoubtfulquestionofauthorship,evenacasualreadingof
thepoembringsusintothepresenceofapoetrudeindeed,butwitha
geniusstronglysuggestiveattimesofthematchlessMilton.Thebookopens
withahymnofpraise,andthentellsofthefallofSatanandhisrebel
angelsfromheaven,whichisfamiliartousinMilton's_ParadiseLost_.
Thenfollowsthecreationoftheworld,andthe_Paraphrase_beginsto
thrillwiththeoldAngloSaxonloveofnature.
HerefirsttheEternalFather,guardofall,
Ofheavenandearth,raisdupthefirmament,
TheAlmightyLordsetfirmbyHisstrongpower
Thisroomyland;grassgreenednotyettheplain,
Oceanfarspreadhidthewanwaysingloom.
ThenwastheSpiritgloriouslybright
OfHeaven'sKeeperborneoverthedeep
Swiftly.TheLifegiver,theAngel'sLord,
OvertheamplegroundbadecomeforthLight.
QuicklytheHighKing'sbiddingwasobeyed,
Overthewastethereshonelight'sholyray.
ThenpartedHe,Lordoftriumphantmight,
Shadowfromshining,darknessfromthelight.
Light,bytheWordofGod,wasfirstnamedday.[30]
AfterrecountingthestoryofParadise,theFall,andtheDeluge,the
_Paraphrase_iscontinuedintheExodus,ofwhichthepoetmakesanoble
epic,rushingonwiththesweepofaSaxonarmytobattle.Asingle
selectionisgivenheretoshowhowthepoetadaptedthestorytohis
hearers:
Thentheysaw,
Forthandforwardfaring,Pharaoh'swararray
Glidingon,agroveofspears;glitteringthehosts!
Flutteredtherethebanners,therethefolkthemarchtrod.
Onwardssurgedthewar,strodethespearsalong,
Blickeredthebroadshields;blewaloudthetrumpets....
Wheelingroundingyres,yelledthefowlsofwar,
Ofthebattlegreedy;hoarselybarkedtheraven,
Dewuponhisfeathers,o'erthefallencorpses
Swartthatchooseroftheslain!Sangaloudthewolves
Atevetheirhorridsong,hopingforthecarrion.[31]
Besidesthe_Paraphrase_wehaveafewfragmentsofthesamegeneral
characterwhichareattributedtotheschoolofCdmon.Thelongestof
theseis_Judith_,inwhichthestoryofanapocryphalbookoftheOld
Testamentisdoneintovigorouspoetry.Holofernesisrepresentedasa
savageandcruelViking,revelinginhismeadhall;andwhentheheroic
Judithcutsoffhisheadwithhisownswordandthrowsitdownbeforethe
warriorsofherpeople,rousingthemtobattleandvictory,wereach
perhapsthemostdramaticandbrilliantpointofAngloSaxonliterature.

CYNEWULF(EighthCentury)
OfCynewulf,greatestoftheAngloSaxonpoets,exceptingonlytheunknown
authorof_Beowulf_,weknowverylittle.Indeed,itwasnottill1840,
morethanathousandyearsafterhisdeath,thatevenhisnamebecame
known.Thoughheistheonlyoneofourearlypoetswhosignedhisworks,
thenamewasneverplainlywritten,butwovenintotheversesintheform
ofsecretrunes,[32]suggestingamoderncharade,butmoredifficultof
interpretationuntilonehasfoundthekeytothepoet'ssignature.
WORKSOFCYNEWULF.TheonlysignedpoemsofCynewulfare_TheChrist,
Juliana,TheFatesoftheApostles_,and_Elene_.Unsignedpoemsattributed
tohimorhisschoolare_Andreas_,the_Phoenix_,the_DreamoftheRood_,
the_DescentintoHell_,_Guthlac_,the_Wanderer_,andsomeofthe
Riddles.Thelastaresimplyliteraryconundrumsinwhichsomewellknown
object,likethebowordrinkinghorn,isdescribedinpoeticlanguage,and
thehearermustguessthename.Someofthem,like"TheSwan"[33]and"The
StormSpirit,"areunusuallybeautiful.
Ofalltheseworksthemostcharacteristicisundoubtedly_TheChrist_,a
didacticpoeminthreeparts:thefirstcelebratingtheNativity;the
second,theAscension;andthethird,"Doomsday,"tellingthetormentsof
thewickedandtheunendingjoyoftheredeemed.Cynewulftakeshis
subjectmatterpartlyfromtheChurchliturgy,butmorelargelyfromthe
homiliesofGregorytheGreat.Thewholeiswellwoventogether,and
containssomehymnsofgreatbeautyandmanypassagesofintensedramatic
force.ThroughoutthepoemadeeploveforChristandareverenceforthe
VirginMaryaremanifest.Morethananyotherpoeminanylanguage,_The
Christ_reflectsthespiritofearlyLatinChristianity.
Hereisafragmentcomparinglifetoaseavoyage,acomparisonwhich
occurssoonerorlatertoeverythoughtfulperson,andwhichfindsperfect
expressioninTennyson's"CrossingtheBar."
Now'tismostlikeasifwefareinships
Ontheoceanflood,overthewatercold,
Drivingourvesselsthroughthespaciousseas
Withhorsesofthedeep.Aperilouswayisthis
Ofboundlesswaves,andtherearestormyseas
Onwhichwetosshereinthis(reeling)world
O'erthedeeppaths.Ourswasasorryplight
Untilatlastwesaileduntotheland,
Overthetroubledmain.Helpcametous
Thatbroughtustothehavenofsalvation,
God'sSpiritSon,andgrantedgracetous
Thatwemightknowe'enfromthevessel'sdeck
Wherewemustbindwithanchoragesecure
Ouroceansteeds,oldstallionsofthewaves.
Inthetwoepicpoemsof_Andreas_and_Elene_Cynewulf(ifhebethe
author)reachestheverysummitofhispoeticalart._Andreas_,anunsigned
poem,recordsthestoryofSt.Andrew,whocrossestheseatorescuehis
comradeSt.Matthewfromthecannibals.Ayoungshipmasterwhosailsthe
boatturnsouttobeChristindisguise,Matthewissetfree,andthe
savagesareconvertedbyamiracle.[34]Itisaspiritedpoem,fullofrush
andincident,andthedescriptionsoftheseaarethebestinAngloSaxon
poetry.
_Elene_hasforitssubjectmatterthefindingofthetruecross.Ittells
ofConstantine'svisionoftheRood,ontheeveofbattle.Afterhis
victoryunderthenewemblemhesendshismotherHelena(Elene)to
Jerusaleminsearchoftheoriginalcrossandthenails.Thepoem,whichis
ofveryunevenquality,mightproperlybeputattheendofCynewulf's

works.Headdstothepoemapersonalnote,signinghisnameinrunes;and,
ifweacceptthewonderful"VisionoftheRood"asCynewulf'swork,we
learnhowhefoundthecrossatlastinhisownheart.Thereisa
suggestionhereofthefutureSirLaunfalandthesearchfortheHoly
Grail.
DECLINEOFNORTHUMBRIANLITERATURE.Thesamenorthernenergywhichhad
builtuplearningandliteraturesorapidlyinNorthumbriawasinstrumental
inpullingitdownagain.TowardtheendofthecenturyinwhichCynewulf
lived,theDanessweptdownontheEnglishcoastsandoverwhelmed
Northumbria.Monasteriesandschoolsweredestroyed;scholarsandteachers
alikewereputtothesword,andlibrariesthathadbeengatheredleafby
leafwiththetoilofcenturieswerescatteredtothefourwinds.Soall
trueNorthumbrianliteratureperished,withtheexceptionofafew
fragments,andthatwhichwenowpossess[35]islargelyatranslationin
thedialectoftheWestSaxons.ThistranslationwasmadebyAlfred's
scholars,afterhehaddrivenbacktheDanesinanefforttopreservethe
idealsandthecivilizationthathadbeensohardlywon.Withtheconquest
ofNorthumbriaendsthepoeticperiodofAngloSaxonliterature.With
AlfredtheGreatofWessexourproseliteraturemakesabeginning.
ALFRED(848901)
"Everycraftandeverypowersoongrows
oldandispassedoverandforgotten,ifit
bewithoutwisdom....Thisisnowtobe
said,thatwhilstIliveIwishtolivenobly,
andafterlifetoleavetothemenwhocome
aftermeamemoryofgoodworks."[36]
SowrotethegreatAlfred,lookingbackoverhisheroiclife.Thathelived
noblynonecandoubtwhoreadsthehistoryofthegreatestofAngloSaxon
kings;andhisgoodworksinclude,amongothers,theeducationofhalfa
country,thesalvageofanoblenativeliterature,andthecreationofthe
firstEnglishprose.
LIFEANDTIMESOFALFRED.ForthehistoryofAlfred'stimes,anddetailsof
theterrificstrugglewiththeNorthmen,thereadermustbereferredtothe
histories.ThestruggleendedwiththeTreatyofWedmore,in878,withthe
establishmentofAlfrednotonlyaskingofWessex,butasoverlordofthe
wholenortherncountry.Thentheherolaiddownhissword,andsethimself
asalittlechildtolearntoreadandwriteLatin,sothathemightlead
hispeopleinpeaceashehadledtheminwar.ItisthenthatAlfredbegan
tobetheheroicfigureinliteraturethathehadformerlybeeninthewars
againsttheNorthmen.
Withthesamepatienceandheroismthathadmarkedthelongstrugglefor
freedom,Alfredsethimselftothetaskofeducatinghispeople.Firsthe
gavethemlaws,beginningwiththeTenCommandmentsandendingwiththe
GoldenRule,andthenestablishedcourtswherelawscouldbefaithfully
administered.SafefromtheDanesbyland,hecreatedanavy,almostthe
firstoftheEnglishfleets,todrivethemfromthecoast.Then,withpeace
andjusticeestablishedwithinhisborders,hesenttoEuropeforscholars
andteachers,andsetthemoverschoolsthatheestablished.Hithertoall
educationhadbeeninLatin;nowhesethimselfthetask,first,of
teachingeveryfreebornEnglishmantoreadandwritehisownlanguage,and
second,oftranslatingintoEnglishthebestbooksfortheirinstruction.
Everypoorscholarwashonoredathiscourtandwasspeedilysettoworkat
teachingortranslating;everywandererbringingabookoraleafof
manuscriptfromthepillagedmonasteriesofNorthumbriawassureofhis
reward.InthiswaythefewfragmentsofnativeNorthumbrianliterature,
whichwehavebeenstudying,weresavedtotheworld.Alfredandhis
scholarstreasuredtherarefragmentsandcopiedthemintheWestSaxon
dialect.WiththeexceptionofCdmon'sHymn,wehavehardlyasingleleaf

fromthegreatliteratureofNorthumbriainthedialectinwhichitwas
firstwritten.
WORKSOFALFRED.Asidefromhiseducationalwork,Alfredisknownchiefly
asatranslator.Afterfightinghiscountry'sbattles,andatatimewhen
mostmenwerecontentwithmilitaryhonor,hebegantolearnLatin,thathe
mighttranslatetheworksthatwouldbemosthelpfultohispeople.His
importanttranslationsarefourinnumber:Orosius's_UniversalHistoryand
Geography_,theleadingworkingeneralhistoryforseveralcenturies;
Bede's_History_,[37]thefirstgreathistoricalworkwrittenonEnglish
soil;PopeGregory's_Shepherds'Book_,intendedespeciallyfortheclergy;
andBoethius's_ConsolationsofPhilosophy_,thefavoritephilosophical
workoftheMiddleAges.
Moreimportantthananytranslationisthe_English_or_SaxonChronicle_.
Thiswasprobablyatfirstadryrecord,especiallyofimportantbirthsand
deathsintheWestSaxonkingdom.Alfredenlargedthisscantrecord,
beginningthestorywithCsar'sconquest.Whenittoucheshisownreign
thedrychroniclebecomesaninterestingandconnectedstory,theoldest
historybelongingtoanymodernnationinitsownlanguage.Therecordof
Alfred'sreign,probablybyhimself,isasplendidbitofwritingandshows
clearlyhisclaimtoaplaceinliteratureaswellasinhistory.The
_Chronicle_wascontinuedafterAlfred'sdeath,andisthebestmonumentof
earlyEnglishprosethatislefttous.Hereandtherestirringsongsare
includedinthenarrative,like"TheBattleofBrunanburh"and"TheBattle
ofMaldon."[38]Thelast,entered991,seventyfiveyearsbeforetheNorman
Conquest,istheswansongofAngloSaxonpoetry.The_Chronicle_was
continuedforacenturyaftertheNormanConquest,andisextremely
valuablenotonlyasarecordofeventsbutasaliterarymonumentshowing
thedevelopmentofourlanguage.
CLOSEOFTHEANGLOSAXONPERIOD.AfterAlfred'sdeaththereislittleto
record,exceptthelossofthetwosupremeobjectsofhisheroicstruggle,
namely,anationallifeandanationalliterature.Itwasatoncethe
strengthandtheweaknessoftheSaxonthathelivedapartasafreeman
andneverjoinedeffortswillinglywithanylargebodyofhisfellows.The
tribewashislargestideaofnationality,and,withallouradmiration,we
mustconfessaswefirstmeethimthathehasnotenoughsenseofunityto
makeagreatnation,norenoughculturetoproduceagreatliterature.A
fewnoblepoliticalidealsrepeatedinascoreofpettykingdoms,andafew
literaryidealscopiedbutneverincreased,thatisthesummaryofhis
literaryhistory.ForafullcenturyafterAlfredliteraturewas
practicallyatastandstill,havingproducedthebestofwhichitwas
capable,andEnglandwaitedforthenationalimpulseandfortheculture
necessaryforanewandgreaterart.Bothofthesecamespeedily,bywayof
thesea,intheNormanConquest.
SUMMARYOFANGLOSAXONPERIOD.Ourliteraturebeginswithsongsandstories
ofatimewhenourTeutonicancestorswerelivingonthebordersofthe
NorthSea.Threetribesoftheseancestors,theJutes,Angles,andSaxons,
conqueredBritaininthelatterhalfofthefifthcentury,andlaidthe
foundationoftheEnglishnation.Thefirstlandingwasprobablybyatribe
ofJutes,underchiefscalledbythechronicleHengistandHorsa.Thedate
isdoubtful;buttheyear449isacceptedbymosthistorians.
Theseoldancestorswerehardywarriorsandsearovers,yetwerecapableof
profoundandnobleemotions.Theirpoetryreflectsthisdoublenature.Its
subjectswerechieflytheseaandtheplungingboats,battles,adventure,
bravedeeds,thegloryofwarriors,andtheloveofhome.Accent,
alliteration,andanabruptbreakinthemiddleofeachlinegavetheir
poetryakindofmartialrhythm.Ingeneralthepoetryisearnestand
somber,andpervadedbyfatalismandreligiousfeeling.Acarefulreading
ofthefewremainingfragmentsofAngloSaxonliteraturerevealsfive
strikingcharacteristics:theloveoffreedom;responsivenesstonature,
especiallyinhersternermoods;strongreligiousconvictions,andabelief

inWyrd,orFate;reverenceforwomanhood;andadevotiontogloryasthe
rulingmotiveineverywarrior'slife.
Inourstudywehavenoted:(1)thegreatepicorheroicpoem_Beowulf_,
andafewfragmentsofourfirstpoetry,suchas"Widsith,""Deor's
Lament,"and"TheSeafarer."(2)CharacteristicsofAngloSaxonlife;the
formofourfirstspeech.(3)TheNorthumbrianschoolofwriters.Bede,our
firsthistorian,belongstothisschool;butallhisextantworksarein
Latin.ThetwogreatpoetsareCdmonandCynewulf.Northumbrianliterature
flourishedbetween650and850.Intheyear867Northumbriawasconquered
bytheDanes,whodestroyedthemonasteriesandthelibrariescontaining
ourearliestliterature.(4)ThebeginningsofEnglishprosewritingunder
Alfred(848901).Ourmostimportantproseworkofthisageisthe
AngloSaxonChronicle,whichwasrevisedandenlargedbyAlfred,andwhich
wascontinuedformorethantwocenturies.Itistheoldesthistorical
recordknowntoanyEuropeannationinitsowntongue.
SELECTIONSFORREADING._MiscellaneousPoetry_.TheSeafarer,LoveLetter
(Husband'sMessage),BattleofBrunanburh,Deor'sLament,Riddles,Exodus,
TheChrist,Andreas,DreamoftheRood,extractsinCookandTinker's
TranslationsfromOldEnglishPoetry[39](GinnandCompany);Judith,
translationbyA.S.Cook.GoodselectionsarefoundalsoinBrooke's
HistoryofEarlyEnglishLiterature,andMorley'sEnglishWriters,vols.1
and2.
_Beowulf_.J.R.C.Hall'sprosetranslation;Child'sBeowulf(Riverside
LiteratureSeries);MorrisandWyatt'sTheTaleofBeowulf;Earle'sThe
DeedsofBeowulf;MetricalversionsbyGarnett,J.L.Hall,Lumsden,etc.
_Prose_.AfewparagraphsoftheAngloSaxonChronicleinManly'sEnglish
Prose;translationsinCookandTinker'sOldEnglishProse.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[40]
_HISTORY_.ForthefactsoftheAngloSaxonconquestofEnglandconsult
firstagoodtextbook:Montgomery,pp.3157,orCheyney,pp.3684.For
fullertreatmentseeGreen,ch.1;Traill,vol.1;Ramsey'sFoundationsof
England;Turner'sHistoryoftheAngloSaxons;Freeman'sOldEnglish
History;Allen'sAngloSaxonEngland;Cook'sLifeofAlfred;Asser'sLife
ofKingAlfred,editedbyW.H.Stevenson;C.Plummer'sLifeandTimesof
AlfredtheGreat;E.Dale'sNationalLifeandCharacterintheMirrorof
EarlyEnglishLiterature;Rhys'sCelticBritain.
_LITERATURE.AngloSaxonTexts_.LibraryofAngloSaxonPoetry,andAlbion
SeriesofAngloSaxonandMiddleEnglishPoetry(GinnandCompany);Belles
LettresSeriesofEnglishClassics,sec.1(Heath&Co.);J.W.Bright's
AngloSaxonReader;Sweet'sAngloSaxonPrimer,andAngloSaxonReader.
_GeneralWorks_.Jusserand,TenBrink,CambridgeHistory,Morley(full
titlesandpublishersinGeneralBibliography).
_SpecialWorks_.Brooke'sHistoryofEarlyEnglishLiterature;Earle's
AngloSaxonLiterature;Lewis'sBeginningsofEnglishLiterature;Arnold's
CelticLiterature(forrelationsofSaxonandCelt);Longfellow'sPoetsand
PoetryofEurope;Hall'sOldEnglishIdyls;Gayley'sClassicMyths,or
Guerber'sMythsoftheNorthlands(forNorseMythology);BrotherAzarias's
DevelopmentofOldEnglishThought.
Beowulf,prosetranslationsbyTinker,Hall,Earle,MorrisandWyatt;
metricalversionsbyGarnett,J.L.Hall,Lumsden,etc.TheExeterBook(a
collectionofAngloSaxontexts),editedandtranslatedbyGollancz.The
ChristofCynewulf,prosetranslationbyWhitman;thesamepoem,textand
translation,byGollancz;textbyCook.Cdmon'sParaphrase,textand
translation,byThorpe.Garnett'sElene,Judith,andotherAngloSaxon
Poems.TranslationsofAndreasandthePhoenix,inGollancz'sExeterBook.

Bede'sHistory,inTempleClassics;thesamewiththeAngloSaxonChronicle
(onevolume)inBohn'sAntiquarianLibrary.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.[41]
1.Whatistherelationofhistoryandliterature?Whyshouldbothsubjects
bestudiedtogether?Explainthequalitiesthatcharacterizeallgreat
literature.Hasanytextbookinhistoryeverappealedtoyouasaworkof
literature?Whatliteraryqualitieshaveyounoticedinstandardhistorical
works,suchasthoseofMacaulay,Prescott,Gibbon,Green,Motley,Parkman,
andJohnFiske?
2.WhydidtheAngloSaxonscometoEngland?Whatinducedthemtoremain?
Didanychangeoccurintheirideals,orintheirmanneroflife?Doyou
knowanysocialorpoliticalinstitutionswhichtheybrought,andwhich,we
stillcherish?
3.Fromtheliteratureyouhaveread,whatdoyouknowaboutourAnglo
Saxonancestors?Whatvirtuesdidtheyadmireinmen?Howwaswoman
regarded?CanyoucomparetheAngloSaxonidealofwomanwiththatofother
nations,theRomansforinstance?
4.TellinyourownwordsthegeneralqualitiesofAngloSaxonpoetry.How
diditdifferinitsmetricalformfrommodernpoetry?Whatpassagesseem
toyouworthlearningandremembering?Canyouexplainwhypoetryismore
abundantandmoreinterestingthanproseintheearliestliteratureofall
nations?
5.Tellthestoryof_Beowulf_.Whatappealstoyoumostinthepoem?Why
isitaworkforalltime,or,astheAngloSaxonswouldsay,whyisit
worthytoberemembered?Notethepermanentqualityofliterature,andthe
idealsandemotionswhichareemphasizedin_Beowulf_.Describetheburials
ofScyldandofBeowulf.Doesthepoemteachanymorallesson?Explainthe
Christianelementsinthispaganepic.
6.Namesomeotherofourearliestpoems,anddescribetheoneyoulike
best.Howdoestheseafigureinourfirstpoetry?Howisnatureregarded?
Whatpoemrevealsthelifeofthescoporpoet?Howdoyouaccountforthe
seriouscharacterofAngloSaxonpoetry?ComparetheSaxonandtheCelt
withregardtothegladsomenessoflifeasshownintheirliterature.
7.Whatusefulpurposedidpoetryserveamongourancestors?Whatpurpose
didtheharpserveinrecitingtheirpoems?Wouldtheharpaddanythingto
ourmodernpoetry?
8.WhatismeantbyNorthumbrianliterature?WhoarethegreatNorthumbrian
writers?WhatbesidestheDanishconquestcausedthedeclineof
Northumbrianliterature?
9.ForwhatisBedeworthytoberemembered?TellthestoryofCdmon,as
recordedinBede'sHistory.WhatnewelementisintroducedinCdmon's
poems?WhateffectdidChristianityhaveuponAngloSaxonliterature?Can
youquoteanypassagesfromCdmontoshowthatAngloSaxoncharacterwas
notchangedbutgivenanewdirection?IfyouhavereadMilton's_Paradise
Lost_,whatresemblancesaretherebetweenthatpoemandCdmon's
_Paraphrase?_
10.WhataretheCynewulfpoems?Describeanythatyouhaveread.Howdo
theycompareinspiritandinexpressionwith_Beowulf_?withCdmon?Read
_ThePhoenix_(whichisatranslationfromtheLatin)inBrooke'sHistory
ofEarlyEnglishLiterature,orinGollancz'sExeterBook,orinCook's
TranslationsfromOldEnglishPoetry,andtellwhatelementsyoufindto
showthatthepoemisnotofAngloSaxonorigin.Comparetheviewsof
natureinBeowulfandintheCynewulfpoems.

11.DescribetheAngloSaxonChronicle.Whatisitsvalueinourlanguage,
literature,andhistory?GiveanaccountofAlfred'slifeandofhiswork
forliterature.HowdoesAngloSaxonprosecompareininterestwiththe
poetry?
CHRONOLOGY
=====================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

|
449(?).LandingofHengistand|
HorsainBritain|
|
477.LandingofSouthSaxons|
|
547.AnglessettleNorthumbria|547.Gildas'sHistory
|
597.LandingofAugustineandhis|
monks.ConversionofKent|
|
617.Eadwine,kingofNorthumbria|
|
635665.ComingofSt.Aidan.|
ConversionofNorthumbria|664.CdmonatWhitby
|
|673735.Bede
|
|750(_cir_.).Cynewulf
|poems
867.DanesconquerNorthumbria|
|
871.Alfred,kingofWessex|860.AngloSaxonChroniclebegun
|
878.DefeatofDanes.Peaceof|
Wedmore|
|
901.DeathofAlfred|991.Lastknownpoemofthe
|AngloSaxon
|period,TheBattleof
|Maldon,otherwisecalled
|Byrhtnoth'sDeath
10131042.Danishperiod|
|
1016.Cnut,king|
|
1042.EdwardtheConfessor.Saxon|
periodrestored|
|
1049.WestminsterAbbeybegun|
|
1066.Harold,lastofSaxonkings.|
NormanConquest|
=====================================================================
*****

CHAPTERIII
THEANGLONORMANPERIOD(10661350)
I.HISTORICALINTRODUCTION

THENORMANS.ThenameNorman,whichisasoftenedformofNorthman,tells
itsownstory.Themenwhoborethenamecameoriginallyfrom
Scandinavia,bandsofbig,blond,fearlessmencruisingafterplunderand
adventureintheirVikingships,andbringingterrorwhereverthey
appeared.Itwasthesesame"ChildrenofWoden"who,undertheDanes'raven
flag,hadblottedoutNorthumbriancivilizationintheninthcentury.Later
thesameraceofmencameplunderingalongtheFrenchcoastandconquered
thewholenortherncountry;butheretheresultswerealtogetherdifferent.
Insteadofblottingoutasuperiorcivilization,astheDaneshaddone,
theypromptlyabandonedtheirown.TheirnameofNormandystillclingsto
thenewhome;butallelsethatwasNorsedisappearedastheconquerors
intermarriedwiththenativeFranksandacceptedFrenchidealsandspoke
theFrenchlanguage.SorapidlydidtheyadoptandimprovetheRoman
civilizationofthenativesthat,fromarudetribeofheathenVikings,
theyhaddevelopedwithinasinglecenturyintothemostpolishedand
intellectualpeopleinallEurope.TheunionofNorseandFrench(i.e.
RomanGallic)bloodhadhereproducedaracehavingthebestqualitiesof
both,thewillpowerandenergyoftheone,theeagercuriosityandvivid
imaginationoftheother.WhentheseNormanFrenchpeopleappearedin
AngloSaxonEnglandtheybroughtwiththemthreenoteworthythings:a
livelyCelticdisposition,avigorousandprogressiveLatincivilization,
andaRomancelanguage.[42]Wearetothinkoftheconquerors,therefore,
astheythoughtandspokeofthemselvesintheDomesdayBookandalltheir
contemporaryliterature,notasNormansbutas_Franci_,thatis,
Frenchmen.
THECONQUEST.AtthebattleofHastings(1066)thepowerofHarold,lastof
theSaxonkings,wasbroken,andWilliam,dukeofNormandy,becamemaster
ofEngland.OfthecompletionofthatstupendousConquestwhichbeganat
Hastings,andwhichchangedthecivilizationofawholenation,thisisnot
theplacetospeak.WesimplypointoutthreegreatresultsoftheConquest
whichhaveadirectbearingonourliterature.First,notwithstanding
Csar'slegionsandAugustine'smonks,theNormanswerethefirsttobring
thecultureandthepracticalidealsofRomancivilizationhometothe
Englishpeople;andthisatacriticaltime,whenEnglandhadproducedher
best,andherownliteratureandcivilizationhadalreadybeguntodecay.
Second,theyforceduponEnglandthenationalidea,thatis,astrong,
centralizedgovernmenttoreplacethelooseauthorityofaSaxonchiefover
histribesmen.Andtheworld'shistoryshowsthatwithoutagreat
nationalityagreatliteratureisimpossible.Third,theybroughtto
Englandthewealthofanewlanguageandliterature,andourEnglish
graduallyabsorbedboth.ForthreecenturiesafterHastingsFrenchwasthe
languageoftheupperclasses,ofcourtsandschoolsandliterature;yetso
tenaciouslydidthecommonpeopleclingtotheirownstrongspeechthatin
theendEnglishabsorbedalmostthewholebodyofFrenchwordsandbecame
thelanguageoftheland.ItwastheweldingofSaxonandFrenchintoone
speechthatproducedthewealthofourmodernEnglish.
Naturallysuchmomentouschangesinanationwerenotbroughtabout
suddenly.AtfirstNormansandSaxonslivedapartintherelationof
mastersandservants,withmoreorlesscontemptononesideandhatredon
theother;butinanastonishinglyshorttimethesetworacesweredrawn
powerfullytogether,liketwomenofdifferentdispositionswhoareoften
ledintoasteadfastfriendshipbytheattractionofoppositequalities,
eachsupplyingwhattheotherlacks.The_AngloSaxonChronicle_,whichwas
continuedforacenturyafterHastings,findsmuchtopraiseinthe
conquerors;ontheotherhandtheNormans,evenbeforetheConquest,hadno
greatlovefortheFrenchnation.AfterconqueringEnglandtheybeganto
regarditashomeandspeedilydevelopedanewsenseofnationality.
Geoffrey'spopular_History_,[43]writtenlessthanacenturyafterthe
Conquest,madeconquerorsandconqueredalikeproudoftheircountrybyits
storiesofheroeswho,curiouslyenough,wereneitherNormannorSaxon,but
creationsofthenativeCelts.Thusdoesliterature,whetherinabattle
songorahistory,oftenplaythechiefroleinthedevelopmentof

nationality.[44]Oncethemutualdistrustwasovercomethetworaces
graduallyunited,andoutofthisunionofSaxonsandNormanscamethenew
Englishlifeandliterature.
LITERARYIDEALSOFTHENORMANS.Thechangeinthelifeoftheconquerors
fromNorsementoNormans,fromVikingstoFrenchmen,isshownmostclearly
intheliteraturewhichtheybroughtwiththemtoEngland.TheoldNorse
strengthandgrandeur,themagnificentsagastellingofthetragic
strugglesofmenandgods,whichstillstirusprofoundly,thesehaveall
disappeared.Intheirplaceisabright,varied,talkativeliterature,
whichrunstoendlessverses,andwhichmakesawonderfulromanceoutof
everysubjectittouches.Thethememaybereligionorloveorchivalryor
history,thedeedsofAlexanderorthemisdeedsofamonk;buttheauthor's
purposenevervaries.Hemusttellaromanticstoryandamusehisaudience;
andthemorewondersandimpossibilitiesherelates,themoresurelyishe
believed.Wearereminded,inreading,ofthenativeGauls,whowouldstop
everytravelerandcompelhimtotellastoryerehepassedon.Therewas
moreoftheGaulthanoftheNorsemanintheconquerors,andfarmoreof
fancythanofthoughtorfeelingintheirliterature.Ifyouwouldseethis
inconcreteform,readthe_ChansondeRoland_,theFrenchnationalepic
(whichtheNormansfirstputintoliteraryform),incontrastwith
_Beowulf_,whichvoicestheSaxon'sthoughtandfeelingbeforetheprofound
mysteryofhumanlife.Itisnotourpurposetodiscusstheevidentmerits
ortheseriousdefectsofNormanFrenchliterature,butonlytopointout
twofactswhichimpressthestudent,namely,thatAngloSaxonliterature
wasatonetimeenormouslysuperiortotheFrench,andthatthelatter,
withitsevidentinferiority,absolutelyreplacedtheformer."Thefactis
toooftenignored,"saysProfessorSchofield,[45]"thatbefore1066the
AngloSaxonshadabodyofnativeliteraturedistinctlysuperiortoany
whichtheNormansorFrenchcouldboastatthattime;theirprose
especiallywasunparalleledforextentandpowerinanyEuropean
vernacular."Why,then,doesthissuperiorliteraturedisappearandfor
nearlythreecenturiesFrenchremainsupreme,somuchsothatwriterson
Englishsoil,evenwhentheydonotusetheFrenchlanguage,still
slavishlycopytheFrenchmodels?
Tounderstandthiscuriousphenomenonitisnecessaryonlytorememberthe
relativeconditionsofthetworaceswholivedsidebysideinEngland.On
theonehandtheAngloSaxonswereaconqueredpeople,andwithoutliberty
agreatliteratureisimpossible.TheinroadsoftheDanesandtheirown
tribalwarshadalreadydestroyedmuchoftheirwritings,andintheirnew
conditionofservitudetheycouldhardlypreservewhatremained.The
conqueringNormans,ontheotherhand,representedthecivilizationof
France,whichcountry,duringtheearlyMiddleAges,wastheliteraryand
educationalcenterofallEurope.TheycametoEnglandatatimewhenthe
ideaofnationalitywasdead,whenculturehadalmostvanished,when
Englishmenlivedapartinnarrowisolation;andtheybroughtwiththemlaw,
culture,theprestigeofsuccess,andaboveallthestrongimpulsetoshare
inthegreatworld'sworkandtojoininthemovingcurrentsoftheworld's
history.Smallwonder,then,thattheyoungAngloSaxonsfeltthe
quickeningofthisnewlifeandturnednaturallytotheculturedand
progressiveNormansastheirliterarymodels.
II.LITERATUREOFTHENORMANPERIOD
IntheAdvocates'LibraryatEdinburghthereisabeautifullyilluminated
manuscript,writtenabout1330,whichgivesusanexcellentpictureofthe
literatureoftheNormanperiod.Inexaminingitwearetorememberthat
literaturewasinthehandsoftheclergyandnobles;thatthecommon
peoplecouldnotread,andhadonlyafewsongsandballadsfortheir
literaryportion.Wearetorememberalsothatparchmentswerescarceand
veryexpensive,andthatasinglemanuscriptoftencontainedallthe
readingmatterofacastleoravillage.Hencethisoldmanuscriptisas
suggestiveasamodernlibrary.Itcontainsoverfortydistinctworks,the

greatbulkofthembeingromances.Therearemetricalorverseromancesof
FrenchandCelticandEnglishheroes,likeRoland,ArthurandTristram,and
BevisofHampton.TherearestoriesofAlexander,theGreekromanceof
"FloresandBlanchefleur,"andacollectionofOrientaltalescalled"The
SevenWiseMasters."TherearelegendsoftheVirginandthesaints,a
paraphraseofScripture,atreatiseonthesevendeadlysins,someBible
history,adisputeamongbirdsconcerningwomen,alovesongortwo,a
visionofPurgatory,avulgarstorywithaGallicflavor,achronicleof
EnglishkingsandNormanbarons,andapoliticalsatire.Thereareafew
otherworks,similarlyincongruous,crowdedtogetherinthistypical
manuscript,whichnowgivesmutetestimonytotheliterarytasteofthe
times.
Obviouslyitisimpossibletoclassifysuchavariety.Wenotesimplythat
itismedivalinspirit,andFrenchinstyleandexpression;andthatsums
uptheage.Allthescholarlyworksoftheperiod,likeWilliamof
Malmesbury's_History_,andAnselm's[46]_CurDeusHomo_,andRogerBacon's
_OpusMajus_,thebeginningofmodernexperimentalscience,werewrittenin
Latin;whilenearlyallotherworkswerewritteninFrench,orelsewere
EnglishcopiesortranslationsofFrenchoriginals.Exceptfortheadvanced
student,therefore,theyhardlybelongtothestoryofEnglishliterature.
Weshallnotehereonlyoneortwomarkedliterarytypes,liketheRiming
Chronicle(orversehistory)andtheMetricalRomance,andafewwriters
whoseworkhasespecialsignificance.
GEOFFREYOFMONMOUTH.(d.1154).Geoffrey's_HistoriaRegumBritanniae_is
noteworthy,notasliterature,butratherasasourcebookfromwhichmany
laterwritersdrewtheirliterarymaterials.AmongthenativeCeltictribes
animmensenumberoflegends,manyofthemofexquisitebeauty,hadbeen
preservedthroughfoursuccessiveconquestsofBritain.Geoffrey,aWelsh
monk,collectedsomeoftheselegendsand,aidedchieflybyhis
imagination,wroteacompletehistoryoftheBritons.Hisallegedauthority
wasanancientmanuscriptinthenativeWelshtonguecontainingthelives
anddeedsofalltheirkings,fromBrutus,theallegedfounderofBritain,
downtothecomingofJuliusCsar.[47]FromthisGeoffreywrotehis
history,downtothedeathofCadwaladerin689.
The"History"isacuriousmedleyofpaganandChristianlegends,of
chronicle,comment,andpureinvention,allrecordedinminutedetailand
withagravitywhichmakesitclearthatGeoffreyhadnoconscience,or
elsewasagreatjoker.Ashistorythewholethingisrubbish;butitwas
extraordinarilysuccessfulatthetimeandmadeallwhoheardit,whether
NormansorSaxons,proudoftheirowncountry.Itisinterestingtous
becauseitgaveanewdirectiontotheliteratureofEnglandbyshowingthe
wealthofpoetryandromancethatlayinitsowntraditionsofArthurand
hisknights.Shakespeare's_KingLear_,Malory's_Morted'Arthur_,and
Tennyson's_IdyllsoftheKing_werefoundedontheworkofthismonk,who
hadthegeniustoputunwrittenCeltictraditionintheenduringformof
Latinprose.
WORKOFTHEFRENCHWRITERS.TheFrenchliteratureoftheNormanperiodis
interestingchieflybecauseoftheaviditywithwhichforeignwriters
seizeduponthenativelegendsandmadethempopularinEngland.Until
Geoffrey'spreposterouschronicleappeared,theselegendshadnotbeenused
toanyextentasliterarymaterial.Indeed,theywerescarcelyknownin
England,thoughfamiliartoFrenchandItalianminstrels.LegendsofArthur
andhiscourtwereprobablyfirsttakentoBrittanybyWelshemigrantsin
thefifthandsixthcenturies.Theybecameimmenselypopularwhereverthey
weretold,andtheywereslowlycarriedbyminstrelsandstorytellersall
overEurope.Thattheyhadneverreceivedliteraryformorrecognitionwas
duetoapeculiarityofmedivalliterature,whichrequiredthateverytale
shouldhavesomeancientauthoritybehindit.Geoffreymetthisdemandby
creatinganhistoricalmanuscriptofWelshhistory.Thatwasenoughforthe
age.WithGeoffreyandhisallegedmanuscripttorestupon,theNorman
Frenchwriterswerefreetousethefascinatingstorieswhichhadbeenfor

centuriesinthepossessionoftheirwanderingminstrels.Geoffrey'sLatin
historywasputintoFrenchversebyGaimar_(c_.1150)andbyWace(_c_.
1155),andfromtheseFrenchversionstheworkwasfirsttranslatedinto
English.Fromabout1200onwardArthurandGuinevereandthematchlessband
ofCelticheroesthatwemeetlater(1470)inMalory's_Morted'Arthur_
becamethepermanentpossessionofourliterature.
LAYAMON'SBRUT(_c_.1200).ThisisthemostimportantoftheEnglish
rimingchronicles,thatis,historyrelatedintheformofdoggerelverse,
probablybecausepoetryismoreeasilymemorizedthanprose.Wegiveherea
freerenderingofselectedlinesatthebeginningofthepoem,whichtell
usallweknowofLayamon,thefirstwhoeverwroteasanEnglishmanfor
Englishmen,includinginthetermallwholovedEnglandandcalledithome,
nomatterwheretheirancestorswereborn.
NowtherewasapriestinthelandnamedLayamon.HewassonofLeovenath
mayGodbegraciousuntohim.HedweltatErnley,atanoblechurchon
Severn'sbank.Hereadmanybooks,anditcametohismindtotellthe
nobledeedsoftheEnglish.Thenhebegantojourneyfarandwideoverthe
landtoprocurenoblebooksforauthority.HetooktheEnglishbookthat
SaintBedemade,anotherinLatinthatSaintAlbinmade,[48]andathird
bookthataFrenchclerkmade,namedWace.[49]Layamonlaidtheseworks
beforehimandturnedtheleaves;lovinglyhebeheldthem.Penhetook,and
wroteonbookskin,andmadethethreebooksintoone.
ThepoembeginswiththedestructionofTroyandtheflightof"neasthe
duke"intoItaly.Brutus,agreatgrandsonofneas,gathershispeopleand
setsouttofindanewlandintheWest.Thenfollowsthefoundingofthe
Britonkingdom,andthelastthirdofthepoem,whichisoverthirty
thousandlinesinlength,istakenupwiththehistoryofArthurandhis
knights.Ifthe_Brut_hadnomeritsofitsown,itwouldstillinterest
us,foritmarksthefirstappearanceoftheArthurianlegendsinourown
tongue.AsingleselectionisgivenherefromArthur'sdyingspeech,
familiartousinTennyson's_Morted'Arthur_.Thereaderwillnoticehere
twothings:first,thatthoughthepoemisalmostpureAngloSaxon,[50]our
firstspeechhasalreadydroppedmanyinflectionsandismoreeasilyread
than_Beowulf_;second,thatFrenchinfluenceisalreadyatworkin
Layamon'srimesandassonances,thatis,theharmonyresultingfromusing
thesamevowelsoundinseveralsuccessivelines:
AndichwullevarentoAvalun:AndIwillfaretoAvalun,
Tovairestalremaidene,Tofairestofallmaidens,
ToArgantetherequene,ToArgantethequeen,
Alvenswithesceone.Anelfverybeautiful.
AndheosealminewundenAndsheshallmywounds
Makienalleisunde,Makeallsound;
AlhalmemakienAllwholememake
Midhaleweiyedrenchen.Withhealingdrinks.
AndseotheichcumenwulleAndagainwillIcome
TominekiuericheTomykingdom
AndwunienmidBruttenAnddwellwithBritons
Midmuchelerewunne.Withmicklejoy.
AefnethanwordenEven(with)thesewords
ThercomofsewendenTherecamefromthesea
Thatwesansceortbatlithen,Ashortlittleboatgliding,
Sceovenmiduthen,Shovedbythewaves;
Andtwawimmentherinne,Andtwowomentherein,
Wunderlicheidihte.Wondrouslyattired.
AndheonomenArthurananAndtheytookArthuranon
AndaneovstehineveredenAndborehimhurriedly,
Andsoftehineadunleiden,Andsoftlylaidhimdown,
Andforthgunnenlithen.Andforthganglide.
METRICALROMANCES.Love,chivalry,andreligion,allpervadedbythespirit
ofromance,thesearethethreegreatliteraryidealswhichfind

expressioninthemetricalromances.Readtheseromancesnow,withtheir
knightsandfairladies,theirperilousadventuresandtenderlovemaking,
theirminstrelsyandtournamentsandgorgeouscavalcades,asifhumanity
wereonparade,andlifeitselfwereonetumultuousholidayintheopen
air,andyouhaveanepitomeofthewholechildish,creduloussoulofthe
MiddleAges.TheNormansfirstbroughtthistypeofromanceintoEngland,
andsopopulardiditbecome,sothoroughlydiditexpresstheromantic
spiritofthetime,thatitspeedilyovershadowedallotherformsof
literaryexpression.
Thoughthemetricalromancesvariedmuchinformandsubjectmatter,the
generaltyperemainsthesame,alongramblingpoemorseriesofpoems
treatingofloveorknightlyadventureorboth.Itsheroisaknight;its
charactersarefairladiesindistress,warriorsinarmor,giants,dragons,
enchanters,andvariousenemiesofChurchandState;anditsemphasisis
almostinvariablyonlove,religion,anddutyasdefinedbychivalry.In
theFrenchoriginalsoftheseromancesthelineswereadefinitelength,
themeterexact,andrimesandassonanceswerebothusedtogivemelody.In
Englandthismetricalsystemcameincontactwiththeunevenlines,the
strongaccentandalliterationofthenativesongs;anditisduetothe
gradualunionofthetwosystems,FrenchandSaxon,thatourEnglishbecame
capableofthemelodyandamazingvarietyofverseformswhichfirstfind
expressioninChaucer'spoetry.
Intheenormousnumberoftheseverseromanceswenotethreemain
divisions,accordingtosubject,intotheromances(orthesocalled
matter)ofFrance,Rome,andBritain.[51]ThematterofFrancedeals
largelywiththeexploitsofCharlemagneandhispeers,andthechiefof
theseCarlovingiancyclesisthe_ChansondeRoland_,thenationalepic,
whichcelebratestheheroismofRolandinhislastfightagainstthe
SaracensatRonceval.Originallytheseromanceswerecalled_Chansonsde
Geste_;andthenameissignificantasindicatingthatthepoemswere
originallyshortsongs[52]celebratingthedeeds_(gesta)_ofwellknown
heroes.Laterthevarioussongsconcerningoneheroweregatheredtogether
andthe_Geste_becameanepic,likethe_ChansondeRoland_,orakindof
continuedballadstory,hardlydeservingthenameofepic,likethe_Geste
ofRobinHood_.[53]
ThematterofRomeconsistedlargelyoftalesfromGreekandRomansources;
andthetwogreatcyclesoftheseromancesdealwiththedeedsof
Alexander,afavoritehero,andthesiegeofTroy,withwhichtheBritons
thoughttheyhadsomehistoricconnection.Tothesewereaddedalarge
numberoftalesfromOrientalsources;andintheexuberantimaginationof
thelatterweseetheinfluencewhichtheSaracensthosenimblewitswho
gaveusourfirstmodernsciencesandwhostillreveledinthe_Arabian
Nights_hadbeguntoexerciseontheliteratureofEurope.
TotheEnglishreader,atleast,themostinterestingoftheromancesare
thosewhichdealwiththeexploitsofArthurandhisKnightsoftheRound
Table,thericheststorehouseofromancewhichourliteraturehasever
found.ThereweremanycyclesofArthurianromances,chiefofwhichare
thoseofGawain,Launcelot,Merlin,theQuestoftheHolyGrail,andthe
DeathofArthur.Inprecedingsectionswehaveseenhowthesefascinating
romanceswereusedbyGeoffreyandtheFrenchwriters,andhow,throughthe
French,theyfoundtheirwayintoEnglish,appearingfirstinourspeechin
Layamon's_Brut_.Thepointtorememberisthat,whilethelegendsare
Celticinorigin,theirliteraryformisduetoFrenchpoets,who
originatedthemetricalromance.AllourearlyEnglishromancesareeither
copiesortranslationsoftheFrench;andthisistruenotonlyofthe
matterofFranceandRome,butofCelticheroeslikeArthur,andEnglish
heroeslikeGuyofWarwickandRobinHood.
ThemostinterestingofallArthurianromancesarethoseoftheGawain
cycle,[54]andofthesethestoryof_SirGawainandtheGreenKnight_is
bestworthreading,formanyreasons.First,thoughthematerialistaken

fromFrenchsources,[55]theEnglishworkmanshipisthefinestofourearly
romances.Second,theunknownauthorofthisromanceprobablywrotealso
"ThePearl,"andisthegreatestEnglishpoetoftheNormanperiod.Third,
thepoemitselfwithitsdramaticinterest,itsvividdescriptions,andits
moralpurity,isoneofthemostdelightfuloldromancesinanylanguage.
Inform_SirGawain_isaninterestingcombinationofFrenchandSaxon
elements.Itiswritteninanelaboratestanzacombiningmeterand
alliteration.Attheendofeachstanzaisarimedrefrain,calledbythe
Frencha"tailrime."Wegivehereabriefoutlineofthestory;butifthe
readerdesiresthepoemitself,heisadvisedtobeginwithamodern
version,astheoriginalisintheWestMidlanddialectandisexceedingly
difficulttofollow.
OnNewYear'sday,whileArthurandhisknightsarekeepingtheYuletide
feastatCamelot,agiganticknightingreenentersthebanquethallon
horsebackandchallengesthebravestknightpresenttoanexchangeof
blows;thatis,hewillexposehisnecktoablowofhisownbigbattleax,
ifanyknightwillagreetoabideablowinreturn.Aftersomenatural
consternationandafinespeechbyArthur,Gawainacceptsthechallenge,
takesthebattleax,andwithoneblowsendsthegiant'sheadrolling
throughthehall.TheGreenKnight,whoisevidentlyaterriblemagician,
picksuphisheadandmountshishorse.Heholdsouthisheadandthe
ghastlylipsspeak,warningGawaintobefaithfultohispromiseandto
seekthroughtheworldtillhefindstheGreenChapel.There,onnextNew
Year'sday,theGreenKnightwillmeethimandreturntheblow.
ThesecondcantoofthepoemdescribesGawain'slongjourneythroughthe
wildernessonhissteedGringolet,andhisadventureswithstormandcold,
with,wildbeastsandmonsters,asheseeksinvainfortheGreenChapel.
OnChristmaseve,inthemidstofavastforest,heoffersaprayerto
"Mary,mildestmothersodear,"andisrewardedbysightofagreatcastle.
Heentersandisroyallyentertainedbythehost,anagedhero,andbyhis
wife,whoisthemostbeautifulwomantheknighteverbeheld.Gawainlearns
thatheisatlastneartheGreenChapel,andsettlesdownforalittle
comfortafterhislongquest.
Thenextcantoshowsthelifeinthecastle,anddescribesacurious
compactbetweenthehost,whogoeshuntingdaily,andtheknight,who
remainsinthecastletoentertaintheyoungwife.Thecompactisthatat
nighteachmanshallgivetheotherwhatevergoodthingheobtainsduring
theday.Whilethehostishunting,theyoungwomantriesinvaintoinduce
Gawaintomakelovetoher,andendsbygivinghimakiss.Whenthehost
returnsandgiveshisguestthegamehehaskilledGawainreturnsthekiss.
Onthethirdday,hertemptationshavingtwicefailed,theladyoffers
Gawainaring,whichherefuses;butwhensheoffersamagicgreengirdle
thatwillpreservethewearerfromdeath,Gawain,whoremembersthegiant's
axsosoontofallonhisneck,acceptsthegirdleasa"jewelforthe
jeopardy"andpromisestheladytokeepthegiftsecret.Here,then,are
twoconflictingcompacts.Whenthehostreturnsandoffershisgame,Gawain
returnsthekissbutsaysnothingofthegreengirdle.
ThelastcantobringsourknighttotheGreenChapel,afterheis
repeatedlywarnedtoturnbackinthefaceofcertaindeath.TheChapelis
aterribleplaceinthemidstofdesolation;andasGawainapproacheshe
hearsaterrifyingsound,thegratingofsteelonstone,wherethegiantis
sharpeninganewbattleax.TheGreenKnightappears,andGawain,trueto
hiscompact,offershisneckfortheblow.Twicetheaxswingsharmlessly;
thethirdtimeitfallsonhisshoulderandwoundshim.WhereuponGawain
jumpsforhisarmor,drawshissword,andwarnsthegiantthatthecompact
callsforonlyoneblow,andthat,ifanotherisoffered,hewilldefend
himself.
ThentheGreenKnightexplainsthings.Heislordofthecastlewhere
Gawainhasbeenentertainedfordayspast.Thefirsttwoswingsoftheax

wereharmlessbecauseGawainhadbeentruetohiscompactandtwice
returnedthekiss.Thelastblowhadwoundedhimbecauseheconcealedthe
giftofthegreengirdle,whichbelongstotheGreenKnightandwaswoven
byhiswife.Moreover,thewholethinghasbeenarrangedbyMorgainthe
faywoman(anenemyofQueenGuinevere,whoappearsoftenintheArthurian
romances).Fullofshame,Gawainthrowsbackthegiftandisreadytoatone
forhisdeception;buttheGreenKnightthinkshehasalreadyatoned,and
presentsthegreengirdleasafreegift.GawainreturnstoArthur'scourt,
tellsthewholestoryfrankly,andeverafterthattheknightsoftheRound
Tablewearagreengirdleinhishonor.[56]
THEPEARL.Inthesamemanuscriptwith"SirGawain"arefoundthreeother
remarkablepoems,writtenabout1350,andknowntous,inorder,as"The
Pearl,""Cleanness,"and"Patience."Thefirstisthemostbeautiful,and
receiveditsnamefromthetranslatorandeditor,RichardMorris,in1864.
"Patience"isaparaphraseofthebookofJonah;"Cleanness"moralizeson
thebasisofBiblestories;but"ThePearl"isanintenselyhumanand
realisticpictureofafather'sgriefforhislittledaughterMargaret,"My
preciousperlewythoutenspot."Itisthesaddestofallourearlypoems.
Onthegraveofhislittleone,coveredoverwithflowers,thefatherpours
outhisloveandgrieftill,inthesummerstillness,hefallsasleep,
whilewehearinthesunshinethedrowsyhumofinsectsandthefaraway
soundofthereapers'sickles.Hedreamsthere,andthedreamgrowsintoa
visionbeautiful.Hisbodyliesstilluponthegravewhilehisspiritgoes
toaland,exquisitebeyondallwords,wherehecomessuddenlyupona
streamthathecannotcross.Ashewandersalongthebank,seekinginvain
foraford,amarvelrisesbeforehiseyes,acrystalcliff,andseated
beneathitalittlemaidenwhoraisesahappy,shiningface,thefaceof
hislittleMargaret.
Morethenmelystemydredearos,
Istodfullstylleanddorstenotcalle;
Wythyghenopenandmouthfulclos,
Istodashendeashawkinhalle.
Hedaresnotspeakforfearofbreakingthespell;butsweetasalilyshe
comesdownthecrystalstream'sbanktomeetandspeakwithhim,andtell
himofthehappylifeofheavenandhowtolivetobeworthyofit.Inhis
joyhelistens,forgettingallhisgrief;thentheheartofthemancries
outforitsown,andhestrugglestocrossthestreamtojoinher.Inthe
strugglethedreamvanishes;hewakenstofindhiseyeswetandhisheadon
thelittlemoundthatmarksthespotwherehisheartisburied.
Fromtheidealsofthesethreepoems,andfrompeculiaritiesofstyleand
meter,itisprobablethattheirauthorwrotealso_SirGawainandthe
GreenKnight_.Ifso,theunknownauthoristheonegeniusoftheagewhose
poetryofitselfhaspowertointerestus,andwhostandsbetweenCynewulf
andChaucerasaworthyfolloweroftheoneandforerunneroftheother.
MISCELLANEOUSLITERATUREOFTHENORMANPERIOD.Itiswellnighimpossible
toclassifytheremainingliteratureofthisperiod,andverylittleofit
isnowread,exceptbyadvancedstudents.Thoseinterestedinthe
developmentof"transition"Englishwillfindin_theAncrenRiwle_,i.e.
"RuleoftheAnchoresses"(_c_.1225),themostbeautifulbitofold
Englishproseeverwritten.Itisabookofexcellentreligiousadviceand
comfort,writtenforthreeladieswhowishedtoliveareligiouslife,
without,however,becomingnunsorenteringanyreligiousorders.The
authorwasBishopPooreofSalisbury,accordingtoMorton,whofirstedited
thisoldclassicin1853.Orm's_Ormulum_,writtensoonafterthe_Brut_,
isaparaphraseofthegospellessonsfortheyear,somewhatafterthe
mannerofCdmon's_Paraphrase_,butwithoutanyofCdmon'spoeticfire
andoriginality._CursorMundi_(_c_.1320)isaverylongpoemwhichmakes
akindofmetricalromanceoutofBiblehistoryandshowsthewholedealing
ofGodwithmanfromCreationtoDomesday.Itisinterestingasshowinga

paralleltothecyclesofmiracleplays,whichattempttocoverthesame
vastground.Theywereforminginthisage;butwewillstudythemlater,
whenwetrytounderstandtheriseofthedramainEngland.
Besidesthesegreaterworks,anenormousnumberoffablesandsatires
appearedinthisage,copiedortranslatedfromtheFrench,likethe
metricalromances.Themostfamousoftheseare"TheOwlandthe
Nightingale,"alongdebatebetweenthetwobirds,onerepresentingthe
gaysideoflife,theotherthesternersideoflawandmorals,and"Land
ofCockaygne,"i.e."LuxuryLand,"akeensatireonmonksandmonastic
religion.[57]
WhilemostoftheliteratureofthetimewasacopyoftheFrenchandwas
intendedonlyfortheupperclasses,hereandthereweresingerswhomade
balladsforthecommonpeople;andthese,nexttothemetricalromances,
arethemostinterestingandsignificantofalltheworksoftheNorman
period.Onaccountofitsobscureoriginanditsoraltransmission,the
balladisalwaysthemostdifficultofliterarysubjects.[58]Wemakehere
onlythreesuggestions,whichmaywellbeborneinmind:thatballadswere
producedcontinuallyinEnglandfromAngloSaxontimesuntilthe
seventeenthcentury;thatforcenturiestheyweretheonlyreallypopular
literature;andthatintheballadsaloneoneisabletounderstandthe
commonpeople.Read,forinstance,theballadsofthe"merriegreenwood
men,"whichgraduallycollectedintothe_GesteofRobinHood_,andyou
willunderstandbetter,perhaps,thanfromreadingmanyhistorieswhatthe
commonpeopleofEnglandfeltandthoughtwhiletheirlordsandmasters
werebusywithimpossiblemetricalromances.
InthesesongsspeakstheheartoftheEnglishfolk.Thereislawlessness
indeed;butthisseemsjustifiedbytheoppressionofthetimesandbythe
barbarousseverityofthegamelaws.Anintensehatredofshamsand
injusticelurksineverysong;butthehatredissavedfrombitternessby
thehumorwithwhichcaptives,especiallyrichchurchmen,aresolemnly
lecturedbythebandits,whiletheysquirmatsightofdevilishtortures
preparedbeforetheireyesinordertomakethemgiveuptheirgolden
purses;andthescenegenerallyendsinabitofwildhorseplay.Thereis
fightingenough,andambushandsuddendeathlurkateveryturnofthe
lonelyroads;butthereisalsoarough,honestchivalryforwomen,anda
generoussharingofplunderwiththepoorandneedy.Allliteratureisbut
adreamexpressed,and"RobinHood"isthedreamofanignorantand
oppressedbutessentiallynoblepeople,strugglinganddeterminedtobe
free.
Farmorepoeticalthantheballads,andmoreinterestingeventhanthe
romances,arethelittlelyricsoftheperiod,thosetearsandsmilesof
longagothatcrystallizedintopoems,totellusthattheheartsofmen
arealikeinallages.Ofthese,thebestknownarethe"LuveRon"(love
runeorletter)ofThomasdeHales_(c_.1250);"Springtime"_(c_.1300),
beginning"Lenten(spring)yscomewithluvetotoune";andthemelodious
lovesong"Alysoun,"writtenattheendofthethirteenthcenturybysome
unknownpoetwhoheraldsthecomingofChaucer:
BytueneMershandAveril,
Whenspraybiginnethtospringe
Thelutelfoul[59]hathhirewyl
Onhyrelud[60]tosynge.
Ichlibbe[61]inlovelonginge
Forsemlokest[62]ofallthinge.
Shemaymeblissebringe;
Icham[63]inhirebaundoun.[64]
Anhendyhapichabbeyhent,[65]
Ichot[66]fromheveneitismesent,
Fromallewymmenmiloveislent[67]
Andlyht[68]onAlysoun.

SUMMARYOFTHENORMANPERIOD.TheNormanswereoriginallyahardyraceof
searoversinhabitingScandinavia.Inthetenthcenturytheyconquereda
partofnorthernFrance,whichisstillcalledNormandy,andrapidly
adoptedFrenchcivilizationandtheFrenchlanguage.Theirconquestof
AngloSaxonEnglandunderWilliam,DukeofNormandy,beganwiththebattle
ofHastingsin1066.TheliteraturewhichtheybroughttoEnglandis
remarkableforitsbright,romantictalesofloveandadventure,inmarked
contrastwiththestrengthandsombernessofAngloSaxonpoetry.Duringthe
threecenturiesfollowingHastings,NormansandSaxonsgraduallyunited.
TheAngloSaxonspeechsimplifieditselfbydroppingmostofitsTeutonic
inflections,absorbedeventuallyalargepartoftheFrenchvocabulary,and
becameourEnglishlanguage.Englishliteratureisalsoacombinationof
FrenchandSaxonelements.Thethreechiefeffectsoftheconquestwere
_(1)_thebringingofRomancivilizationtoEngland;_(2)_thegrowthof
nationality,i.e.astrongcentralizedgovernment,insteadoftheloose
unionofSaxontribes;_(3)_thenewlanguageandliterature,whichwere
proclaimedinChaucer.
Atfirstthenewliteraturewasremarkablyvaried,butofsmallintrinsic
worth;andverylittleofitisnowread.Inourstudywehavenoted:(1)
Geoffrey'sHistory,whichisvaluableasasourcebookofliterature,since
itcontainsthenativeCelticlegendsofArthur.(2)TheworkoftheFrench
writers,whomadetheArthurianlegendspopular.(3)RimingChronicles,
i.e.historyindoggerelverse,likeLayamon's_Brut_.(4)Metrical
Romances,ortalesinverse.Thesewerenumerous,andoffourclasses:(a)
theMatterofFrance,talescenteringaboutCharlemagneandhispeers,
chiefofwhichistheChansondeRoland;(b)MatterofGreeceandRome,an
endlessseriesoffabuloustalesaboutAlexander,andabouttheFallof
Troy;(c)MatterofEngland,storiesofBevisofHampton,GuyofWarwick,
RobinHood,etc.;(d)MatterofBritain,taleshavingfortheirheroes
ArthurandhisknightsoftheRoundTable.Thebestoftheseromancesis
SirGawainandtheGreenKnight.(5)Miscellaneousliterature,theAncren
Riwle,ourbestpieceofearlyEnglishprose;Orm'sOrmulum;CursorMundi,
withitssuggestiveparalleltotheMiracleplays;andballads,likeKing
HornandtheRobinHoodsongs,whichweretheonlypoetryofthecommon
people.
SELECTIONSFORREADING.Foradvancedstudents,andasastudyoflanguage,
afewselectionsasgiveninManly'sEnglishPoetryandinManly'sEnglish
Prose;orselectionsfromtheOrmulum,Brut,AncrenRiwle,andKingHorn,
etc.,inMorrisandSkeat'sSpecimensofEarlyEnglish.Theordinary
studentwillgetabetterideaoftheliteratureoftheperiodbyusingthe
following:SirGawain,modernizedbyJ.L.Weston,inArthurianRomances
Series(Nutt);TheNun'sRule(AncrenRiwle),modernversionbyJ.Morton,
inKing'sClassics;AucassinandNicolete,translatedbyA.Lang(Crowell&
Co.);TristanandIseult,inArthurianRomances;Evans'sTheHighHistory
oftheHolyGrail,inTempleClassics;ThePearl,variousmodernversions
inproseandverse;oneofthebestisJewett'smetricalversion(Crowell&
Co.);TheSongofRoland,inKing'sClassics,andinRiversideLiterature
Series;Evans'stranslationofGeoffrey'sHistory,inTempleClassics;
Guest'sTheMabinogion,inEveryman'sLibrary,orS.Lanier'sBoy's
Mabinogion(i.e.Welshfairytalesandromances);SelectedBallads,in
AthenumPressSeries,andinPocketClassics;GayleyandFlaherty'sPoetry
ofthePeople;Bates'sABalladBook.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[69]
_HISTORY.Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.5886,orCheyney,pp.88144.For
fullertreatment,Green,ch.2;Traill;Gardiner,etc.Jewett'sStoryof
theNormans(StoriesoftheNationsSeries);Freeman'sShortHistoryofthe
NormanConquest;Hutton'sKingandBaronage(OxfordManualsofEnglish
History).
_LITERATURE.GeneralWorks_.Jusserand;TenBrink;Mitchell,vol.I,From

CelttoTudor;TheCambridgeHistoryofEnglishLiterature.
_SpecialWorks_.Schofield'sEnglishLiteraturefromtheNormanConquestto
Chaucer;Lewis'sBeginningsofEnglishLiterature;Ker'sEpicandRomance;
Saintsbury'sTheFlourishingofRomanceandtheRiseofAllegory;Newell's
KingArthurandtheRoundTable;Maynadier,TheArthuroftheEnglish
Poets;Rhys'sStudiesintheArthurianLegends.
_Ballads_.Child'sEnglishandScottishPopularBallads;Gummere'sOld
EnglishBallads(onevolume);Hazlitt'sEarlyPopularPoetryofEngland;
GayleyandFlaherty'sPoetryofthePeople;Percy'sReliquesofAncient
EnglishPoetry,inEveryman'sLibrary.
_Texts,Translations,etc_.MorrisandSkeat'sSpecimensofEarlyEnglish;
Morris'sSirGawainandtheGreenKnight,inEarlyEnglishTextSeries;
Madden'sLayamon'sBrut,textandtranslation(astandardwork,butrare);
ThePearl,textandtranslation,byGollancz;thesamepoem,proseversion,
byOsgood,metricalversionsbyJewett,WeirMitchell,andMead;Geoffrey's
History,translation,inGiles'sSixOldEnglishChronicles(Bohn's
AntiquarianLibrary);Morley'sEarlyEnglishProseRomances;Joyce'sOld
CelticRomances;Guest'sTheMabinogion;Lanier'sBoy'sMabinogion;
ArthurianRomancesSeries(translations).TheBellesLettresSeries,sec.2
(announced),willcontainthetextsofalargenumberofworksofthis
period,withnotesandintroductions.
_Language_.Marsh'sLecturesontheEnglishLanguage;Bradley'sMakingof
English;Lounsbury'sHistoryoftheEnglishLanguage;Emerson'sBrief
HistoryoftheEnglishLanguage;GreenoughandKittredge'sWordsandtheir
WaysinEnglishSpeech;Welsh'sDevelopmentofEnglishLiteratureand
Language.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.1.WhatdidtheNorthmenoriginallyhaveincommon
withtheAngloSaxonsandtheDanes?Whatbroughtabouttheremarkable
changefromNorthmentoNormans?TellbrieflythestoryoftheNorman
Conquest.HowdidtheConquestaffectthelifeandliteratureofEngland?
2.WhattypesofliteraturewereproducedaftertheConquest?Howdothey
comparewithAngloSaxonliterature?Whatworksofthisperiodare
consideredworthyofapermanentplaceinourliterature?
3.WhatismeantbytheRimingChronicles?Whatpartdidtheyplayin
developingtheideaofnationality?Whatledhistoriansofthisperiodto
writeinverse?DescribeGeoffrey'sHistory.Whatwasitsmostvaluable
elementfromtheviewpointofliterature?
4.WhatisLayamon's_Brut?_WhydidLayamonchoosethisnameforhis
Chronicle?Whatspecialliteraryinterestattachestothepoem?
5.WhatweretheMetricalRomances?Whatreasonsledtothegreatinterest
inthreeclassesofromances,i.e.MattersofFrance,Rome,andBritain?
Whatnewandimportantelemententersourliteratureinthistype?Readone
oftheMetricalRomancesinEnglishandcommentfreelyuponit,asto
interest,structure,ideas,andliteraryquality.
6.Tellthestoryof_SirGawainandtheGreenKnight_.WhatFrenchand
whatSaxonelementsarefoundinthepoem?Compareitwith_Beowulf_to
showthepointsofinferiorityandsuperiority.CompareBeowulf'sfight
withGrendelortheFireDrakeandSirGawain'sencounterwiththeGreen
Knight,havinginmind(1)thevirtuesofthehero,(2)thequalitiesof
theenemy,(3)themethodsofwarfare,(4)thepurposeofthestruggle.
Readselectionsfrom_ThePearl_andcomparewith_Dear'sLament_.Whatare
thepersonalandtheuniversalinterestsineachpoem?
7.TellsometypicalstoryfromtheMabinogion.WheredidtheArthurian

legendsoriginate,andhowdidtheybecomeknowntoEnglishreaders?What
modernwritershaveusedtheselegends?Whatfineelementsdoyoufindin
themthatarenotfoundinAngloSaxonpoetry?
8.WhatpartdidArthurplayintheearlyhistoryofBritain?Howlongdid
thestrugglebetweenBritonsandSaxonslast?WhatCelticnamesand
elementsenteredintoEnglishlanguageandliterature?
9.Whatisaballad,andwhatdistinguishesitfromotherformsofpoetry?
Describetheballadwhichyoulikebest.Whydidtheballad,morethanany
otherformofliterature,appealtothecommonpeople?Whatmodernpoems
suggesttheoldpopularballad?Howdothesecompareinformandsubject
matterwiththeRobinHoodballads?
CHRONOLOGY
=============================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

912.NorthmensettleinNormandy|
1066.BattleofHastings.William,|
kingofEngland|
|1086.DomesdayBookcompleted
1087.WilliamRufus|
1093.Anselm,archbishopofCanterbury|
|1094(_cir._).Anselem'sCurDeusHomo
1096.FirstCrusade|
1100.HenryI|
|1110.FirstrecordedMiracleplayin
|England(seechapteronthe
|Drama)
1135.Stephen|
|1137(_cir_.).Geoffrey'sHistory
1147.SecondCrusade|
1154.HenryII|
1189.RichardI.ThirdCrusade|
1199.John|
|1200(_cir_.).Layamon'sBrut
1215.MagnaCharta|
1216.HenryIII|
|1225(_cir_.).AncrenRiwle
1230(_cir._).UniversityofCambridge|
chartered|
1265.BeginningofHouseofCommons.|
SimondeMontfort|
|1267.RogerBacon'sOpusMajus
1272.EdwardI|
1295.FirstcompleteParliament|
|13001400.YorkandWakefield.
|Miracleplays
1307.EdwardII|
|1320(_cir_.).CursorMundi
1327.EdwardIII|
1338.BeginningofHundredYears'War|
withFrance|
|1340(?).BirthofChaucer
|1350(_cir_.).SirGawain.ThePearl
=======================================+====================================
*****

CHAPTERIV

THEAGEOFCHAUCER(13501400)
THENEWNATIONALLIFEANDLITERATURE
HISTORYOFTHEPERIOD.Twogreatmovementsmaybenotedinthecomplexlife
ofEnglandduringthefourteenthcentury.Thefirstispolitical,and
culminatesinthereignofEdwardIII.ItshowsthegrowthoftheEnglish
nationalspiritfollowingthevictoriesofEdwardandtheBlackPrinceon
Frenchsoil,duringtheHundredYears'War.Intherushofthisgreat
nationalmovement,separatingEnglandfromthepoliticaltiesofFrance
and,toalessdegree,fromecclesiasticalbondagetoRome,themutual
distrustandjealousywhichhaddividednoblesandcommonsweremomentarily
sweptasidebyawaveofpatrioticenthusiasm.TheFrenchlanguagelostits
officialprestige,andEnglishbecamethespeechnotonlyofthecommon
peoplebutofcourtsandParliamentaswell.
Thesecondmovementissocial;itfallslargelywithinthereignof
Edward'ssuccessor,RichardII,andmarksthegrowingdiscontentwiththe
contrastbetweenluxuryandpoverty,betweentheidlewealthyclassesand
theovertaxedpeasants.Sometimesthismovementisquietandstrong,as
whenWyclifarousestheconscienceofEngland;againithastheportentous
rumbleofanapproachingtempest,aswhenJohnBallharanguesamultitude
ofdiscontentedpeasantsonBlackHeathcommons,usingthefamoustext:
WhenAdamdelvedandEvespan
Whowasthenthegentleman?
andagainitbreaksoutintotheviolentrebellionofWatTyler.Allthese
thingsshowthesameSaxonspiritthathadwonitsfreedominathousand
years'struggleagainstforeignenemies,andthatnowfeltitselfoppressed
byasocialandindustrialtyrannyinitsownmidst.
Asidefromthesetwomovements,theagewasoneofunusualstirand
progress.Chivalry,thatmedivalinstitutionofmixedgoodandevil,was
initsIndiansummer,asentimentratherthanapracticalsystem.Trade,
anditsresultantwealthandluxury,wereincreasingenormously.Following
trade,astheVikingshadfollowedglory,theEnglishbegantobea
conqueringandcolonizingpeople,liketheAngloSaxons.Thenativeshed
somethingofhisinsularityandbecameatraveler,goingfirsttoviewthe
placeswheretradehadopenedtheway,andreturningwithwiderinterests
andalargerhorizon.Aboveall,thefirstdawnoftheRenaissanceis
heraldedinEngland,asinSpainandItaly,bytheappearanceofanational
literature.
FIVEWRITERSOFTHEAGE.Theliterarymovementoftheageclearlyreflects
thestirringlifeofthetimes.ThereisLangland,voicingthesocial
discontent,preachingtheequalityofmenandthedignityoflabor;Wyclif,
greatestofEnglishreligiousreformers,givingtheGospeltothepeoplein
theirowntongue,andthefreedomoftheGospelinunnumberedtractsand
addresses;Gower,thescholarandliteraryman,criticisingthisvigorous
lifeandplainlyafraidofitsconsequences;andMandeville,thetraveler,
romancingaboutthewonderstobeseenabroad.Aboveallthereis
Chaucer,scholar,traveler,businessman,courtier,sharinginallthe
stirringlifeofhistimes,andreflectingitinliteratureasnootherbut
Shakespearehaseverdone.OutsideofEnglandthegreatestliterary
influenceoftheagewasthatofDante,Petrarch,andBoccaccio,whose
works,thenatthesummitoftheirinfluenceinItaly,profoundlyaffected
theliteratureofallEurope.
CHAUCER(1340?1400)
'Whatmanartow?'quodhe;
'Thoulokestasthouwoldestfindeanhare,
ForeveruponthegroundIseetheestare.
Approchneer,andlokeupmerily....

Hesemethelvishbyhiscontenaunce.'
(TheHost'sdescriptionofChaucer,
Prologue,_SirThopas_)
ONREADINGCHAUCER.ThedifficultiesofreadingChauceraremoreapparent
thanreal,beingduelargelytoobsoletespelling,andthereissmall
necessityforusinganymodernversionsofthepoet'swork,whichseemto
missthequietcharmanddryhumoroftheoriginal.Ifthereaderwill
observethefollowinggeneralrules(whichofnecessityignoremany
differencesinpronunciationoffourteenthcenturyEnglish),hemay,inan
hourortwo,learntoreadChauceralmostaseasilyasShakespeare:(1)Get
theliltofthelines,andletthemeteritselfdecidehowfinalsyllables
aretobepronounced.RememberthatChaucerisamongthemostmusicalof
poets,andthatthereismelodyinnearlyeveryline.Iftheverseseems
rough,itisbecausewedonotreaditcorrectly.(2)VowelsinChaucer
havemuchthesamevalueasinmodernGerman;consonantsarepractically
thesameasinmodernEnglish.(3)Pronouncealoudanystrangelooking
words.Wheretheeyefails,theearwilloftenrecognizethemeaning.If
eyeandearbothfail,thenconsulttheglossaryfoundineverygood
editionofthepoet'sworks.(4)Final_e_isusuallysounded(like_a_in
Virginia)exceptwherethefollowingwordbeginswithavowelorwith_h_.
Inthelattercasethefinalsyllableofonewordandthefirstoftheword
followingareruntogether,asinreadingVirgil.Attheendofalinethe
_e_,iflightlypronounced,addsmelodytotheverse.[70]
IndealingwithChaucer'smasterpiece,thereaderisurgedtoreadwidely
atfirst,forthesimplepleasureofthestories,andtorememberthat
poetryandromancearemoreinterestingandimportantthanMiddleEnglish.
WhenwelikeandappreciateChaucerhispoetry,hishumor,hisgood
stories,hiskindheartitwillbetimeenoughtostudyhislanguage.
LIFEOFCHAUCER.ForourconveniencethelifeofChaucerisdividedinto
threeperiods.Thefirst,ofthirtyyears,includeshisyouthandearly
manhood,inwhichtimehewasinfluencedalmostexclusivelybyFrench
literarymodels.Thesecondperiod,offifteenyears,coversChaucer's
activelifeasdiplomatandmanofaffairs;andinthistheItalian
influenceseemsstrongerthantheFrench.Thethird,offifteenyears,
generallyknownastheEnglishperiod,isthetimeofChaucer'srichest
development.Helivesathome,observeslifecloselybutkindly,andwhile
theFrenchinfluenceisstillstrong,asshowninthe_CanterburyTales_,
heseemstogrowmoreindependentofforeignmodelsandisdominated
chieflybythevigorouslifeofhisownEnglishpeople.
Chaucer'sboyhoodwasspentinLondon,onThamesStreetneartheriver,
wheretheworld'scommercewascontinuallycomingandgoing.Therehesaw
dailytheshipmanofthe_CanterburyTales_justhomeinhisgoodship
Maudelayne,withthefascinationofunknownlandsinhisclothesand
conversation.Ofhiseducationweknownothing,exceptthathewasagreat
reader.Hisfatherwasawinemerchant,purveyortotheroyalhousehold,
andfromthisaccidentalrelationbetweentradeandroyaltymayhavearisen
thefactthatatseventeenyearsChaucerwasmadepagetothePrincess
Elizabeth.Thiswasthebeginningofhisconnectionwiththebrilliant
court,whichinthenextfortyyears,underthreekings,hewastoknowso
intimately.
Atnineteenhewentwiththekingononeofthemanyexpeditionsofthe
HundredYears'War,andherehesawchivalryandallthepageantryof
medivalwarattheheightoftheiroutwardsplendor.Takenprisoneratthe
unsuccessfulsiegeofRheims,heissaidtohavebeenransomedbymoneyout
oftheroyalpurse.ReturningtoEngland,hebecameafterafewyears
squireoftheroyalhousehold,thepersonalattendantandconfidantofthe
king.Itwasduringthisfirstperiodthathemarriedamaidofhonorto
thequeen.ThiswasprobablyPhilippaRoet,sistertothewifeofJohnof
Gaunt,thefamousDukeofLancaster.Fromnumerouswhimsicalreferencesin
hisearlypoems,ithasbeenthoughtthatthismarriageintoanoblefamily

wasnotahappyone;butthisispurelyamatterofsuppositionorof
doubtfulinference.
In1370Chaucerwassentabroadonthefirstofthosediplomaticmissions
thatweretooccupythegreaterpartofthenextfifteenyears.Twoyears
laterhemadehisfirstofficialvisittoItaly,toarrangeacommercial
treatywithGenoa,andfromthistimeisnoticeablearapiddevelopmentin
hisliterarypowersandtheprominenceofItalianliteraryinfluences.
Duringtheintervalsbetweenhisdifferentmissionshefilledvarious
officesathome,chiefofwhichwasComptrollerofCustomsattheportof
London.Anenormousamountofpersonallaborwasinvolved;butChaucer
seemstohavefoundtimetofollowhisspiritintothenewfieldsof
Italianliterature:
Forwhanthylabourdoonalis,
Andhastymaadthyrekeninges,
Instedeofresteandnewethinges,
Thougosthoomtothyhousanoon,
And,alsodombasanystoon,
Thousittestatanotherboke
Tilfullydaswedisthyloke,
Andlivestthusasanhermyte.[71]
In1386ChaucerwaselectedmemberofParliamentfromKent,andthe
distinctlyEnglishperiodofhislifeandworkbegins.Thoughexceedingly
busyinpublicaffairsandasreceiverofcustoms,hisheartwasstillwith
hisbooks,fromwhichonlynaturecouldwinhim:
Andasforme,thoughthatmywitbelyte,
OnbokesfortoredeImedelyte,
AndtohemyeveIfeythandfulcredence,
Andinmynhertehaveheminreverence
Sohertely,thattherisgamenoon
Thatfromybokesmakethmetogoon,
Buthitbeseldom,ontheholyday;
Save,certeynly,whanthatthemonthofMay
Iscomen,andthatIherethefoulessinge,
Andthattheflouresginnenfortospringe
Farwelmybookandmydevocioun![72]
Inthefourteenthcenturypoliticsseemstohavebeen,forhonestmen,a
veryuncertainbusiness.ChaucernaturallyadheredtothepartyofJohnof
Gaunt,andhisfortunesroseorfellwiththoseofhisleader.Fromthis
timeuntilhisdeathheisupanddownonthepoliticalladder;todaywith
moneyandgoodprospects,tomorrowinpovertyandneglect,writinghis
"ComplainttoHisEmptyPurs,"whichhehumorouslycallshis"saveourdoun
inthiswerldehere."Thispoemcalledtheking'sattentiontothepoet's
needandincreasedhispension;buthehadbutfewmonthstoenjoythe
effectofthisunusual"Complaint."Forhediedthenextyear,1400,and
wasburiedwithhonorinWestminsterAbbey.Thelastperiodofhislife,
thoughoutwardlymosttroubled,wasthemostfruitfulofall.His"Truth,"
or"GoodCounsel,"revealsthequiet,beautifulspiritofhislife,
unspoiledeitherbythegreedoftradeorthetrickeryofpolitics:
Fleefrotheprees,anddwellewithsothfastnesse,
Suffyceuntothygood,thoughhitbesmal;
Forhord[73]hathhate,andclimbingtikelnesse,
Prees[74]hathenvye,andwele[75]blent[76]overal;
Savournomorethantheebihovshal;
Werk[77]welthyself,thatotherfolkcanstrede;
Andtroutheshaldelivere,hitisnodrede.
Tempest[78]theenoghtalcrokedtoredresse,
Intrustofhir[79]thatturnethasabal:
Gretrestestantinlitelbesinesse;
Andeekbewartosporne[80]ageynanal[81];

Stryvenoght,asdoththecrokkewiththewal.
Daunte[82]thyself,thatdauntestotheresdede;
Andtroutheshaldelivere,hitisnodrede.
Thattheeissent,receyveinbuxumnesse,
Thewrastlingforthisworldeaxethafal.
Hernisnonhoom,hernisbutwildernesse:
Forth,pilgrim,forth!Forth,beste,outofthystall,
Knowthycontree,lookup,thankGodofal;
Holdthehyewey,andlatthygosttheelede:
Andtroutheshaldelivere,hitisnodrede.
WORKSOFCHAUCER,FIRSTPERIOD.TheworksofChaucerareroughlydivided
intothreeclasses,correspondingtothethreeperiodsofhislife.It
shouldberemembered,however,thatitisimpossibletofixexactdatesfor
mostofhisworks.Someofhis_CanterburyTales_werewrittenearlierthan
theEnglishperiod,andwereonlygroupedwiththeothersinhisfinal
arrangement.
Thebestknown,thoughnotthebest,poemofthefirstperiodisthe
_RomauntoftheRose_,[83]atranslationfromtheFrench_Romandela
Rose_,themostpopularpoemoftheMiddleAges,agracefulbut
exceedinglytiresomeallegoryofthewholecourseoflove.TheRosegrowing
initsmysticgardenistypicaloftheladyBeauty.GatheringtheRose
representsthelover'sattempttowinhislady'sfavor;andthedifferent
feelingsarousedLove,Hate,Envy,Jealousy,Idleness,SweetLooksare
theallegoricalpersonsofthepoet'sdrama.Chaucertranslatedthis
universalfavorite,puttinginsomeoriginalEnglishtouches;butofthe
present_Romaunt_onlythefirstseventeenhundredlinesarebelievedtobe
Chaucer'sownwork.
Perhapsthebestpoemofthisperiodisthe"DetheofBlanchethe
Duchesse,"betterknown,asthe"BokeoftheDuchesse,"apoemof
considerabledramaticandemotionalpower,writtenafterthedeathof
Blanche,wifeofChaucer'spatron,JohnofGaunt.Additionalpoemsarethe
"CompleyntetoPite,"agracefullovepoem;the"ABC,"aprayertothe
Virgin,translatedfromtheFrenchofaCistercianmonk,itsverses
beginningwiththesuccessivelettersofthealphabet;andanumberofwhat
Chaucercalls"ballads,roundels,andvirelays,"withwhich,sayshis
friendGower,"thelandwasfilled."Thelatterwereimitationsofthe
prevailingFrenchloveditties.
SECONDPERIOD.ThechiefworkofthesecondorItalianperiodis_Troilus
andCriseyde_,apoemofeightthousandlines.Theoriginalstorywasa
favoriteofmanyauthorsduringtheMiddleAges,andShakespearemakesuse
ofitinhis_TroilusandCressida_.TheimmediatesourceofChaucer'spoem
isBoccaccio's_IlFilostrato,_"thelovesmittenone";butheuseshis
materialveryfreely,toreflecttheidealsofhisownageandsociety,and
sogivestothewholestoryadramaticforceandbeautywhichithadnever
knownbefore.
The"HousofFame"isoneofChaucer'sunfinishedpoems,havingtherare
combinationofloftythoughtandsimple,homelylanguage,showingthe
influenceofthegreatItalianmaster.Inthepoemtheauthoriscarried
awayinadreambyagreateaglefromthebrittletempleofVenus,ina
sandywilderness,uptothehalloffame.Tothishousecomeallrumorsof
earth,asthesparksflyupward.Thehousestandsonarockofice
writenfulofnames
Offolkthathaddengretefames.
Manyofthesehavedisappearedastheicemelted;buttheoldernamesare
clearaswhenfirstwritten.FormanyofhisideasChaucerisindebtedto
Dante,Ovid,andVirgil;buttheunusualconceptionandthesplendid
workmanshipareallhisown.

Thethirdgreatpoemoftheperiodisthe_LegendeofGoodeWimmen_.Ashe
isrestinginthefieldsamongthedaisies,hefallsasleepandagay
processiondrawsnear.Firstcomesthelovegod,leadingbythehand
Alcestis,modelofallwifelyvirtues,whoseemblemisthedaisy;and
behindthemfollowatroupofgloriouswomen,allofwhomhavebeen
faithfulinlove.Theygatheraboutthepoet;thegodupbraidshimfor
havingtranslatedthe_RomanceoftheRose_,andforhisearlypoems
reflectingonthevanityandficklenessofwomen.Alcestisintercedesfor
him,andofferspardonifhewillatoneforhiserrorsbywritinga
"gloriouslegendofgoodwomen."Chaucerpromises,andassoonasheawakes
setshimselftothetask.Ninelegendswerewritten,ofwhich"Thisbe"is
perhapsthebest.ItisprobablethatChaucerintendedtomakethishis
masterpiece,devotingmanyyearstostoriesoffamouswomenwhoweretrue
tolove;buteitherbecauseheweariedofhistheme,orbecausetheplanof
the_CanterburyTales_wasgrowinginhismind,heabandonedthetaskin
themiddleofhisninthlegend,fortunately,perhaps,forthereaderwill
findtheProloguemoreinterestingthananyofthelegends.
THIRDPERIOD.Chaucer'smasterpiece,the_CanterburyTales_,oneofthe
mostfamousworksinallliterature,fillsthethirdorEnglishperiodof
hislife.Theplanoftheworkismagnificent:torepresentthewidesweep
ofEnglishlifebygatheringamotleycompanytogetherandlettingeach
classofsocietytellitsownfavoritestories.Thoughthegreatworkwas
neverfinished,Chaucersucceededinhispurposesowellthatinthe
_CanterburyTales_hehasgivenusapictureofcontemporaryEnglishlife,
itsworkandplay,itsdeedsanddreams,itsfunandsympathyandhearty
joyofliving,suchasnoothersingleworkofliteraturehaseverequaled.
PLANOFTHECANTERBURYTALES.OppositeoldLondon,atthesouthernendof
LondonBridge,oncestoodtheTabardInnofSouthwark,aquartermade
famousnotonlybythe_CanterburyTales_,butalsobythefirstplayhouses
whereShakespearehadhistraining.ThisSouthwarkwasthepointof
departureofalltraveltothesouthofEngland,especiallyofthose
medivalpilgrimagestotheshrineofThomasaBecketinCanterbury.Ona
springevening,attheinspiringtimeoftheyearwhen"longenfolktogoon
onpilgrimages,"ChauceralightsattheTabardInn,andfindsitoccupied
byavariouscompanyofpeoplebentonapilgrimage.Chancealonehad
broughtthemtogether;foritwasthecustomofpilgrimstowaitatsome
friendlyinnuntilasufficientcompanyweregatheredtomakethejourney
pleasantandsafefromrobbersthatmightbeencounteredontheway.
Chaucerjoinsthiscompany,whichincludesallclassesofEnglishsociety,
fromtheOxfordscholartothedrunkenmiller,andacceptsgladlytheir
invitationtogowiththemonthemorrow.
AtsupperthejovialhostoftheTabardInnsuggeststhat,toenliventhe
journey,eachofthecompanyshalltellfourtales,twogoingandtwo
coming,onwhateversubjectshallsuithimbest.Thehostwilltravelwith
themasmasterofceremonies,andwhoevertellsthebeststoryshallbe
givenafinesupperatthegeneralexpensewhentheyallcomeback
again,ashrewdbitofbusinessandafineidea,asthepilgrimsall
agree.
WhentheydrawlotsforthefirststorythechancefallstotheKnight,who
tellsoneofthebestofthe_CanterburyTales_,thechivalricstoryof
"PalamonandArcite."Thenthetalesfollowrapidly,eachwithitsprologue
andepilogue,tellinghowthestorycameabout,anditseffectsonthe
merrycompany.Interruptionsarenumerous;thenarrativeisfulloflife
andmovement,aswhenthemillergetsdrunkandinsistsontellinghistale
outofseason,orwhentheystopatafriendlyinnforthenight,orwhen
thepoetwithslyhumorstartshisstoryof"SirThopas,"indreary
imitationofthemetricalromancesoftheday,andisroaredatbythehost
forhis"drastyryming."WithChaucerwelaughathisownexpense,andare
readyforthenexttale.
Fromthenumberofpersonsinthecompany,thirtytwoinall,itisevident

thatChaucermeditatedanimmenseworkofonehundredandtwentyeight
tales,whichshouldcoverthewholelifeofEngland.Onlytwentyfourwere
written;someoftheseareincomplete,andothersaretakenfromhis
earlierworktofilloutthegeneralplanofthe_CanterburyTales_.
Incompleteastheyare,theycoverawiderange,includingstoriesoflove
andchivalry,ofsaintsandlegends,travels,adventures,animalfables,
allegory,satires,andthecoarsehumorofthecommonpeople.Thoughall
buttwoarewritteninverseandaboundinexquisitepoeticaltouches,they
arestoriesaswellaspoems,andChauceristoberegardedasourfirst
shortstorytelleraswellasourfirstmodernpoet.Theworkendswitha
kindlyfarewellfromthepoettohisreader,andso"heretakeththemakere
ofthisbookhisleve."
PROLOGUETOTHECANTERBURYTALES.Inthefamous"Prologue"thepoetmakes
usacquaintedwiththevariouscharactersofhisdrama.UntilChaucer'sday
popularliteraturehadbeenbusychieflywiththegodsandheroesofa
goldenage;ithadbeenessentiallyromantic,andsohadneverattemptedto
studymenandwomenastheyare,ortodescribethemsothatthereader
recognizesthem,notasidealheroes,butashisownneighbors.Chaucernot
onlyattemptedthisnewrealistictask,butaccomplisheditsowellthat
hischaracterswereinstantlyrecognizedastruetolife,andtheyhave
sincebecomethepermanentpossessionofourliterature.BeowulfandRoland
areidealheroes,essentiallycreaturesoftheimagination;butthemerry
hostoftheTabardInn,MadameEglantyne,thefatmonk,theparishpriest,
thekindlyplowman,thepoorscholarwithhis"booksblackandred,"all
seemmorelikepersonalacquaintancesthancharactersinabook.Says
Dryden:"Iseeallthepilgrims,theirhumours,theirfeaturesandtheir
verydress,asdistinctlyasifIhadsuppedwiththemattheTabardin
Southwark."ChauceristhefirstEnglishwritertobringtheatmosphereof
romanticinterestaboutthemenandwomenandthedailyworkofone'sown
world,whichistheaimofnearlyallmodernliterature.
Thehistorianofourliteratureistemptedtolingeroverthis"Prologue"
andtoquotefromitpassageafterpassagetoshowhowkeenlyandyet
kindlyourfirstmodernpoetobservedhisfellowmen.Thecharacters,too,
attractonelikeagoodplay:the"verrayparfitgentilknight"andhis
manlyson,themodestprioress,modelofsweetpietyandsocietymanners,
thesportingmonkandthefatfriar,thediscreetmanoflaw,thewellfed
countrysquire,thesailorjusthomefromsea,thecannydoctor,the
lovableparishpriestwhotaughttruereligiontohisflock,but"firsthe
folwedithimselve";thecoarsebutgoodheartedWyfofBath,thethieving
millerleadingthepilgrimstothemusicofhisbagpipe,alltheseand
manyothersfromeverywalkofEnglishlife,andalldescribedwitha
quiet,kindlyhumorwhichseeksinstinctivelythebestinhumannature,and
whichhasanamplegarmentofcharitytocoverevenitsfaultsand
failings."Here,"indeed,asDrydensays,"isGod'splenty."Probablyno
keenerorkindercriticeverdescribedhisfellows;andinthisimmortal
"Prologue"Chaucerisamodelforallthosewhowouldputourhumanlife
intowriting.Thestudentshouldreaditentire,asanintroductionnot
onlytothepoetbuttoallourmodernliterature.
THEKNIGHT'STALE.Asastory,"PalamonandArcite"is,inmanyrespects,
thebestofthe_CanterburyTales_,reflectingasitdoestheidealsofthe
timeinregardtoromanticloveandknightlyduty.Thoughitsdialoguesand
descriptionsaresomewhattoolongandinterruptthestory,yetitshows
Chaucerathisbestinhisdramaticpower,hisexquisiteappreciationof
nature,andhistenderyetprofoundphilosophyofliving,whichcould
overlookmuchofhumanfrailtyinthethoughtthat
Infinitebeenthesorwesandtheteres
Ofoldfolk,andfolkoftendreyeres.
TheideaofthestorywasborrowedfromBoccaccio;butpartsofthe
originaltaleweremucholderandbelongedtothecommonliterarystockof
theMiddleAges.LikeShakespeare,Chaucertookthematerialforhispoems

whereverhefoundit,andhisoriginalityconsistsingivingtoanold
storysomepresenthumaninterest,makingitexpressthelifeandidealsof
hisownage.Inthisrespectthe"Knight'sTale"isremarkable.Itsnames
arethoseofanancientcivilization,butitscharactersaremenandwomen
oftheEnglishnobilityasChaucerknewthem.Inconsequencethestoryhas
manyanachronisms,suchasthemedivaltournamentbeforethetempleof
Mars;butthereaderscarcelynoticesthesethings,beingabsorbedinthe
dramaticinterestofthenarrative.
Briefly,the"Knight'sTale"isthestoryoftwoyoungmen,fastfriends,
whoarefoundwoundedonthebattlefieldandtakenprisonerstoAthens.
TherefromtheirdungeonwindowtheybeholdthefairmaidEmily;bothfall
desperatelyinlovewithher,andtheirfriendshipturnstostrenuous
rivalry.Oneispardoned;theotherescapes;andthenknights,empires,
nature,thewholeuniversefollowstheirdesperateeffortstowinone
smallmaiden,whopraysmeanwhiletobedeliveredfrombothherbothersome
suitors.Asthebestofthe_CanterburyTales_arenoweasilyaccessible,
weomithereallquotations.Thestorymustbereadentire,withthe
Prioress'taleofHughofLincoln,theClerk'staleofPatientGriselda,
andtheNun'sPriest'smerrytaleofChanticleerandtheFox,ifthereader
wouldappreciatethevarietyandcharmofourfirstmodernpoetand
storyteller.
FORMOFCHAUCER'SPOETRY.Therearethreeprincipalmeterstobefoundin
Chaucer'sverse.Inthe_CanterburyTales_heuseslinesoftensyllables
andfiveaccentseach,andthelinesrunincouplets:
Hiseyentwinkledinhisheedaright
Asdoonthesterresinthefrostynight.
Thesamemusicalmeasure,arrangedinsevenlinestanzas,butwitha
differentrime,calledtheRimeRoyal,isfoundinitsmostperfectformin
_Troilus_.
Oblisfullight,ofwhichethebemesclere
Adornethalthethriddehevenefaire!
Osonnesleef,OJovesdoughterdere,
Plesaunceoflove,Ogoodlydebonaire,
Ingentilhertesayredytorepaire!
Overraycauseofheleandofgladnesse,
Yheriedbethymightandthygoodnesse!
Inheveneandhelle,inertheandsaltesee
Isfeltthymight,ifthatIweldescerne;
Asman,brid,best,fish,herbeandgrenetree
Theefeleintymeswithvapoureterne.
Godloveth,andtolovewolnoughtwerne;
Andinthisworldnolyvescreature,
Withoutenlove,isworth,ormayendure.[84]
Thethirdmeteristheeightsyllablelinewithfouraccents,thelines
rimingincouplets,asinthe"BokeoftheDuchesse":
Theretoshecoudesowelpleye,
Whanthathirliste,thatIdarseye
Thatshewaslyktotorchebright,
Thateverymanmaytakeoflight
Ynough,andhithathneverthelesse.
Besidestheseprincipalmeters,Chaucerinhisshortpoemsusedmanyother
poeticalformsmodeledaftertheFrench,whointhefourteenthcenturywere
cunningworkersineveryformofverse.Chiefamongthesearethedifficult
butexquisiterondel,"NowwelcomSomerwiththysonnesofte,"whichcloses
the"ParliamentofFowls,"andtheballad,"Fleefrotheprees,"whichhas
beenalreadyquoted.Inthe"Monk'sTale"thereisamelodiousmeasure
whichmayhavefurnishedthemodelforSpenser'sfamousstanza.[85]

Chaucer'spoetryisextremelymusicalandmustbejudgedbytheearrather
thanbytheeye.Tothemodernreaderthelinesappearbrokenanduneven;
butifonereadsthemoverafewtimes,hesooncatchestheperfectswing
ofthemeasure,andfindsthatheisinthehandsofamasterwhoseearis
delicatelysensitivetothesmallestaccent.Thereisaliltinallhis
lineswhichismarvelouswhenweconsiderthatheisthefirsttoshowus
thepoeticpossibilitiesofthelanguage.Hisclaimuponourgratitudeis
twofold:[86]first,fordiscoveringthemusicthatisinourEnglish
speech;andsecond,forhisinfluenceinfixingtheMidlanddialectasthe
literarylanguageofEngland.
CHAUCER'SCONTEMPORARIES
WILLIAMLANGLAND(1332?....?)
LIFE.VerylittleisknownofLangland.HewasbornprobablynearMalvern,
inWorcestershire,thesonofapoorfreeman,andinhisearlylifelived
inthefieldsasashepherd.LaterhewenttoLondonwithhiswifeand
children,gettingahungrylivingasclerkinthechurch.Hisreallife
meanwhilewasthatofaseer,aprophetafterIsaiah'sownheart,ifwemay
judgebytheprophecywhichsoonfoundavoicein_PiersPlowman_.In1399,
afterthesuccessofhisgreatwork,hewaspossiblywritinganotherpoem
called_RichardtheRedeless_,aprotestagainstRichardII;butwearenot
certainoftheauthorshipofthispoem,whichwasleftunfinishedbythe
assassinationoftheking.After1399Langlanddisappearsutterly,andthe
dateofhisdeathisunknown.
PIERSPLOWMAN."Thevoiceofhimthatcriethinthewilderness,Prepareye
thewayoftheLord,"mightwellbewrittenatthebeginningofthis
remarkablepoem.Truth,sincerity,adirectandpracticalappealto
conscience,andavisionofrighttriumphantoverwrong,thesearethe
elementsofallprophecy;anditwasundoubtedlytheseelementsin_Piers
Plowman_thatproducedsuchanimpressiononthepeopleofEngland.For
centuriesliteraturehadbeenbusyinpleasingtheupperclasseschiefly;
buthereatlastwasagreatpoemwhichappealeddirectlytothecommon
people,anditssuccesswasenormous.Thewholepoemistraditionally
attributedtoLangland;butitisnowknowntobetheworkofseveral
differentwriters.Itfirstappearedin1362asapoemofeighteenhundred
lines,andthismayhavebeenLangland'swork.Inthenextthirtyyears,
duringthedesperatesocialconditionswhichledtoTyler'sRebellion,it
wasrepeatedlyrevisedandenlargedbydifferenthandstillitreachedits
finalformofaboutfifteenthousandlines.
Thepoemaswereaditnowisintwodistinctparts,thefirstcontaining
thevisionofPiers,thesecondaseriesofvisionscalled"TheSearchfor
Dowel,Dobet,Dobest"(dowell,better,best).Theentirepoemisin
stronglyaccented,alliterativelines,somethinglike_Beowulf_,andits
immensepopularityshowsthatthecommonpeoplestillcherishedthiseasily
memorizedformofSaxonpoetry.Itstremendousappealtojusticeandcommon
honesty,itsclarioncalltoeveryman,whetherking,priest,noble,or
laborer,todohisChristianduty,takesfromitanytraceofprejudiceor
bigotrywithwhichsuchworksusuallyabound.ItsloyaltytotheChurch,
whiledenouncingabusesthathadcreptintoitinthatperiod,wasoneof
thegreatinfluenceswhichledtotheReformationinEngland.Itstwogreat
principles,theequalityofmenbeforeGodandthedignityofhonestlabor,
rousedawholenationoffreemen.Altogetheritisoneoftheworld'sgreat
works,partlybecauseofitsnationalinfluence,partlybecauseitisthe
verybestpicturewepossessofthesociallifeofthefourteenthcentury:
Briefly,_PiersPlowman_isanallegoryoflife.Inthefirstvision,that
ofthe"FieldFullofFolk,"thepoetliesdownontheMalvernHillsona
Maymorning,andavisioncomestohiminsleep.Ontheplainbeneathhim
gatheramultitudeoffolk,avastcrowdexpressingthevariedlifeofthe
world.Allclassesandconditionsarethere;workingmenaretoilingthat

othersmayseizeallthefirstfruitsoftheirlaborandlivehighonthe
proceeds;andthegeniusofthethrongisLadyBribery,apowerfullydrawn
figure,expressingthecorruptsociallifeofthetimes.
ThenextvisionsarethoseoftheSevenDeadlySins,allegoricalfigures,
butpowerfulasthoseof_Pilgrim'sProgress_,makingtheallegoriesofthe
_RomauntoftheRose_seemlikeshadowsincomparison.Theseallcameto
PiersaskingthewaytoTruth;butPiersisplowinghishalfacreand
refusestoleavehisworkandleadthem.Hesetsthemalltohonesttoilas
thebestpossibleremedyfortheirvices,andpreachesthegospelofwork
asapreparationforsalvation.ThroughoutthepoemPiersbearsstrong
resemblancetoJohnBaptistpreachingtothecrowdsinthewilderness.The
latervisionsareproclamationsofthemoralandspirituallifeofman.The
poemgrowsdramaticinitsintensity,risingtoitshighestpowerin
Piers'striumphoverDeath.Andthenthepoetwakesfromhisvisionwith
thesoundofEasterbellsringinginhisears.
Hereareafewlinestoillustratethestyleandlanguage;butthewhole
poemmustbereadifoneistounderstanditscrudestrengthandprophetic
spirit:
Inasomersesun,whonsoftewasthesonne,
Ischop[87]meintoashroud,asIascheepwere,
Inhabiteasanheremite,unholyofwerkes,
Wentwydeinthisworld,wondrestohere.
BoteinaMayesmornynge,onMalvernehulles,
Mebyfelaferly,[88]offairiemethoughte.
Iwaswery,forwandred,andwentmetoreste
Undurabrodbanke,biabourne[89]side;
AndasIlayandlened,andlokedonthewatres,
Islumbredinaslepynghitswyed[90]somurie....
JOHNWYCLIF(1324?1384)
Wyclif,asaman,isbyfarthemostpowerfulEnglishfigureofthe
fourteenthcentury.Theimmenseinfluenceofhispreachinginthenative
tongue,andthepowerofhisLollardstostirthesoulsofthecommonfolk,
aretoowellknownhistoricallytoneedrepetition.Thoughauniversityman
andaprofoundscholar,hesideswithLangland,andhisinterestsarewith
thepeopleratherthanwiththeprivilegedclasses,forwhomChaucer
writes.Hisgreatwork,whichearnedhimhistitleof"fatherofEnglish
prose,"isthetranslationoftheBible.Wyclifhimselftranslatedthe
gospels,andmuchmoreoftheNewTestament;therestwasfinishedbyhis
followers,especiallybyNicholasofHereford.Thesetranslationsweremade
fromtheLatinVulgate,notfromtheoriginalGreekandHebrew,andthe
wholeworkwasrevisedin1388byJohnPurvey,adiscipleofWyclif.Itis
impossibletooverestimatetheinfluenceofthiswork,bothonourEnglish
proseandonthelivesoftheEnglishpeople.
ThoughWyclif'sworksarenowunread,exceptbyoccasionalscholars,he
stilloccupiesaveryhighplaceinourliterature.Histranslationofthe
BiblewasslowlycopiedalloverEngland,andsofixedanationalstandard
ofEnglishprosetoreplacethevariousdialects.Portionsofthis
translation,intheformoffavoritepassagesfromScripture,werecopied
bythousands,andforthefirsttimeinourhistoryastandardofpure
Englishwasestablishedinthehomesofthecommonpeople.
Asasuggestionofthelanguageofthatday,wequoteafewfamiliar
sentencesfromtheSermonontheMount,asgiveninthelaterversionof
Wyclif'sGospel:
Andheopenydehismouth,andtaughtehem,andseide,Blessidbenporemen
inspirit,forthekyngdomofhevenesisherne.[91]Blessidbenmyldemen,
fortheischulenwelde[92]theerthe.Blessidbentheithatmornen,for

theischulenbecoumfortid.Blessidbentheithathungrenandthristen
rightwisnesse,[93]fortheischulenbefulfillid.Blessidbenmercifulmen,
fortheischulengetemerci.Blessidbentheithatbenofcleneherte,for
theischulenseGod.Blessidbenpesiblemen,fortheischulenbe
clepid[94]Goddischildren.Blessidbentheithatsuffrenpersecusiounfor
rightfulnesse,forthekyngdomofhevenesisherne.[95]...
Eftsooneyehanherd,thatitwasseidtoeldemen,Thouschaltnot
forswere,butthouschaltyelde[96]thinothistotheLord.ButYseie[97]
toyou,thatyeswerenotforonything;...butbeyoureworde,yhe,yhe;
nay,nay;andthatthatismorethanthese,isofyvel....
Yehanherdthatitwasseid,Thouschaltlovethineighbore,andhatethin
enemye.ButYseietoyou,loveyeyoureenemyes,doyeweltohem[98]that
hatiden[99]you,andpreyeyeforhemthatpursuen[100]andsclaundren[101]
you;thatyebethesonesofyoureFadirthatisinhevenes,thatmakith
hissunnetoriseupongoodeandyvelemen,andreyneth[102]onjustmen
andunjuste....Thereforebeyeparfit,asyourehevenliFadirisparfit.
JOHNMANDEVILLE
Abouttheyear1356thereappearedinEnglandanextraordinarybookcalled
the_VoyageandTravailofSirJohnMaundeville_,writteninexcellent
styleintheMidlanddialect,whichwasthenbecomingtheliterarylanguage
ofEngland.Foryearsthisinterestingworkanditsunknownauthorwere
subjectsofendlessdispute;butitisnowfairlycertainthatthis
collectionoftravelers'talesissimplyacompilationfromOdoric,Marco
Polo,andvariousothersources.TheoriginalworkwasprobablyinFrench,
whichwasspeedilytranslatedintoLatin,thenintoEnglishandother
languages;andwhereveritappeareditbecameextremelypopular,its
marvelousstoriesofforeignlandsbeingexactlysuitedtothecredulous
spiritoftheage.[103]Atthepresenttimetherearesaidtobethree
hundredcopiedmanuscriptsof"Mandeville"invariouslanguages,more,
probably,thanofanyotherworksavethegospels.Intheprologueofthe
EnglishversiontheauthorcallshimselfJohnMaundevilleandgivesan
outlineofhiswidetravelsduringthirtyyears;butthenameisprobablya
"blind,"theprologuemoreorlessspurious,andtherealcompilerisstill
tobediscovered.
Themodernreadermayspendanhourortwoverypleasantlyinthisold
wonderland.Onitsliterarysidethebookisremarkable,thougha
translation,asbeingthefirstproseworkinmodernEnglishhavinga
distinctlyliterarystyleandflavor.Otherwiseitisamostinteresting
commentaryonthegeneralcultureandcredulityofthefourteenthcentury.
SUMMARYOFTHEAGEOFCHAUCER.Thefourteenthcenturyisremarkable
historicallyforthedeclineoffeudalism(organizedbytheNormans),for
thegrowthoftheEnglishnationalspiritduringthewarswithFrance,for
theprominenceoftheHouseofCommons,andforthegrowingpowerofthe
laboringclasses,whohadheretoforebeeninaconditionhardlyabovethat
ofslavery.
Theageproducedfivewritersofnote,oneofwhom,GeoffreyChaucer,is
oneofthegreatestofEnglishwriters.Hispoetryisremarkableforits
variety,itsstoryinterest,anditswonderfulmelody.Chaucer'sworkand
Wyclif'stranslationoftheBibledevelopedtheMidlanddialectintothe
nationallanguageofEngland.
Inourstudywehavenoted:(1)Chaucer,hislifeandwork;hisearlyor
Frenchperiod,inwhichhetranslated"TheRomanceoftheRose"andwrote
manyminorpoems;hismiddleorItalianperiod,ofwhichthechiefpoems
are"TroilusandCressida"and"TheLegendofGoodWomen";hislateor
Englishperiod,inwhichheworkedathismasterpiece,thefamous

_CanterburyTales_.(2)Langland,thepoetandprophetofsocialreforms.
Hischiefworkis_PiersPlowman_.(3)Wyclif,thereligiousreformer,who
firsttranslatedthegospelsintoEnglish,andbyhistranslationfixeda
commonstandardofEnglishspeech.(4)Mandeville,theallegedtraveler,
whorepresentsthenewEnglishinterestindistantlandsfollowingthe
developmentofforeigntrade.Heisfamousfor_Mandeville'sTravels_,a
bookwhichromancesaboutthewonderstobeseenabroad.Thefifthwriter
oftheageisGower,whowroteinthreelanguages,French,Latin,and
English.HischiefEnglishworkisthe_ConfessioAmantis_,alongpoem
containingonehundredandtwelvetales.Oftheseonlythe"KnightFlorent"
andtwoorthreeothersareinterestingtoamodernreader.
SELECTIONSFORREADING.Chaucer'sPrologue,theKnight'sTale,Nun's
Priest'sTale,Prioress'Tale,Clerk'sTale.Thesearefound,moreorless
complete,inStandardEnglishClassics,King'sClassics,Riverside
LiteratureSeries,etc.Skeat'sschooleditionofthePrologue,Knight's
Tale,etc.,isespeciallygood,andincludesastudyoffourteenthcentury
English.MiscellaneouspoemsofChaucerinManly'sEnglishPoetryorWard's
EnglishPoets.PiersPlowman,inKing'sClassics.Mandeville'sTravels,
modernized,inEnglishClassics,andinCassell'sNationalLibrary.
Fortheadvancedstudent,andasastudyoflanguage,compareselections
fromWyclif,Chaucer'sprosework,Mandeville,etc.,inManly'sEnglish
Prose,orMorrisandSkeat'sSpecimensofEarlyEnglish,orCraik'sEnglish
ProseSelections.SelectionsfromWyclif'sBibleinEnglishClassics
Series.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[104]
_HISTORY.Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.115149,orCheyney,pp.186263.For
fullertreatment,Green,ch.5;Traill;Gardiner.
_SpecialWorks_.Hutton'sKingandBaronage(OxfordManuals);Jusserand's
WayfaringLifeintheFourteenthCentury;Coulton'sChaucerandhis
England;Pauli'sPicturesfromOldEngland;Wright'sHistoryofDomestic
MannersandSentimentsinEnglandduringtheMiddleAges;Trevelyan's
EnglandintheAgeofWyclif;Jenks'sIntheDaysofChaucer;Froissart's
Chronicle,inEveryman'sLibrary;thesame,newedition,1895(Macmillan);
Lanier'sBoys'Froissart(i.e.Froissart'sChronicleofHistoricalEvents,
13251400);Newbolt'sStoriesfromFroissart;Bulfinch'sAgeofChivalry
maybereadinconnectionwiththisandtheprecedingperiods.
_LITERATURE.GeneralWorks_.Jusserand;TenBrink;Mitchell;Minto's
CharacteristicsofEnglishPoets;Courthope'sHistoryofEnglishPoetry.
_Chaucer_,(1)Life:byLounsbury,inStudiesinChaucer,vol.I;byWard,
inEnglishMenofLettersSeries;Pollard'sChaucerPrimer.(2)Aidsto
study:F.J.Snell'sTheAgeofChaucer;Lounsbury'sStudiesinChaucer(3
vols.);Root'sThePoetryofChaucer;Lowell'sEssay,inMyStudyWindows;
Hammond'sChaucer:aBiographicalManual;Hempl'sChaucer'sPronunciation;
IntroductionstoschooleditionsofChaucer,bySkeat,Liddell,andMather.
(3)Textsandselections:TheOxfordChaucer,6vols.,editedbySkeat,is
thestandard;Skeat'sStudent'sChaucer;TheGlobeChaucer(Macmillan);
WorksofChaucer,editedbyLounsbury(Crowell);Pollard'sTheCanterbury
Tales,Eversleyedition;Skeat'sSelectionsfromChaucer(ClarendonPress);
Chaucer'sPrologue,andvarioustales,inStandardEnglishClassics(Ginn
andCompany),andinotherschoolseries.
_MinorWriters_.MorrisandSkeat'sSpecimensofEarlyEnglishProse.
Jusserand'sPiersPlowman;Skeat'sPiersPlowman(text,glossaryand
notes);Warren'sPiersPlowmaninModernProse.Arnold'sWyclif'sSelect
EnglishWorks;Sergeant'sWyclif(HeroesoftheNationSeries);LeBas's
LifeofJohnWyclif.TravelsofSirJohnMandeville(modernspelling),in
LibraryofEnglishClassics;Macaulay'sGower'sEnglishWorks.

SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.1.Whatarethechiefhistoricaleventsofthe
fourteenthcentury?Whatsocialmovementisnoticeable?Whatwriters
reflectpoliticalandsocialconditions?
2.TellbrieflythestoryofChaucer'slife.Whatforeigninfluencesare
noticeable?Nameafewpoemsillustratinghisthreeperiodsofwork.What
qualitieshaveyounoticedinhispoetry?Whyishecalledourfirst
nationalpoet?
3.Givetheplanofthe_CanterburyTales_.ForwhatisthePrologue
remarkable?WhatlightdoesitthrowuponEnglishlifeofthefourteenth
century?Quoteorreadsomepassagesthathaveimpressedyou.Which
characterdoyoulikebest?Areanyofthecharacterslikecertainmenand
womenwhomyouknow?Whatclassesofsocietyareintroduced?IsChaucer's
attitudesympatheticormerelycritical?
4.Tellinyourownwordsthetaleyoulikebest.Whichtaleseemstruest
tolifeasyouknowit?Mentionanyotherpoetswhotellstoriesinverse.
5.QuoteorreadpassageswhichshowChaucer'skeennessofobservation,his
humor,hiskindnessinjudgment,hisdelightinnature.Whatsideofhuman
naturedoesheemphasize?MakealittlecomparisonbetweenChaucerand
Shakespeare,havinginmind(1)thecharactersdescribedbybothpoets,(2)
theirknowledgeofhumannature,(3)thesourcesoftheirplots,(4)the
interestoftheirworks.
6.Describebriefly_PiersPlowman_anditsauthor.Whyisthepoemcalled
"thegospelofthepoor"?Whatmessagedoesitcontainfordailylabor?
Doesitapplytoanymodernconditions?Noteanyresemblanceinideas
between_PiersPlowman_andsuchmodernworksasCarlyle's_Pastand
Present_,Kingsley's_AltonLocke_,Morris's_DreamofJohnBall_,etc.
7.ForwhatisWyclifremarkableinliterature?Howdidhisworkaffectour
language?NoteresemblancesanddifferencesbetweenWyclifandthe
Puritans.
8.Whatis_Mandeville'sTravels_?Whatlightdoesitthrowonthemental
conditionoftheage?Whatessentialdifferencedoyounotebetweenthis
bookand_Gulliver'sTravels_?
CHRONOLOGY,FOURTEENTHCENTURY
=======================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

1327.EdwardIII|
|
1338.BeginningofHundredYears'|
WarwithFrance|1340(?).BirthofChaucer
|
1347.CaptureofCalais|
|
13481349.BlackDeath|1356.Mandeville'sTravels
|
|1359.ChaucerinFrenchWar
|
|13601370.Chaucer'searly
|orFrenchperiod
|
1373.WinchesterCollege,first|
greatpublicschool|13701385.Chaucer'sMiddleor
|Italianperiod
1377.RichardII.Wyclifandthe|
LollardsbeginReformation|13621395.PiersPlowman
inEngland|

|
1381.PeasantRebellion.WatTyler|13851400.CanterburyTales
|
|1382.FirstcompleteBiblein
|English
|
1399.DepositionofRichardII.|1400.DeathofChaucer
HenryIVchosenbyParliament|(Dante'sDivinaCommedia,
|_c_.1310;Petrarch's
|sonnetsandpoems,13251374;
|Boccaccio'stales,_c_.
|1350.)
========================================================================
*****

CHAPTERV
THEREVIVALOFLEARNING(14001550)
I.HISTORYOFTHEPERIOD
POLITICALCHANGES.ThecenturyandahalffollowingthedeathofChaucer
(14001550)isthemostvolcanicperiodofEnglishhistory.Thelandis
sweptbyvastchanges,inseparablefromtherapidaccumulationofnational
power;butsincepoweristhemostdangerousofgiftsuntilmenhave
learnedtocontrolit,thesechangesseematfirsttohavenospecificaim
ordirection.HenryVwhoseerraticyetvigorouslife,asdepictedby
Shakespeare,wastypicalofthelifeofhistimesfirstletEuropefeel
themightofthenewnationalspirit.Todivertthatgrowingandunruly
spiritfromrebellionathome,Henryledhisarmyabroad,intheapparently
impossibleattempttogainforhimselfthreethings:aFrenchwife,a
Frenchrevenue,andtheFrenchcrownitself.ThebattleofAgincourtwas
foughtin1415,andfiveyearslater,bytheTreatyofTroyes,France
acknowledgedhisrighttoallhisoutrageousdemands.
TheuselessnessoftheterrificstruggleonFrenchsoilisshownbythe
rapiditywithwhichallitsresultsweresweptaway.WhenHenrydiedin
1422,leavinghissonheirtothecrownsofFranceandEngland,a
magnificentrecumbentstatuewithheadofpuresilverwasplacedin
WestminsterAbbeytocommemoratehisvictories.Thesilverheadwas
presentlystolen,andthelossistypicalofallthathehadstruggledfor.
Hisson,HenryVI,wasbuttheshadowofaking,apuppetinthehandsof
powerfulnobles,whoseizedthepowerofEnglandandturnedittoself
destruction.Meanwhileallhisforeignpossessionswerewonbackbythe
FrenchunderthemagicleadershipofJoanofArc.Cade'sRebellion(1450)
andthebloodyWarsoftheRoses(14551485)arenamestoshowhowthe
energyofEnglandwasviolentlydestroyingitself,likeagreatenginethat
haslostitsbalancewheel.ThefrightfulreignofRichardIIIfollowed,
whichhad,however,thisredeemingquality,thatitmarkedtheendofcivil
warsandtheselfdestructionoffeudalism,andmadepossibleanewgrowth
ofEnglishnationalsentimentunderthepopularTudors.
InthelongreignofHenryVIIIthechangesarelessviolent,buthavemore
purposeandsignificance.Hisageismarkedbyasteadyincreaseinthe
nationalpowerathomeandabroad,bytheentranceoftheReformation"bya
sidedoor,"andbythefinalseparationofEnglandfromallecclesiastical
bondageinParliament'sfamousActofSupremacy.Inpreviousreigns
chivalryandtheoldfeudalsystemhadpracticallybeenbanished;now
monasticism,thethirdmedivalinstitutionwithitsmixedevilandgood,
receiveditsdeathblowinthewholesalesuppressionofthemonasteriesand
theremovalofabbotsfromtheHouseofLords.Notwithstandingtheevil
characterofthekingandthehypocrisyofproclaimingsuchacreaturethe

headofanychurchorthedefenderofanyfaith,weacquiescesilentlyin
Stubb'sdeclaration[105]that"theworldowessomeofitsgreatestdebtsto
menfromwhosememorytheworldrecoils."
WhileEnglandduringthisperiodwasinconstantpoliticalstrife,yet
risingslowly,likethespiralflightofaneagle,toheightsofnational
greatness,intellectuallyitmovedforwardwithbewilderingrapidity.
PrintingwasbroughttoEnglandbyCaxton(_c_.1476),andforthefirst
timeinhistoryitwaspossibleforabookoranideatoreachthewhole
nation.Schoolsanduniversitieswereestablishedinplaceoftheold
monasteries;GreekideasandGreekculturecametoEnglandinthe
Renaissance,andman'sspiritualfreedomwasproclaimedintheReformation.
Thegreatnamesoftheperiodarenumerousandsignificant,butliterature
isstrangelysilent.Probablytheveryturmoiloftheagepreventedany
literarydevelopment,forliteratureisoneoftheartsofpeace;it
requiresquietandmeditationratherthanactivity,andthestirringlife
oftheRenaissancehadfirsttobelivedbeforeitcouldexpressitselfin
thenewliteratureoftheElizabethanperiod.
THEREVIVALOFLEARNING.TheRevivalofLearningdenotes,initsbroadest
sense,thatgradualenlightenmentofthehumanmindafterthedarknessof
theMiddleAges.ThenamesRenaissanceandHumanism,whichareoften
appliedtothesamemovement,haveproperlyanarrowersignificance.The
termRenaissance,thoughusedbymanywriters"todenotethewhole
transitionfromtheMiddleAgestothemodernworld,"[106]ismore
correctlyappliedtotherevivalofartresultingfromthediscoveryand
imitationofclassicmodelsinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.
Humanismappliestotherevivalofclassicliterature,andwassocalledby
itsleaders,followingtheexampleofPetrarch,becausetheyheldthatthe
studyoftheclassics,_literaehumaniores_,i.e.the"morehuman
writings,"ratherthantheoldtheology,wasthebestmeansofpromoting
thelargesthumaninterests.WeusethetermRevivalofLearningtocover
thewholemovement,whoseessencewas,accordingtoLamartine,that"man
discoveredhimselfandtheuniverse,"and,accordingtoTaine,thatman,so
longblinded,"hadsuddenlyopenedhiseyesandseen."
WeshallunderstandthisbetterifwerememberthatintheMiddleAges
man'swholeworldconsistedofthenarrowMediterraneanandthenations
thatclusteredaboutit;andthatthislittleworldseemedboundedby
impassablebarriers,asifGodhadsaidtotheirsailors,"Hithertoshalt
thoucome,butnofarther."Man'smindalsowasboundedbythesamenarrow
lines.Hiscultureasmeasuredbythegreatdeductivesystemof
Scholasticismconsistednotindiscovery,butratherinacceptingcertain
principlesandtraditionsestablishedbydivineandecclesiastical
authorityasthebasisofalltruth.ThesewerehisPillarsofHercules,
hismentalandspiritualboundsthathemustnotpass,andwithinthese,
likeachildplayingwithletteredblocks,heproceededtobuildhis
intellectualsystem.Onlyasweremembertheirlimitationscanwe
appreciatetheheroismofthesetoilersoftheMiddleAges,giantsin
intellect,yetplayingwithchildren'stoys;ignorantofthelawsand
forcesoftheuniverse,whiledebatingtheessenceandlocomotionof
angels;eagertolearn,yetforbiddentoenterfreshfieldsintherightof
freeexplorationandthejoyofindividualdiscovery.
TheRevivalstirredthesemenasthevoyagesofDaGamaandColumbus
stirredthemarinersoftheMediterranean.Firstcamethesciencesand
inventionsoftheArabs,makingtheirwayslowlyagainsttheprejudiceof
theauthorities,andopeningmen'seyestotheunexploredrealmsofnature.
ThencamethefloodofGreekliteraturewhichthenewartofprinting
carriedswiftlytoeveryschoolinEurope,revealinganewworldofpoetry
andphilosophy.Scholarsflockedtotheuniversities,asadventurerstothe
newworldofAmerica,andtheretheoldauthorityreceivedadeathblow.
Truthonlywasauthority;tosearchfortrutheverywhere,asmensoughtfor
newlandsandgoldandthefountainofyouth,thatwasthenewspirit
whichawokeinEuropewiththeRevivalofLearning.

II.LITERATUREOFTHEREVIVAL
ThehundredandfiftyyearsoftheRevivalperiodaresingularlydestitute
ofgoodliterature.Men'smindsweretoomuchoccupiedwithreligiousand
politicalchangesandwiththerapidenlargementofthementalhorizonto
findtimeforthatpeaceandleisurewhichareessentialforliterary
results.Perhaps,also,thefloodsofnewlydiscoveredclassics,which
occupiedscholarsandthenewprintingpressesalike,werebytheirvery
powerandabundanceadiscouragementofnativetalent.RogerAscham
(15151568),afamousclassicalscholar,whopublishedabookcalled
_Toxophilus_(SchoolofShooting)in1545,expressesinhispreface,or
"apology,"averywidespreaddissatisfactionovertheneglectofnative
literaturewhenhesays,"AndasforyeLatinorgreketongue,everything
issoexcellentlydoneinthem,thatnonecandobetter:IntheEnglysh
tongecontrary,everythingeinamanersomeanly,bothforthematterand
handelynge,thatnomancandoworse."
OntheContinent,also,thisnewinterestintheclassicsservedtocheck
thegrowthofnativeliteratures.InItalyespecially,forafullcentury
afterthebrilliantageofDanteandPetrarch,nogreatliteraturewas
produced,andtheItalianlanguageitselfseemedtogobackward.[107]The
truthisthatthesegreatwriterswere,likeChaucer,farinadvanceof
theirage,andthatthemedivalmindwastoonarrow,tooscantily
furnishedwithideastoproduceavariedliterature.Thefifteenthcentury
wasanageofpreparation,oflearningthebeginningsofscience,andof
gettingacquaintedwiththegreatideals,thesternlaw,theprofound
philosophy,thesuggestivemythology,andthenoblepoetryoftheGreeks
andRomans.Sothemindwasfurnishedwithideasforanewliterature.
WiththeexceptionofMalory's_Morted'Arthur_(whichisstillmedivalin
spirit)thestudentwillfindlittleofinterestintheliteratureofthis
period.Wegivehereabriefsummaryofthemenandthebooksmost"worthy
ofremembrance";butfortherealliteratureoftheRenaissanceonemustgo
forwardacenturyandahalftotheageofElizabeth.
ThetwogreatestbookswhichappearedinEnglandduringthisperiodare
undoubtedlyErasmus's[108]_PraiseofFolly_(_EncomiumMoriae_)andMore's
_Utopia_,thefamous"KingdomofNowhere."BothwerewritteninLatin,but
werespeedilytranslatedintoallEuropeanlanguages.The_PraiseofFolly_
islikeasongofvictoryfortheNewLearning,whichhaddrivenawayvice,
ignorance,andsuperstition,thethreefoesofhumanity.Itwaspublished
in1511aftertheaccessionofHenryVIII.Follyisrepresentedasdonning
capandbellsandmountingapulpit,wheretheviceandcrueltyofkings,
theselfishnessandignoranceoftheclergy,andthefoolishstandardsof
educationaresatirizedwithoutmercy.
More's_Utopia_,publishedin1516,isapowerfulandoriginalstudyof
socialconditions,unlikeanythingwhichhadeverappearedinany
literature.[109]InourowndaywehaveseenitsinfluenceinBellamy's
_LookingBackward_,anenormouslysuccessfulbook,whichrecentlyset
peopletothinkingoftheunnecessarycrueltyofmodernsocialconditions.
Morelearnsfromasailor,oneofAmerigoVespucci'scompanions,ofa
wonderfulKingdomofNowhere,inwhichallquestionsoflabor,government,
society,andreligionhavebeeneasilysettledbysimplejusticeandcommon
sense.Inthis_Utopia_wefindforthefirsttime,asthefoundationsof
civilizedsociety,thethreegreatwords,Liberty,Fraternity,Equality,
whichretainedtheirinspirationthroughalltheviolenceoftheFrench
Revolutionandwhicharestilltheunrealizedidealofeveryfree
government.AshehearsofthiswonderfulcountryMorewonderswhy,after
fifteencenturiesofChristianity,hisownlandissolittlecivilized;and
aswereadthebooktodayweaskourselvesthesamequestion.Thesplendid
dreamisstillfarfrombeingrealized;yetitseemsasifanynationcould
becomeUtopiainasinglegeneration,sosimpleandjustarethe

requirements.
Greaterthaneitherofthesebooks,initsinfluenceuponthecommon
people,isTyndale'stranslationoftheNewTestament(1525),whichfixeda
standardofgoodEnglish,andatthesametimebroughtthatstandardnot
onlytoscholarsbuttothehomesofthecommonpeople.Tyndalemadehis
translationfromtheoriginalGreek,andlatertranslatedpartsoftheOld
TestamentfromtheHebrew.MuchofTyndale'sworkwasincludedinCranmer's
Bible,knownalsoastheGreatBible,in1539,andwasreadineveryparish
churchinEngland.ItwasthefoundationfortheAuthorizedVersion,which
appearednearlyacenturylaterandbecamethestandardforthewhole
Englishspeakingrace.
WYATTANDSURREY.In1557appearedprobablythefirstprintedcollectionof
miscellaneousEnglishpoems,knownas_Tottel'sMiscellany_.Itcontained
theworkofthesocalledcourtlymakers,orpoets,whichhadhitherto
circulatedinmanuscriptformforthebenefitofthecourt.Abouthalfof
thesepoemsweretheworkofSirThomasWyatt(1503?1542)andofHenry
Howard,EarlofSurrey(1517?1547).Bothtogetherwroteamoroussonnets
modeledaftertheItalians,introducinganewverseformwhich,although
verydifficult,hasbeenafavoriteeversincewithourEnglishpoets.[110]
Surreyisnoted,notforanyespecialworthororiginalityofhisown
poems,butratherforhistranslationoftwobooksofVirgil"instrange
meter."Thestrangemeterwastheblankverse,whichhadneverbefore
appearedinEnglish.Thechiefliteraryworkofthesetwomen,therefore,
istointroducethesonnetandtheblankverse,onethemostdainty,the
otherthemostflexibleandcharacteristicformofEnglishpoetry,which
inthehandsofShakespeareandMiltonwereusedtomaketheworld's
masterpieces.
MALORY'SMORTED'ARTHUR.ThegreatestEnglishworkofthisperiod,measured
byitseffectonsubsequentliterature,isundoubtedlythe_Morte
d'Arthur_,acollectionoftheArthurianromancestoldinsimpleandvivid
prose.OfSirThomasMalory,theauthor,Caxton[111]inhisintroduction
saysthathewasaknight,andcompletedhisworkin1470,fifteenyears
beforeCaxtonprintedit.Therecordaddsthat"hewastheservantofJesu
bothbydayandnight."Beyondthatweknowlittle[112]exceptwhatmaybe
inferredfromthesplendidworkitself.
MalorygroupsthelegendsaboutthecentralideaofthesearchfortheHoly
Grail.Thoughmanyofthestories,likeTristramandIsolde,arepurely
pagan,Malorytreatsthemallinsuchawayastopreservethewholespirit
ofmedivalChristianityasithasbeenpreservedinnootherwork.Itwas
toMaloryratherthantoLayamonortotheearlyFrenchwritersthat
Shakespeareandhiscontemporariesturnedfortheirmaterial;andinour
ownagehehassuppliedTennysonandMatthewArnoldandSwinburneand
Morriswiththeinspirationforthe"IdyllsoftheKing"andthe"Deathof
Tristram"andtheotherexquisitepoemswhichcenteraboutArthurandthe
knightsofhisRoundTable.
Insubjectmatterthebookbelongstothemedivalage;butMaloryhimself,
withhisdesiretopreservetheliterarymonumentsofthepast,belongsto
theRenaissance;andhedeservesourlastinggratitudeforattemptingto
preservethelegendsandpoetryofBritainatatimewhenscholarswere
chieflybusywiththeclassicsofGreeceandRome.AstheArthurianlegends
areoneofthegreatrecurringmotivesofEnglishliterature,Malory'swork
shouldbebetterknown.Hisstoriesmaybeandshouldbetoldtoevery
childaspartofhisliteraryinheritance.ThenMalorymaybereadforhis
styleandhisEnglishproseandhisexpressionofthemedivalspirit.And
thenthestoriesmaybereadagain,inTennyson's"Idylls,"toshowhow
thoseexquisiteoldfanciesappealtothemindsofourmodernpoets.
SUMMARYOFTHEREVIVALOFLEARNINGPERIOD.Thistransitionperiodisat
firstoneofdeclinefromtheAgeofChaucer,andthenofintellectual

preparationfortheAgeofElizabeth.Foracenturyandahalfafter
ChaucernotasinglegreatEnglishworkappeared,andthegeneralstandard
ofliteraturewasverylow.Therearethreechiefcausestoaccountfor
this:(1)thelongwarwithFranceandthecivilWarsoftheRoses
distractedattentionfrombooksandpoetry,anddestroyedofruinedmany
nobleEnglishfamilieswhohadbeenfriendsandpatronsofliterature;(2)
theReformationinthelatterpartoftheperiodfilledmen'smindswith
religiousquestions;(3)theRevivalofLearningsetscholarsandliterary
mentoaneagerstudyoftheclassics,ratherthantothecreationof
nativeliterature.Historicallytheageisnoticeableforitsintellectual
progress,fortheintroductionofprinting,forthediscoveryofAmerica,
forthebeginningoftheReformation,andforthegrowthofpoliticalpower
amongthecommonpeople.
Inourstudywehavenoted:(1)theRevivalofLearning,whatitwas,and
thesignificanceofthetermsHumanismandRenaissance;(2)three
influentialliteraryworks,Erasmus's_PraiseofFolly_,More's_Utopia_,
andTyndale'stranslationoftheNewTestament;(3)WyattandSurrey,and
thesocalledcourtlymakersorpoets;(4)Malory's_Morted'Arthur_,a
collectionoftheArthurianlegendsinEnglishprose.TheMiracleand
MysteryPlayswerethemostpopularformofentertainmentinthisage;but
wehavereservedthemforspecialstudyinconnectionwiththeRiseofthe
Drama,inthefollowingchapter.
SELECTIONSFORREADING.Malory'sMorted'Arthur,selections,inAthenaeum
PressSeries,etc.(ItisinterestingtoreadTennyson'sPassingofArthur
inconnectionwithMalory'saccount.)Utopia,inArber'sReprints,Temple
Classics,King'sClassics,etc.SelectionsfromWyatt,Surrey,etc.,in
Manly'sEnglishPoetryorWard'sEnglishPoets;Tottel'sMiscellany,in
Arber'sReprints.MorrisandSkeat'sSpecimensofEarlyEnglish,vol.3,
hasgoodselectionsfromthisperiod.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[113]
_HISTORY.Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.150208,orCheyney,pp.264328.
Greene,ch.6;Traill;Gardiner;Froude;etc.
_SpecialWorks_.Denton'sEnglandintheFifteenthCentury;Flower'sThe
CenturyofSirThomasMore;TheHouseholdofSirThomasMore,inKing's
Classics;Green'sTownLifeintheFifteenthCentury;Field'sIntroduction
totheStudyoftheRenaissance;Einstein'sTheItalianRenaissancein
England;Seebohm'sTheOxfordReformers(Erasmus,More,etc.).
_LITERATURE.GeneralWorks_.Jusserand;TenBrink;Minto'sCharacteristics
ofEnglishPoets.
_SpecialWorks_.Saintsbury'sElizabethanLiterature;Malory'sMorte
d'Arthur,editedbySommer;thesamebyGollancz(TempleClassics);
Lanier'sTheBoy'sKingArthur;More'sUtopia,inTempleClassics,King's
Classics,etc.;Roper'sLifeofSirThomasMore,inKing'sClassics,Temple
Classics,etc.;Ascham'sSchoolmaster,inArber'sEnglishReprints;Poems
ofWyattandSurrey,inEnglishReprintsandBell'sAldinePoets;Simonds's
SirThomasWyattandHisPoems;Allen'sSelectionsfromErasmus;
Jusserand'sRomanceofaKing'sLife(JamesIofScotland)contains
extractsandanadmirablecriticismoftheKing'sQuair.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.1.ThefifteenthcenturyinEnglishliteratureis
sometimescalled"theageofarrest."Canyouexplainwhy?Whatcauses
accountforthelackofgreatliteratureinthisperiod?Whyshouldthe
ruinofnoblefamiliesatthistimeseriouslyaffectourliterature?Can
yourecallanythingfromtheAngloSaxonperiodtojustifyyouropinion?
2.WhatismeantbyHumanism?Whatwasthefirsteffectofthestudyof
GreekandLatinclassicsuponourliterature?Whatexcellentliterary
purposesdidtheclassicsserveinlaterperiods?

3.Whatarethechiefbenefitstoliteratureofthediscoveryofprinting?
Whateffectoncivilizationhasthemultiplicationofbooks?
4.DescribeMore's_Utopia_.Doyouknowanymodernbookslikeit?Why
shouldanyimpracticalschemeofprogressbestillcalledUtopian?
5.WhatworkofthisperiodhadthegreatesteffectontheEnglish
language?Explainwhy.
6.WhatwasthechiefliteraryinfluenceexertedbyWyattandSurrey?Do
youknowanylaterpoetswhomadeuseoftheverseformswhichthey
introduced?
7.WhichofMalory'sstoriesdoyoulikebest?Wheredidthesestories
originate?Havetheyanyhistoricalfoundation?Whattwogreatelementsdid
Malorycombineinhiswork?Whatistheimportanceofhisbooktolater
Englishliterature?CompareTennyson's"IdyllsoftheKing"andMalory's
storieswithregardtomaterial,expression,andinterest.Notethemarked
resemblancesanddifferencesbetweenthe_Morted'Arthur_andthe
_NibelungenLied_.
CHRONOLOGY
===========================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

1413.HenryV|
1415.BattleofAgincourt|
1422.HenryVI|1470.Malory'sMorted'Arthur
1428.SiegeofOrleans.JoanofArc|1474(c).Caxton,atBruges,
1453.EndofHundredYear'sWar|printsthefirstbookin
14551485.WarofRoses|English,theRecuyellofthe
1461.EdwardIV|HistoriesofTroye
1483.RichardIII|1477.Firstbookprintedin
|England
1485.HenryVII|1485.Morted'Arthurprinted
|byCaxton
1492.ColumbusdiscoversAmerica|1499.Colet,Erasmus,andMore
1509.HenryVIII|bringtheNewLearningto
|Oxford
|1509.Erasmus'sPraiseof
|Folly
|1516.More'sUtopia
|1525.Tydale'sNewTestament
1534.ActofSupremacy.The|1530(c).Introductionofthe
Reformationaccomplished|sonnetandblankverseby
|WyattandSurrey
|1539.TheGreatBible
1547.EdwardVI|
1553.Mary|1557.Tottel'sMiscellany
1558.Elizabeth|
===========================================================================
*****

CHAPTERVI
THEAGEOFELIZABETH(15501620)
I.HISTORYOFTHEPERIOD
POLITICALSUMMARY.IntheAgeofElizabethalldoubtseemstovanishfrom
Englishhistory.AfterthereignsofEdwardandMary,withdefeatand

humiliationabroadandpersecutionsandrebellionathome,theaccessionof
apopularsovereignwaslikethesunriseafteralongnight,and,in
Milton'swords,wesuddenlyseeEngland,"anobleandpuissantnation,
rousingherself,likeastrongmanaftersleep,andshakingherinvincible
locks."Withthequeen'scharacter,astrangeminglingoffrivolityand
strengthwhichremindsoneofthatironimagewithfeetofclay,wehave
nothingwhatevertodo.Itisthenationallifethatconcernstheliterary
student,sinceevenabeginnermustnoticethatanygreatdevelopmentof
thenationallifeisinvariablyassociatedwithadevelopmentofthe
nationalliterature.Itisenoughforourpurpose,therefore,topointout
twofacts:thatElizabeth,withallhervanityandinconsistency,steadily
lovedEnglandandEngland'sgreatness;andthatsheinspiredallherpeople
withtheunboundedpatriotismwhichexultsinShakespeare,andwiththe
personaldevotionwhichfindsavoiceinthe_FaeryQueen_.Underher
administrationtheEnglishnationallifeprogressedbygiganticleaps
ratherthanbyslowhistoricalprocess,andEnglishliteraturereachedthe
veryhighestpointofitsdevelopment.Itispossibletoindicateonlya
fewgeneralcharacteristicsofthisgreatagewhichhadadirectbearing
uponitsliterature.
CHARACTERISTICSOFTHEELIZABETHANAGE.Themostcharacteristicfeatureof
theagewasthecomparativereligioustolerance,whichwasduelargelyto
thequeen'sinfluence.Thefrightfulexcessesofthereligiouswarknownas
theThirtyYears'WarontheContinentfoundnoparallelinEngland.Upon
heraccessionElizabethfoundthewholekingdomdividedagainstitself;the
NorthwaslargelyCatholic,whilethesoutherncountieswereasstrongly
Protestant.ScotlandhadfollowedtheReformationinitsownintenseway,
whileIrelandremainedtruetoitsoldreligioustraditions,andboth
countrieswereopenlyrebellious.Thecourt,madeupofbothparties,
witnessedtherivalintriguesofthosewhosoughttogaintheroyalfavor.
Itwasduepartlytotheintenseabsorptionofmen'smindsinreligious
questionsthattheprecedingcentury,thoughanageofadvancinglearning,
producedscarcelyanyliteratureworthyofthename.Elizabethfavoredboth
religiousparties,andpresentlytheworldsawwithamazementCatholicsand
Protestantsactingtogetherastrustedcounselorsofagreatsovereign.The
defeatoftheSpanishArmadaestablishedtheReformationasafactin
England,andatthesametimeunitedallEnglishmeninamagnificent
nationalenthusiasm.ForthefirsttimesincetheReformationbegan,the
fundamentalquestionofreligioustolerationseemedtobesettled,andthe
mindofman,freedfromreligiousfearsandpersecutions,turnedwitha
greatcreativeimpulsetootherformsofactivity.Itispartlyfromthis
newfreedomofthemindthattheAgeofElizabethreceiveditsgreat
literarystimulus.
2.Itwasanageofcomparativesocialcontentment,instrongcontrastwith
thedaysofLangland.Therapidincreaseofmanufacturingtownsgave
employmenttothousandswhohadbeforebeenidleanddiscontented.
IncreasingtradebroughtenormouswealthtoEngland,andthiswealthwas
sharedtothisextent,atleast,thatforthefirsttimesomesystematic
carefortheneedywasattempted.Parishesweremaderesponsiblefortheir
ownpoor,andthewealthyweretaxedtosupportthemorgivethem
employment.Theincreaseofwealth,theimprovementinliving,the
opportunitiesforlabor,thenewsocialcontentthesealsoarefactors
whichhelptoaccountforthenewliteraryactivity.
3.Itisanageofdreams,ofadventure,ofunboundedenthusiasmspringing
fromthenewlandsoffabulousrichesrevealedbyEnglishexplorers.Drake
sailsaroundtheworld,shapingthemightycoursewhichEnglishcolonizers
shallfollowthroughthecenturies;andpresentlytheyoungphilosopher
Baconissayingconfidently,"Ihavetakenallknowledgeformyprovince."
Themindmustsearchfartherthantheeye;withnew,richlandsopenedto
thesight,theimaginationmustcreatenewformstopeoplethenewworlds.
Hakluyt'sfamous_CollectionofVoyages_,and_Purchas,HisPilgrimage_,
wereevenmorestimulatingtotheEnglishimaginationthantotheEnglish
acquisitiveness.WhileherexplorerssearchthenewworldfortheFountain

ofYouth,herpoetsarecreatingliteraryworksthatareyoungforever.
Marstonwrites:[114]"Why,man,alltheirdrippingpansarepuregold.The
prisonerstheytakearefetteredingold;andasforrubiesanddiamonds,
theygoeforthonholydayesandgather'hembytheseashoretohangon
theirchildren'scoates."Thiscomesnearertobeingadescriptionof
Shakespeare'spoetrythanoftheIndiansinVirginia.Prospero,in_The
Tempest_,withhiscontroloverthemightypowersandharmoniesofnature,
isonlytheliterarydreamofthatsciencewhichhadjustbeguntograpple
withtheforcesoftheuniverse.Cabot,Drake,Frobisher,Gilbert,Raleigh,
Willoughby,Hawkins,ascoreofexplorersrevealanewearthtomen's
eyes,andinstantlyliteraturecreatesanewheaventomatchit.Sodreams
anddeedsincreasesidebyside,andthedreamisevergreaterthanthe
deed.Thatisthemeaningofliterature.
4.Tosumup,theAgeofElizabethwasatimeofintellectualliberty,of
growingintelligenceandcomfortamongallclasses,ofunbounded
patriotism,andofpeaceathomeandabroad.Foraparallelwemustgoback
totheAgeofPericlesinAthens,orofAugustusinRome,orgoforwarda
littletothemagnificentcourtofLouisXIV,whenCorneille,Racine,and
MolirebroughtthedramainFrancetothepointwhereMarlowe,
Shakespeare,andJonsonhadleftitinEnglandhalfacenturyearlier.Such
anageofgreatthoughtandgreataction,appealingtotheeyesaswellas
totheimaginationandintellect,findsbutoneadequateliterary
expression;neitherpoetrynorthestorycanexpressthewholeman,his
thought,feeling,action,andtheresultingcharacter;henceintheAgeof
Elizabethliteratureturnedinstinctivelytothedramaandbroughtit
rapidlytothehigheststageofitsdevelopment.
II.THENONDRAMATICPOETSOFTHEELIZABETHANAGE
EDMUNDSPENSER(15521599)
_(Cuddie)_
"Piers,Ihavepipderstsolongwithpain
Thatallmineoatenreedsbeenrentandwore,
AndmypoorMusehathspentherspardstore,
Yetlittlegoodhathgot,andmuchlessgain.
Suchpleasauncemakesthegrasshoppersopoor,
Andliggesolayd[115]whenwinterdothherstrain.
ThedapperdittiesthatIwontdevise,
Tofeedyouth'sfancy,andtheflockingfry
DelghtenmuchwhatIthebetforthy?
Theyhanthepleasure,Iaslenderprize:
Ibeatthebush,thebirdstothemdofly:
WhatgoodthereoftoCuddiecanarise?
(_Piers_)
Cuddie,thepraiseisbetterthantheprice,
Thegloryekemuchgreaterthanthegain:..."
_Shepherd'sCalendar_,October
Inthesewords,withtheirsorrowfulsuggestionofDeor,Spenserreveals
hisownheart,unconsciouslyperhaps,asnobiographercouldpossiblydo.
Hislifeandworkseemtocenteraboutthreegreatinfluences,summedupin
threenames:Cambridge,wherehegrewacquaintedwiththeclassicsandthe
Italianpoets;London,whereheexperiencedtheglamourandthe
disappointmentofcourtlife;andIreland,whichsteepedhiminthebeauty
andimageryofoldCelticpoetryandfirstgavehimleisuretowritehis
masterpiece.
LIFE.OfSpenser'searlylifeandparentageweknowlittle,exceptthathe
wasborninEastSmithfield,neartheTowerofLondon,andwaspoor.His
educationbeganattheMerchantTailors'SchoolinLondonandwascontinued
inCambridge,whereasapoorsizarandfagforwealthystudentsheearned
ascantliving.Hereinthegloriousworldthatonlyapoorscholarknows

howtocreateforhimselfhereadtheclassics,madeacquaintancewiththe
greatItalianpoets,andwrotenumberlesslittlepoemsofhisown.Though
Chaucerwashisbelovedmaster,hisambitionwasnottorivalthe
_CanterburyTales_,butrathertoexpressthedreamofEnglishchivalry,
muchasAriostohaddoneforItalyin_OrlandoFurioso_.
AfterleavingCambridge(1576)SpenserwenttothenorthofEngland,on
someunknownworkorquest.Herehischiefoccupationwastofallinlove
andtorecordhismelancholyoverthelostRosalindinthe_Shepherd's
Calendar_.UponhisfriendHarvey'sadvicehecametoLondon,bringinghis
poems;andherehemetLeicester,thenattheheightofroyalfavor,and
thelattertookhimtoliveatLeicesterHouse.Herehefinishedthe
_Shepherd'sCalendar_,andherehemetSidneyandallthequeen's
favorites.Thecourtwasfullofintrigues,lyingandflattery,and
Spenser'sopinionofhisownuncomfortablepositionisbestexpressedina
fewlinesfrom"MotherHubbard'sTale":
Fulllittleknowestthou,thathasnottried,
Whathellitis,insuinglongtobide:
Tolosegooddays,thatmightbebetterspent;
Towastelongnightsinpensivediscontent;
*****
Tofretthysoulwithcrossesandwithcares;
Toeatthyheartthroughcomfortlessdespairs;
Tofawn,tocrouch,towait,toride,torun,
Tospend,togive,towant,tobeundone.
In1580,throughLeicester'sinfluence,Spenser,whowasutterlywearyof
hisdependentposition,wasmadesecretarytoLordGrey,thequeen'sdeputy
inIreland,andthethirdperiodofhislifebegan.Heaccompaniedhis
chiefthroughonecampaignofsavagebrutalityinputtingdownanIrish
rebellion,andwasgivenanimmenseestatewiththecastleofKilcolman,in
Munster,whichhadbeenconfiscatedfromEarlDesmond,oneoftheIrish
leaders.Hislifehere,whereaccordingtothetermsofhisgranthemust
resideasanEnglishsettler,heregardedaslonelyexile:
Mylucklesslot,
Thatbanishedhadmyself,likewightforlore,
Intothatwaste,whereIwasquiteforgot.
Itisinterestingtonotehereagentlepoet'sviewofthe"unhappy
island."Afternearlysixteenyears'residencehewrotehis_Viewofthe
StateofIreland_(1596),[116]hisonlyprosework,inwhichhesubmitsa
planfor"pacifyingtheoppressedandrebelliouspeople."Thiswastobring
ahugeforceofcavalryandinfantryintothecountry,givetheIrisha
brieftimetosubmit,andafterthattohuntthemdownlikewildbeasts.He
calculatedthatcold,famine,andsicknesswouldhelptheworkofthe
sword,andthataftertherebelshadbeenwellhoundedfortwowintersthe
followingsummerwouldfindthecountrypeaceful.Thisplan,fromthepoet
ofharmonyandbeauty,wassomewhatmilderthantheusualtreatmentofa
bravepeoplewhoseoffensewasthattheylovedlibertyandreligion.
Strangeasitmayseem,the_View_wasconsideredmoststatesmanlike,and
wasexcellentlywellreceivedinEngland.
InKilcolman,surroundedbygreatnaturalbeauty,Spenserfinishedthe
firstthreebooksofthe_FaeryQueen_.In1589Raleighvisitedhim,heard
thepoemwithenthusiasm,hurriedthepoetofftoLondon,andpresentedhim
toElizabeth.Thefirstthreebooksmetwithinstantsuccesswhenpublished
andwereacclaimedasthegreatestworkintheEnglishlanguage.Ayearly
pensionoffiftypoundswasconferredbyElizabeth,butrarelypaid,and
thepoetturnedbacktoexile,thatis,toIrelandagain.
Soonafterhisreturn,SpenserfellinlovewithhisbeautifulElizabeth,
anIrishgirl;wrotehis_Amoretti_,orsonnets,inherhonor;and
afterwardsrepresentedher,inthe_FaeryQueen_,asthebeautifulwoman

dancingamongtheGraces.In1594hemarriedElizabeth,celebratinghis
weddingwithhis"Epithalamion,"oneofthemostbeautifulweddinghymnsin
anylanguage.
Spenser'snextvisittoLondonwasin1595,whenhepublished"Astrophel,"
anelegyonthedeathofhisfriendSidney,andthreemorebooksofthe
_FaeryQueen_.OnthisvisithelivedagainatLeicesterHouse,now
occupiedbythenewfavoriteEssex,whereheprobablymetShakespeareand
theotherliterarylightsoftheElizabethanAge.Soonafterhisreturnto
Ireland,SpenserwasappointedSheriffofCork,aqueerofficeforapoet,
whichprobablybroughtabouthisundoing.ThesameyearTyrone'sRebellion
brokeoutinMunster.Kilcolman,theancienthouseofDesmond,wasoneof
thefirstplacesattackedbytherebels,andSpenserbarelyescapedwith
hiswifeandtwochildren.Itissupposedthatsomeunfinishedpartsofthe
_FaeryQueen_wereburnedinthecastle.
FromtheshockofthisfrightfulexperienceSpenserneverrecovered.He
returnedtoEnglandheartbroken,andinthefollowingyear(1599)hedied
inaninnatWestminster.AccordingtoBenJonsonhedied"forwantof
bread";butwhetherthatisapoeticwayofsayingthathehadlosthis
propertyorthatheactuallydiedofdestitution,willprobablyneverbe
known.HewasburiedbesidehismasterChaucerinWestminsterAbbey,the
poetsofthatagethrongingtohisfuneraland,accordingtoCamden,
"castingtheirelegiesandthepensthathadwrittenthemintohistomb."
SPENSER'SWORKS._TheFaeryQueen_isthegreatworkuponwhichthepoet's
famechieflyrests.Theoriginalplanofthepoemincludedtwentyfour
books,eachofwhichwastorecounttheadventureandtriumphofaknight
whorepresentedamoralvirtue.Spenser'spurpose,asindicatedinaletter
toRaleighwhichintroducesthepoem,isasfollows:
TopourtraictinArthure,beforehewasking,theimageofabraveKnight,
perfectedinthetwelveprivateMorallVertues,asAristotlehathdevised;
whichisthepurposeofthesefirsttwelvebookes:whichifIfindetobe
wellaccepted,Imaybeperhapsencoragedtoframetheotherpartof
PollitickeVertuesinhisperson,afterthatheecametobeking.
EachoftheVirtuesappearsasaknight,fightinghisopposingVice,and
thepoemtellsthestoryoftheconflicts.Itisthereforepurely
allegorical,notonlyinitspersonifiedvirtuesbutalsoinits
representationoflifeasastrugglebetweengoodandevil.Initsstrong
moralelementthepoemdiffersradicallyfrom_OrlandoFurioso_,uponwhich
itwasmodeled.Spensercompletedonlysixbooks,celebratingHoliness,
Temperance,Chastity,Friendship,Justice,andCourtesy.Wehavealsoa
fragmentoftheseventh,treatingofConstancy;buttherestofthisbook
wasnotwritten,orelsewaslostinthefireatKilcolman.Thefirstthree
booksarebyfarthebest;andjudgingbythewaytheinterestlagsandthe
allegorygrowsincomprehensible,itisperhapsaswellforSpenser's
reputationthattheothereighteenbooksremainedadream.
ARGUMENTOFTHEFAERYQUEEN.Fromtheintroductoryletterwelearnthatthe
herovisitsthequeen'scourtinFairyLand,whilesheisholdinga
twelvedaysfestival.Oneachdaysomedistressedpersonappears
unexpectedly,tellsawofulstoryofdragons,ofenchantresses,orof
distressedbeautyorvirtue,andasksforachampiontorightthewrongand
tolettheoppressedgofree.Sometimesaknightvolunteersorbegsforthe
dangerousmission;againthedutyisassignedbythequeen;andthe
journeysandadventuresoftheseknightsarethesubjectsoftheseveral
books.ThefirstrecountstheadventuresoftheRedcrossKnight,
representingHoliness,andtheladyUna,representingReligion.Their
contestsaresymbolicaloftheworldwidestrugglebetweenvirtueandfaith
ontheonehand,andsinandheresyontheother.Thesecondbooktellsthe
storyofSirGuyon,orTemperance;thethird,ofBritomartis,representing
Chastity;thefourth,fifth,andsixth,ofCambelandTriamond
(Friendship),Artegall(Justice),andSirCalidore(Courtesy).Spenser's

planwasaveryelasticoneandhefilledupthemeasureofhisnarrative
witheverythingthatcaughthisfancy,historicaleventsandpersonages
underallegoricalmasks,beautifulladies,chivalrousknights,giants,
monsters,dragons,sirens,enchanters,andadventuresenoughtostocka
libraryoffiction.IfyoureadHomerorVirgil,youknowhissubjectin
thefirststrongline;ifyoureadCdmon's_Paraphrase_orMilton'sepic,
theintroductiongivesyouthetheme;butSpenser'sgreatpoemwiththe
exceptionofasinglelineintheprologue,"Fiercewarresandfaithfull
lovesshallmoralizemysong"giveshardlyahintofwhatiscoming.
Astothemeaningoftheallegoricalfigures,oneisgenerallyindoubt.In
thefirstthreebookstheshadowyFaeryQueensometimesrepresentsthe
gloryofGodandsometimesElizabeth,whowasnaturallyflatteredbythe
parallel.BritomartisisalsoElizabeth.TheRedcrossKnightisSidney,the
modelEnglishman.Arthur,whoalwaysappearstorescuetheoppressed,is
Leicester,whichisanotheroutrageousflattery.Unaissometimesreligion
andsometimestheProtestantChurch;whileDuessarepresentsMaryQueenof
Scots,orgeneralCatholicism.InthelastthreebooksElizabethappears
againasMercilla;HenryIVofFranceasBourbon;thewarinthe
NetherlandsasthestoryofLadyBelge;RaleighasTimias;theearlsof
NorthumberlandandWestmoreland(loversofMaryorDuessa)asBlandamour
andParidell;andsoonthroughthewiderangeofcontemporarycharacters
andevents,tilltheallegorybecomesasdifficulttofollowasthesecond
partofGoethe's_Faust_.
POETICALFORM.Forthe_FaeryQueen_Spenserinventedanewverseform,
whichhasbeencalledsincehisdaytheSpenserianstanza.Becauseofits
rarebeautyithasbeenmuchusedbynearlyallourpoetsintheirbest
work.ThenewstanzawasanimprovedformofAriosto's_ottavarima_(i.e.
eightlinestanza)andbearsacloseresemblancetooneofChaucer'smost
musicalverseformsinthe"Monk'sTale."Spenser'sstanzaisinnine
lines,eightoffivefeeteachandthelastofsixfeet,riming
_ababbcbcc_.Afewselectionsfromthefirstbook,whichisbestworth
reading,arereproducedheretoshowthestyleandmelodyoftheverse.
AGentleKnightwasprickingontheplaine,
Ycladd[117]inmightiearmesandsilvershielde,
Whereinolddintsofdeepewoundesdidremaine
Thecruellmarkesofmanyabloodyfielde;
Yetarmestillthattimedidheneverwield:
Hisangrysteededidchidehisfomingbitt,
Asmuchdisdayningtothecurbetoyield:
Fulliolly[118]knightheseemd,andfairedidsitt,
Asoneforknightlygiusts[119]andfierceencountersfitt.
Andonhisbrestabloodiecrossehebore,
ThedeareremembranceofhisdyingLord,
Forwhosesweetesakethatgloriousbadgehewore,
Anddead,aslivingever,himador'd:
Uponhisshieldthelikewasalsoscor'd,
Forsoverainehope,whichinhishelpehehad,
Rightfaithfulltruehewasindeedeandword;
Butofhischeere[120]didseemetoosolemnesad;
Yetnothingdidhedread,buteverwasydrad.[121]
Thissleepybit,fromthedwellingofMorpheus,invitesustolinger:
And,moretolullehiminhisslumbersoft,
Atricklingstreamefromhighrocktumblingdowne,
Andeverdrizlingraineupontheloft,
Mixtwithamurmuringwinde,muchlikethesowne
Ofswarmingbees,didcasthiminaswowne.
Noothernoyse,norpeoplestroublouscryes,
Asstillarewontt'annoythewalledtowne,
Mighttherebeheard:butcarelesseQuietlyes,
Wraptineternalsilencefarrefromenimyes.

ThedescriptionofUnashowsthepoet'ssenseofidealbeauty:
Oneday,nighwearieoftheyrkesomeway,
Fromherunhastiebeastshedidalight;
Andonthegrasseherdaintylimbsdidlay
Insecreteshadow,farfromallmenssight;
Fromherfayreheadherfilletsheundight,[122]
Andlaydherstoleaside;Herangelsface,
Asthegreateyeofheaven,shyndbright,
Andmadeasunshineintheshadyplace;
Didnevermortalleyebeholdsuchheavenlygrace.
Itfortund,outofthethickestwood
Arampinglyonrushdsuddeinly,
Huntingfullgreedyaftersalvageblood:
SooneastheroyallVirginhedidspy,
Withgapingmouthatherrangreedily,
Tohaveatoncedevourdhertendercorse:
Buttothepraywhenashedrewmoreny,
Hisbloodyrageaswagedwithremorse,[123]
And,withthesightamazd,forgathisfuriousforse.
Insteadthereofhekistherweariefeet,
Andlicktherlillyhandswithfawningtong;
Asheherwrongdinnocencedidweet.[124]
Ohowcanbeautiemaisterthemoststrong,
Andsimpletruthsubdueavengingwrong!
MINORPOEMS.Nexttohismasterpiece,the_Shepherd'sCalendar_(1579)is
thebestknownofSpenser'spoems;though,ashisfirstwork,itisbelow
manyothersinmelody.Itconsistsoftwelvepastoralpoems,oreclogues,
oneforeachmonthoftheyear.Thethemesaregenerallyrurallife,
nature,loveinthefields;andthespeakersareshepherdsand
shepherdesses.ToincreasetherusticeffectSpenserusesstrangeformsof
speechandobsoletewords,tosuchanextentthatJonsoncomplainedhis
worksarenotEnglishoranyotherlanguage.Somearemelancholypoemson
hislostRosalind;somearesatiresontheclergy;one,"TheBriarandthe
Oak,"isanallegory;oneflattersElizabeth,andothersarepurefables
touchedwiththePuritanspirit.Theyarewritteninvariousstylesand
meters,andshowplainlythatSpenserwaspracticingandpreparinghimself
forgreaterwork.
Othernoteworthypoemsare"MotherHubbard'sTale,"asatireonsociety;
"Astrophel,"anelegyonthedeathofSidney;_Amoretti_,orsonnets,to
hisElizabeth;themarriagehymn,"Epithalamion,"andfour"Hymns,"on
Love,Beauty,HeavenlyLove,andHeavenlyBeauty.Therearenumerousother
poemsandcollectionsofpoems,buttheseshowthescopeofhisworkand
arebestworthreading.
IMPORTANCEOFTHESHEPHERD'SCALENDAR.Thepublicationofthiswork,in
1579,byanunknownwriterwhosignedhimselfmodestly"Immerito,"marksan
importantepochinourliterature.Weshallappreciatethisbetterifwe
rememberthelongyearsduringwhichEnglandhadbeenwithoutagreatpoet.
ChaucerandSpenserareoftenstudiedtogetheraspoetsoftheRenaissance
period,andtheideaprevailsthattheywerealmostcontemporary.Infact,
nearlytwocenturiespassedafterChaucer'sdeath,yearsofenormous
politicalandintellectualdevelopment,andnotonlydidChaucerhaveno
successorbutourlanguagehadchangedsorapidlythatEnglishmenhadlost
theabilitytoreadhislinescorrectly.[125]
ThisfirstpublishedworkofSpenserisnoteworthyinatleastfour
respects:first,itmarkstheappearanceofthefirstnationalpoetintwo
centuries;second,itshowsagainthevarietyandmelodyofEnglishverse,
whichhadbeenlargelyatraditionsinceChaucer;third,itwasourfirst
pastoral,thebeginningofalongseriesofEnglishpastoralcompositions
modeledonSpenser,andassuchexertedastronginfluenceonsubsequent

literature;andfourth,itmarkstherealbeginningoftheoutburstof
greatElizabethanpoetry.
CHARACTERISTICSOFSPENSER'SPOETRY.ThefivemainqualitiesofSpenser's
poetryare(1)aperfectmelody;(2)araresenseofbeauty;(3)asplendid
imagination,whichcouldgatherintoonepoemheroes,knights,ladies,
dwarfs,demonsanddragons,classicmythology,storiesofchivalry,andthe
throngingidealsoftheRenaissance,allpassingingorgeousprocession
acrossaneverchangingandeverbeautifullandscape;(4)aloftymoral
purityandseriousness;(5)adelicateidealism,whichcouldmakeall
natureandeverycommonthingbeautiful.Incontrastwiththeseexcellent
qualitiesthereaderwillprobablynotethestrangeappearanceofhislines
duetohisfondnessforobsoletewords,like_eyne_(eyes)and_shend_
(shame),andhistendencytocoinothers,like_mercify_,tosuithisown
purposes.
ItisSpenser'sidealism,hisloveofbeauty,andhisexquisitemelody
whichhavecausedhimtobeknownas"thepoets'poet."Nearlyallour
subsequentsingersacknowledgetheirdelightinhimandtheirindebtedness.
Macaulayaloneamongcriticsvoicesafaultwhichallwhoarenotpoets
quicklyfeel,namelythat,withallSpenser'sexcellences,heisdifficult
toread.Themodernmanloseshimselfintheconfusedallegoryofthe
_FaeryQueen_,skipsallbutthemarkedpassages,andsoftlyclosesthe
bookingentleweariness.Eventhebestofhislongerpoems,whileof
exquisiteworkmanshipanddelightfullymelodious,generallyfailtohold
thereader'sattention.Themovementislanguid;thereislittledramatic
interest,andonlyasuggestionofhumor.Theverymelodyofhisverses
sometimesgrowsmonotonous,likeaStrausswaltztoolongcontinued.We
shallbestappreciateSpenserbyreadingatfirstonlyafewwellchosen
selectionsfromthe_FaeryQueen_andthe_Shepherd'sCalendar_,andafew
oftheminorpoemswhichexemplifyhiswonderfulmelody.
COMPARISONBETWEENCHAUCERANDSPENSER.Attheoutsetitiswellto
rememberthat,thoughSpenserregardedChaucerashismaster,twocenturies
intervenebetweenthem,andthattheirwritingshavealmostnothingin
common.Weshallappreciatethisbetterbyabriefcomparisonbetweenour
firsttwomodernpoets.
Chaucerwasacombinedpoetandmanofaffairs,withthelatter
predominating.Thoughdealinglargelywithancientormedivalmaterial,he
hasacuriouslymodernwayoflookingatlife.Indeed,heisouronly
authorprecedingShakespearewithwhomwefeelthoroughlyathome.Hethrew
asidetheoutgrownmetricalromance,whichwaspracticallytheonlyformof
narrativeinhisday,inventedtheartofstorytellinginverse,and
broughtittoadegreeofperfectionwhichhasprobablyneversincebeen
equaled.Thoughastudentoftheclassics,helivedwhollyinthepresent,
studiedthemenandwomenofhisowntime,paintedthemastheywere,but
addedalwaysatouchofkindlyhumororromancetomakethemmore
interesting.Sohismissionappearstobesimplytoamusehimselfandhis
readers.Hismasteryofvariousandmelodiousversewasmarvelousandhas
neverbeensurpassedinourlanguage;buttheEnglishofhisdaywas
changingrapidly,andinaveryfewyearsmenwereunabletoappreciatehis
art,sothateventoSpenserandDryden,forexample,heseemeddeficient
inmetricalskill.Onthisaccounthisinfluenceonourliteraturehasbeen
muchlessthanweshouldexpectfromthequalityofhisworkandfromhis
positionasoneofthegreatestofEnglishpoets.
LikeChaucer,Spenserwasabusymanofaffairs,butinhimthepoetand
thescholaralwayspredominates.Hewritesastheidealist,describingmen
notastheyarebutashethinkstheyshouldbe;hehasnohumor,andhis
missionisnottoamusebuttoreform.LikeChaucerhestudiestheclassics
andcontemporaryFrenchandItalianwriters;butinsteadofadaptinghis
materialtopresentdayconditions,hemakespoetry,asinhisEcloguesfor
instance,moreartificialeventhanhisforeignmodels.WhereChaucerlooks
abouthimanddescribeslifeasheseesit,Spenseralwayslooksbackward

forhisinspiration;helivesdreamilyinthepast,inarealmofpurely
imaginaryemotionsandadventures.Hisfirstqualityisimagination,not
observation,andheisthefirstofourpoetstocreateaworldofdreams,
fancies,andillusions.Hissecondqualityisawonderfulsensitivenessto
beauty,whichshowsitselfnotonlyinhissubjectmatterbutalsointhe
mannerofhispoetry.LikeChaucer,heisanalmostperfectworkman;butin
readingChaucerwethinkchieflyofhisnaturalcharactersorhisideas,
whileinreadingSpenserwethinkofthebeautyofexpression.The
exquisiteSpenserianstanzaandtherichmelodyofSpenser'sversehave
madehimthemodelofallourmodernpoets.
MINORPOETS
ThoughSpenseristheonegreatnondramaticpoetoftheElizabethanAge,a
multitudeofminorpoetsdemandattentionofthestudentwhowould
understandthetremendousliteraryactivityoftheperiod.Oneneedsonly
toread_TheParadyseofDayntyDevises_(1576),or_AGorgeousGalleryof
GallantInventions_(1578),oranyotherofthemiscellaneouscollections
tofindhundredsofsongs,manyofthemofexquisiteworkmanship,bypoets
whosenamesnowawakennoresponse.Aglanceisenoughtoassureonethat
overallEngland"thesweetspiritofsonghadarisen,likethefirst
chirpingofbirdsafterastorm."Nearlytwohundredpoetsarerecordedin
theshortperiodfrom1558to1625,andmanyofthemwereprolificwriters.
Inaworklikethis,wecanhardlydomorethanmentionafewofthebest
knownwriters,andspendamomentatleastwiththeworksthatsuggest
Marlowe'sdescriptionof"infiniterichesinalittleroom."Thereader
willnoteforhimselftheinterestingunionofactionandthoughtinthese
men,socharacteristicoftheElizabethanAge;formostofthemwere
engagedchieflyinbusinessorwarorpolitics,andliteraturewastothem
apleasantrecreationratherthananabsorbingprofession.
THOMASSACKVILLE(15361608).SirThomasSackville,EarlofDorsetandLord
HighTreasurerofEngland,isgenerallyclassedwithWyattandSurreyamong
thepredecessorsoftheElizabethanAge.InimitationofDante's_Inferno_,
Sackvilleformedthedesignofagreatpoemcalled_TheMirrorfor
Magistrates_.UnderguidanceofanallegoricalpersonagecalledSorrow,he
meetsthespiritsofalltheimportantactorsinEnglishhistory.Theidea
wastofollowLydgate's_FallofPrinces_andleteachcharactertellhis
ownstory;sothatthepoemwouldbeamirrorinwhichpresentrulersmight
seethemselvesandreadthiswarning:"Whorecklessrulesrightsoonmay
hopetorue."Sackvillefinishedonlythe"Induction"andthe"Complaintof
theDukeofBuckingham."Thesearewrittenintherimeroyal,andare
markedbystrongpoeticfeelingandexpression.UnfortunatelySackville
turnedfrompoetrytopolitics,andthepoemwascarriedonbytwoinferior
poets,WilliamBaldwinandGeorgeFerrers.
Sackvillewrotealso,inconnectionwithThomasNorton,thefirstEnglish
tragedy,_FerrexandPorrex_,calledalso_Gorboduc_,whichwillbe
consideredinthefollowingsectionontheRiseoftheDrama.
PHILIPSIDNEY(15541586).Sidney,theidealgentleman,theSirCalidoreof
Spenser's"LegendofCourtesy,"isvastlymoreinterestingasamanthanas
awriter,andthestudentisrecommendedtoreadhisbiographyratherthan
hisbooks.Hislifeexpresses,betterthananysingleliterarywork,the
twoidealsoftheage,personalhonorandnationalgreatness.
Asawriterheisknownbythreeprincipalworks,allpublishedafterhis
death,showinghowlittleimportanceheattachedtohisownwriting,even
whilehewasencouragingSpenser.The_Arcadia_isapastoralromance,
interspersedwitheclogues,inwhichshepherdsandshepherdessessingof
thedelightsofrurallife.Thoughtheworkwastakenupidlyasasummer's
pastime,itbecameimmenselypopularandwasimitatedbyahundredpoets.
The_ApologieforPoetrie_(1595),generallycalledthe_Defenseof
Poesie_,appearedinanswertoapamphletbyStephenGossoncalled_The

SchoolofAbuse_(1579),inwhichthepoetryoftheageanditsunbridled
pleasureweredenouncedwithPuritanthoroughnessandconviction.The
_Apologie_isoneofthefirstcriticalessaysinEnglish;andthoughits
stylenowseemslaboredandunnatural,theperniciousresultofEuphues
andhisschool,itisstilloneofthebestexpressionsoftheplaceand
meaningofpoetryinanylanguage._AstrophelandStella_isacollection
ofsongsandsonnetsaddressedtoLadyPenelopeDevereux,towhomSidney
hadoncebeenbetrothed.Theyaboundinexquisitelinesandpassages,
containingmorepoeticfeelingandexpressionthanthesongsofanyother
minorwriteroftheage.
GEORGECHAPMAN(1559?1634).Chapmanspenthislong,quietlifeamongthe
dramatists,andwrotechieflyforthestage.Hisplays,whichwereforthe
mostpartmerelypoemsindialogue,fellfarbelowthehighdramatic
standardofhistimeandarenowalmostunread.Hismostfamousworkisthe
metricaltranslationofthe_Iliad_(1611)andofthe_Odyssey_(1614).
Chapman's_Homer_,thoughlackingthesimplicityanddignityofthe
original,hasaforceandrapidityofmovementwhichmakesitsuperiorin
manyrespectstoPope'smorefamiliartranslation.Chapmanisremembered
alsoasthefinisherofMarlowe's_HeroandLeander_,inwhich,apartfrom
thedrama,theRenaissancemovementisseenatperhapsitshighestpointin
Englishpoetry.Outofscoresoflongpoemsoftheperiod,_Heroand
Leander_andthe_FaeryQueen_aretheonlytwowhichareevenslightly
knowntomodernreaders.
MICHAELDRAYTON(15631631).Draytonisthemostvoluminousand,to
antiquariansatleast,themostinterestingoftheminorpoets.Heisthe
LayamonoftheElizabethanAge,andvastlymorescholarlythanhis
predecessor.Hischiefworkis_Polyolbion_,anenormouspoemofmany
thousandcouplets,describingthetowns,mountains,andriversofBritain,
withtheinterestinglegendsconnectedwitheach.Itisanextremely
valuableworkandrepresentsalifetimeofstudyandresearch.Twoother
longworksarethe_Barons'Wars_andthe_HeroicEpistleofEngland;_and
besidestheseweremanyminorpoems.Oneofthebestoftheseisthe
"BattleofAgincourt,"aballadwritteninthelivelymeterwhichTennyson
usedwithsomevariationsinthe"ChargeoftheLightBrigade,"andwhich
showstheoldEnglishloveofbravedeedsandofthesongsthatstira
people'sheartinmemoryofnobleancestors.
III.THEFIRSTENGLISHDRAMATISTS
THEORIGINOFTHEDRAMA.Firstthedeed,thenthestory,thentheplay;
thatseemstobethenaturaldevelopmentofthedramainitssimplestform.
Thegreatdeedsofapeoplearetreasuredinitsliterature,andlater
generationsrepresentinplayorpantomimecertainpartsofthestorywhich
appealmostpowerfullytotheimagination.Amongprimitiveracesthedeeds
oftheirgodsandheroesareoftenrepresentedattheyearlyfestivals;and
amongchildren,whoseinstinctsarenotyetbluntedbyartificialhabits,
oneseesthestorythatwasheardatbedtimerepeatednextdayinvigorous
action,whenourboysturnscoutsandourgirlsprincesses,preciselyas
ourfirstdramatiststurnedtotheoldlegendsandheroesofBritainfor
theirfirststageproductions.Toactapartseemsasnaturaltohumanity
astotellastory;andoriginallythedramaisbutanoldstoryretoldto
theeye,astoryputintoactionbylivingperformers,whoforthemoment
"makebelieve"orimaginethemselvestobetheoldheroes.
Toillustratethemattersimply,therewasagreatlifelivedbyhimwho
wascalledtheChrist.Inevitablythelifefounditswayintoliterature,
andwehavetheGospels.Aroundthelifeandliteraturesprangupagreat
religion.Itsworshipwasatfirstsimple,thecommonprayer,theevening
mealtogether,therememberedwordsoftheMaster,andtheclosinghymn.
Graduallyaritualwasestablished,whichgrewmoreelaborateand
impressiveasthecenturieswentby.ScenesfromtheMaster'slifebeganto
berepresentedinthechurches,especiallyatChristmastime,whenthe

storyofChrist'sbirthwasmademoreeffective,totheeyesofapeople
whocouldnotread,byababeinamangersurroundedbymagiandshepherds,
withachoirofangelschantingthe_GloriainExcelsis_.[126]Other
impressivescenesfromtheGospelfollowed;thentheOldTestamentwas
calledupon,untilacompletecycleofplaysfromtheCreationtotheFinal
Judgmentwasestablished,andwehavetheMysteriesandMiracleplaysof
theMiddleAges.OutofthesecamedirectlythedramaoftheElizabethan
Age.
PERIODSINTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEDRAMA
1.THERELIGIOUSPERIOD.InEurope,asinGreece,thedramahada
distinctlyreligiousorigin.[127]Thefirstcharactersweredrawnfromthe
NewTestament,andtheobjectofthefirstplayswastomakethechurch
servicemoreimpressive,ortoemphasizemorallessonsbyshowingthe
rewardofthegoodandthepunishmentoftheevildoer.Inthelatterdays
oftheRomanEmpiretheChurchfoundthestagepossessedbyfrightful
plays,whichdebasedthemoralsofapeoplealreadyfallentoolow.Reform
seemedimpossible;thecorruptdramawasdrivenfromthestage,andplays
ofeverykindwereforbidden.Butmankindlovesaspectacle,andsoonthe
Churchitselfprovidedasubstitutefortheforbiddenplaysinthefamous
MysteriesandMiracles.
MIRACLEANDMYSTERYPLAYS.InFrancethename_miracle_wasgiventoany
playrepresentingthelivesofthesaints,whilethe_mystre_represented
scenesfromthelifeofChristorstoriesfromtheOldTestamentassociated
withthecomingofMessiah.InEnglandthisdistinctionwasalmostunknown;
thenameMiraclewasusedindiscriminatelyforallplayshavingtheir
originintheBibleorinthelivesofthesaints;andthenameMystery,to
distinguishacertainclassofplays,wasnotuseduntillongafterthe
religiousdramahadpassedaway.
TheearliestMiracleofwhichwehaveanyrecordinEnglandisthe_Ludus
deSanctaKatharina_,whichwasperformedinDunstableabouttheyear
1110.[128]ItisnotknownwhowrotetheoriginalplayofSt.Catherine,
butourfirstversionwaspreparedbyGeoffreyofSt.Albans,aFrench
schoolteacherofDunstable.WhetherornottheplaywasgiveninEnglish
isnotknown,butitwascustomaryintheearliestplaysforthechief
actorstospeakinLatinorFrench,toshowtheirimportance,whileminor
andcomicpartsofthesameplayweregiveninEnglish.
ForfourcenturiesafterthisfirstrecordedplaytheMiraclesincreased
steadilyinnumberandpopularityinEngland.Theyweregivenfirstvery
simplyandimpressivelyinthechurches;then,astheactorsincreasedin
numberandtheplaysinliveliness,theyoverflowedtothechurchyards;but
whenfunandhilaritybegantopredominateeveninthemostsacred
representations,thescandalizedpriestsforbadeplaysaltogetheronchurch
grounds.Bytheyear1300theMiracleswereoutofecclesiasticalhandsand
adoptedeagerlybythetownguilds;andinthefollowingtwocenturieswe
findtheChurchpreachingagainsttheabuseofthereligiousdramawhichit
haditselfintroduced,andwhichatfirsthadservedapurelyreligious
purpose.[129]ButbythistimetheMiracleshadtakenstrongholduponthe
Englishpeople,andtheycontinuedtobeimmenselypopularuntil,inthe
sixteenthcentury,theywerereplacedbytheElizabethandrama.
TheearlyMiracleplaysofEnglandweredividedintotwoclasses:the
first,givenatChristmas,includedallplaysconnectedwiththebirthof
Christ;thesecond,atEaster,includedtheplaysrelatingtohisdeathand
triumph.Bythebeginningofthefourteenthcenturyalltheseplayswere,
invariouslocalities,unitedinsinglecyclesbeginningwiththeCreation
andendingwiththeFinalJudgment.Thecompletecyclewaspresentedevery
spring,beginningonCorpusChristiday;andasthepresentationofsomany
playsmeantacontinuousoutdoorfestivalofaweekormore,thisdaywas
lookedforwardtoasthehappiestofthewholeyear.

ProbablyeveryimportanttowninEnglandhaditsowncycleofplaysforits
ownguildstoperform,butnearlyallhavebeenlost.Atthepresentday
onlyfourcyclesexist(exceptinthemostfragmentarycondition),and
these,thoughtheyfurnishaninterestingcommentaryonthetimes,addvery
littletoourliterature.ThefourcyclesaretheChesterandYorkplays,
socalledfromthetownsinwhichtheyweregiven;theTowneleyor
Wakefieldplays,namedfortheTowneleyfamily,whichforalongtimeowned
themanuscript;andtheCoventryplays,whichondoubtfulevidencehave
beenassociatedwiththeGreyFriars(Franciscans)ofCoventry.TheChester
cyclehas25plays,theWakefield30,theCoventry42,andtheYork48.It
isimpossibletofixeitherthedateortheauthorshipofanyofthese
plays;weonlyknowcertainlythattheywereingreatfavorfromthe
twelfthtothesixteenthcentury.TheYorkplaysaregenerallyconsidered
tobethebest;butthoseofWakefieldshowmorehumorandvariety,and
betterworkmanship.Theformercycleespeciallyshowsacertainunity
resultingfromitsaimtorepresentthewholeofman'slifefrombirthto
death.Thesamethingisnoticeablein_CursorMundi_,which,withtheYork
andWakefieldcycles,belongstothefourteenthcentury.
AtfirsttheactorsaswellastheauthorsoftheMiracleswerethepriests
andtheirchosenassistants.Later,whenThetownguildstookuptheplays
andeachguildbecameresponsibleforoneormoreoftheseries,theactors
werecarefullyselectedandtrained.Byfouro'clockonthemorningof
CorpusChristialltheplayershadtobeintheirplacesinthemovable
theaters,whichwerescatteredthroughoutthetowninthesquaresandopen
places.Eachofthesetheatersconsistedofatwostoryplatform,seton
wheels.Thelowerstorywasadressingroomfortheactors;theupperstory
wasthestageproper,andwasreachedbyatrapdoorfrombelow.Whenthe
playwasovertheplatformwasdraggedaway,andthenextplayinthecycle
tookitsplace.Soinasinglesquareseveralplayswouldbepresentedin
rapidsequencetothesameaudience.Meanwhilethefirstplaymovedonto
anothersquare,whereanotheraudiencewaswaitingtohearit.
Thoughtheplaysweredistinctlyreligiousincharacter,thereishardly
onewithoutitshumorouselement.IntheplayofNoah,forinstance,Noah's
shrewishwifemakesfunfortheaudiencebywranglingwithherhusband.In
theCrucifixionplayHerodisaprankishkindoftyrantwholeavesthe
stagetorantamongtheaudience;sothatto"outherodHerod"becamea
commonproverb.Inalltheplaysthedevilisafavoritecharacterandthe
buttofeveryjoke.Healsoleavesthestagetoplaypranksorfrightenthe
wonderingchildren.Onthesideofthestagewasoftenseenahugedragon's
headwithgapingredjaws,belchingforthfireandsmoke,outofwhich
pouredatumultuoustroopofdevilswithclubsandpitchforksandgridirons
topunishthewickedcharactersandtodragthemawayatlast,howlingand
shrieking,intohellmouth,asthedragon'sheadwascalled.Sothefearof
hellwasingrainedintoanignorantpeopleforfourcenturies.Alternating
withthesehorrorswerebitsofroughhorseplayanddomesticscenesof
peaceandkindliness,representingthelifeoftheEnglishfieldsand
homes.Withtheseweresongsandcarols,likethatoftheNativity,for
instance:
AsIoutrodethisenderes(last)night,
OfthreejollyshepherdsIsawasight,
Andallabouttheirfoldastarshonebright;
Theysang_terliterlow_,
Somerrylytheshepherdstheirpipescanblow.
Downfromheaven,fromheavensohigh,
Ofangelstherecameagreatcompanye
Withmirth,andjoy,andgreatsolemnitye;
Theysang_terliterlow_,
Somerrylytheshepherdstheirpipescanblow.
Suchsongsweretakenhomebytheaudienceandsungforaseason,asa
populartuneisnowcaughtfromthestageandsungonthestreets;andat

timesthewholeaudiencewouldverylikelyjoininthechorus.
Aftertheseplayswerewrittenaccordingtothegeneraloutlineofthe
Biblestories,nochangewastolerated,theaudienceinsisting,like
childrenat"PunchandJudy,"uponseeingthesamethingsyearafteryear.
Nooriginalityinplotortreatmentwaspossible,therefore;theonly
varietywasinnewsongsandjokes,andinthepranksofthedevil.
Childishassuchplaysseemtous,theyarepartofthereligious
developmentofalluneducatedpeople.EvennowthePersianplayofthe
"MartyrdomofAli"iscelebratedyearly,andthefamous"PassionPlay,"a
trueMiracle,isgiveneverytenyearsatOberammergau.
2.THEMORALPERIODOFTHEDRAMA.[130]Thesecondormoralperiodofthe
dramaisshownbytheincreasingprevalenceoftheMoralityplays.Inthese
thecharacterswereallegoricalpersonages,Life,Death,Repentance,
Goodness,Love,Greed,andothervirtuesandvices.TheMoralitiesmaybe
regarded,therefore,asthedramaticcounterpartoftheoncepopular
allegoricalpoetryexemplifiedbythe_RomanceoftheRose_.Itdidnot
occurtoourfirst,unknowndramatiststoportraymenandwomenastheyare
untiltheyhadfirstmadecharactersofabstracthumanqualities.
Nevertheless,theMoralitymarksadistinctadvanceovertheMiraclein
thatitgavefreescopetotheimaginationfornewplotsandincidents.In
SpainandPortugaltheseplays,underthename_auto_,werewonderfully
developedbythegeniusofCalderonandGilVicente;butinEnglandthe
Moralitywasadrearykindofperformance,liketheallegoricalpoetry
whichprecededit.
ToenliventheaudiencethedeviloftheMiracleplayswasintroduced;and
anotherlivelypersonagecalledtheVicewasthepredecessorofourmodern
clownandjester.Hisbusinesswastotormentthe"virtues"bymischievous
pranks,andespeciallytomakethedevil'slifeaburdenbybeatinghim
withabladderorawoodenswordateveryopportunity.TheMorality
generallyendedinthetriumphofvirtue,thedevilleapingintohellmouth
withViceonhisback.
ThebestknownoftheMoralitiesis"Everyman,"whichhasrecentlybeen
revivedinEnglandandAmerica.Thesubjectoftheplayisthesummoningof
everymanbyDeath;andthemoralisthatnothingcantakeawaytheterror
oftheinevitablesummonsbutanhonestlifeandthecomfortsofreligion.
InitsdramaticunityitsuggeststhepureGreekdrama;thereisnochange
oftimeorscene,andthestageisneveremptyfromthebeginningtothe
endoftheperformance.OtherwellknownMoralitiesarethe"Prideof
Life,""Hyckescorner,"and"CastellofPerseverance."Inthelatter,manis
representedasshutupinacastlegarrisonedbythevirtuesandbesieged
bythevices.
LiketheMiracleplays,mostoftheoldMoralitiesareofunknowndateand
origin.OftheknownauthorsofMoralities,twoofthebestareJohn
Skelton,whowrote"Magnificence,"andprobablyalso"TheNecromancer";and
SirDavidLindsay(14901555),"thepoetoftheScotchReformation,"whose
religiousbusinessitwastomakerulersuncomfortablebytellingthem
unpleasanttruthsintheformofpoetry.Withthesemenanewelement
entersintotheMoralities.TheysatirizeordenounceabusesofChurchand
State,andintroducelivingpersonagesthinlydisguisedasallegories;so
thatthestagefirstbecomesapowerinshapingeventsandcorrecting
abuses.
THEINTERLUDES.Itisimpossibletodrawanyaccuratelineofdistinction
betweentheMoralitiesandInterludes.Ingeneralwemaythinkofthe
latterasdramaticscenes,sometimesgivenbythemselves(usuallywith
musicandsinging)atbanquetsandentertainmentswherealittlefunwas
wanted;andagainslippedintoaMiracleplaytoenliventheaudienceafter
asolemnscene.ThusonthemarginofapageofoneoftheoldChester
playsweread,"Theboyeandpiggewhenthekingesaregone."Certainly
thiswasnopartoftheoriginalscenebetweenHerodandthethreekings.

SoalsothequarrelbetweenNoahandhiswifeisprobablyalateaddition
toanoldplay.TheInterludesoriginated,undoubtedly,inasenseof
humor;andtoJohnHeywood(1497?1580?),afavoriteretainerandjesterat
thecourtofMary,isduethecreditforraisingtheInterludetothe
distinctdramaticformknownascomedy.
Heywood'sInterludeswerewrittenbetween1520and1540.Hismostfamousis
"TheFourP's,"acontestofwitbetweena"Pardoner,aPalmer,aPedlar
andaPoticary."Thecharactersherestronglysuggestthoseof
Chaucer.[131]AnotherinterestingInterludeiscalled"ThePlayofthe
Weather."InthisJupiterandthegodsassembletolistentocomplaints
abouttheweatherandtoreformabuses.Naturallyeverybodywantshisown
kindofweather.Theclimaxisreachedbyaboywhoannouncesthataboy's
pleasureconsistsintwothings,catchingbirdsandthrowingsnowballs,and
begsfortheweathertobesuchthathecanalwaysdoboth.Jupiterdecides
thathewilldojustashepleasesabouttheweather,andeverybodygoes
homesatisfied.
Alltheseearlyplayswerewritten,forthemostpart,inaminglingof
proseandwretcheddoggerel,andaddnothingtoourliterature.Theirgreat
workwastotrainactors,tokeepalivethedramaticspirit,andtoprepare
thewayforthetruedrama.
3.THEARTISTICPERIODOFTHEDRAMA.Theartisticisthefinalstageinthe
developmentoftheEnglishdrama.Itdiffersradicallyfromtheothertwo
inthatitschiefpurposeisnottopointamoralbuttorepresenthuman
lifeasitis.Theartisticdramamayhavepurpose,nolessthanthe
Miracleplay,butthemotiveisalwayssubordinatetothechiefendof
representinglifeitself.
ThefirsttrueplayinEnglish,witharegularplot,dividedintoactsand
scenes,isprobablythecomedy,"RalphRoysterDoyster."Itwaswrittenby
NicholasUdall,masterofEton,andlaterofWestminsterschool,andwas
firstactedbyhisschoolboyssometimebefore1556.Thestoryisthatofa
conceitedfopinlovewithawidow,whoisalreadyengagedtoanotherman.
Theplayisanadaptationofthe_MilesGloriosus_,aclassiccomedyby
Plautus,andtheEnglishcharactersaremoreorlessartificial;butas
furnishingamodelofaclearplotandnaturaldialogue,theinfluenceof
thisfirstcomedy,withitsmixtureofclassicandEnglishelements,can
hardlybeoverestimated.
Thenextplay,"GammerGurton'sNeedle"_(cir_.1562),isadomestic
comedy,atruebitofEnglishrealism,representingthelifeofthepeasant
class.
GammerGurtonispatchingtheleatherbreechesofhermanHodge,whenGib,
thecat,getsintothemilkpan.WhileGammerchasesthecatthefamily
needleislost,averitablecalamityinthosedays.Thewholehouseholdis
turnedupsidedown,andtheneighborsaredraggedintotheaffair.Various
comicalsituationsarebroughtaboutbyDiccon,athievingvagabond,who
tellsGammerthatherneighbor,DameChatte,hastakenherneedle,andwho
thenhurriestotellDameChattethatsheisaccusedbyGammerofstealing
afavoriterooster.Naturallythereisaterriblerowwhenthetwoirate
oldwomenmeetandmisunderstandeachother.DicconalsodragsDoctorRat,
thecurate,intothequarrelbytellinghimthat,ifhewillbutcreepinto
DameChatte'scottagebyahiddenway,hewillfindherusingthestolen
needle.ThenDicconsecretlywarnsDameChattethatGammerGurton'sman
Hodgeiscomingtostealherchickens;andtheoldwomanhidesinthedark
passageandcudgelsthecuratesoundlywiththedoorbar.Alltheparties
arefinallybroughtbeforethejustice,whenHodgesuddenlyandpainfully
findsthelostneedlewhichisallthewhilestuckinhisleather
breechesandthesceneendsuproariouslyforbothaudienceandactors.
ThisfirstwhollyEnglishcomedyisfulloffunandcoarsehumor,andis
wonderfullytruetothelifeitrepresents.ItwaslongattributedtoJohn

Still,afterwardsbishopofBath;buttheauthorshipisnowdefinitely
assignedtoWilliamStevenson.[132]Ourearliesteditionoftheplaywas
printedin1575;butasimilarplaycalled"DycconofBedlam"waslicensed
in1552,twelveyearsbeforeShakespeare'sbirth.
Toshowthespiritandthemetricalformoftheplaywegiveafragmentof
theboy'sdescriptionofthedullardHodgetryingtolightafireonthe
hearthfromthecat'seyes,andanotherfragmentoftheolddrinkingsong
atthebeginningofthesecondact.
Atlastinadarkcornertwosparkeshethoughthesees
Whichwere,indede,noughtelsbutGybourcat'stwoeyes.
"Puffe!"quodHodge,thinkingtherbytohavefyrewithoutdoubt;
WiththatGybshuthertwoeyes,andsothefyrewasout.
Andbyandbythemopened,evenastheywerebefore;
Withthatthesparkesappeared,evenastheyhaddoneofyore.
And,evenasHodgeblewthefire,ashedidthincke,
Gyb,asshefelttheblast,strayghtwaybegantowyncke,
TyllHodgefellofswering,ascamebesttohisturne,
Thefierwassurebewicht,andtherforewoldnotburne.
AtlastGybupthestayers,amongtheoldpostesandpinnes,
AndHodgehehiedhimaftertillbrokewerebothhisshinnes,
Cursyngeandsweringothes,wereneverofhismakyng,
ThatGybwoldfyrethehouseifthatsheewerenottaken.
_FyrsteaSonge:_
_Backeandsyde,gobare,gobare;
Boothfooteandhande,gocolde;
But,bellye,Godsendetheegoodaleynoughe,
Whetheritbeneweorolde_!
Icannoteatebutlytlemeate,
Mystomackeisnotgood;
ButsureIthinkethatIcandryncke
Withhimthatwearesahood.
ThougheIgobare,takeyenocare,
Iamnothingeacolde,
Istuffemyskynsofullwithin
Ofiolygoodaleandolde.
_Backeandsyde,gobare_,etc.
Ourfirsttragedy,"Gorboduc,"waswrittenbyThomasSackvilleandThomas
Norton,andwasactedin1562,onlytwoyearsbeforethebirthof
Shakespeare.Itisremarkablenotonlyasourfirsttragedy,butasthe
firstplaytobewritteninblankverse,thelatterbeingmostsignificant,
sinceitstartedthedramaintothestyleofversebestsuitedtothe
geniusofEnglishplaywrights.
Thestoryof"Gorboduc"istakenfromtheearlyannalsofBritainand
recallsthestoryusedbyShakespearein_KingLear_.Gorboduc,kingof
Britain,divideshiskingdombetweenhissonsFerrexandPorrex.Thesons
quarrel,andPorrex,theyounger,slayshisbrother,whoisthequeen's
favorite.Videna,thequeen,slaysPorrexinrevenge;thepeoplerebeland
slayVidenaandGorboduc;thenthenobleskilltherebels,andinturnfall
tofightingeachother.ThelineofBrutusbeingextinctwiththedeathof
Gorboduc,thecountryfallsintoanarchy,withrebels,nobles,anda
Scottishinvaderallfightingfortherightofsuccession.Thecurtain
fallsuponasceneofbloodshedandutterconfusion.
Theartisticfinishofthisfirsttragedyismarredbytheauthors'evident
purposetopersuadeElizabethtomarry.Itaimstoshowthedangertowhich
Englandisexposedbytheuncertaintyofsuccession.Otherwisetheplanof
theplayfollowstheclassicalruleofSeneca.Thereisverylittleaction
onthestage;bloodshedandbattleareannouncedbyamessenger;andthe
chorus,offouroldmenofBritain,sumsupthesituationwithafewmoral
observationsattheendofeachofthefirstfouracts.

CLASSICALINFLUENCEUPONTHEDRAMA.TherevivalofLatinliteraturehada
decidedinfluenceupontheEnglishdramaasitdevelopedfromtheMiracle
plays.InthefifteenthcenturyEnglishteachers,inordertoincreasethe
interestinLatin,begantolettheirboysacttheplayswhichtheyhad
readasliterature,preciselyasourcollegesnowpresentGreekorGerman
playsattheyearlyfestivals.SenecawasthefavoriteLatinauthor,and
allhistragediesweretranslatedintoEnglishbetween1559and1581.This
wastheexactperiodinwhichthefirstEnglishplaywrightswereshaping
theirownideas;buttheseveresimplicityoftheclassicaldramaseemedat
firstonlytohampertheexuberantEnglishspirit.Tounderstandthis,one
hasonlytocompareatragedyofSenecaorofEuripideswithoneof
Shakespeare,andseehowwidelythetwomastersdifferinmethods.
Intheclassicplaythesocalleddramaticunitiesoftime,place,and
actionwerestrictlyobserved.Timeandplacemustremainthesame;the
playcouldrepresentaperiodofonlyafewhours,andwhateveractionwas
introducedmusttakeplaceatthespotwheretheplaybegan.The
characters,therefore,mustremainunchangedthroughout;therewasno
possibilityofthechildbecomingaman,oroftheman'sgrowthwith
changingcircumstances.Astheplaywaswithindoors,allvigorousaction
wasdeemedoutofplaceonthestage,andbattlesandimportanteventswere
simplyannouncedbyamessenger.Theclassicdramaalsodrewasharpline
betweentragedyandcomedy,allfunbeingrigorouslyexcludedfromserious
representations.
TheEnglishdrama,ontheotherhand,strovetorepresentthewholesweep
oflifeinasingleplay.Thescenechangedrapidly;thesameactors
appearednowathome,nowatcourt,nowonthebattlefield;andvigorous
actionfilledthestagebeforetheeyesofthespectators.Thechildofone
actappearedasthemanofthenext,andtheimaginationofthespectator
wascalledupontobridgethegapsfromplacetoplaceandfromyearto
year.Sothedramatisthadfreescopetopresentalllifeinasingleplace
andasinglehour.Moreover,sincetheworldisalwayslaughingandalways
cryingatthesamemoment,tragedyandcomedywerepresentedsidebyside,
astheyareinlifeitself.AsHamletsings,aftertheplaythatamusedthe
courtbutstruckthekingwithdeadlyfear:
Why,letthestrickendeergoweep,
Thehartungalledplay;
Forsomemustwatch,whilesomemustsleep:
Sorunstheworldaway.
Naturally,withthesetwoidealsstrugglingtomastertheEnglishdrama,
twoschoolsofwritersarose.TheUniversityTwoSchoolsWits,asmenof
learningwerecalled,generallyofDramaupheldtheclassicalideal,and
ridiculedthecrudenessofthenewEnglishplays.SackvilleandNorton
wereofthisclass,and"Gorboduc"wasclassicinitsconstruction.Inthe
"DefenseofPoesie"Sidneyupholdstheclassicsandridiculesthetoo
ambitiousscopeoftheEnglishdrama.Againstthesewerethepopular
playwrights,Lyly,Peele,Greene,Marlowe,andmanyothers,whorecognized
theEnglishloveofactionanddisregardedthedramaticunitiesintheir
endeavortopresentlifeasitis.Intheendthenativedramaprevailed,
aidedbythepopulartastewhichhadbeentrainedbyfourcenturiesof
Miracles.Ourfirstplays,especiallyoftheromantictype,wereextremely
crudeandoftenledtoridiculouslyextravagantscenes;andhereiswhere
theclassicdramaexercisedanimmenseinfluenceforgood,byinsisting
uponbeautyofformanddefinitenessofstructureatatimewhenthe
tendencywastosatisfyatasteforstagespectacleswithoutregardto
either.
Intheyear1574aroyalpermittoLordLeicester'sactorsallowedthem"to
giveplaysanywherethroughoutourrealmofEngland,"andthismustbe
regardedasthebeginningoftheregulardrama.Twoyearslaterthefirst
playhouse,knownas"TheTheater,"wasbuiltfortheseactorsbyJames

BurbageinFinsburyFields,justnorthofLondon.Itwasinthistheater
thatShakespeareprobablyfoundemploymentwhenhefirstcametothecity.
Thesuccessofthisventurewasimmediate,andthenextthirtyyearssawa
scoreoftheatricalcompanies,atleastsevenregulartheaters,andadozen
ormoreinnyardspermanentlyfittedforthegivingofplays,all
establishedinthecityanditsimmediatesuburbs.Thegrowthseemsallthe
moreremarkablewhenwerememberthattheLondonofthosedayswouldnowbe
consideredasmallcity,having(in1600)onlyaboutahundredthousand
inhabitants.
ADutchtraveler,JohannesdeWitt,whovisitedLondonin1596,hasgiven
ustheonlycontemporarydrawingwepossessoftheinteriorofoneofthese
theaters.Theywerebuiltofstoneandwood,roundoroctagonalinshape,
andwithoutaroof,beingsimplyaninclosedcourtyard.Atonesidewasthe
stage,andbeforeitonthebareground,orpit,stoodthatlargepartof
theaudiencewhocouldaffordtopayonlyanadmissionfee.Theplayersand
thesegroundlingswereexposedtotheweather;thosethatpaidforseats
wereingalleriesshelteredbyanarrowporchroofprojectinginwardsfrom
theencirclingwalls;whiletheyoungnoblesandgallants,whocametobe
seenandwhocouldaffordtheextrafee,tookseatsonthestageitself,
andsmokedandchaffedtheactorsandthrewnutsatthegroundlings.[133]
Thewholeideaofthesefirsttheaters,accordingtoDeWitt,waslikethat
oftheRomanamphitheater;andtheresemblancewasheightenedbythefact
that,whennoplaywasontheboards,thestagemightbetakenawayandthe
pitgivenovertobullandbearbaiting.
Inallthesetheaters,probably,thestageconsistedofabareplatform,
withacurtainor"traverse"acrossthemiddle,separatingthefrontfrom
therearstage.Onthelatterunexpectedscenesorcharacterswere
"discovered"bysimplydrawingthecurtainaside.Atfirstlittleorno
scenerywasused,agildedsignbeingtheonlyannouncementofachangeof
scene;andthisverylackofsceneryledtobetteracting,sincetheactors
mustberealisticenoughtomaketheaudienceforgetitsshabby
surroundings.[134]ByShakespeare'sday,however,paintedsceneryhad
appeared,firstatuniversityplays,andthenintheregulartheaters.[135]
Inallourfirstplaysfemalepartsweretakenbyboyactors,whoevidently
weremoredistressingthanthecrudescenery,forcontemporaryliterature
hasmanysatiricalreferencestotheiracting,[136]andeventhetolerant
Shakespearewrites:
SomesqueakingCleopatraboymygreatness.
Howeverthatmaybe,thestagewasdeemedunfitforwomen,andactresses
wereunknowninEnglanduntilaftertheRestoration.
SHAKESPEARE'SPREDECESSORSINTHEDRAMA.TheEnglishdramaasitdeveloped
fromtheMiracleplayshasaninterestinghistory.Itbeganwith
schoolmasters,likeUdall,whotranslatedandadaptedLatinplaysfortheir
boystoact,andwhowerenaturallygovernedbyclassicideals.Itwas
continuedbythechoirmastersofSt.PaulandtheRoyalandtheQueen's
Chapel,whosecompaniesofchoirboyactorswerefamousinLondonand
rivaledtheplayersoftheregulartheaters.[137]Thesechoirmasterswere
ourfirststagemanagers.Theybeganwithmasquesandinterludesandthe
dramaticpresentationofclassicmythsmodeledaftertheItalians;butsome
ofthem,likeRichardEdwards(choirmasteroftheQueen'sChapelin1561),
soonaddedfarcesfromEnglishcountrylifeanddramatizedsomeof
Chaucer'sstories.Finally,theregularplaywrights,Kyd,Nash,Lyly,
Peele,Greene,andMarlowe,broughttheEnglishdramatothepointwhere
Shakespearebegantoexperimentuponit.
Eachoftheseplaywrightsaddedoremphasizedsomeessentialelementinthe
drama,whichappearedlaterintheworkofShakespeare.ThusJohnLyly
(1554?1606),whoisnowknownchieflyashavingdevelopedthepernicious
literarystylecalledeuphuism,[138]isoneofthemostinfluentialofthe
earlydramatists.Hiscourtcomediesareremarkablefortheirwitty

dialogueandforbeingourfirstplaystoaimdefinitelyatunityand
artisticfinish.ThomasKyd's_SpanishTragedy_(_c._1585)firstgivesus
thedrama,orratherthemelodrama,ofpassion,copiedbyMarloweand
Shakespeare.ThiswasthemostpopularoftheearlyElizabethanplays;it
wasrevisedagainandagain,andBenJonsonissaidtohavewrittenone
versionandtohaveactedthechiefpartofHieronimo.[139]AndRobert
Greene(1558?1592)playsthechiefpartintheearlydevelopmentof
romanticcomedy,andgivesussomeexcellentscenesofEnglishcountrylife
inplayslike_FriarBaconandFriarBungay_.
Evenabriefglanceatthelifeandworkofthesefirstplaywrightsshows
threenoteworthythingswhichhaveabearingonShakespeare'scareer:(1)
Thesemenwereusuallyactorsaswellasdramatists.Theyknewthestage
andtheaudience,andinwritingtheirplaystheyrememberednotonlythe
actor'spartbutalsotheaudience'sloveforstoriesandbravespectacles.
"Willitactwell,andwillitpleaseouraudience,"werethequestionsof
chiefconcerntoourearlydramatists.(2)Theirtrainingbeganasactors;
thentheyrevisedoldplays,andfinallybecameindependentwriters.In
thistheirworkshowsanexactparallelwiththatofShakespeare.(3)They
oftenworkedtogether,probablyasShakespeareworkedwithMarloweand
Fletcher,eitherinrevisingoldplaysorincreatingnewones.Theyhada
commonstoreofmaterialfromwhichtheyderivedtheirstoriesand
characters,hencetheirfrequentrepetitionofnames;andtheyoften
producedtwoormoreplaysonthesamesubject.MuchofShakespeare'swork
depends,asweshallsee,onpreviousplays;andevenhis_Hamlet_usesthe
materialofanearlierplayofthesamename,probablybyKyd,whichwas
wellknowntotheLondonstagein1589,sometwelveyearsbefore
Shakespeare'sgreatworkwaswritten.
Allthesethingsaresignificant,ifwearetounderstandtheElizabethan
dramaandthemanwhobroughtittoperfection.Shakespearewasnotsimply
agreatgenius;hewasalsoagreatworker,andhedevelopedinexactlythe
samewayasdidallhisfellowcraftsmen.And,contrarytotheprevalent
opinion,theElizabethandramaisnotaMinervalikecreation,springing
fullgrownfromtheheadofoneman;itisratheranorderlythoughrapid
development,inwhichmanymenboreapart.Allourearlydramatistsare
worthyofstudyfortheparttheyplayedinthedevelopmentofthedrama;
butwecanhereconsideronlyone,themosttypicalofall,whosebestwork
isoftenrankedwiththatofShakespeare.
CHRISTOPHERMARLOWE(15641593)
MarloweisoneofthemostsuggestivefiguresoftheEnglishRenaissance,
andthegreatestofShakespeare'spredecessors.Thegloryofthe
Elizabethandramadatesfromhis_Tamburlaine_(1587),whereinthewhole
restlesstemperoftheagefindsexpression:
Nature,thatframedusoffourelements
Warringwithinourbreastsforregiment,
Dothteachusalltohaveaspiringminds:
Oursoulswhosefacultiescancomprehend
Thewondrousarchitectureoftheworld,
Andmeasureeverywanderingplanet'scourse,
Stillclimbingafterknowledgeinfinite,
Andalwaysmovingastherestlessspheres
Willustowearourselvesandneverrest.
_Tamburlaine_,Pt.I,II,vii.
Life.MarlowewasborninCanterbury,onlyafewmonthsbeforeShakespeare.
Hewasthesonofapoorshoemaker,butthroughthekindnessofapatron
waseducatedatthetowngrammarschoolandthenatCambridge.Whenhecame
toLondon(_c._1584),hissoulwassurgingwiththeidealsofthe
Renaissance,whichlaterfoundexpressioninFaustus,thescholarlonging
forunlimitedknowledgeandforpowertograsptheuniverse.Unfortunately,

Marlowehadalsotheunbridledpassionswhichmarktheearly,orPagan
Renaissance,asTainecallsit,andtheconceitofayoungmanjust
enteringtherealmsofknowledge.Hebecameanactorandlivedina
lowtavernatmosphereofexcessandwretchedness.In1587,whenbut
twentythreeyearsold,heproduced_Tamburlaine_,whichbroughthim
instantrecognition.Thereafter,notwithstandinghiswretchedlife,he
holdssteadilytoahighliterarypurpose.Thoughallhisplaysaboundin
violence,nodoubtreflectingmanyoftheviolentscenesinwhichhelived,
hedevelopshis"mightyline"anddepictsgreatscenesinmagnificent
burstsofpoetry,suchasthestagehadneverheardbefore.Infiveyears,
whileShakespearewasservinghisapprenticeship,Marloweproducedallhis
greatwork.Thenhewasstabbedinadrunkenbrawlanddiedwretchedly,as
hehadlived.TheEpilogueof_Faustus_mightbewrittenacrosshis
tombstone:
Cutisthebranchthatmighthavegrownfullstraight,
AndburnedisApollo'slaurelbough
Thatsometimegrewwithinthislearndman.
MARLOWE'SWORKS.Inadditiontothepoem"HeroandLeander,"towhichwe
havereferred,[140]Marloweisfamousforfourdramas,nowknownasthe
Marlowesqueoronemantypeoftragedy,eachrevolvingaboutonecentral
personalitywhoisconsumedbythelustofpower.Thefirstoftheseis
_Tamburlaine_,thestoryofTimurtheTartar.Timurbeginsasashepherd
chief,whofirstrebelsandthentriumphsoverthePersianking.
Intoxicatedbyhissuccess,Timurrusheslikeatempestoverthewhole
East.Seatedonhischariotdrawnbycaptivekings,withacagedemperor
beforehim,heboastsofhispowerwhichoverridesallthings.Then,
afflictedwithdisease,heravesagainstthegodsandwouldoverthrowthem
ashehasoverthrownearthlyrulers._Tamburlaine_isanepicratherthana
drama;butonecanunderstanditsinstantsuccesswithapeopleonlyhalf
civilized,fondofmilitaryglory,andtheinstantadoptionofits"mighty
line"astheinstrumentofalldramaticexpression.
_Faustus_,thesecondplay,isoneofthebestofMarlowe'sworks.[141]The
storyisthatofascholarwholongsforinfiniteknowledge,andwhoturns
fromTheology,Philosophy,Medicine,andLaw,thefoursciencesofthe
time,tothestudyofmagic,muchasachildmightturnfromjewelsto
tinselandcoloredpaper.Inordertolearnmagichesellshimselftothe
devil,onconditionthatheshallhavetwentyfouryearsofabsolutepower
andknowledge.Theplayisthestoryofthosetwentyfouryears.Like
_Tamburlaine_,itislackingindramaticconstruction,[142]buthasan
unusualnumberofpassagesofrarepoeticbeauty.Milton'sSatansuggests
stronglythattheauthorof_ParadiseLost_hadaccessto_Faustus_and
usedit,ashemayalsohaveused_Tamburlaine_,forthemagnificent
panoramadisplayedbySatanin_ParadiseRegained_.Forinstance,morethan
fiftyyearsbeforeMilton'sherosays,"WhichwayIturnishell,myselfam
hell,"Marlowehadwritten:
_Faust_.Howcomesitthenthatthouartoutofhell?
_Mephisto_.Whythisishell,noramIoutofit.
*****
Hellhathnolimits,noriscircumscribed
Inoneselfplace;forwhereweareishell,
Andwherehellistheremustweeverbe.
Marlowe'sthirdplayis_TheJewofMalta_,astudyofthelustforwealth,
whichcentersaboutBarabas,aterribleoldmoneylender,strongly
suggestiveofShylockin_TheMerchantofVenice_.Thefirstpartofthe
playiswellconstructed,showingadecidedadvance,butthelastpartis
anaccumulationofmelodramatichorrors.Barabasischeckedinhis
murderouscareerbyfallingintoaboilingcaldronwhichhehadprepared
foranother,anddiesblaspheming,hisonlyregretbeingthathehasnot
donemoreevilinhislife.

Marlowe'slastplayis_EdwardII_,atragicstudyofaking'sweaknessand
misery.Inpointofstyleanddramaticconstruction,itisbyfarthebest
ofMarlowe'splays,andisaworthypredecessorofShakespeare'shistorical
drama.
Marloweistheonlydramatistofthetimewhoisevercomparedwith
Shakespeare.[143]Whenwerememberthathediedattwentynine,probably
beforeShakespearehadproducedasinglegreatplay,wemustwonderwhathe
mighthavedonehadheoutlivedhiswretchedyouthandbecomeaman.Here
andtherehisworkisremarkableforitssplendidimagination,forthe
statelinessofitsverse,andforitsrarebitsofpoeticbeauty;butin
dramaticinstinct,inwideknowledgeofhumanlife,inhumor,in
delineationofwoman'scharacter,inthedelicatefancywhichpresentsan
ArielasperfectlyasaMacbeth,inaword,inallthatmakesadramatic
genius,Shakespearestandsalone.Marlowesimplypreparedthewayforthe
masterwhowastofollow.
VARIETYOFTHEEARLYDRAMA.Thethirtyyearsbetweenourfirstregular
EnglishplaysandShakespeare'sfirstcomedy[144]witnessedadevelopment
ofthedramawhichastonishesusbothbyitsrapidityandvariety.Weshall
betterappreciateShakespeare'sworkifweglanceforamomentattheplays
thatprecededhim,andnotehowhecoversthewholefieldandwritesalmost
everyformandvarietyofthedramaknowntohisage.
Firstinimportance,oratleastinpopularinterest,arethenewChronicle
plays,foundeduponhistoricaleventsandcharacters.Theyshowthestrong
nationalspiritoftheElizabethanAge,andtheirpopularitywasdue
largelytothefactthataudiencescametothetheaterspartlytogratify
theirawakenednationalspiritandtogettheirfirstknowledgeofnational
history.SomeoftheMoralities,likeBayle's_KingJohan_(1538),are
crudeChronicleplays,andtheearlyRobinHoodplaysandthefirst
tragedy,_Gorboduc_,showthesameawakenedpopularinterestinEnglish
history.DuringthereignofElizabeththepopularChronicleplays
increasedtillwehavetherecordofovertwohundredandtwenty,halfof
whicharestillextant,dealingwithalmosteveryimportantcharacter,real
orlegendary,inEnglishhistory.OfShakespeare'sthirtysevendramas,ten
aretrueChronicleplaysofEnglishkings;threearefromthelegendary
annalsofBritain;andthreemorearefromthehistoryofothernations.
Othertypesoftheearlydramaarelessclearlydefined,butwemaysum
themupunderafewgeneralheads:(1)TheDomesticDramabeganwithcrude
homescenesintroducedintotheMiraclesanddevelopedinascoreof
differentways,fromthecoarsehumorof_GammerGurton'sNeedle_tothe
ComedyofMannersofJonsonandthelaterdramatists.Shakespeare's_Taming
oftheShrew_and_MerryWivesofWindsor_belongtothisclass.(2)The
socalledCourtComedyistheoppositeoftheformerinthatitrepresented
adifferentkindoflifeandwasintendedforadifferentaudience.Itwas
markedbyelaboratedialogue,byjests,retorts,andendlessplayson
words,ratherthanbyaction.ItwasmadepopularbyLyly'ssuccess,and
wasimitatedinShakespeare'sfirstor"Lylian"comedies,suchas_Love's
Labour'sLost_,andthecomplicated_TwoGentlemenofVerona_.(3)Romantic
ComedyandRomanticTragedysuggestthemostartisticandfinishedtypesof
thedrama,whichwereexperimenteduponbyPeele,Greene,andMarlowe,and
werebroughttoperfectionin_TheMerchantofVenice,RomeoandJuliet_,
and_TheTempest_.(4)Inadditiontotheabovetypeswereseveral
others,theClassicalPlays,modeleduponSenecaandfavoredbycultivated
audiences;theMelodrama,favoriteofthegroundlings,whichdependednot
onplotorcharactersbutuponavarietyofstrikingscenesandincidents;
andtheTragedyofBlood,alwaysmoreorlessmelodramatic,likeKyd's
_SpanishTragedy_,whichgrewmorebloodandthunderyinMarloweand
reachedaclimaxofhorrorsinShakespeare's_TitusAndronicus_.Itis
noteworthythat_Hamlet,Lear_,and_Macbeth_allbelongtothisclass,but
thedevelopedgeniusoftheauthorraisedthemtoaheightsuchasthe
TragedyofBloodhadneverknownbefore.

Thesevariedtypesarequiteenoughtoshowwithwhatdoubtfulandunguided
experimentsourfirstdramatistswereengaged,likemenfirstsettingout
inraftsanddugoutsonanunknownsea.Theyarethemoreinterestingwhen
werememberthatShakespearetriedthemall;thatheistheonlydramatist
whoseplayscoverthewholerangeofthedramafromitsbeginningtoits
decline.Fromthestagespectaclehedevelopedthedramaofhumanlife;and
insteadofthedoggerelandbombastofourfirstplayshegivesusthe
poetryof_RomeoandJuliet_and_MidsummerNight'sDream_.Inaword,
Shakespearebroughtorderoutofdramaticchaos.Inafewshortyearshe
raisedthedramafromablunderingexperimenttoaperfectionofformand
expressionwhichhasneversincebeenrivaled.
IV.SHAKESPEARE
OnewhoreadsafewofShakespeare'sgreatplaysandthenthemeagerstory
ofhislifeisgenerallyfilledwithavaguewonder.Hereisanunknown
countryboy,poorandpoorlyeducatedaccordingtothestandardsofhis
age,whoarrivesatthegreatcityofLondonandgoestoworkatoddjobs
inatheater.Inayearortwoheisassociatedwithscholarsand
dramatists,themastersoftheirage,writingplaysofkingsandclowns,of
gentlemenandheroesandnoblewomen,allofwhoselivesheseemstoknow
byintimateassociation.Inafewyearsmoreheleadsallthatbrilliant
groupofpoetsanddramatistswhohavegivenundyingglorytotheAgeof
Elizabeth.Playafterplayrunsfromhispen,mightydramasofhumanlife
andcharacterfollowingoneanothersorapidlythatgoodworkseems
impossible;yettheystandthetestoftime,andtheirpoetryisstill
unrivaledinanylanguage.Forallthisgreatworktheauthorapparently
careslittle,sincehemakesnoattempttocollectorpreservehis
writings.Athousandscholarshaveeversincebeenbusycollecting,
identifying,classifyingtheworkswhichthismagnificentworkmantossed
asidesocarelesslywhenheabandonedthedramaandretiredtohisnative
village.Hehasamarvelouslyimaginativeandcreativemind;butheinvents
few,ifany,newplotsorstories.Hesimplytakesanoldplayoranold
poem,makesitoverquickly,andlo!thisoldfamiliarmaterialglowswith
thedeepestthoughtsandthetenderestfeelingsthatennobleourhumanity;
andeachnewgenerationofmenfindsitmorewonderfulthanthelast.How
didhedoit?Thatisstillanunansweredquestionandthesourceofour
wonder.
Thereare,ingeneral,twotheoriestoaccountforShakespeare.The
romanticschoolofwritershavealwaysheldthatinhim"allcamefrom
within";thathisgeniuswashissufficientguide;andthattothe
overmasteringpowerofhisgeniusaloneweoweallhisgreatworks.
Practical,unimaginativemen,ontheotherhand,assertthatinShakespeare
"allcamefromwithout,"andthatwemuststudyhisenvironmentratherthan
hisgenius,ifwearetounderstandhim.Helivedinaplaylovingage;he
studiedthecrowds,gavethemwhattheywanted,andsimplyreflectedtheir
ownthoughtsandfeelings.InreflectingtheEnglishcrowdabouthimhe
unconsciouslyreflectedallcrowds,whicharealikeinallages;hencehis
continuedpopularity.Andinbeingguidedbypublicsentimenthewasnot
singular,butfollowedtheplainpaththateverygooddramatisthasalways
followedtosuccess.
Probablythetruthofthematteristobefoundsomewherebetweenthesetwo
extremes.Ofhisgreatgeniustherecanbenoquestion;butthereareother
thingstoconsider.Aswehavealreadynoticed,Shakespearewastrained,
likehisfellowworkmen,firstasanactor,secondasareviserofold
plays,andlastasanindependentdramatist.Heworkedwithother
playwrightsandlearnedtheirsecret.Likethem,hestudiedandfollowed
thepublictaste,andhisworkindicatesatleastthreestages,fromhis
firstsomewhatcrudeexperimentstohisfinishedmasterpieces.Soitwould
seemthatinShakespearewehavetheresultofhardworkandoforderly
humandevelopment,quiteasmuchasoftranscendentgenius.

LIFE(15641616).Twooutwardinfluenceswerepowerfulindevelopingthe
geniusofShakespeare,thelittlevillageofStratford,centerofthemost
beautifulandromanticdistrictinruralEngland,andthegreatcityof
London,thecenteroftheworld'spoliticalactivity.Inonehelearnedto
knowthenaturalmaninhisnaturalenvironment;intheother,thesocial,
theartificialmaninthemostunnaturalofsurroundings.
FromtheregisterofthelittleparishchurchatStratfordonAvonwelearn
thatWilliamShakespearewasbaptizedthereonthetwentysixthofApril,
1564(oldstyle).Asitwascustomarytobaptizechildrenonthethirdday
afterbirth,thetwentythirdofApril(May3,accordingtoourpresent
calendar)isgenerallyacceptedasthepoet'sbirthday.
Hisfather,JohnShakespeare,wasafarmer'ssonfromtheneighboring
villageofSnitterfield,whocametoStratfordabout1551,andbeganto
prosperasatraderincorn,meat,leather,andotheragricultural
products.Hismother,MaryArden,wasthedaughterofaprosperousfarmer,
descendedfromanoldWarwickshirefamilyofmixedAngloSaxonandNorman
blood.In1559thismarriedcouplesoldapieceofland,andthedocument
issigned,"Themarke+ofJohnShacksper.Themarke+ofMaryShacksper";
andfromthisithasbeengenerallyinferredthat,likethevastmajority
oftheircountrymen,neitherofthepoet'sparentscouldreadorwrite.
Thiswasprobablytrueofhismother;buttheevidencefromStratford
documentsnowindicatesthathisfathercouldwrite,andthathealso
auditedthetownaccounts;thoughinattestingdocumentshesometimesmade
amark,leavinghisnametobefilledinbytheonewhodrewupthe
document.
OfShakespeare'seducationweknowlittle,exceptthatforafewyearshe
probablyattendedtheendowedgrammarschoolatStratford,wherehepicked
upthe"smallLatinandlessGreek"towhichhislearnedfriendBenJonson
refers.Hisrealteachers,meanwhile,werethemenandwomenandthe
naturalinfluenceswhichsurroundedhim.Stratfordisacharminglittle
villageinbeautifulWarwickshire,andnearathandweretheForestof
Arden,theoldcastlesofWarwickandKenilworth,andtheoldRomancamps
andmilitaryroads,toappealpowerfullytotheboy'slivelyimagination.
Everyphaseofthenaturalbeautyofthisexquisiteregionisreflectedin
Shakespeare'spoetry;justashischaractersreflectthenobilityandthe
littleness,thegossip,vices,emotions,prejudices,andtraditionsofthe
peopleabouthim.
Isawasmithstandwithhishammer,thus,
Thewhilsthisirondidontheanvilcool,
Withopenmouthswallowingatailor'snews;
Who,withhisshearsandmeasureinhishand,
Standingonslippers,whichhisnimblehaste
Hadfalselythrustuponcontraryfeet,
ToldofamanythousandwarlikeFrench
ThatwereembattailedandrankedinKent.[145]
Suchpassagessuggestnotonlygeniusbutalsoakeen,sympathetic
observer,whoseeyesseeeverysignificantdetail.Sowiththenursein
_RomeoandJuliet_,whoseendlessgossipandvulgaritycannotquitehidea
kindheart.Sheissimplythereflectionofsomeforgottennursewithwhom
Shakespearehadtalkedbythewayside.
Notonlythegossipbutalsothedreams,theunconsciouspoetrythatsleeps
intheheartofthecommonpeople,appealtremendouslytoShakespeare's
imaginationandarereflectedinhisgreatestplays.Othellotriestotell
acurtsoldier'sstoryofhislove;buttheaccountislikeabitof
Mandeville'sfamoustravels,teemingwiththefanciesthatfilledmen's
headswhenthegreatroundworldwasfirstbroughttotheirattentionby
daringexplorers.Hereisabitoffolklore,touchedbyShakespeare's
exquisitefancy,whichshowswhatoneboylistenedtobeforethefireat
Halloween:

Shecomes
Inshapenobiggerthananagatestone
Ontheforefingerofanalderman,
Drawnwithateamoflittleatomies
Athwartmen'snosesastheylieasleep;
Herwaggonspokesmadeoflongspinners'legs,
Thecoverofthewingsofgrasshoppers,
Thetracesofthesmallestspider'sweb,
Thecollarsofthemoonshine'swaterybeams,
Herwhipofcricket'sbone,thelashoffilm,
Herwaggonerasmallgreycoatedgnat,
*****
Herchariotisanemptyhazelnut
Madebythejoinersquirrel,oroldgrub,
Timeouto'mindthefairies'coachmakers.
Andinthisstateshegallopsnightbynight
Throughlovers'brains,andthentheydreamoflove;
*****
O'erlawyers'fingers,whostraightdreamonfees,
O'erladies'lips,whostraightonkissesdream.[146]
SowithShakespeare'seducationatthehandsofNature,whichcamefrom
keepinghisheartaswellashiseyeswideopentothebeautyoftheworld.
Hespeaksofahorse,andweknowthefinepointsofathoroughbred;he
mentionstheduke'shounds,andwehearthemclamoringonafoxtrail,
theirvoicesmatchedlikebellsinthefrostyair;hestopsforaninstant
inthesweepofatragedytonoteaflower,astar,amoonlitbank,a
hilltoptouchedbythesunrise,andinstantlyweknowwhatourownhearts
feltbutcouldnotquiteexpresswhenwesawthesamething.Becausehe
notesandrememberseverysignificantthinginthechangingpanoramaof
earthandsky,nootherwriterhaseverapproachedhimintheperfect
naturalsettingofhischaracters.
WhenShakespearewasaboutfourteenyearsoldhisfatherlosthislittle
propertyandfellintodebt,andtheboyprobablyleftschooltohelp
supportthefamilyofyoungerchildren.Whatoccupationhefollowedforthe
nexteightyearsisamatterofconjecture.Fromevidencefoundinhis
plays,itisallegedwithsomeshowofauthoritythathewasacountry
schoolmasterandalawyer'sclerk,thecharacterofHolofernes,in_Love's
Labour'sLost_,beingthewarrantforone,andShakespeare'sknowledgeof
lawtermsfortheother.Butifwetakesuchevidence,thenShakespeare
musthavebeenabotanist,becauseofhisknowledgeofwildflowers;a
sailor,becauseheknowstheropes;acourtier,becauseofhis
extraordinaryfacilityinquipsandcomplimentsandcourtlylanguage;a
clown,becausenoneotherissodullandfoolish;aking,becauseRichard
andHenryaretruetolife;awoman,becausehehassoundedthedepthsofa
woman'sfeelings;andsurelyaRoman,becausein_Coriolanus_and_Julius
Csar_hehasshownustheRomanspiritbetterthanhavetheRomanwriters
themselves.Hewaseverything,inhisimagination,anditisimpossible
fromastudyofhisscenesandcharacterstoformadefiniteopinionasto
hisearlyoccupation.
In1582ShakespearewasmarriedtoAnneHathaway,thedaughterofapeasant
familyofShottery,whowaseightyearsolderthanherboyhusband.From
numeroussarcasticreferencestomarriagemadebythecharactersinhis
plays,andfromthefactthathesoonlefthiswifeandfamilyandwentto
London,itisgenerallyallegedthatthemarriagewasahastyandunhappy
one;buthereagaintheevidenceisentirelyuntrustworthy.Inmany
Miraclesaswellasinlaterplaysitwascustomarytodepicttheseamy
sideofdomesticlifefortheamusementofthecrowd;andShakespearemay
havefollowedthepublictasteinthisashedidinotherthings.The
referencestoloveandhomeandquietjoysinShakespeare'splaysare
enough,ifwetakesuchevidence,toestablishfirmlytheopposite
supposition,thathislovewasaveryhappyone.Andthefactthat,after

hisenormoussuccessinLondon,heretiredtoStratfordtolivequietly
withhiswifeanddaughters,tendstothesameconclusion.
Abouttheyear1587ShakespearelefthisfamilyandwenttoLondonand
joinedhimselftoBurbage'scompanyofplayers.Apersistenttraditionsays
thathehadincurredtheangerofSirThomasLucy,firstbypoachingdeer
inthatnobleman'spark,andthen,whenhaledbeforeamagistrate,by
writingascurrilousballadaboutSirThomas,whichsoarousedtheold
gentleman'sirethatShakespearewasobligedtofleethecountry.Anold
record[147]saysthatthepoet"wasmuchgiventoallunluckinessin
stealingvenisonandrabbits,"theunluckinessprobablyconsistingin
gettingcaughthimself,andnotinanylackofluckincatchingthe
rabbits.TheridiculeheapedupontheLucyfamilyin_HenryIV_andthe
_MerryWivesofWindsor_givessomeweighttothistradition.Nicholas
Rowe,whopublishedthefirstlifeofShakespeare,[148]istheauthority
forthisstory;butthereissomereasontodoubtwhether,atthetimewhen
ShakespeareissaidtohavepoachedinthedeerparkofSirThomasLucyat
Charlescote,therewereanydeerorparkattheplacereferredto.The
subjectisworthyofsomescantattention,ifonlytoshowhowworthlessis
theattempttoconstructoutofrumorthestoryofagreatlifewhich,
fortunatelyperhaps,hadnocontemporarybiographer.
OfhislifeinLondonfrom1587to1611,theperiodofhisgreatest
literaryactivity,weknownothingdefinitely.Wecanjudgeonlyfromhis
plays,andfromtheseitisevidentthatheenteredintothestirringlife
ofEngland'scapitalwiththesameperfectsympathyandunderstandingthat
markedhimamongtheplainpeopleofhisnativeWarwickshire.Thefirst
authenticreferencetohimisin1592,whenGreene's[149]bitterattack
appeared,showingplainlythatShakespearehadinfiveyearsassumedan
importantpositionamongplaywrights.Thenappearedtheapologyofthe
publishersofGreene'spamphlet,withtheirtributetothepoet'ssterling
character,andoccasionalliteraryreferenceswhichshowthathewasknown
amonghisfellowsas"thegentleShakespeare."BenJonsonsaysofhim:"I
lovedthemananddohonorhismemory,onthissideidolatry,asmuchas
any.Hewasindeedhonest,andofanopenandfreenature."Tojudgefrom
onlythreeofhisearliestplays[150]itwouldseemreasonablyevidentthat
inthefirstfiveyearsofhisLondonlifehehadgainedentrancetothe
societyofgentlemenandscholars,hadcaughttheircharacteristic
mannerismsandexpressions,andsowasreadybyknowledgeandobservation
aswellasbygeniustoweaveintohisdramasthewholestirringlifeof
theEnglishpeople.Theplaysthemselves,withthetestimonyof
contemporariesandhisbusinesssuccess,arestrongevidenceagainstthe
traditionthathislifeinLondonwaswildanddissolute,likethatofthe
typicalactorandplaywrightofhistime.
Shakespeare'sfirstworkmaywellhavebeenthatofageneralhelper,an
oddjobman,aboutthetheater;buthesoonbecameanactor,andthe
recordsoftheoldLondontheatersshowthatinthenexttenyearshe
gainedaprominentplace,thoughthereislittlereasontobelievethathe
wascountedamongthe"stars."Withintwoyearshewasatworkonplays,
andhiscourseherewasexactlylikethatofotherplaywrightsofhistime.
Heworkedwithothermen,andherevisedoldplaysbeforewritinghisown,
andsogainedapracticalknowledgeofhisart._HenryVI_(_c_.15901591)
isanexampleofthistinkeringwork,inwhich,however,hisnativepower
isunmistakablymanifest.Thethreepartsof_HenryVI_(and_RichardIII_,
whichbelongswiththem)areasuccessionofscenesfromEnglishChronicle
historystrungtogetherveryloosely;andonlyinthelastisthereany
definiteattemptatunity.ThathesoonfellunderMarlowe'sinfluenceis
evidentfromtheatrocitiesandbombastof_TitusAndronicus_and_Richard
III_.Theformermayhavebeenwrittenbybothplaywrightsin
collaboration,ormaybeoneofMarlowe'shorrorsleftunfinishedbyhis
earlydeathandbroughttoanendbyShakespeare.Hesoonbrokeawayfrom
thisapprenticework,andthenappearedinrapidsuccession_Love's
Labour'sLost,ComedyofErrors,TwoGentlemenofVerona_,thefirst
EnglishChronicleplays,[151]_AMidsummerNight'sDream_,and_Romeoand

Juliet_.Thisorderismoreorlessconjectural;butthewidevarietyof
theseplays,aswellastheirunevennessandfrequentcrudities,marksthe
firstorexperimentalstageofShakespeare'swork.Itisasiftheauthor
weretryinghispower,ormorelikelytryingthetemperofhisaudience.
Foritmustberememberedthattopleasehisaudiencewasprobablythe
rulingmotiveofShakespeare,asoftheotherearlydramatists,duringthe
mostvigorousandprolificperiodofhiscareer.
Shakespeare'spoems,ratherthanhisdramaticwork,markthebeginningof
hissuccess."VenusandAdonis"becameimmenselypopularinLondon,andits
dedicationtotheEarlofSouthamptonbrought,accordingtotradition,a
substantialmoneygift,whichmayhavelaidthefoundationfor
Shakespeare'sbusinesssuccess.Heappearstohaveshrewdlyinvestedhis
money,andsoonbecamepartowneroftheGlobeandBlackfriarstheaters,in
whichhisplayswerepresentedbyhisowncompanies.Hissuccessand
popularitygrewamazingly.Withinadecadeofhisunnoticedarrivalin
LondonhewasoneofthemostfamousactorsandliterarymeninEngland.
Followinghisexperimentalworktherecameasuccessionofwonderful
plays,_MerchantofVenice,AsYouLikeIt,TwelfthNight,JuliusCsar,
Hamlet,Macbeth,Othello,KingLear,AntonyandCleopatra_.Thegreat
tragediesofthisperiodareassociatedwithaperiodofgloomandsorrow
inthepoet'slife;butofitscausewehavenoknowledge.Itmayhavebeen
thisunknownsorrowwhichturnedhisthoughtsbacktoStratfordandcaused,
apparently,adissatisfactionwithhisworkandprofession;butthelatter
isgenerallyattributedtoothercauses.Actorsandplaywrightswereinhis
daygenerallylookeduponwithsuspicionorcontempt;andShakespeare,even
inthemidstofsuccess,seemstohavelookedforwardtothetimewhenhe
couldretiretoStratfordtolivethelifeofafarmerandcountry
gentleman.Hisownandhisfather'sfamilieswerefirstreleasedfromdebt;
then,in1597,heboughtNewPlace,thefinesthouseinStratford,andsoon
addedatractoffarminglandtocompletehisestate.Hisprofessionmay
havepreventedhisacquiringthetitleof"gentleman,"orhemayhaveonly
followedacustomofthetime[152]whenheappliedforandobtainedacoat
ofarmsforhisfather,andsoindirectlysecuredthetitlebyinheritance.
Hishomevisitsgrewmoreandmorefrequenttill,abouttheyear1611,he
leftLondonandretiredpermanentlytoStratford.
Thoughstillintheprimeoflife,Shakespearesoonabandonedhisdramatic
workforthecomfortablelifeofacountrygentleman.Ofhislaterplays,
_Coriolanus,Cymbeline,Winter'sTale_,and_Pericles_showadecided
fallingofffromhispreviouswork,andindicateanotherperiodof
experimentation;thistimenottotesthisownpowersbuttocatchthe
ficklehumorofthepublic.Asisusuallythecasewithatheatergoing
people,theysoonturnedfromseriousdramatosentimentalormore
questionablespectacles;andwithFletcher,whoworkedwithShakespeareand
succeededhimasthefirstplaywrightofLondon,thedeclineofthedrama
hadalreadybegun.In1609,however,occurredaneventwhichgave
Shakespearehischanceforafarewelltothepublic.AnEnglishship
disappeared,andallonboardweregivenupforlost.Ayearlaterthe
sailorsreturnedhome,andtheirarrivalcreatedintenseexcitement.They
hadbeenwreckedontheunknownBermudas,andhadlivedthereforten
months,terrifiedbymysteriousnoiseswhichtheythoughtcamefromspirits
anddevils.Fivedifferentaccountsofthisfascinatingshipwreckwere
published,andtheBermudasbecameknownasthe"IleofDivels."
Shakespearetookthisstorywhichcausedasmuchpopularinterestasthat
latershipwreckwhichgaveus_RobinsonCrusoe_andwoveitinto_The
Tempest_.Inthesameyear(1611)heprobablysoldhisinterestinthe
GlobeandBlackfriarstheaters,andhisdramaticworkwasended.Afew
playswereprobablyleftunfinished[153]andwereturnedovertoFletcher
andotherdramatists.
ThatShakespearethoughtlittleofhissuccessandhadnoideathathis
dramaswerethegreatestthattheworldeverproducedseemsevidentfrom
thefactthathemadenoattempttocollectorpublishhisworks,oreven

tosavehismanuscripts,whichwerecarelesslylefttostagemanagersof
thetheaters,andsofoundtheirwayultimatelytotheragman.Afterafew
yearsofquietlife,ofwhichwehavelessrecordthanofhundredsof
simplecountrygentlemenofthetime,Shakespearediedontheprobable
anniversaryofhisbirth,April23,1616.Hewasgivenatombinthe
chanceloftheparishchurch,notbecauseofhispreminenceinliterature,
butbecauseofhisinterestintheaffairsofacountryvillage.Andinthe
sadironyoffate,thebroadstonethatcoveredhistombnowanobjectof
venerationtothethousandsthatyearlyvisitthelittlechurchwas
inscribedasfollows:
Goodfriend,forJesus'sakeforbeare
Todigthedustenclosedheare;
Blestebethemanthatsparesthesestones,
Andcurstbehethatmovesmybones.
Thiswretcheddoggerel,overtheworld'sgreatestpoet,wasintended,no
doubt,asawarningtosomestupidsexton,lestheshouldemptythegrave
andgivethehonoredplacetosomeamiablegentlemanwhohadgivenmore
tithestotheparish.
WORKSOFSHAKESPEARE.AtthetimeofShakespeare'sdeathtwentyoneplays
existedinmanuscriptsinthevarioustheaters.Afewothershadalready
beenprintedinquartoform,andthelatteraretheonlypublicationsthat
couldpossiblyhavemetwiththepoet'sownapproval.Moreprobablythey
weretakendowninshorthandbysomelistenerattheplayandthen
"pirated"bysomepublisherforhisownprofit.Thefirstprinted
collectionofhisplays,nowcalledtheFirstFolio(1623),wasmadebytwo
actors,HemingandCondell,whoassertedthattheyhadaccesstothepapers
ofthepoetandhadmadeaperfectedition,"inordertokeepthememoryof
soworthyafriendandfellowalive."Thiscontainsthirtysixofthe
thirtysevenplaysgenerallyattributedtoShakespeare,_Pericles_being
omitted.ThiscelebratedFirstFoliowasprintedfromplayhousemanuscripts
andfromprintedquartoscontainingmanynotesandchangesbyindividual
actorsandstagemanagers.Moreover,itwasfulloftypographicalerrors,
thoughtheeditorsallegedgreatcareandaccuracy;andso,thoughitis
theonlyauthoritativeeditionwehave,itisoflittlevaluein
determiningthedates,ortheclassificationoftheplaysastheyexisted
inShakespeare'smind.
Notwithstandingthisuncertainty,acarefulreadingoftheplaysandpoems
leavesuswithanimpressionoffourdifferentperiodsofwork,probably
correspondingwiththegrowthandexperienceofthepoet'slife.Theseare:
(1)aperiodofearlyexperimentation.Itismarkedbyyouthfulnessand
exuberanceofimagination,byextravaganceoflanguage,andbythefrequent
useofrimedcoupletswithhisblankverse.Theperioddatesfromhis
arrivalinLondonto1595.Typicalworksofthisfirstperiodarehisearly
poems,_Love'sLabour'sLost,TwoGentlemenofVerona_,and_RichardIII_.
(2)Aperiodofrapidgrowthanddevelopment,from1595to1600.Suchplays
as_TheMerchantofVenice,MidsummerNight'sDream,AsYouLikeIt_,and
_HenryIV_,allwritteninthisperiod,showmorecarefulandartistic
work,betterplots,andamarkedincreaseinknowledgeofhumannature.(3)
Aperiodofgloomanddepression,from1600to1607,whichmarksthefull
maturityofhispowers.Whatcausedthisevidentsadnessisunknown;butit
isgenerallyattributedtosomepersonalexperience,coupledwiththe
politicalmisfortunesofhisfriends,EssexandSouthampton.The_Sonnets_
withtheirnoteofpersonaldisappointment,_TwelfthNight_,whichis
Shakespeare's"farewelltomirth,"andhisgreattragedies,_Hamlet,Lear,
Macbeth,Othello_,and_JuliusCsar_,belongtothisperiod.(4)Aperiod
ofrestoredserenity,ofcalmafterstorm,whichmarkedthelastyearsof
thepoet'sliterarywork._TheWinter'sTale_and_TheTempest_arethe
bestofhislaterplays;buttheyallshowafallingofffromhisprevious
work,andindicateasecondperiodofexperimentationwiththetasteofa
ficklepublic.

Toreadinsuccessionfourplays,takingatypicalworkfromeachofthe
aboveperiods,isoneoftheverybestwaysofgettingquicklyatthereal
lifeandmindofShakespeare.Followingisacompletelistwiththe
approximatedatesofhisworks,classifiedaccordingtotheabovefour
periods.
FirstPeriod,EarlyExperiment._VenusandAdonis,RapeofLucrece_,1594;
_TitusAndronicus,HenryVI_(threeparts),15901591;_Love'sLabour's
Lost_,1590;_ComedyofErrors,TwoGentlemenofVerona_,15911592;
_RichardIII_,1593;_RichardII,KingJohn_,15941595.
SecondPeriod,Development._RomeoandJuliet,MidsummerNight'sDream_,
1595;_MerchantofVenice,HenryIV_(firstpart),1596;_HenryIV_(second
part),_MerryWivesofWindsor_,1597;_MuchAdoAboutNothing_,1598;_As
YouLikeIt,HenryV_,1599.
ThirdPeriod,MaturityandGloom._Sonnets_(1600?),_TwelfthNight_,
1600;_TamingoftheShrew,JuliusCsar,Hamlet,TroilusandCressida_,
16011602;_All'sWellThatEndsWell,MeasureforMeasure_,1603;
_Othello_,1604;_KingLear_,1605;_Macbeth_,1606;_AntonyandCleopatra,
TimonofAthens_,1607.
FourthPeriod,LateExperiment._Coriolanus,Pericles_,1608;_Cymbeline_,
1609;_Winter'sTale_,16101611;_TheTempest_,1611;_HenryVIII_
(unfinished).
CLASSIFICATIONACCORDINGTOSOURCE.Inhistory,legend,andstory,
Shakespearefoundthematerialfornearlyallhisdramas;andsotheyare
oftendividedintothreeclasses,calledhistoricalplays,like_Richard
III_and_HenryV;_legendaryorpartlyhistoricalplays,like_Macbeth,
KingLear_,and_JuliusCsar;_andfictionalplays,like_Romeoand
Juliet_and_TheMerchantofVenice_.Shakespeareinventedfew,ifany,of
theplotsorstoriesuponwhichhisdramasarefounded,butborrowedthem
freely,afterthecustomofhisage,whereverhefoundthem.Forhis
legendaryandhistoricalmaterialhedepended,largelyon_Holinshed's
ChroniclesofEngland,Scotland,andIreland_,andonNorth'stranslation
ofPlutarch'sfamous_Lives_.
Afullhalfofhisplaysarefictional,andintheseheusedthemost
popularromancesoftheday,seemingtodependmostontheItalian
storytellers.Onlytwoorthreeofhisplots,asin_Love'sLabour'sLost_
and_MerryWivesofWindsor_,aresaidtobeoriginal,andeventheseare
doubtful.OccasionallyShakespearemadeoveranolderplay,asin_Henry
VI,ComedyofErrors_,and_Hamlet;_andinoneinstanceatleastheseized
uponanincidentofshipwreckinwhichLondonwasgreatlyinterested,and
madeoutofittheoriginalandfascinatingplayof_TheTempest_,inmuch
thesamespiritwhichleadsourmodernplaywrightswhentheydramatizea
popularnovelorawarstorytocatchthepublicfancy.
CLASSIFICATIONACCORDINGTODRAMATICTYPE.Shakespeare'sdramasareusually
dividedintothreeclasses,calledtragedies,comedies,andhistorical
plays.Strictlyspeakingthedramahasbuttwodivisions,tragedyand
comedy,inwhichareincludedthemanysubordinateformsoftragicomedy,
melodrama,lyricdrama(opera),farce,etc.Atragedyisadramainwhich
theprincipalcharactersareinvolvedindesperatecircumstancesorledby
overwhelmingpassions.Itisinvariablyseriousanddignified.Themovement
isalwaysstately,butgrowsmoreandmorerapidasitapproachesthe
climax;andtheendisalwayscalamitous,resultingindeathordire
misfortunetotheprincipals.AsChaucer'smonksays,beforehebeginsto
"biwayleinmaneroftragedie":
Tragedieistoseynacerteynstorie
Ofhimthatstoodingreatprosperitee,
Andisyfallenoutofheighdegree
Intomiserie,andendethwrecchedly.

Acomedy,ontheotherhand,isadramainwhichthecharactersareplaced
inmoreorlesshumoroussituations.Themovementislightandoften
mirthful,andtheplayendsingeneralgoodwillandhappiness.The
historicaldramaaimstopresentsomehistoricalageorcharacter,andmay
beeitheracomedyoratragedy.Thefollowinglistincludesthebestof
Shakespeare'splaysineachofthethreeclasses;buttheorderindicates
merelytheauthor'spersonalopinionoftherelativemeritsoftheplaysin
eachclass.Thus_MerchantofVenice_wouldbethefirstofthecomedies
forthebeginnertoread,and_JuliusCsar_isanexcellentintroduction
tothehistoricalplaysandthetragedies.
Comedies._MerchantofVenice,MidsummerNight'sDream,AsYouLikeIt,
Winter'sTale,TheTempest,TwelfthNight_.
Tragedies._RomeoandJuliet,Macbeth,Hamlet,KingLear,Othello_.
HistoricalPlays._JuliusCsar,RichardIII,HenryIV,HenryV,
Coriolanus,AntonyandCleopatra_.
DOUBTFULPLAYS.Itisreasonablycertainthatsomeoftheplaysgenerally
attributedtoShakespearearepartlytheworkofotherdramatists.The
firstofthesedoubtfulplays,oftencalledthePreShakespearianGroup,
are_TitusAndronicus_andthefirstpartof_HenryVI_.Shakespeare
probablyworkedwithMarloweinthetwolastpartsof_HenryVI_andin
_RichardIII_.Thethreeplays,_TamingoftheShrew,Timon_,and
_Pericles_areonlypartlyShakespeare'swork,buttheotherauthorsare
unknown._HenryVIII_istheworkofFletcherandShakespeare,opinion
beingdividedastowhetherShakespearehelpedFletcher,orwhetheritwas
anunfinishedworkofShakespearewhichwasputintoFletcher'shandsfor
completion._TwoNobleKinsmen_isaplaynotordinarilyfoundineditions
ofShakespeare,butitisoftenplacedamonghisdoubtfulworks.The
greaterpartoftheplayisundoubtedlybyFletcher._EdwardIII_isoneof
severalcrudeplayspublishedatfirstanonymouslyandlaterattributedto
Shakespearebypublisherswhodesiredtoselltheirwares.Itcontainsa
fewpassagesthatstronglysuggestShakespeare;buttheexternalevidence
isallagainsthisauthorship.
SHAKESPEARE'SPOEMS.Itisgenerallyassertedthat,ifShakespearehad
writtennoplays,hispoemsalonewouldhavegivenhimacommandingplace
intheElizabethanAge.Nevertheless,inthevarioushistoriesofour
literaturethereisapparentadesiretopraiseandpassoverallbutthe
_Sonnets_asrapidlyaspossible;andthereasonmaybestatedfrankly.His
twolongpoems,"VenusandAdonis"and"TheRapeofLucrece,"containmuch
poeticfancy;butitmustbesaidofboththatthesubjectsareunpleasant,
andthattheyaredraggedouttounnecessarylengthinordertoshowthe
playofyouthfulimagination.TheywereextremelypopularinShakespeare's
day,butincomparisonwithhisgreatdramaticworksthesepoemsarenowof
minorimportance.
Shakespeare's_Sonnets_,onehundredandfiftyfourinnumber,aretheonly
directexpressionofthepoet'sownfeelingsthatwepossess;forhisplays
arethemostimpersonalinallliterature.Theywerepublishedtogetherin
1609;butiftheyhadanyunityinShakespeare'smind,theirplanand
purposearehardtodiscover.Bysomecriticstheyareregardedasmere
literaryexercises;byothersastheexpressionofsomepersonalgrief
duringthethirdperiodofthepoet'sliterarycareer.Stillothers,taking
ahintfromthesonnetbeginning"TwolovesIhave,ofcomfortand
despair,"dividethemallintotwoclasses,addressedtoamanwhowas
Shakespeare'sfriend,andtoawomanwhodisdainedhislove.Thereadermay
wellavoidsuchclassificationsandreadafewsonnets,likethetwenty
ninth,forinstance,andletthemspeaktheirownmessage.Afeware
trivialandartificialenough,suggestingtheelaborateexercisesofa
pianoplayer;butthemajorityareremarkablefortheirsubtlethoughtand
exquisiteexpression.Hereandthereisone,likethatbeginning

Whentothesessionsofsweetsilentthought
Isummonupremembranceofthingspast,
whichwillhauntthereaderlongafterwards,liketheremembranceofanold
Germanmelody.
SHAKESPEARE'SPLACEANDINFLUENCE.Shakespeareholds,bygeneral
acclamation,theforemostplaceintheworld'sliterature,andhis
overwhelminggreatnessrendersitdifficulttocriticiseoreventopraise
him.Twopoetsonly,HomerandDante,havebeennamedwithhim;buteachof
thesewrotewithinnarrowlimits,whileShakespeare'sgeniusincludedall
theworldofnatureandofmen.Inaword,heistheuniversalpoet.To
studynatureinhisworksislikeexploringanewandbeautifulcountry;to
studymaninhisworksislikegoingintoagreatcity,viewingthemotley
crowdasoneviewsagreatmasqueradeinwhichpastandpresentmingle
freelyandfamiliarly,asifthedeadwerealllivingagain.Andthe
marvelousthing,inthismasqueradeofallsortsandconditionsofmen,is
thatShakespeareliftsthemaskfromeveryface,letsusseethemanashe
isinhisownsoul,andshowsusineachonesomegermofgood,some"soul
ofgoodness"eveninthingsevil.ForShakespearestrikesnouncertain
note,andraisesnodoubtstoaddtotheburdenofyourown.Goodalways
overcomesevilinthelongrun;andlove,faith,work,anddutyarethe
fourelementsthatinallagesmaketheworldright.Tocriticiseorpraise
thegeniusthatcreatesthesemenandwomenistocriticiseorpraise
humanityitself.
Ofhisinfluenceinliteratureitisequallydifficulttospeak.Goethe
expressesthecommonliteraryjudgmentwhenhesays,"Idonotremember
thatanybookorpersonoreventinmylifeevermadesogreatan
impressionuponmeastheplaysofShakespeare."Hisinfluenceuponourown
languageandthoughtisbeyondcalculation.ShakespeareandtheKingJames
BiblearethetwogreatconservatorsoftheEnglishspeech;andonewho
habituallyreadsthemfindshimselfpossessedofastyleandvocabulary
thatarebeyondcriticism.EventhosewhoreadnoShakespearearestill
unconsciouslyguidedbyhim,forhisthoughtandexpressionhaveso
pervadedourlifeandliteraturethatitisimpossible,solongasone
speakstheEnglishlanguage,toescapehisinfluence.
Hislifewasgentle,andtheelements
Somixedinhim,thatNaturemightstandup
Andsaytoalltheworld,"Thiswasaman!"
V.SHAKESPEARE'SCONTEMPORARIESANDSUCCESSORSINTHEDRAMA
DECLINEOFTHEDRAMA.Itwasinevitablethatthedramashoulddeclineafter
Shakespeare,forthesimplereasonthattherewasnoothergreatenoughto
fillhisplace.Asidefromthis,othercauseswereatwork,andthechief
ofthesewasattheverysourceoftheElizabethandramas.Itmustbe
rememberedthatourfirstplaywrightswrotetopleasetheiraudiences;that
thedramaroseinEnglandbecauseofthedesireofapatrioticpeopleto
seesomethingofthestirringlifeofthetimesreflectedonthestage.For
therewerenopapersormagazinesinthosedays,andpeoplecametothe
theatersnotonlytobeamusedbuttobeinformed.Likechildren,they
wantedtoseeastoryacted;andlikemen,theywantedtoknowwhatit
meant.Shakespearefulfilledtheirdesire.Hegavethemtheirstory,and
hisgeniuswasgreatenoughtoshowineveryplaynotonlytheirownlife
andpassionsbutsomethingofthemeaningofalllife,andofthateternal
justicewhichusesthewarofhumanpassionsforitsowngreatends.Thus
goodandevilminglefreelyinhisdramas;buttheevilisnever
attractive,andthegoodtriumphsasinevitablyasfate.Thoughhis
languageissometimescoarse,wearetorememberthatitwasthecustomof
hisagetospeaksomewhatcoarsely,andthatinlanguage,asinthoughtand
feeling,Shakespeareisfarabovemostofhiscontemporaries.

Withhissuccessorsallthiswaschanged.Theaudienceitselfhadgradually
changed,andinplaceofplainpeopleeagerforastoryandfor
information,weseealargerandlargerproportionofthosewhowenttothe
playbecausetheyhadnothingelsetodo.Theywantedamusementonly,and
sincetheyhadbluntedbyidlenessthedesireforsimpleandwholesome
amusement,theycalledforsomethingmoresensational.Shakespeare's
successorscateredtothedepravedtastesofthisnewaudience.Theylacked
notonlyShakespeare'sgenius,buthisbroadcharity,hismoralinsight
intolife.WiththeexceptionofBenJonson,theyneglectedthesimplefact
thatmaninhisdeepestnatureisamoralbeing,andthatonlyaplaywhich
satisfiesthewholenatureofmanbyshowingthetriumphofthemorallaw
caneverwhollysatisfyanaudienceorapeople.BeaumontandFletcher,
forgettingthedeepmeaningoflife,stroveforeffectbyincreasingthe
sensationalismoftheirplays;Websterreveledintragediesofbloodand
thunder;MassingerandFordmadeanotherstepdownward,producingeviland
licentiousscenesfortheirownsake,makingcharactersandsituationsmore
immoraltill,notwithstandingthesedramatists'ability,thestagehad
becomeinsincere,frivolous,andbad.BenJonson'sode,"ComeLeavethe
LoathedStage,"isthejudgmentofalargeandhonestnaturegrownwearyof
theplaysandtheplayersofthetime.Wereadwithasenseofreliefthat
in1642,onlytwentysixyearsafterShakespeare'sdeath,bothhousesof
Parliamentvotedtoclosethetheatersasbreedersofliesandimmorality.
BENJONSON(1573?1637)
PersonallyJonsonisthemostcommandingliteraryfigureamongthe
Elizabethans.FortwentyfiveyearshewastheliterarydictatorofLondon,
thechiefofallthewitsthatgatherednightlyattheoldDevilTavern.
Withhisgreatlearning,hisability,andhiscommandingpositionaspoet
laureate,hesethimselfsquarelyagainsthiscontemporariesandthe
romantictendencyoftheage.Fortwothingshefoughtbravely,torestore
theclassicformofthedrama,andtokeepthestagefromitsdownward
course.Apparentlyhefailed;theromanticschoolfixeditsholdmore
stronglythanever;thestagewentswiftlytoanendassadasthatofthe
earlydramatists.Neverthelesshisinfluencelivedandgrewmorepowerful
till,aidedlargelybyFrenchinfluence,itresultedinthesocalled
classicismoftheeighteenthcentury.
LIFE.JonsonwasbornatWestminsterabouttheyear1573.Hisfather,an
educatedgentleman,hadhispropertyconfiscatedandwashimselfthrown
intoprisonbyQueenMary;soweinferthefamilywasofsomeprominence.
Fromhismotherhereceivedcertainstrongcharacteristics,andbyasingle
shortreferenceinJonson'sworksweareledtoseethekindofwomanshe
was.ItiswhileJonsonistellingDrummondoftheoccasionwhenhewas
thrownintoprison,becausesomepassagesinthecomedyof_EastwardHo!_
gaveoffensetoKingJames,andhewasindangerofahorribledeath,after
havinghisearsandnosecutoff.Hetellsushow,afterhispardon,hewas
banquetingwithhisfriends,whenhis"oldmother"cameinandshoweda
paperfullof"lustystrongpoison,"whichsheintendedtomixwithhis
drinkjustbeforetheexecution.Andtoshowthatshe"wasnochurl,"she
intendedfirsttodrinkofthepoisonherself.Theincidentisallthemore
suggestivefromthefactthatChapmanandMarston,onehisfriendandthe
otherhisenemy,werefirstcastintoprisonastheauthorsof_Eastward
Ho!_androughBenJonsonatoncedeclaredthathetoohadhadasmallhand
inthewritingandwenttojointheminprison.
Jonson'sfathercameoutofprison,havinggivenuphisestate,andbecame
aminister.Hediedjustbeforetheson'sbirth,andtwoyearslaterthe
mothermarriedabricklayerofLondon.Theboywassenttoaprivate
school,andlatermadehisownwaytoWestminsterSchool,wherethe
submaster,Camden,struckbytheboy'sability,taughtandlargely
supportedhim.Forashorttimehemayhavestudiedattheuniversityin
Cambridge;buthisstepfathersoonsethimtolearningthebricklayer's

trade.Heranawayfromthis,andwentwiththeEnglisharmytofight
SpaniardsintheLowCountries.Hisbestknownexploittherewastofighta
duelbetweenthelineswithoneoftheenemy'ssoldiers,whilebotharmies
lookedon.Jonsonkilledhisman,andtookhisarms,andmadehiswayback
tohisownlinesinawaytodelighttheoldNormantroubadours.Hesoon
returnedtoEngland,andmarriedprecipitatelywhenonlynineteenortwenty
yearsold.Fiveyearslaterwefindhimemployed,likeShakespeare,as
actorandreviserofoldplaysinthetheater.Thereafterhislifeisa
variedandstormyone.Hekilledanactorinaduel,andonlyescaped
hangingbypleading"benefitofclergy";[154]buthelostallhispoor
goodsandwasbrandedforlifeonhisleftthumb.Inhisfirstgreatplay,
_EveryManinHisHumour_(1598),Shakespeareactedoneoftheparts;and
thatmayhavebeenthebeginningoftheirlongfriendship.Otherplays
followedrapidly.UpontheaccessionofJames,Jonson'smasqueswonhim
royalfavor,andhewasmadepoetlaureate.Henowbecameundoubtedleader
oftheliterarymenofhistime,thoughhisroughhonestyandhishatredof
theliterarytendenciesoftheagemadehimquarrelwithnearlyallof
them.In1616,soonafterShakespeare'sretirement,hestoppedwritingfor
thestageandgavehimselfuptostudyandseriouswork.In1618he
traveledonfoottoScotland,wherehevisitedDrummond,fromwhomwehave
thescantrecordsofhisvariedlife.Hisimpressionsofthisjourney,
called_FootPilgrimage_,werelostinafirebeforepublication.
Thereafterheproducedless,andhisworkdeclinedinvigor;butspiteof
growingpovertyandinfirmitywenoticeinhislaterwork,especiallyin
theunfinished_SadShepherd_,acertainmellownessandtenderhuman
sympathywhichwerelackinginhisearlierproductions.Hediedpoverty
strickenin1637.UnlikeShakespeare's,hisdeathwasmournedasanational
calamity,andhewasburiedwithallhonorinWestminsterAbbey.Onhis
gravewaslaidamarbleslab,onwhichthewords"OrareBenJonson"were
hissufficientepitaph.
WORKSOFBENJONSON.Jonson'sworkisinstrongcontrastwiththatof
ShakespeareandofthelaterElizabethandramatists.Alonehefought
againsttheromantictendencyoftheage,andtorestoretheclassic
standards.Thusthewholeactionofhisdramausuallycoversonlyafew
hours,orasingleday.Henevertakeslibertieswithhistoricalfacts,as
Shakespearedoes,butisaccuratetothesmallestdetail.Hisdramasabound
inclassicallearning,arecarefullyandlogicallyconstructed,andcomedy
andtragedyarekeptapart,insteadofcrowdingeachotherastheydoin
Shakespeareandinlife.Inonerespecthiscomediesareworthyofcareful
reading,theyareintenselyrealistic,presentingmenandwomenofthe
timeexactlyastheywere.FromafewofJonson'ssceneswecan
understandbetterthanfromalltheplaysofShakespearehowmentalked
andactedduringtheAgeofElizabeth.
Jonson'sfirstcomedy,_EveryManinHisHumour_,isakeytoallhis
dramas.Theword"humour"inhisagestoodforsomecharacteristicwhimor
qualityofsociety.Jonsongivestohisleadingcharactersomeprominent
humor,exaggeratesit,asthecartoonistenlargesthemostcharacteristic
featureofaface,andsoholdsitbeforeourattentionthatallother
qualitiesarelostsightof;whichisthemethodthatDickensusedlaterin
manyofhisnovels._EveryManinHisHumour_wasthefirstofthree
satires.Itsspecialaimwastoridiculethehumorsofthecity.The
second,_Cynthia'sRevels_,satirizesthehumorsofthecourt;whilethe
third,_ThePoetaster_,theresultofaquarrelwithhiscontemporaries,
wasleveledatthefalsestandardsofthepoetsoftheage.
ThethreebestknownofJonson'scomediesare_Volpone,ortheFox,The
Alchemist_,and_Epicoene,ortheSilentWoman.Volpone_isakeenand
mercilessanalysisofamangovernedbyanoverwhelmingloveofmoneyfor
itsownsake.Thefirstwordsinthefirstsceneareakeytothewhole
comedy:
_(Volpone)_
Goodmorningtotheday;andnext,mygold!

OpentheshrinethatImayseemysaint.
(_Moscawithdrawsacurtainanddiscoverspilesof
gold,plate,jewels,etc._)
Hailtheworld'ssoul,andmine!
Volpone'smethodofincreasinghiswealthistoplayupontheavariceof
men.Hepretendstobeatthepointofdeath,andhis"suitors,"whoknow
hisloveofgainandthathehasnoheirs,endeavorhypocriticallyto
sweetenhislastmomentsbygivinghimrichpresents,sothathewillleave
themallhiswealth.Theintriguesofthesesuitorsfurnishthestoryof
theplay,andshowtowhatinfamousdepthsavaricewillleadaman.
_TheAlchemist_isastudyofquackeryononesideandofgullibilityon
theother,foundedonthemedivalideaofthephilosopher'sstone,[155]
andappliesaswelltothepatentmedicinesandgetrichquickschemesof
ourdayastothepeculiarformsofquackerywithwhichJonsonwasmore
familiar.Inplotandartisticconstruction_TheAlchemist_isanalmost
perfectspecimenofthebestEnglishdrama.Ithassomeremarkablygood
passages,andisthemostreadableofJonson'splays.
_Epicoene,ortheSilentWoman_,isaprosecomedyexceedinglywell
constructed,fulloflife,aboundinginfunandunexpectedsituations.Here
isabriefoutlinefromwhichthereadermayseeofwhatmaterialsJonson
madeuphiscomedies.
ThechiefcharacterisMorose,aricholdcodgerwhosehumorisahorrorof
noise.Helivesinastreetsonarrowthatitwilladmitnocarriages;he
padsthedoors;plugsthekeyhole;putsmattressesonthestairs.He
dismissesaservantwhowearssqueakyboots;makesalltherestgoaboutin
thickstockings;andtheymustanswerhimbysigns,sincehecannotbearto
hearanybodybuthimselftalk.HedisinheritshispoornephewEugenie,and,
tomakesurethatthelatterwillnotgetanymoneyoutofhim,resolvesto
marry.HisconfidantinthisdelicatematterisCutbeardthebarber,who,
unlikehiskind,neverspeaksunlessspokento,anddoesnotevenknickhis
scissorsasheworks.Cutbeard(whoissecretlyinleaguewiththenephew)
tellshimofEpicoene,arare,silentwoman,andMoroseissodelighted
withhersilencethatheresolvestomarryheronthespot.Cutbeard
producesaparsonwithabadcold,whocanspeakonlyinawhisper,to
marrythem;andwhentheparsoncoughsaftertheceremonyMorosedemands
backfiveshillingsofthefee.Tosaveittheparsoncoughsmore,andis
hurriedlybundledoutofthehouse.Thesilentwomanfindshervoice
immediatelyafterthemarriage,beginstotalkloudlyandtomakereforms
inthehousehold,drivingMorosetodistraction.Anoisydinnerpartyfrom
aneighboringhouse,withdrumsandtrumpetsandaquarrelingmanandwife,
isskillfullyguidedinatthismomenttocelebratethewedding.Morose
fleesforhislife,andisfoundperchedlikeamonkeyonacrossbeamin
theattic,withallhisnightcapstiedoverhisears.Heseeksadivorce,
butisdrivenfranticbytheloudargumentsofalawyerandadivine,who
arenootherthanCutbeardandaseacaptaindisguised.WhenMoroseispast
allhopethenephewofferstoreleasehimfromhiswifeandhernoisy
friendsifhewillallowhimfivehundredpoundsayear.Moroseoffershim
anything,everything,toescapehistorment,andsignsadeedtothat
effect.ThencomesthesurpriseoftheplaywhenEugeniewhipsthewigfrom
Epicoeneandshowsaboyindisguise.
Itwillbeseenthatthe_SilentWoman_,withitsrapidactionandits
unexpectedsituations,offersanexcellentopportunityfortheactors;but
thereadingoftheplay,asofmostofJonson'scomedies,ismarredbylow
intriguesshowingasadstateofmoralsamongtheupperclasses.
Besidesthese,andmanyotherlessknowncomedies,Jonsonwrotetwogreat
tragedies,_Sejanus_(1603)and_Catiline_(1611),uponsevereclassical
lines.Afterceasinghisworkforthestage,Jonsonwrotemanymasquesin
honorofJamesIandofQueenAnne,tobeplayedamidelaboratesceneryby
thegentlemenofthecourt.Thebestoftheseare"TheSatyr,""The

Penates,""MasqueofBlackness,""MasqueofBeauty,""HueandCryafter
Cupid,"and"TheMasqueofQueens."InallhisplaysJonsonshowedastrong
lyricgift,andsomeofhislittlepoemsandsongs,like"TheTriumphof
Charis,""DrinktoMeOnlywithThineEyes,"and"TotheMemoryofmy
BelovedMother,"arenowbetterknownthanhisgreatdramaticworks.A
singlevolumeofprose,called_Timber,orDiscoveriesmadeuponMenand
Matter_,isaninterestingcollectionofshortessayswhicharemorelike
Bacon'sthananyotherworkoftheage.
BEAUMONTANDFLETCHER.Theworkofthesetwomenissocloselyinterwoven
that,thoughFletcheroutlivedBeaumontbynineyearsandthelatterhadno
handinsomefortyoftheplaysthatbeartheirjointnames,westillclass
themtogether,andonlyscholarsattempttoseparatetheirworkssoasto
giveeachwriterhisdueshare.UnlikemostoftheElizabethandramatists,
theybothcamefromnobleandculturedfamiliesandwereuniversity
trained.Theirwork,instrongcontrastwithJonson's,isintensely
romantic,andinitall,howevercoarseorbrutalthescene,thereis
still,asEmersonpointedout,thesubtle"recognitionofgentility."
Beaumont(15841616)wasthebrotherofSirJohnBeaumontof
Leicestershire.FromOxfordhecametoLondontostudylaw,butsoongave
ituptowriteforthestage.Fletcher(15791625)wasthesonofthe
bishopofLondon,andshowsinallhisworktheinfluenceofhishigh
socialpositionandofhisCambridgeeducation.Thetwodramatistsmetat
theMermaidtavernunderBenJonson'sleadershipandsoonbecame
inseparablefriends,livingandworkingtogether.Traditionhasitthat
Beaumontsuppliedthejudgmentandthesolidworkoftheplay,while
Fletcherfurnishedthehighcoloredsentimentandthelyricpoetry,without
whichanElizabethanplaywouldhavebeenincomplete.Oftheirjointplays,
thetwobestknownare_Philaster_,whoseoldtheme,likethatof
_Cymbeline_and_Griselda_,isthejealousyofaloverandthefaithfulness
ofagirl,and_TheMaid'sTragedy_.ConcerningFletcher'sworkthemost
interestingliteraryquestionishowmuchdidhewriteofShakespeare's
_HenryVIII_,andhowmuchdidShakespearehelphimin_TheTwoNoble
Kinsmen_.
JOHNWEBSTER.OfWebster'spersonalhistoryweknownothingexceptthathe
waswellknownasadramatistunderJamesI.Hisextraordinarypowersof
expressionrankhimwithShakespeare;buthistalentseemstohavebeen
largelydevotedtothebloodandthunderplaybegunbyMarlowe.Histwo
bestknownplaysare_TheWhiteDevil_(pub.1612)and_TheDuchessof
Malfi_(pub.1623).Thelatter,spiteofitshorrors,rankshimasoneof
thegreatestmastersofEnglishtragedy.Itmustberememberedthathe
soughtinthisplaytoreproducetheItalianlifeofthesixteenthcentury,
andforthisnoimaginaryhorrorsareneeded.ThehistoryofanyItalian
courtorcityinthisperiodfurnishesmoreviceandviolenceanddishonor
thaneventhegloomyimaginationofWebstercouldconceive.Allthe
socalledbloodtragediesoftheElizabethanperiod,fromThomasKyd's
_SpanishTragedy_down,howevermuchtheymaycondemnthebrutaltasteof
theEnglishaudiences,arestillonlysomanysearchlightsthrownupona
historyofhorribledarkness.
THOMASMIDDLETON(1570?1627).Middletonisbestknownbytwogreatplays,
_TheChangeling_[156]and_WomenBewareWomen_.Inpoetryanddictionthey
arealmostworthyattimestorankwithShakespeare'splays;otherwise,in
theirsensationalismandunnaturalnesstheydoviolencetothemoralsense
andarerepulsivetothemodernreader.Twoearlierplays,_ATrickto
catchtheOldOne_,hisbestcomedy,and_AFairQuarrel_,hisearliest
tragedy,arelessmatureinthoughtandexpression,butmorereadable,
becausetheyseemtoexpressMiddleton'sownideaofthedramaratherthan
thatofthecorruptcourtandplaywrightsofhislaterage.
THOMASHEYWOOD(1580?1650?).Heywood'slife,ofwhichweknowlittlein
detail,coversthewholeperiodoftheElizabethandrama.Tothegloryof
thatdramahecontributed,accordingtohisownstatement,thegreater

part,atleast,ofnearlytwohundredandtwentyplays.Itwasanenormous
amountofwork;butheseemstohavebeenanimatedbythemodernliterary
spiritoffollowingthebestmarketandstrikingwhilethefinancialiron
ishot.Naturallygoodworkwasimpossible,eventogenius,undersuch
circumstances,andfewofhisplaysarenowknown.Thetwobest,ifthe
readerwouldobtainhisownideaofHeywood'sundoubtedability,are_A
WomankilledwithKindness_,apatheticstoryofdomesticlife,and_The
FairMaidoftheWest_,amelodramawithplentyoffightingofthepopular
kind.
THOMASDEKKER(1570?).Dekkerisinpleasingcontrastwithmostofthe
dramatistsofthetime.Allweknowofhimmustbeinferredfromhisworks,
whichshowahappyandsunnynature,pleasantandgoodtomeet.Thereader
willfindthebestexpressionofDekker'spersonalityanderraticgeniusin
_TheShoemakers'Holiday_,ahumorousstudyofplainworkingpeople,and
_OldFortunatus_,afairydramaofthewishinghatandnoendofmoney.
Whetherintendedforchildrenornot,ithadtheeffectofcharmingthe
eldersfarmorethantheyoungpeople,andtheplaybecameimmensely
popular.
MASSINGER,FORD,SHIRLEY.ThesethreemenmarktheendoftheElizabethan
drama.Theirwork,donelargelywhilethestrugglewasonbetweenthe
actorsandthecorruptcourt,ononeside,andthePuritansontheother,
showsadeliberateturningawaynotonlyfromPuritanstandardsbutfrom
thehighidealsoftheirownarttopandertothecorrupttasteofthe
upperclasses.
PhilipMassinger(15841640)wasadramaticpoetofgreatnaturalability;
buthisplotsandsituationsareusuallysostrainedandartificialthat
themodernreaderfindsnointerestinthem.Inhisbestcomedy,_ANewWay
toPayOldDebts_,heachievedgreatpopularityandgaveusonefigure,Sir
GilesOverreach,whichisoneofthetypicalcharactersoftheEnglish
stage.Hisbestplaysare_TheGreatDukeofFlorence,TheVirginMartyr_,
and_TheMaidofHonour_.
JohnFord(15861642?)andJamesShirley(15961666)haveleftuslittleof
permanentliteraryvalue,andtheirworksarereadonlybythosewhowish
tounderstandthewholeriseandfallofthedrama.Anoccasionalscenein
Ford'splaysisasstrongasanythingthattheElizabethanAgeproduced;
butasawholetheplaysareunnaturalandtiresome.Probablyhisbestplay
is_TheBrokenHeart_(1633).Shirleywasgiventoimitationofhis
predecessors,andhisveryimitationischaracteristicofanagewhichhad
lostitsinspiration.Asingleplay,_HydePark_,withitsfrivolous,
realisticdialogue,issometimesreadforitsreflectionofthefashionable
gossipytalkoftheday.LongbeforeShirley'sdeaththeactorssaid,
"Farewell!Othello'soccupation'sgone."Parliamentvotedtoclosethe
theaters,therebysavingthedramafromamoreingloriousdeathby
dissipation.[157]
VI.THEPROSEWRITERS
FRANCISBACON(15611626)
InBaconweseeoneofthosecomplexandcontradictorynatureswhichare
thedespairofthebiographer.IfthewriterbeanadmirerofBacon,he
findstoomuchthathemustexcuseorpassoverinsilence;andifhetakes
hisstandonthelawtocondemntheavariceanddishonestyofhissubject,
hefindsenoughmoralcourageandnobilitytomakehimquestionthejustice
ofhisownjudgment.OntheonehandisruggedBenJonson'stributetohis
powerandability,andontheotherHallam'ssummarythathewas"aman
who,beingintrustedwiththehighestgiftsofHeaven,habituallyabused
themforthepoorestpurposesofearthhiredthemoutforguineas,
places,andtitlesintheserviceofinjustice,covetousness,and
oppression."

Layingasidetheopinionsofothers,andrelyingonlyuponthefactsof
Bacon'slife,wefindontheonesidethepolitician,cold,calculating,
selfish,andontheothertheliteraryandscientificmanwithan
impressivedevotiontotruthforitsowngreatsake;hereamanusing
questionablemeanstoadvancehisowninterests,andthereamanseeking
withzealandendlesslabortopenetratethesecretwaysofNature,withno
otherobjectthantoadvancetheinterestsofhisfellowmen.So,inour
ignoranceofthesecretmotivesandspringsoftheman'slife,judgmentis
necessarilysuspended.Baconwasapparentlyoneofthosedoublenatures
thatonlyGodiscompetenttojudge,becauseofthestrangemixtureof
intellectualstrengthandmoralweaknessthatisinthem.
LIFE.BaconwasthesonofSirNicholasBacon,LordKeeperoftheSeal,and
ofthelearnedAnnCook,sisterinlawtoLordBurleigh,greatestofthe
queen'sstatesmen.Fromtheseconnections,aswellasfromnativegifts,he
wasattractedtothecourt,andasachildwascalledbyElizabethher
"LittleLordKeeper."AttwelvehewenttoCambridge,butleftthe
universityaftertwoyears,declaringthewholeplanofeducationtobe
radicallywrong,andthesystemofAristotle,whichwasthebasisofall
philosophyinthosedays,tobeachildishdelusion,sinceinthecourseof
centuriesithad"producednofruit,butonlyajungleofdryanduseless
branches."Strange,evenforasophomoreoffourteen,thustocondemnthe
wholesystemoftheuniversities;butsuchwastheboy,andthesystem!
Nextyear,inordertocontinuehiseducation,heaccompaniedtheEnglish
ambassadortoFrance,whereheissaidtohavebusiedhimselfchieflywith
thepracticalstudiesofstatisticsanddiplomacy.
TwoyearslaterhewasrecalledtoLondonbythedeathofhisfather.
Withoutmoney,andnaturallywithexpensivetastes,heappliedtohisUncle
Burleighforalucrativeposition.Itwasinthisapplicationthatheused
theexpression,socharacteristicoftheElizabethanAge,thathe"had
takenallknowledgeforhisprovince."Burleigh,whomisjudgedhimasa
dreamerandselfseeker,notonlyrefusedtohelphimatthecourtbut
successfullyopposedhisadvancementbyElizabeth.Baconthentookupthe
studyoflaw,andwasadmittedtothebarin1582.Thathehadnotlosthis
philosophyinthemazesofthelawisshownbyhistract,writtenabout
thistime,"OntheGreatestBirthofTime,"whichwasapleaforhis
inductivesystemofphilosophy,reasoningfrommanyfactstoonelaw,
ratherthanfromanassumedlawtoparticularfacts,whichwasthe
deductivemethodthathadbeeninuseforcenturies.Inhisfamouspleafor
progressBacondemandedthreethings:thefreeinvestigationofnature,the
discoveryoffactsinsteadoftheories,andtheverificationofresultsby
experimentratherthanbyargument.InourdaythesearetheA,B,Cof
science,butinBacon'stimetheyseemedrevolutionary.
Asalawyerhebecameimmediatelysuccessful;hisknowledgeandpowerof
pleadingbecamewidelyknown,anditwasalmostatthebeginningofhis
careerthatJonsonwrote,"Thefearofeveryonethatheardhimspeakwas
thatheshouldmakeanend."Thepublicationofhis_Essays_addedgreatly
tohisfame;butBaconwasnotcontent.Hisheadwasbuzzingwithhuge
schemes,thepacificationofunhappyIreland,thesimplificationof
Englishlaw,thereformofthechurch,thestudyofnature,the
establishmentofanewphilosophy.Meanwhile,sadtosay,heplayedthe
gameofpoliticsforhispersonaladvantage.HedevotedhimselftoEssex,
theyounganddangerousfavoriteofthequeen,wonhisfriendship,andthen
usedhimskillfullytobetterhisownposition.Whentheearlwastriedfor
treasonitwaspartly,atleast,throughBacon'seffortsthathewas
convictedandbeheaded;andthoughBaconclaimstohavebeenactuatedbya
highsenseofjustice,wearenotconvincedthatheunderstoodeither
justiceorfriendshipinappearingasqueen'scounselagainstthemanwho
hadbefriendedhim.Hiscoldbloodednessandlackofmoralsensitiveness
appeareveninhisessayson"Love"and"Friendship."Indeed,wecan
understandhislifeonlyuponthetheorythathisintellectualitylefthim
coldanddeadtothehighersentimentsofourhumanity.

DuringElizabeth'sreignBaconhadsoughtrepeatedlyforhighoffice,but
hadbeenblockedbyBurleighandperhapsalsobythequeen'sownshrewdness
injudgingmen.WiththeadventofJamesI(1603)Bacondevotedhimselfto
thenewrulerandroserapidlyinfavor.Hewasknighted,andsoon
afterwardsattainedanotherobjectofhisambitioninmarryingarichwife.
Theappearanceofhisgreatwork,the_AdvancementofLearning_,in1605,
waslargelytheresultofthementalstimulusproducedbyhischangein
fortune.In1613hewasmadeattorneygeneral,andspeedilymadeenemiesby
usingtheofficetoincreasehispersonalends.Hejustifiedhimselfinhis
coursebyhisdevotiontotheking'scause,andbythebeliefthatthe
higherhispositionandthemoreamplehismeansthemorehecoulddofor
science.ItwasinthisyearthatBaconwrotehisseriesof_StatePapers_,
whichshowamarvelousgraspofthepoliticaltendenciesofhisage.Had
hisadvicebeenfollowed,itwouldhavecertainlyavertedthestruggle
betweenkingandparliamentthatfollowedspeedily.In1617hewas
appointedtohisfather'soffice,LordKeeperoftheSeal,andthenext
yeartothehighofficeofLordChancellor.Withthisofficehereceived
thetitleofBaronVerulam,andlaterofViscountSt.Alban,whichhe
affixedwithsomevanitytohisliterarywork.Twoyearslaterappearedhis
greatestwork,the_NovumOrganum_,calledafterAristotle'sfamous
_Organon_.
Bacondidnotlongenjoyhispoliticalhonors.Thestormwhichhadbeen
longgatheringagainstJames'sgovernmentbrokesuddenlyuponBacon'shead.
WhenParliamentassembledin1621itventeditsdistrustofJamesandhis
favoriteVilliersbystrikingunexpectedlyattheirchiefadviser.Bacon
wassternlyaccusedofacceptingbribes,andtheevidencewassogreatthat
heconfessedthattherewasmuchpoliticalcorruptionabroadintheland,
thathewaspersonallyguiltyofsomeofit,andhethrewhimselfuponthe
mercyofhisjudges.Parliamentatthattimewasinnomoodformercy.
Baconwasdeprivedofhisofficeandwassentencedtopaytheenormousfine
of40,000pounds,tobeimprisonedduringtheking'spleasure,and
thereaftertobebanishedforeverfromParliamentandcourt.Thoughthe
imprisonmentlastedonlyafewdaysandthefinewaslargelyremitted,
Bacon'shopesandschemesforpoliticalhonorswereended;anditisat
thispointofappallingadversitythatthenobilityintheman'snature
assertsitselfstrongly.Ifthereaderbeinterestedtoapplyagreatman's
philosophytohisownlife,hewillfindtheessay,"OfGreatPlace,"most
interestinginthisconnection.
Baconnowwithdrewpermanentlyfrompubliclife,anddevotedhissplendid
abilitytoliteraryandscientificwork.Hecompletedthe_Essays_,
experimentedlargely,wrotehistory,scientificarticles,andone
scientificnovel,andmadeadditionstohis_InstauratioMagna_,thegreat
philosophicalworkwhichwasneverfinished.Inthespringof1626,while
drivinginasnowstorm,itoccurredtohimthatsnowmightbeusedasa
preservativeinsteadofsalt.Truetohisownmethodofarrivingattruth,
hestoppedatthefirsthouse,boughtafowl,andproceededtotesthis
theory.Theexperimentchilledhim,andhediedsoonafterfromtheeffects
ofhisexposure.AsMacaulaywrote,"thegreatapostleofexperimental
philosophywasdestinedtobeitsmartyr."
WORKSOFBACON.Bacon'sphilosophicworks,_TheAdvancementofLearning_
andthe_NovumOrganum_,willbebestunderstoodinconnectionwiththe
_InstauratioMagna_,or_TheGreatInstitutionofTruePhilosophy_,of
whichtheywereparts.The_Instauratio_wasnevercompleted,butthevery
ideaoftheworkwasmagnificent,tosweepawaytheinvolvedphilosophyof
theschoolmenandtheeducationalsystemsoftheuniversities,andto
substituteasinglegreatworkwhichshouldbeacompleteeducation,"a
richstorehouseforthegloryoftheCreatorandforthereliefofman's
estate."Theobjectofthiseducationwastobringpracticalresultstoall
thepeople,insteadofalittleselfishcultureandmuchuseless
speculation,which,heconceived,weretheonlyproductsofthe
universities.

THEINSTAURATIOMAGNA.Thiswasthemostambitious,thoughitisnotthe
bestknown,ofBacon'sworks.Fortheinsightitgivesusintotheauthor's
mind,wenotehereabriefoutlineofhissubject.Itwasdividedintosix
parts,asfollows:
1._PartitionesScientiarum_.Thiswastobeaclassificationandsummary
ofallhumanknowledge.Philosophyandallspeculationmustbecastoutand
thenaturalsciencesestablishedasthebasisofalleducation.Theonly
partcompletedwas_TheAdvancementofLearning_,whichservedasan
introduction.
2._NovumOrganum_,orthe"newinstrument,"thatis,theuseofreasonand
experimentinsteadoftheoldAristotelianlogic.Tofindtruthonemustdo
twothings:(_a_)getridofallprejudicesoridols,asBaconcalledthem.
These"idols"arefour:"idolsofthetribe,"thatis,prejudicesdueto
commonmethodsofthoughtamongallraces;"idolsofthecaveorden,"that
is,personalpeculiaritiesandprejudices;"idolsofthemarketplace,"due
toerrorsoflanguage;and"idolsofthetheater,"whicharetheunreliable
traditionsofmen.(_b_)Afterdiscardingtheabove"idols"wemust
interrogatenature;mustcollectfactsbymeansofnumerousexperiments,
arrangetheminorder,andthendeterminethelawthatunderliesthem.
ItwillbeseenataglancethattheaboveisthemostimportantofBacon's
works.The_Organum_wastobeinseveralbooks,onlytwoofwhichhe
completed,andthesehewroteandrewrotetwelvetimesuntiltheysatisfied
him.
3._HistoricNaturalisetExperimentalis_,thestudyofallthephenomena
ofnature.Offourpartsofthisworkwhichhecompleted,oneofthemat
least,the_SylvaSylvarum_,isdecidedlyatvariancewithhisownideaof
factandexperiment.Itaboundsinfancifulexplanations,moreworthyof
thepoeticthanofthescientificmind.Natureisseentobefullof
desiresandinstincts;theair"thirsts"forlightandfragrance;bodies
riseorsinkbecausetheyhavean"appetite"forheightordepth;the
qualitiesofbodiesaretheresultofan"essence,"sothatwhenwe
discovertheessencesofgoldandsilveranddiamondsitwillbeasimple
mattertocreateasmuchofthemaswemayneed.
4._ScalaIntellectus_,or"LadderoftheMind,"istherational
applicationofthe_Organum_toallproblems.Byitthemindshouldascend
stepbystepfromparticularfactsandinstancestogenerallawsand
abstractprinciples.
5._Prodromi_,"PropheciesorAnticipations,"isalistofdiscoveriesthat
menshallmakewhentheyhaveappliedBacon'smethodsofstudyand
experimentation.
6._PhilosophiaSecunda_,whichwastobearecordofpracticalresultsof
thenewphilosophywhenthesucceedingagesshouldhaveappliedit
faithfully.
Itisimpossibletoregardeventheoutlineofsuchavastworkwithoutan
involuntarythrillofadmirationfortheboldandoriginalmindwhich
conceivedit."Wemay,"saidBacon,"makenodespicablebeginnings.The
destiniesofthehumanracemustcompletethework...foruponthiswill
dependnotonlyaspeculativegoodbutallthefortunesofmankindandall
theirpower."Thereistheunconsciousexpressionofoneofthegreatminds
oftheworld.BaconwaslikeoneofthearchitectsoftheMiddleAges,who
drewhisplansforamightycathedral,perfectineverydetailfromthe
deepfoundationstonetothecrossonthehighestspire,andwhogaveover
hisplanstothebuilders,knowingthat,inhisownlifetime,onlyonetiny
chapelwouldbecompleted;butknowingalsothattheverybeautyofhis
planswouldappealtoothers,andthatsucceedingageswouldfinishthe
workwhichhedaredtobegin.

THEESSAYS.Bacon'sfamous_Essays_istheoneworkwhichwillinterestall
studentsofourliterature.His_Instauratio_wasinLatin,writtenmostly
bypaidhelpersfromshortEnglishabstracts.HeregardedLatinastheonly
languageworthyofagreatwork;buttheworldneglectedhisLatintoseize
uponhisEnglish,marvelousEnglish,terse,pithy,packedwiththought,in
anagethatusedendlesscircumlocutions.Thefirsttenessays,published
in1597,werebriefnotebookjottingsofBacon'sobservations.Their
successastonishedtheauthor,butnottillfifteenyearslaterwerethey
republishedandenlarged.TheircharmgrewuponBaconhimself,andduring
hisretirementhegavemorethoughttothewonderfullanguagewhichhehad
atfirstdespisedasmuchasAristotle'sphilosophy.In1612appeareda
secondeditioncontainingthirtyeightessays,andin1625,theyearbefore
hisdeath,herepublishedthe_Essays_intheirpresentform,polishingand
enlargingtheoriginaltentofiftyeight,coveringawidevarietyof
subjectssuggestedbythelifeofmenaroundhim.
Concerningthebestoftheseessaysthereareasmanyopinionsasthereare
readers,andwhatonegetsoutofthemdependslargelyuponhisownthought
andintelligence.InthisrespecttheyarelikethatNaturetowhichBacon
directedmen'sthoughts.Thewholevolumemaybereadthroughinan
evening;butafteronehasreadthemadozentimeshestillfindsasmany
placestopauseandreflectasatthefirstreading.Ifonemustchooseout
ofsuchastorehouse,wewouldsuggest"Studies,""Goodness,""Riches,"
"Atheism,""UnityinReligion,""Adversity,""Friendship,"and"Great
Place"asanintroductiontoBacon'sworldlywisephilosophy.
MISCELLANEOUSWORKS.OtherworksofBaconareinterestingasarevelation
oftheElizabethanmind,ratherthanbecauseofanyliteraryvalue._The
NewAtlantis_isakindofscientificnoveldescribinganotherUtopiaas
seenbyBacon.TheinhabitantsofAtlantishavebanishedPhilosophyand
appliedBacon'smethodofinvestigatingNature,usingtheresultstobetter
theirowncondition.Theyhaveawonderfulcivilization,inwhichmanyof
ourlaterdiscoveriesacademiesofthesciences,observatories,balloons,
submarines,themodificationofspecies,andseveralotherswere
foreshadowedwithastrangemixtureofcoldreasonandpoeticintuition.
_DeSapientiaVeterum_isafancifulattempttoshowthedeepmeaning
underlyingancientmyths,ameaningwhichwouldhaveastonishedthemyth
makersthemselves.The_HistoryofHenryVII_isacalm,dispassionate,and
remarkablyaccuratehistory,whichmakesusregretthatBacondidnotdo
morehistoricalwork.Besidesthesearemetricalversionsofcertain
Psalmswhicharevaluable,inviewofthecontroversyanentShakespeare's
plays,forshowingBacon'sutterinabilitytowritepoetryandalarge
numberoflettersandstatepapersshowingtherangeandpowerofhis
intellect.
BACON'SPLACEANDWORK.AlthoughBaconwasforthegreaterpartofhislife
abusymanofaffairs,onecannotreadhisworkwithoutbecomingconscious
oftwothings,aperennialfreshness,whichtheworldinsistsuponinall
literaturethatistoendure,andanintellectualpowerwhichmarkshimas
oneofthegreatmindsoftheworld.
Oflatethegeneraltendencyistogivelessandlessprominencetohis
workinscienceandphilosophy;butcriticismofhis_Instauratio_,inview
ofhisloftyaim,isofsmallconsequence.Itistruethathis"science"
todayseemswoefullyinadequate;truealsothat,thoughhesoughtto
discovertruth,hethoughtperhapstomonopolizeit,andsolookedwiththe
samesuspicionuponCopernicusasuponthephilosophers.Thepracticalman
whodespisesphilosophyhassimplymisunderstoodthethinghedespises.In
beingpracticalandexperimentalinaromanticagehewasnotunique,asis
oftenalleged,butonlyexpressedthetendencyoftheEnglishmindinall
ages.ThreecenturiesearlierthemonkRogerBacondidmorepractical
experimentingthantheElizabethansage;andthelatter'sfamous"idols"
arestronglysuggestiveoftheformer's"FourSourcesofHumanIgnorance."
AlthoughBacondidnotmakeanyofthescientificdiscoveriesatwhichhe

aimed,yetthewholespiritofhiswork,especiallyof_theOrganum_,has
stronglyinfluencedscienceinthedirectionofaccurateobservationandof
carefullytestingeverytheorybypracticalexperiment."Hethatregardeth
thecloudsshallnotsow,"saidawisewriterofold;andBaconturned
men'sthoughtsfromtheheavensabove,withwhichtheyhadbeentoobusy,
totheearthbeneath,whichtheyhadtoomuchneglected.Inanagewhenmen
werebusywithromanceandphilosophy,heinsistedthatthefirstobjectof
educationistomakeamanfamiliarwithhisnaturalenvironment;from
booksheturnedtomen,fromtheorytofact,fromphilosophytonature,
andthatisperhapshisgreatestcontributiontolifeandliterature.Like
MosesuponPisgah,hestoodhighenoughabovehisfellowstolookoutover
apromisedland,whichhispeoplewouldinherit,butintowhichhehimself
mightneverenter.
RICHARDHOOKER(1554?1600)InstrongcontrastwithBaconisRichard
Hooker,oneofthegreatestprosewritersoftheElizabethanAge.Onemust
readthestoryofhislife,anobscureandlowlylifeanimatedbyagreat
spirit,astoldbyIzaakWalton,toappreciatethefullforceofthis
contrast.Bacontookallknowledgeforhisprovince,butmasterednosingle
partofit.Hooker,takingasingletheme,thelawandpracticeofthe
EnglishChurch,sohandleditthatnoscholarevenofthepresentdaywould
dreamofsupersedingitorofbuildinguponanyotherfoundationthanthat
whichHookerlaiddown.Hisonegreatworkis_TheLawsofEcclesiastical
Polity_,[158]atheologicalandargumentativebook;but,entirelyapart
fromitssubject,itwillbereadwherevermendesiretohearthepowerand
statelinessoftheEnglishlanguage.Hereisasinglesentence,remarkable
notonlyforitsperfectformbutalsoforitsexpressionofthereverence
forlawwhichliesattheheartofAngloSaxoncivilization:
Oflawtherecanbenolessacknowledgedthanthatherseatisthebosomof
God,hervoicetheharmonyoftheworld;allthingsinheavenandearthdo
herhomage;theveryleastasfeelinghercare,andthegreatestasnot
exemptedfromherpower;bothangelsandmen,andcreaturesofwhat
conditionsoever,thougheachindifferentsortandmanner,yetallwith
uniformconsentadmiringherasthemotheroftheirpeaceandjoy.
SIDNEYANDRALEIGH.Amongtheprosewritersofthiswonderfulliteraryage
therearemanyothersthatdeservepassingnotice,thoughtheyfallfar
belowthestandardofBaconandHooker.SirPhilipSidney(15541586),who
hasalreadybeenconsideredasapoet,isquiteaswellknownbyhisprose
works,_Arcadia_,apastoralromance,andthe_DefenseofPoesie_,oneof
ourearliestliteraryessays.Sidney,whomthepoetShelleyhaseulogized,
representsthewholeromantictendencyofhisage;whileSirWalterRaleigh
(1552?1618)representsitsadventurousspiritandactivity.Thelifeof
Raleighisanalmostincomprehensiblemixtureofthepoet,scholar,and
adventurer;nowhelpingtheHuguenotsorthestrugglingDutchinEurope,
andnowleadinganexpeditionintotheunmappedwildsoftheNewWorld;
busyherewithcourtintrigues,andtherewithpiraticalattemptsto
capturethegoldladenSpanishgalleons;onemomentsailingthehighseas
inutterfreedom,andthenextwritinghistoryandpoetrytosolacehis
imprisonment.Suchalifeinitselfisavolumefarmoreinterestingthan
anythingthathewrote.HeistherestlessspiritoftheElizabethanAge
personified.
Raleigh'schiefproseworksarethe_DiscoverieofGuiana_,aworkwhich
wouldcertainlyhavebeeninterestingenoughhadhetoldsimplywhathe
saw,butwhichwasfilledwithcolonizationschemesandvisionsofanEl
Doradotofilltheeyesandearsofthecredulous;andthe_Historyofthe
World_,writtentooccupyhisprisonhours.Thehistoryisawholly
untrustworthyaccountofeventsfromcreationtothedownfallofthe
MacedonianEmpire.Itisinterestingchieflyforitsstyle,whichissimple
anddignified,andfortheflashesofwitandpoetrythatbreakintothe
fantasticcombinationofmiracles,traditions,hearsay,andstaterecords
whichhecalledhistory.Intheconclusionisthefamousapostropheto
Death,whichsuggestswhatRaleighmighthavedonehadhelivedless

strenuouslyandwrittenmorecarefully.
Oeloquent,just,andmightyDeath!whomnonecouldadvisethouhast
persuaded;whatnonehathdaredthouhastdone;andwhomalltheworldhath
flatteredthouonlyhastcastoutoftheworldanddespised;thouhast
drawntogetherallthestarstretchedgreatness,allthepride,cruelty,
andambitionofman,andcovereditalloverwiththesetwonarrowwords,
_Hicjacet_!
JOHNFOXE(15161587).Foxewillberememberedalwaysforhisfamous_Book
ofMartyrs_,abookthatoureldersgavetousonSundayswhenwewere
young,thinkingitgooddisciplineforustoafflictoursoulswhenwe
wantedtoberoamingthesunlitfields,orwheninourenforcedidlenesswe
would,ifourowntasteinthematterhadbeenconsulted,havemadegood
shifttobequietandhappywith_RobinsonCrusoe_.Sowehaveagloomy
memoryofFoxe,andsomethingofagrievance,whichpreventajust
appreciationofhisworth.
FoxehadbeendrivenoutofEnglandbytheMarianpersecutions,andina
wanderingbutdiligentlifeontheContinentheconceivedtheideaof
writingahistoryofthepersecutionsofthechurchfromtheearliestdays
tohisown.ThepartrelatingtoEnglandandScotlandwaspublished,in
Latin,in1559underatitleassonorousandimpressiveastheRomanoffice
forthedead,_ReruminEcclesiaGestarumMaximarumqueperEuropam
PersecutionumCommentarii_.OnhisreturntoEnglandFoxetranslatedthis
work,callingitthe_ActsandMonuments_;butitsoonbecameknownasthe
_BookofMartyrs_,andsoitwillalwaysbecalled.Foxe'sownbitter
experiencecauseshimtowritewithmoreheatandindignationthanhis
saintlythemewouldwarrant,andthe"holytone"sometimesspoilsa
narrativethatwouldbeimpressiveinitsbaresimplicity.Neverthelessthe
bookhasmadeforitselfasecureplaceinourliterature.Itisstrongest
initsrecordofhumblemen,likeRowlandTaylorandThomasHawkes,whose
sublimeheroism,butforthisnarrative,wouldhavebeenlostamidthe
greatnamesandthegreateventsthatfilltheElizabethanAge.
CAMDENANDKNOX.Twohistorians,WilliamCamdenandJohnKnox,standout
prominentlyamongthenumeroushistoricalwritersoftheage.Camden's
_Britannia_(1586)isamonumentalwork,whichmarksthebeginningoftrue
antiquarianresearchinthefieldofhistory;andhis_AnnalsofQueen
Elizabeth_isworthyofafarhigherplacethanhasthusfarbeengivenit.
JohnKnox,thereformer,inhis_HistoryoftheReformationinScotland_,
hassomeveryvividportraitsofhishelpersandenemies.Thepersonaland
aggressiveelementsentertoostronglyforaworkofhistory;butthe
autobiographicalpartsshowrareliterarypower.Hisaccountofhisfamous
interviewwithMaryQueenofScotsisclearcutasacameo,andshowsthe
man'sextraordinarypowerbetterthanawholevolumeofbiography.Such
scenesmakeonewishthatmoreofhistimehadbeengiventoliterarywork,
ratherthantothedisputesandtroublesofhisownScotchkirk.
HAKLUYTANDPURCHAS.Twoeditorsofthisagehavemadeforthemselvesan
enviableplaceinourliterature.TheyareRichardHakluyt(1552?1616)and
SamuelPurchas(1575?1626).Hakluytwasaclergymanwhointhemidstof
hislittleparishsethimselftoachievetwogreatpatrioticends,to
promotethewealthandcommerceofhiscountry,andtopreservethememory
ofallhiscountrymenwhoaddedtothegloryoftherealmbytheirtravels
andexplorations.Tofurtherthefirstobjectheconcernedhimselfdeeply
withthecommercialinterestsoftheEastIndiaCompany,withRaleigh's
colonizingplansinVirginia,andwithatranslationofDeSoto'stravels
inAmerica.Tofurtherthesecondhemadehimselffamiliarwithbooksof
voyagesinallforeignlanguagesandwiththebriefreportsofexplorations
ofhisowncountrymen.His_PrincipalNavigations,Voyages,andDiscoveries
oftheEnglishNation_,inthreevolumes,appearedfirstin1589,anda
secondeditionfollowedin15981600.Thefirstvolumetellsofvoyagesto
thenorth;thesecondtoIndiaandtheEast;thethird,whichisaslarge
astheothertwo,totheNewWorld.Withtheexceptionoftheveryfirst

voyage,thatofKingArthurtoIcelandin517,whichisfoundedonamyth,
allthevoyagesareauthenticaccountsoftheexplorersthemselves,andare
immenselyinterestingreadingevenatthepresentday.Nootherbookof
travelshassowellexpressedthespiritandenergyoftheEnglishrace,or
betterdeservesaplaceinourliterature.
SamuelPurchas,whowasalsoaclergyman,continuedtheworkofHakluyt,
usingmanyofthelatter'sunpublishedmanuscriptsandcondensingthe
recordsofnumerousothervoyages.Hisfirstfamousbook,_Purchas,His
Pilgrimage_,appearedin1613,andwasfollowedby_HakluytusPosthumus,or
PurchasHisPilgrimes_,in1625.Theverynameinclinesonetoopenthe
bookwithpleasure,andwhenonefollowshisinclinationwhichis,after
all,oneofthebestguidesinliteratureheisrarelydisappointed.
ThoughitfallsfarbelowthestandardofHakluyt,bothinaccuracyand
literaryfinish,thereisstillplentytomakeonegladthatthebookwas
writtenandthathecannowcomfortablyfollowPurchasonhispilgrimage.
THOMASNORTH.AmongthetranslatorsoftheElizabethanAgeSirThomasNorth
(1535?1601?)ismostdeservingofnoticebecauseofhisversionof
_Plutarch'sLives_(1579)fromwhichShakespearetookthecharactersand
manyoftheincidentsforthreegreatRomanplays.ThusinNorthweread:
CsaralsohadCassiusingreatjealousyandsuspectedhimmuch:whereupon
hesaidonatimetohisfriends:"WhatwillCassiusdo,thinkye?Ilike
nothispalelooks."AnothertimewhenCsar'sfriendswarnedhimof
AntoniusandDolabella,heansweredthemagain,"Ineverreckonofthem;
butthesepalevisagedandcarrionleanpeople,Ifearthemmost,"meaning
BrutusandCassius.
Shakespearemerelytouchessuchascenewiththemagicofhisgenius,and
hisCsarspeaks:
Letmehavemenaboutmethatarefat:
Sleekheadedmen,andsuchassleepo'nights.
YondCassiushasaleanandhungrylook:
Hethinkstoomuch:suchmenaredangerous.
AcarefulreadingofNorth's_Plutarch_andthenofthefamousRomanplays
showstohowgreatanextentShakespearewasdependentuponhisobscure
contemporary.
North'stranslation,towhichweowesomanyheroicmodelsinour
literature,wasprobablymadenotfromPlutarchbutfromAmyot'sexcellent
Frenchtranslation.Neverthelesshereproducesthespiritoftheoriginal,
andnotwithstandingourmodernandmoreaccuratetranslations,heremains
themostinspiringinterpreterofthegreatbiographerwhomEmersoncalls
"thehistorianofheroism."
SUMMARYOFTHEAGEOFELIZABETH.Thisperiodisgenerallyregardedasthe
greatestinthehistoryofourliterature.Historically,wenoteinthis
agethetremendousimpetusreceivedfromtheRenaissance,fromthe
Reformation,andfromtheexplorationoftheNewWorld.Itwasmarkedbya
strongnationalspirit,bypatriotism,byreligioustolerance,bysocial
content,byintellectualprogress,andbyunboundedenthusiasm.
Suchanage,ofthought,feeling,andvigorousaction,findsitsbest
expressioninthedrama;andthewonderfuldevelopmentofthedrama,
culminatinginShakespeare,isthemostsignificantcharacteristicofthe
Elizabethanperiod.Thoughtheageproducedsomeexcellentproseworks,it
isessentiallyanageofpoetry;andthepoetryisremarkableforits
variety,itsfreshness,itsyouthfulandromanticfeeling.Boththepoetry
andthedramawerepermeatedbyItalianinfluence,whichwasdominantin
EnglishliteraturefromChaucertotheRestoration.Theliteratureofthis
ageisoftencalledtheliteratureoftheRenaissance,though,aswehave
seen,theRenaissanceitselfbeganmuchearlier,andforacenturyanda

halfaddedverylittletoourliterarypossessions.
Inourstudyofthisgreatagewehavenoted(1)theNondramaticPoets,
thatis,poetswhodidnotwriteforthestage.Thecenterofthisgroupis
EdmundSpenser,whose_Shepherd'sCalendar_(1579)markedtheappearanceof
thefirstnationalpoetsinceChaucer'sdeathin1400.Hismostfamouswork
is_TheFaeryQueen_.AssociatedwithSpenseraretheminorpoets,Thomas
Sackville,MichaelDrayton,GeorgeChapman,andPhilipSidney.Chapmanis
notedforhiscompletionofMarlowe'spoem,_HeroandLeander_,andforhis
translationofHomer's_Iliad_and_Odyssey_.Sidney,besideshispoetry,
wrotehisproseromance_Arcadia_,and_TheDefenseofPoesie_,oneofour
earliestcriticalessays.
(2)TheRiseoftheDramainEngland;theMiracleplays,Moralities,and
Interludes;ourfirstplay,"RalphRoysterDoyster";thefirsttrueEnglish
comedy,"GammerGurton'sNeedle,"andthefirsttragedy,"Gorboduc";the
conflictbetweenclassicandnativeidealsintheEnglishdrama.
(3)Shakespeare'sPredecessors,Lyly,Kyd,Nash,Peele,Greene,Marlowe;
thetypesofdramawithwhichtheyexperimented,theMarlowesque,oneman
type,ortragedyofpassion,thepopularChronicleplays,theDomestic
drama,theCourtorLyliancomedy,Romanticcomedyandtragedy,Classical
plays,andtheMelodrama.MarloweisthegreatestofShakespeare's
predecessors.Hisfourplaysare"Tamburlaine,""Faustus,""TheJewof
Malta,"and"EdwardII."
(4)Shakespeare,hislife,work,andinfluence.
(5)Shakespeare'sSuccessors,BenJonson,BeaumontandFletcher,Webster,
Middleton,Heywood,Dekker;andtherapiddeclineofthedrama.BenJonson
isthegreatestofthisgroup.Hischiefcomediesare"EveryManinHis
Humour,""TheSilentWoman,"and"TheAlchemist";histwoextanttragedies
are"Sejanus"and"Catiline."
(6)TheProseWriters,ofwhomBaconisthemostnotable.Hischief
philosophicalworkisthe_InstauratioMagna_(incomplete),whichincludes
"TheAdvancementofLearning"andthe"NovumOrganum";butheisknownto
literaryreadersbyhisfamous_Essays_.MinorprosewritersareRichard
Hooker,JohnFoxe,thehistoriansCamdenandKnox,theeditorsHakluytand
Purchas,whogaveusthestirringrecordsofexploration,andThomasNorth,
thetranslatorofPlutarch's_Lives_.
SELECTIONSFORREADING._Spenser_.FaeryQueen,selectionsinStandard
EnglishClassics;Bk.I,inRiversideLiteratureSeries,etc.;Shepherd's
Calendar,inCassell'sNationalLibrary;SelectedPoems,inCanterbury
PoetsSeries;MinorPoems,inTempleClassics;SelectionsinManly's
EnglishPoetry,orWard'sEnglishPoets.
_MinorPoets_.Drayton,Sackville,Sidney,Chapman,SelectionsinManlyor
Ward;Elizabethansongs,inSchelling'sElizabethanLyrics,andin
Palgrave'sGoldenTreasury;Chapman'sHomer,inTempleClassics.
_TheEarlyDrama_.PlayofNoah'sFlood,inManly'sSpecimensofthe
PreShakspereanDrama,orinPollard'sEnglishMiraclePlays,Moralities
andInterludes,orinBellesLettresSeries,sec.2;L.T.Smith'sTheYork
MiraclePlays.
_Lyly_.Endymion,inHolt'sEnglishReadings.
_Marlowe_.Faustus,inTempleDramatists,orMermaidSeries,orMorley's
UniversalLibrary,orLamb'sSpecimensofEnglishDramaticPoets;
SelectionsinManly'sEnglishPoetry,orWard'sEnglishPoets;EdwardII,
inTempleDramatists,andinHolt'sEnglishReadings.
_Shakespeare_.MerchantofVenice,JuliusCsar,Macbeth,etc.,inStandard

EnglishClassics(edited,withnotes,withspecialreferencetocollege
entrancerequirements).Goodeditionsofsingleplaysarenumerousand
cheap.Hudson'sandRolfe'sandtheArdenShakespearearesuggestedas
satisfactory.TheSonnets,editedbyBeeching,inAthenumPressSeries.
_BenJonson_.TheAlchemist,inCanterburyPoetsSeries,orMorley's
UniversalLibrary;SelectionsinManly'sEnglishPoetry,orWard'sEnglish
Poets,orCanterburyPoetsSeries;SelectionsfromJonson'sMasques,in
Evans'sEnglishMasques;Timber,editedbySchelling,inAthenumPress
Series.
_Bacon_.Essays,schooledition(GinnandCompany);Northup'sedition,in
RiversideLiteratureSeries(variousotherinexpensiveeditions,inthe
PittPress,GoldenTreasurySeries,etc.);AdvancementofLearning,Bk.I,
editedbyCook(GinnandCompany).CompareselectionsfromBacon,Hooker,
Lyly,andSidney,inManly'sEnglishProse.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[159]_HISTORY.Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.208238;Cheyney,
pp.330410;Green,ch.7;Traill,Macaulay,Froude.
_Specialworks_.Creighton'sTheAgeofElizabeth;Hall'sSocietyinthe
ElizabethanAge;Winter'sShakespeare'sEngland;Goadby'sTheEnglandof
Shakespeare;Lee'sStratfordonAvon;Harrison'sElizabethanEngland.
_LITERATURE_.Saintsbury'sHistoryofElizabethanLiterature;Whipple's
LiteratureoftheAgeofElizabeth;S.Lee'sGreatEnglishmenofthe
SixteenthCentury;Schilling'sElizabethanLyrics,inAthenumPress
Series;VernonLee'sEuphorion.
_Spenser_.Texts,Cambridge,Globe,andAldineeditions;Noel'sSelected
PoemsofSpenser,inCanterburyPoets;MinorPoems,inTempleClassics;
Arber'sSpenserAnthology;Church'sLifeofSpenser,inEnglishMenof
LettersSeries;Lowell'sEssay,inAmongMyBooks,orinLiteraryEssays,
vol.4;Hazlitt'sChaucerandSpenser,inLecturesontheEnglishPoets;
Dowden'sEssay,inTranscriptsandStudies.
_TheDrama_.Texts,Manly'sSpecimensofthePreShakespereanDrama,2
vols.,inAthenumPressSeries;Pollard'sEnglishMiraclePlays,
MoralitiesandInterludes;theTempleDramatists;Morley'sUniversal
Library;Arber'sEnglishReprints;MermaidSeries,etc.;Thayer'sTheBest
ElizabethanPlays.
Gayley'sPlaysofOurForefathers(Miracles,Moralities,etc.);Bates'sThe
EnglishReligiousDrama;Schelling'sTheEnglishChroniclePlay;Lowell's
OldEnglishDramatists;Boas'sShakespeareandhisPredecessors;Symonds's
Shakespeare'sPredecessorsintheEnglishDrama;Schelling'sElizabethan
Drama;Lamb'sSpecimensofEnglishDramaticPoets;IntroductiontoHudson's
Shakespeare:HisLife,Art,andCharacters;Ward'sHistoryofEnglish
DramaticLiterature;Dekker'sTheGull'sHornbook,inKing'sClassics.
_Marlowe_.Works,editedbyBullen;chiefplaysinTempleDramatists,
MermaidSeriesofEnglishDramatists,Morley'sUniversalLibrary,etc.;
Lowell'sOldEnglishDramatists;Symonds'sintroduction,inMermaidSeries;
Dowden'sEssay,inTranscriptsandStudies.
_Shakespeare_.Goodtextsarenumerous.Furness'sVariorumeditionisat
presentmostusefulforadvancedwork.Hudson'srevisededition,eachplay
inasinglevolume,withnotesandintroductions,will,whencomplete,be
oneoftheverybestforstudents'use.
Raleigh'sShakespeare,inEnglishMenofLettersSeries;Lee'sLifeof
Shakespeare;Hudson'sShakespeare:hisLife,Art,andCharacters;
HalliwellPhillipps'sOutlinesoftheLifeofShakespeare;Fleay's
ChronicleHistoryoftheLifeandWorkofShakespeare;Dowden's
Shakespeare,aCriticalStudyofhisMindandArt;ShakespearePrimer(same

author);Baker'sTheDevelopmentofShakespeareasaDramatist;Lounsbury's
ShakespeareasaDramaticArtist;TheTextofShakespeare(sameauthor);
Wendell'sWilliamShakespeare;Bradley'sShakesperianTragedy;Hazlitt's
ShakespeareandMilton,inLecturesontheEnglishPoets;Emerson'sEssay,
ShakespeareorthePoet;Lowell'sEssay,inAmongMyBooks;Lamb'sTales
fromShakespeare;Mrs.Jameson'sShakespeare'sFemaleCharacters(called
alsoCharacteristicsofWomen);Rolfe'sShakespearetheBoy;Brandes's
WilliamShakespeare;Moulton'sShakespeareasaDramaticArtist;Mabie's
WilliamShakespeare,Poet,Dramatist,andMan;TheShakespeareApocrypha,
editedbyC.F.T.Brooke;Shakespeare'sHolinshed,editedbyStone;
ShakespeareLexicon,bySchmidt;Concordance,byBartlett;Grammar,by
Abbott,orbyFranz.
_BenJonson_.TextsinMermaidSeries,TempleDramatists,Morley's
UniversalLibrary,etc.;MasquesandEntertainmentsofBenJonson,edited
byMorley,inCarisbrookeLibrary;Timber,editedbySchelling,inAthenum
PressSeries.
_Beaumont,Fletcher,etc_.PlaysinMermaidSeries,TempleDramatists,
etc.;Schelling'sElizabethanDrama;Lowell'sOldEnglishDramatists;
Lamb'sSpecimensofEnglishDramaticPoets;Fleay'sBiographicalChronicle
oftheEnglishDrama;Swinburne'sEssays,inEssaysinProseandPoetry,
andinEssaysandStudies.
_Bacon_.Texts,EssaysinEveryman'sLibrary,etc.;AdvancementofLearning
inClarendonPressSeries,LibraryofEnglishClassics,etc.;Church'sLife
ofBacon,inEnglishMenofLettersSeries;Nichol'sBacon'sLifeand
Philosophy;FrancisBacon,translatedfromtheGermanofK.Fischer
(excellent,butrare);Macaulay'sEssayonBacon.
_MinorProseWriters_.Sidney'sArcadia,editedbySomers;Defenseof
Poesy,editedbyCook,inAthenumPressSeries;Arber'sReprints,etc.;
SelectionsfromSidney'sproseandpoetryintheElizabethanLibrary;
Symonds'sLifeofSidney,inEnglishMenofLetters;Bourne'sLifeof
Sidney,inHeroesoftheNations;Lamb'sEssayonSidney'sSonnets,in
EssaysofElia.
Raleigh'sworks,publishedbytheOxfordPress;SelectionsbyGrosart,in
ElizabethanLibrary;Raleigh'sLastFightofthe_Revenge_,inArber's
Reprints;LifeofRaleigh,byEdwardsandbyGosse.RichardHooker'sworks,
editedbyKeble,OxfordPress;LawsofEcclesiasticalPolity,inEveryman's
Library,andinMorley'sUniversalLibrary;Life,inWalton'sLives,in
Morley'sUniversalLibrary;Dowden'sEssay,inPuritanandAnglican.
Lyly'sEuphues,inArber'sReprints;Endymion,editedbyBaker;Campaspe,
inManly'sPreShakspereanDrama.
North'sPlutarch'sLives,editedbyWyndham,inTudorLibrary;school
edition,byGinnandCompany.Hakluyt'sVoyages,inEveryman'sLibrary;
Jones'sintroductiontoHakluyt'sDiverseVoyages;Payne'sVoyagesof
ElizabethanSeamen;Froude'sEssay,inShortStudiesonGreatSubjects.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.1.Whathistoricalconditionshelptoaccountforthe
greatliteratureoftheElizabethanage?Whatarethegeneral
characteristicsofElizabethanliterature?Whattypeofliterature
prevailed,andwhy?Whatworkseemstoyoutoexpressmostperfectlythe
Elizabethanspirit?
2.TellbrieflythestoryofSpenser'slife.Whatisthestoryorargument
ofthe_FaeryQueen_?WhatismeantbytheSpenserianstanza?Readand
commentuponSpenser's"Epithalamion."Whydoesthe"Shepherd'sCalendar"
markaliteraryepoch?WhatarethemainqualitiesofSpenser'spoetry?Can
youquoteorrefertoanypassageswhichillustratethesequalities?Whyis
hecalledthepoets'poet?

3.ForwhatisSackvillenoted?Whatisthemostsignificantthingabout
his"Gorboduc"?Nameotherminorpoetsandtellwhattheywrote.
4.GiveanoutlineoftheoriginandriseofthedramainEngland.Whatis
meantbyMiracleandMysteryplays?Whatpurposesdidtheyserveamongthe
commonpeople?Howdidtheyhelpthedrama?Whatismeantbycyclesof
Miracleplays?HowdidtheMoralitiesdifferfromtheMiracles?Whatwas
thechiefpurposeoftheInterludes?Whattypeofdramadidtheydevelop?
Readatypicalplay,like"Noah'sFlood"or"Everyman,"andwriteabrief
analysisofit.
5.Whatwereourfirstplaysinthemodernsense?Whatinfluencedidthe
classicsexertontheEnglishdrama?Whatismeantbythedramaticunities?
InwhatimportantrespectdidtheEnglishdifferfromtheclassicdrama?
6.NamesomeofShakespeare'spredecessorsinthedrama?Whattypesof
dramadidtheydevelop?Namesomeplaysofeachtype.Areanyofthese
playsstillpresentedonthestage?
7.WhatareMarlowe'schiefplays?Whatisthecentralmotiveineach?Why
aretheycalledonemanplays?WhatismeantbyMarlowe's"mightyline"?
Whatisthestoryof"Faustus"?Compare"Faustus"andGoethe's"Faust,"
havinginmindthestory,thedramaticinterest,andtheliteraryvalueof
eachplay.
8.TellbrieflythestoryofShakespeare'slife.Whatfactinhislifemost
impressedyou?HowdoesShakespearesumuptheworkofallhis
predecessors?Whatarethefourperiodsofhiswork,andthechiefplaysof
each?Wheredidhefindhisplots?Whatarehisromanticplays?his
chronicleorhistoricalplays?Whatisthedifferencebetweenatragedyand
acomedy?NamesomeofShakespeare'sbesttragedies,comedies,and
historicalplays.WhichplayofShakespeare'sseemstoyoutogivethebest
pictureofhumanlife?WhyishecalledthemyriadmindedShakespeare?For
whatreasonsisheconsideredthegreatestofwriters?Canyouexplainwhy
Shakespeare'splaysarestillacted,whileotherplaysofhisageare
rarelyseen?IfyouhaveseenanyofShakespeare'splaysonthestage,how
dotheycompareininterestwithamodernplay?
9.WhatareBenJonson'schiefplays?Inwhatimportantrespectsdidthey
differfromthoseofShakespeare?Tellthestoryof"TheAlchemist"or"The
SilentWoman."NameothercontemporariesandsuccessorsofShakespeare.
GivesomereasonsforthepreminenceoftheElizabethandrama.Whatcauses
ledtoitsdecline?
10.TellbrieflythestoryofBacon'slife.Whatishischiefliterary
work?hischiefeducationalwork?Whyishecalledapioneerofmodern
science?Canyouexplainwhatismeantbytheinductivemethodoflearning?
WhatsubjectsareconsideredinBacon's_Essays_?Whatisthecentralidea
oftheessayyoulikebest?Whataretheliteraryqualitiesofthese
essays?Dotheyappealtotheintellectortheemotions?Whatismeantby
theword"essay,"andhowdoesBaconillustratethedefinition?Makea
comparisonbetweenBacon'sessaysandthoseofsomemorerecentwriter,
suchasAddison,Lamb,Carlyle,Emerson,orStevenson,havinginmindthe
subjects,style,andinterestofbothessayists.
11.WhoaretheminorprosewritersoftheElizabethanAge?Whatdidthey
write?Commentuponanyworkoftheirswhichyouhaveread.Whatisthe
literaryvalueofNorth'sPlutarch?WhatisthechiefdefectinElizabethan
proseasawhole?Whatismeantbyeuphuism?ExplainwhyElizabethanpoetry
issuperiortotheprose.
CHRONOLOGY
_LastHalfoftheSixteenthandFirstHalfoftheSeventeenthCenturies_
============================================================================

HISTORY|LITERATURE

|
1558.Elizabeth(_d_.1603)|1559.JohnKnoxinEdinburgh
|1562(?).GammerGurton'sNeedle.
|Gorboduc
|1564.BirthofShakespeare
1571.RiseofEnglishPuritans|1576.FirstTheater
1577.Drake'sVoyagearoundthe|1579.Spenser'sShepherd'sCalendar.
World|Lyly'sEuphues.North'sPlutarch.
|
|1587.ShakespeareinLondon.Marlowe's
|Tamburlaine
|
1588.DefeatoftheArmada|
|
|1590.Spenser'sFaeryQueen.Sidney's
|Arcadia
|
|15901595.Shakespeare'sEarlyPlays
|
|15971625.Bacon'sEssays
|
|15981614.Chapman'sHomer
|
|1598.BenJonson'sEveryManinHis
|Humour
|
|16001607.Shakespeare'sTragedies
|
1603.JamesI(_d_.1625)|
|
1604.DivineRightofKings|1605.Bacon'sAdvancementofLearning
proclaimed|
|
1607.SettlementatJamestown,|1608.BirthofMilton
Virginia|
|
|1611.Translation(KingJamesVersion)
|ofBible
|
|1614.Raleigh'sHistory
|
|1616.DeathofShakespeare
|
1620.PilgrimFathersat|16201642.Shakespeare'ssuccessors.
Plymouth|Endofdrama
|
|1620.Bacon'sNovumOrganum
|
|1622.Firstregularnewspaper,The
|WeeklyNews
|
1625.CharlesI|1626.DeathofBacon
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*****

CHAPTERVII
THEPURITANAGE(16201660)

I.HISTORICALSUMMARY
THEPURITANMOVEMENT.InitsbroadestsensethePuritanmovementmaybe
regardedasasecondandgreaterRenaissance,arebirthofthemoralnature
ofmanfollowingtheintellectualawakeningofEuropeinthefifteenthand
sixteenthcenturies.InItaly,whoseinfluencehadbeenuppermostin
Elizabethanliterature,theRenaissancehadbeenessentiallypaganand
sensuous.Ithadhardlytouchedthemoralnatureofman,anditbrought
littlerelieffromthedespotismofrulers.Onecanhardlyreadthe
horriblerecordsoftheMediciortheBorgias,orthepolitical
observationsofMachiavelli,withoutmarvelingatthemoralandpolitical
degradationofaculturednation.IntheNorth,especiallyamongtheGerman
andEnglishpeoples,theRenaissancewasaccompaniedbyamoralawakening,
anditispreciselythatawakeninginEngland,"thatgreatestmoraland
politicalreformwhicheversweptoveranationintheshortspaceofhalf
acentury,"whichismeantbythePuritanmovement.Weshallunderstandit
betterifwerememberthatithadtwochiefobjects:thefirstwaspersonal
righteousness;thesecondwascivilandreligiousliberty.Inotherwords,
itaimedtomakemenhonestandtomakethemfree.
Suchamovementshouldbeclearedofallthemisconceptionswhichhave
clungtoitsincetheRestoration,whentheverynameofPuritanwasmade
ridiculousbythejeersofthegaycourtiersofCharlesII.Thoughthe
spiritofthemovementwasprofoundlyreligious,thePuritanswerenota
religioussect;neitherwasthePuritananarrowmindedandgloomy
dogmatist,asheisstillpicturedeveninthehistories.PymandHampden
andEliotandMiltonwerePuritans;andinthelongstruggleforhuman
libertytherearefewnamesmorehonoredbyfreemeneverywhere.Cromwell
andThomasHookerwerePuritans;yetCromwellstoodlikearockfor
religioustolerance;andThomasHooker,inConnecticut,gavetotheworld
thefirstwrittenconstitution,inwhichfreemen,beforeelectingtheir
officers,laiddownthestrictlimitsoftheofficestowhichtheywere
elected.ThatisaPuritandocument,anditmarksoneofthegreatest
achievementsinthehistoryofgovernment.
FromareligiousviewpointPuritanismincludedallshadesofbelief.The
namewasfirstgiventothosewhoadvocatedcertainchangesintheformof
worshipofthereformedEnglishChurchunderElizabeth;butastheidealof
libertyroseinmen'sminds,andopposedtoitwerethekingandhisevil
counselorsandthebandofintolerantchurchmenofwhomLaudisthegreat
example,thenPuritanismbecameagreatnationalmovement.Itincluded
EnglishchurchmenaswellasextremeSeparatists,Calvinists,Covenanters,
Catholicnoblemen,allboundtogetherinresistancetodespotisminChurch
andState,andwithapassionforlibertyandrighteousnesssuchasthe
worldhasneversinceseen.Naturallysuchamovementhaditsextremesand
excesses,anditisfromafewzealotsandfanaticsthatmostofour
misconceptionsaboutthePuritansarise.Lifewassterninthosedays,too
sternperhaps,andtheintensityofthestruggleagainstdespotismmademen
narrowandhard.InthetriumphofPuritanismunderCromwellseverelaws
werepassed,manysimplepleasureswereforbidden,andanausterestandard
oflivingwasforceduponanunwillingpeople.Sothecriticismismade
thatthewildoutbreakofimmoralitywhichfollowedtherestorationof
CharleswaspartlyduetotheunnaturalrestrictionsofthePuritanera.
Thecriticismisjust;butwemustnotforgetthewholespiritofthe
movement.ThatthePuritanprohibitedMaypoledancingandhorseracingis
ofsmallconsequencebesidethefactthathefoughtforlibertyand
justice,thatheoverthrewdespotismandmadeaman'slifeandproperty
safefromthetyrannyofrulers.Agreatriverisnotjudgedbythefoamon
itssurface,andcertainausterelawsanddoctrineswhichwehaveridiculed
arebutfrothonthesurfaceofthemightyPuritancurrentthathasflowed
steadily,likeariveroflife,throughEnglishandAmericanhistorysince
theAgeofElizabeth.
CHANGINGIDEALS.Thepoliticalupheavaloftheperiodissummedupinthe
terriblestrugglebetweenthekingandParliament,whichresultedinthe

deathofCharlesattheblockandtheestablishmentoftheCommonwealth
underCromwell.ForcenturiestheEnglishpeoplehadbeenwonderfullyloyal
totheirsovereigns;butdeeperthantheirloyaltytokingswastheold
Saxonloveforpersonalliberty.Attimes,asinthedaysofAlfredand
Elizabeth,thetwoidealswenthandinhand;butmoreoftentheywerein
openstrife,andafinalstruggleforsupremacywasinevitable.Thecrisis
camewhenJamesI,whohadreceivedtherightofroyaltyfromanactof
Parliament,began,bytheassumptionof"divineright,"toignorethe
Parliamentwhichhadcreatedhim.Ofthecivilwarwhichfollowedinthe
reignofCharlesI,andofthetriumphofEnglishfreedom,itis
unnecessarytowritehere.Theblasphemyofaman'sdivinerighttorule
hisfellowmenwasended.ModernEnglandbeganwiththechargeof
Cromwell'sbrigadeofPuritansatNaseby.
Religiouslytheagewasoneofevengreaterfermentthanthatwhichmarked
thebeginningoftheReformation.Agreatideal,theidealofanational
church,waspoundingtopieces,likeashipinthebreakers,andinthe
confusionofsuchanhourtheactionofthevarioussectswaslikethatof
franticpassengers,eachstrivingtosavehispossessionsfromthewreck.
TheCatholicchurch,asitsnameimplies,hasalwaysheldtruetotheideal
ofaunitedchurch,achurchwhich,likethegreatRomangovernmentofthe
earlycenturies,canbringthesplendorandauthorityofRometobearupon
thehumblestvillagechurchtothefarthestendsoftheearth.Foratime
thatmightyidealdazzledtheGermanandEnglishreformers;butthe
possibilityofaunitedProtestantchurchperishedwithElizabeth.Then,
insteadoftheworldwidechurchwhichwastheidealofCatholicism,came
theidealofapurelynationalProtestantism.ThiswastheidealofLaud
andthereactionarybishops,nolessthanofthescholarlyRichardHooker,
oftheruggedScotchCovenanters,andofthePuritansofMassachusettsBay.
ItisintenselyinterestingtonotethatCharlescalledIrishrebelsand
ScotchHighlanderstohisaidbypromisingtorestoretheirnational
religions;andthattheEnglishPuritans,turningtoScotlandforhelp,
enteredintothesolemnCovenantof1643,establishinganational
Presbyterianism,whoseobjectwas:
TobringthechurchesofGodinthethreekingdomstouniformityin
religionandgovernment,topreservetherightsofParliamentandthe
libertiesoftheKingdom;...thatweandourposteritymayasbrethren
liveinfaithandlove,andtheLordmaydelighttoliveinthemidstof
us.
InthisfamousCovenantweseethenational,theecclesiastical,andthe
personaldreamofPuritanism,sidebyside,inalltheirgrandeurand
simplicity.
Yearspassed,yearsofbitterstruggleandheartache,beforethe
impossibilityofunitingthevariousProtestantsectswasgenerally
recognized.Theidealofanationalchurchdiedhard,andtoitsdeathis
dueallthereligiousunrestoftheperiod.Onlyaswerememberthe
nationalideal,andthestrugglewhichitcaused,canweunderstandthe
amazinglifeandworkofBunyan,orappreciatetheheroicspiritofthe
Americancolonistswholefthomeforawildernessinordertogivethenew
idealofafreechurchinafreestateitspracticaldemonstration.
LITERARYCHARACTERISTICS.InliteraturealsothePuritanAgewasoneof
confusion,duetothebreakingupofoldideals.Mediaevalstandardsof
chivalry,theimpossiblelovesandromancesofwhichSpenserfurnishedthe
types,perishednolesssurelythantheidealofanationalchurch;andin
theabsenceofanyfixedstandardofliterarycriticismtherewasnothing
topreventtheexaggerationofthe"metaphysical"poets,whoarethe
literaryparallelstoreligioussectsliketheAnabaptists.Poetrytooknew
andstartlingformsinDonneandHerbert,andprosebecameassomberas
Burton's_AnatomyofMelancholy_.Thespiritualgloomwhichsoonerorlater
fastensuponallthewritersofthisage,andwhichisunjustlyattributed
toPuritaninfluence,isduetothebreakingupofacceptedstandardsin

governmentandreligion.Nopeople,fromtheGreekstothoseofourown
day,havesufferedthelossofoldidealswithoutcausingitswritersto
cry,"Ichabod!thegloryhasdeparted."Thatistheunconscioustendencyof
literarymeninalltimes,wholookbackwardfortheirgoldenage;andit
neednotconcernthestudentofliterature,who,eveninthebreakupof
cherishedinstitutions,looksforsomeforegleamsofabetterlightwhich
istobreakupontheworld.Thissocalledgloomyageproducedsomeminor
poemsofexquisiteworkmanship,andonegreatmasterofversewhosework
wouldglorifyanyageorpeople,JohnMilton,inwhomtheindomitable
Puritanspiritfindsitsnoblestexpression.
TherearethreemaincharacteristicsinwhichPuritanliteraturediffers
fromthatoftheprecedingage:(1)Elizabethanliterature,withallits
diversity,hadamarkedunityinspirit,resultingfromthepatriotismof
allclassesandtheirdevotiontoaqueenwho,withallherfaults,sought
firstthenation'swelfare.UndertheStuartsallthiswaschanged.The
kingsweretheopenenemiesofthepeople;thecountrywasdividedbythe
struggleforpoliticalandreligiousliberty;andtheliteraturewasas
dividedinspiritaswerethestrugglingparties.(2)Elizabethan
literatureisgenerallyinspiring;itthrobswithyouthandhopeand
vitality.Thatwhichfollowsspeaksofageandsadness;evenitsbrightest
hoursarefollowedbygloom,andbythepessimisminseparablefromthe
passingofoldstandards.(3)Elizabethanliteratureisintenselyromantic;
theromancespringsfromtheheartofyouth,andbelievesallthings,even
theimpossible.Thegreatschoolman's_credo_,"Ibelievebecauseitis
impossible,"isabetterexpressionofElizabethanliteraturethanof
medivaltheology.IntheliteratureofthePuritanperiodonelooksin
vainforromanticardor.Eveninthelyricsandlovepoemsacritical,
intellectualspirittakesitsplace,andwhateverromanceassertsitselfis
informratherthaninfeeling,afantasticandartificialadornmentof
speechratherthanthenaturalutteranceofaheartinwhichsentimentis
sostrongandtruethatpoetryisitsonlyexpression.
II.LITERATUREOFTHEPURITANPERIOD
THETRANSITIONPOETS.Whenoneattemptstoclassifytheliteratureofthe
firsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury,fromthedeathofElizabeth(1603)
totheRestoration(1660),herealizestheimpossibilityofgroupingpoets
byanyaccuratestandard.Theclassificationsattemptedherehavesmall
dependenceupondatesorsovereigns,andaresuggestiveratherthan
accurate.ThusShakespeareandBaconwrotelargelyinthereignofJamesI,
buttheirworkisElizabethaninspirit;andBunyanisnolessaPuritan
becausehehappenedtowriteaftertheRestoration.ThenameMetaphysical
poets,givenbyDr.Johnson,issomewhatsuggestivebutnotdescriptiveof
thefollowersofDonne;thenameCarolineorCavalierpoetsbringstomind
thecarelesstemperoftheRoyalistswhofollowedKingCharleswitha
devotionofwhichhewasunworthy;andthenameSpenserianpoetsrecalls
thelittlebandofdreamerswhoclungtoSpenser'sideal,evenwhilehis
romanticmedivalcastlewasbattereddownbyScienceattheonegateand
Puritanismattheother.Atthebeginningofthisbewilderingconfusionof
idealsexpressedinliterature,wenoteafewwriterswhoaregenerally
knownasJacobeanpoets,butwhomwehavecalledtheTransitionpoets
because,withthelaterdramatists,theyshowclearlythechanging
standardsoftheage.
SAMUELDANIEL(15621619).Daniel,whoisoftenclassedwiththefirst
Metaphysicalpoets,isinterestingtousfortworeasons,forhisuseof
theartificialsonnet,andforhisliterarydesertionofSpenserasamodel
forpoets.His_Delia_,acycleofsonnetsmodeled,perhaps,afterSidney's
_AstrophelandStella_,helpedtofixthecustomofcelebratingloveor
friendshipbyaseriesofsonnets,towhichsomepastoralpseudonymwas
affixed.Inhissonnets,manyofwhichrankwithShakespeare's,andinhis
laterpoetry,especiallythebeautiful"ComplaintofRosamond"andhis
"CivilWars,"heaimedsolelyatgraceofexpression,andbecame

influentialingivingtoEnglishpoetryagreaterindividualityand
independencethanithadeverknown.Inmatterhesethimselfsquarely
againstthemedivaltendency:
Letotherssingofkingsandpaladines
Inagedaccentsanduntimelywords,
Paintshadowsinimaginarylines.
ThisflingatSpenserandhisfollowersmarksthebeginningofthemodern
andrealisticschool,whichseesinlifeasitisenoughpoeticmaterial,
withouttheinventionofallegoriesandimpossibleheroines.Daniel's
poetry,whichwasforgottensoonafterhisdeath,hasreceivedprobably
morehomagethanitdeservesinthepraisesofWordsworth,Southey,Lamb,
andColeridge.Thelattersays:"ReadDaniel,theadmirableDaniel.The
styleandlanguagearejustsuchasanypureandmanlywriterofthe
presentdaywoulduse.Itseemsquitemodernincomparisonwiththestyle
ofShakespeare."
THESONGWRITERS.Instrongcontrastwiththeabovearetwodistinct
groups,theSongWritersandtheSpenserianpoets.Thecloseofthereign
ofElizabethwasmarkedbyanoutburstofEnglishsongs,asremarkablein
itssuddendevelopmentastheriseofthedrama.Twocausescontributedto
thisresult,theincreasinginfluenceofFrenchinsteadofItalianverse,
andtherapiddevelopmentofmusicasanartatthecloseofthesixteenth
century.ThetwosongwritersbestworthstudyingareThomasCampion
(1567?1619)andNicholasBreton(1545?1626?).Likeallthelyricpoetsof
theage,theyareacuriousmixtureoftheElizabethanandthePuritan
standards.Theysingofsacredandprofanelovewiththesamezest,anda
carelesslovesongisoftenfoundonthesamepagewithapleafordivine
grace.
THESPENSERIANPOETS.OftheSpenserianpoetsGilesFletcherandWitherare
bestworthstudying.GilesFletcher(1588?1623)hasattimesastrong
suggestionofMilton(whowasalsoafollowerofSpenserinhisearly
years)inthenoblesimplicityandmajestyofhislines.Hisbestknown
work,"Christ'sVictoryandTriumph"(1610),wasthegreatestreligious
poemthathadappearedinEnglandsince"PiersPlowman,"andisnotan
unworthypredecessorof_ParadiseLost_.
ThelifeofGeorgeWither(15881667)coversthewholeperiodofEnglish
historyfromElizabethtotheRestoration,andtheenormousvolumeofhis
workcoverseveryphaseoftheliteratureoftwogreatages.Hislifewasa
variedone;nowasaRoyalistleaderagainsttheCovenanters,andagain
announcinghisPuritanconvictions,andsufferinginprisonforhisfaith.
AthisbestWitherisalyricpoetofgreatoriginality,risingattimesto
positivegenius;butthebulkofhispoetryisintolerablydull.Students
ofthisperiodfindhiminterestingasanepitomeofthewholeageinwhich
helived;buttheaveragereaderismoreinclinedtonotewithinterest
thathepublishedin1623_HymnsandSongsoftheChurch_,thefirsthymn
bookthateverappearedintheEnglishlanguage.
THEMETAPHYSICALPOETS.ThisnamewhichwasgivenbyDr.Johnsonin
derision,becauseofthefantasticformofDonne'spoetryisoftenapplied
toallminorpoetsofthePuritanAge.Weusethetermhereinanarrower
sense,excludingthefollowersofDanielandthatlatergroupknownasthe
Cavalierpoets.ItincludesDonne,Herbert,Waller,Denham,Cowley,
Vaughan,Davenant,Marvell,andCrashaw.Theadvancedstudentfindsthem
allworthyofstudy,notonlyfortheiroccasionalexcellentpoetry,but
becauseoftheirinfluenceonlaterliterature.ThusRichardCrashaw
(1613?1649),theCatholicmystic,isinterestingbecausehistroubledlife
issingularlylikeDonne's,andhispoetryisattimeslikeHerbert'sset
onfire.[160]AbrahamCowley(16181667),whoblossomedyoungandwho,at
twentyfive,wasproclaimedthegreatestpoetinEngland,isnowscarcely
knownevenbyname,buthis"PindaricOdes"[161]setanexamplewhich
influencedEnglishpoetrythroughouttheeighteenthcentury.HenryVaughan

(16221695)isworthyofstudybecauseheisinsomerespectsthe
forerunnerofWordsworth;[162]andAndrewMarvell(16211678),becauseof
hisloyalfriendshipwithMilton,andbecausehispoetryshowstheconflict
betweenthetwoschoolsofSpenserandDonne.EdmundWaller(16061687)
standsbetweenthePuritanAgeandtheRestoration.Hewasthefirsttouse
consistentlythe"closed"coupletwhichdominatedourpoetryforthenext
century.Bythis,andespeciallybyhisinfluenceoverDryden,thegreatest
figureoftheRestoration,heoccupiesalargerplaceinourliterature
thanareadingofhisrathertiresomepoetrywouldseemtowarrant.
Ofallthesepoets,eachofwhomhashisspecialclaim,wecanconsider
hereonlyDonneandHerbert,whoindifferentwaysarethetypesofrevolt
againstearlierformsandstandardsofpoetry.Infeelingandimageryboth
arepoetsofahighorder,butinstyleandexpressiontheyaretheleaders
ofthefantasticschoolwhoseinfluencelargelydominatedpoetryduringthe
halfcenturyofthePuritanperiod.
JOHNDONNE(15731631)
LIFE.ThebriefestoutlineofDonne'slifeshowsitsintensehuman
interest.HewasborninLondon,thesonofarichironmerchant,atthe
timewhenthemerchantsofEnglandwerecreatinganewandhigherkindof
princes.Onhisfather'ssidehecamefromanoldWelshfamily,andonhis
mother'ssidefromtheHeywoodsandSirThomasMore'sfamily.Bothfamilies
wereCatholic,andinhisearlylifepersecutionwasbroughtnear;forhis
brotherdiedinprisonforharboringaproscribedpriest,andhisown
educationcouldnotbecontinuedinOxfordandCambridgebecauseofhis
religion.Suchanexperiencegenerallysetsaman'sreligiousstandardsfor
life;butpresentlyDonne,ashestudiedlawatLincoln'sInn,was
investigatingthephilosophicgroundsofallfaith.Graduallyheleftthe
churchinwhichhewasborn,renouncedalldenominations,andcalled
himselfsimplyChristian.Meanwhilehewrotepoetryandsharedhiswealth
withneedyCatholicrelatives.HejoinedtheexpeditionofEssexforCadiz
in1596,andfortheAzoresin1597,andonseaandincampfoundtimeto
writepoetry.Twoofhisbestpoems,"TheStorm"and"TheCalm,"belongto
thisperiod.NexthetraveledinEuropeforthreeyears,butoccupied
himselfwithstudyandpoetry.Returninghome,hebecamesecretarytoLord
Egerton,fellinlovewiththelatter'syoungniece,AnneMore,andmarried
her;forwhichcauseDonnewascastintoprison.Strangelyenoughhis
poeticalworkatthistimeisnotasongofyouthfulromance,but"The
ProgressoftheSoul,"astudyoftransmigration.Yearsofwanderingand
povertyfollowed,untilSirGeorgeMoreforgavetheyoungloversandmade
anallowancetohisdaughter.Insteadofenjoyinghisnewcomforts,Donne
grewmoreasceticandintellectualinhistastes.Herefusedalsothe
natteringofferofenteringtheChurchofEnglandandofreceivinga
comfortable"living."Byhis"PseudoMartyr"heattractedthefavorof
JamesI,whopersuadedhimtobeordained,yetlefthimwithoutanyplace
oremployment.Whenhiswifediedherallowanceceased,andDonnewasleft
withsevenchildreninextremepoverty.Thenhebecameapreacher,rose
rapidlybysheerintellectualforceandgenius,andinfouryearswasthe
greatestofEnglishpreachersandDeanofSt.Paul'sCathedralinLondon.
Therehe"carriedsometoheaveninholyrapturesandledotherstoamend
theirlives,"andasheleansoverthepulpitwithintenseearnestnessis
likenedbyIzaakWaltonto"anangelleaningfromacloud."
Hereisvarietyenoughtoepitomizehisage,andyetinallhislife,
strongerthananyimpressionofoutwardwealorwoe,isthesenseof
mysterythatsurroundsDonne.Inallhisworkonefindsamystery,ahiding
ofsomedeepthingwhichtheworldwouldgladlyknowandshare,andwhich
issuggestedinhishauntinglittlepoem,"TheUndertaking":
Ihavedoneonebraverthing
Thanalltheworthiesdid;
Andyetabraverthencedothspring,

Whichis,tokeepthathid.
DONNE'SPOETRY.Donne'spoetryissouneven,attimessostartlingand
fantastic,thatfewcriticswouldcaretorecommendittoothers.Onlya
fewwillreadhisworks,andtheymustbelefttotheirownbrowsing,to
findwhatpleasesthem,likedeerwhich,inthemidstofplenty,takea
bitehereandthereandwanderon,tastingtwentyvarietiesoffoodinan
hour'sfeeding.OnewhoreadsmuchwillprobablybewailDonne'slackofany
consistentstyleorliterarystandard.Forinstance,ChaucerandMiltonare
asdifferentastwopoetscouldwellbe;yettheworkofeachismarkedby
adistinctandconsistentstyle,anditisthestyleasmuchasthematter
whichmakesthe_Tales_orthe_ParadiseLost_aworkforalltime.Donne
threwstyleandallliterarystandardstothewinds;andpreciselyforthis
reasonheisforgotten,thoughhisgreatintellectandhisgeniushad
markedhimasoneofthosewhoshoulddothings"worthytoberemembered."
Whilethetendencyofliteratureistoexaltstyleattheexpenseof
thought,theworldhasmanymenandwomenwhoexaltfeelingandthought
aboveexpression;andtotheseDonneisgoodreading.Browningisofthe
sameschool,andcompelsattention.WhileDonneplayedhavocwith
Elizabethanstyle,heneverthelessinfluencedourliteratureinthewayof
boldnessandoriginality;andthepresenttendencyistogivehimalarger
place,nearertothefewgreatpoets,thanhehasoccupiedsinceBenJonson
declaredthathewas"thefirstpoetoftheworldinsomethings,"but
likelytoperish"fornotbeingunderstood."Fortomuchofhispoetrywe
mustapplyhisownsatiricversesonanother'scrudities:
Infinitework!whichdothsofarextend
Thatnonecanstudyittoanyend.
GEORGEHERBERT(15931633)
"Odaymostcalm,mostbright,"sangGeorgeHerbert,andwemaysafelytake
thatsinglelineasexpressiveofthewholespiritofhiswritings.
ProfessorPalmer,whosescholarlyeditionofthispoet'sworksisamodel
forcriticsandeditors,callsHerbertthefirstinEnglishpoetrywho
spokefacetofacewithGod.Thatmaybetrue;butitisinterestingto
notethatnotapoetofthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury,noteven
thegayestoftheCavaliers,buthaswrittensomenobleverseofprayeror
aspiration,whichexpressestheunderlyingPuritanspiritofhisage.
Herbertisthegreatest,themostconsistentofthemall.Inalltheothers
thePuritanstrugglesagainsttheCavalier,ortheCavalierbreaksloose
fromtherestrainingPuritan;butinHerbertthestruggleispastandpeace
hascome.Thathislifewasnotallcalm,thatthePuritaninhimhad
struggleddesperatelybeforeitsubduedtheprideandidlenessofthe
Cavalier,isevidenttoonewhoreadsbetweenhislines:
Istrucktheboardandcry'd,Nomore!
Iwillabroad.
What?ShallIeversighandpine?
Mylinesandlifearefree,freeastheroad,
Looseasthewind.
TherespeakstheCavalieroftheuniversityandthecourt;andasonereads
totheendofthelittlepoem,whichhecallsbythesuggestivenameof
"TheCollar,"hemayknowthatheisreadingcondensedbiography.
Thosewhoseekforfaults,forstrainedimageryandfantasticverseforms
inHerbert'spoetry,willfindtheminabundance;butitwillbetterrepay
thereadertolookforthedeepthoughtandfinefeelingthatarehiddenin
thesewonderfulreligiouslyrics,eveninthosethatappearmost
artificial.ThefactthatHerbert'sreputationwasgreater,attimes,than
Milton's,andthathispoemswhenpublishedafterhisdeathhadalarge
saleandinfluence,showscertainlythatheappealedtothemenofhisage;
andhispoemswillprobablybereadandappreciated,ifonlybythefew,

justsolongasmenarestrongenoughtounderstandthePuritan'sspiritual
convictions.
LIFE.Herbert'slifeissoquietanduneventfulthattorelateafew
biographicalfactscanbeoflittleadvantage.Onlyasonereadsthewhole
storybyIzaakWaltoncanhesharethegentlespiritofHerbert'spoetry.
HewasbornatMontgomeryCastle,[163]Wales,1593,ofanobleWelsh
family.Hisuniversitycoursewasbrilliant,andaftergraduationhewaited
longyearsinthevainhopeofprefermentatcourt.Allhislifehehadto
battleagainstdisease,andthisisundoubtedlythecauseofthelongdelay
beforeeachnewstepinhiscourse.Nottillhewasthirtysevenwashe
ordainedandplacedoverthelittlechurchofBemerton.Howhelivedhere
amongplainpeople,in"thishappycorneroftheLord'sfield,hopingall
thingsandblessingallpeople,askinghisownwaytoSionandshowing
otherstheway,"shouldbereadinWalton.Itisabrieflife,lessthan
threeyearsofworkbeforebeingcutoffbyconsumption,butremarkablefor
thesinglegreatpurposeandthegloriousspiritualstrengththatshine
throughphysicalweakness.Justbeforehisdeathhegavesomemanuscripts
toafriend,andhismessageisworthyofJohnBunyan:
DeliverthislittlebooktomydearbrotherFerrar,andtellhimheshall
findinitapictureofthemanyspiritualconflictsthathavepassed
betwixtGodandmysoulbeforeIcouldsubjectminetothewillofJesusmy
master,inwhoseserviceIhavenowfoundperfectfreedom.Desirehimto
readit;andthen,ifhecanthinkitmayturntotheadvantageofany
dejectedpoorsoul,letitbemadepublic;ifnot,lethimburnit,forI
anditarelessthantheleastofGod'smercies.
HERBERT'SPOEMS.Herbert'schiefwork,_TheTemple_,consistsofoverone
hundredandfiftyshortpoemssuggestedbytheChurch,herholidaysand
ceremonials,andtheexperiencesoftheChristianlife.Thefirstpoem,
"TheChurchPorch,"isthelongestand,thoughpolishedwithacarethat
foreshadowstheclassicschool,theleastpoetical.Itisawonderful
collectionofcondensedsermons,wiseprecepts,andmorallessons,
suggestingChaucer's"GoodCounsel,"Pope's"EssayonMan,"andPolonius's
advicetoLaertes,in_Hamlet;_onlyitismorepackedwiththoughtthan
anyofthese.Oftruthspeakinghesays:
Daretobetrue.Nothingcanneedalie;
Afaultwhichneedsitmostgrowstwothereby.
andofcalmnessinargument:
Calmnessisgreatadvantage:hethatlets
Anotherchafemaywarmhimathisfire.
Amongtheremainingpoemsof_TheTemple_oneofthemostsuggestiveis
"ThePilgrimage."Hereinsixshortstanzas,everylineclosepackedwith
thought,wehavethewholeofBunyan's_Pilgrim'sProgress_.Thepoemwas
writtenprobablybeforeBunyanwasborn,butrememberingthewideinfluence
ofHerbert'spoetry,itisaninterestingquestionwhetherBunyanreceived
theideaofhisimmortalworkfromthis"Pilgrimage."Probablythebest
knownofallhispoemsistheonecalled"ThePulley,"whichgenerally
appears,howeverunderthename"Rest,"or"TheGiftsofGod."
WhenGodatfirstmademan,
Havingaglassofblessingsstandingby,
Letus,saidhe,pouronhimallwecan:
Lettheworld'sriches,whichdispersedlie,
Contractintoaspan.
Sostrengthfirstmadeaway;
Thenbeautyflowed;thenwisdom,honor,pleasure.
Whenalmostallwasout,Godmadeastay,
Perceivingthat,aloneofallhistreasure,
Restinthebottomlay.

For,ifIshould,saidhe,
Bestowthisjewelalsoonmycreature,
Hewouldadoremygiftsinsteadofme,
AndrestinNature,nottheGodofNature:
Sobothshouldlosersbe.
Yetlethimkeeptherest,
Butkeepthemwithrepiningrestlessness:
Lethimberichandweary,thatatleast,
Ifgoodnessleadhimnot,yetweariness
Maytosshimtomybreast.
Amongthepoemswhichmaybereadascuriositiesofversification,and
whicharousethewrathofthecriticsagainstthewholemetaphysical
school,arethoselike"EasterWings"and"TheAltar,"whichsuggestinthe
printedformofthepoemthethingofwhichthepoetsings.Moreingenious
isthepoeminwhichrimeismadebycuttingoffthefirstletterofa
precedingword,asinthefivestanzasof"Paradise":
Iblessthee,Lord,becauseIgrow
Amongthytrees,whichinarow
Totheebothfruitandorderow.
Andmoreingeniousstillareoddconceitslikethepoem"Heaven,"inwhich
Echo,byrepeatingthelastsyllableofeachline,givesananswertothe
poet'squestions.
THECAVALIERPOETS.Intheliteratureofanyagetherearegenerallyfound
twodistincttendencies.Thefirstexpressesthedominantspiritofthe
times;thesecond,asecretoranopenrebellion.Sointhisage,sideby
sidewiththeseriousandrationalPuritan,livesthegallantandtrivial
Cavalier.ThePuritanfindsexpressioninthebestpoetryoftheperiod,
fromDonnetoMilton,andintheproseofBaxterandBunyan;theCavalier
inasmallgroupofpoets,Herrick,Lovelace,Suckling,andCarew,who
writesongsgenerallyinlightervein,gay,trivial,oftenlicentious,but
whocannotaltogetherescapethetremendousseriousnessofPuritanism.
THOMASCAREW(1598?1639?).CarewmaybecalledtheinventorofCavalier
lovepoetry,andtohim,morethantoanyother,isduethepeculiar
combinationofthesensualandthereligiouswhichmarkedmostoftheminor
poetsoftheseventeenthcentury.HispoetryistheSpenserianpastoral
strippedofitsrefinementoffeelingandmadedirect,coarse,vigorous.
Hispoems,publishedin1640,aregenerally,likehislife,trivialor
sensual;buthereandthereisfoundone,likethefollowing,which
indicatesthatwiththeMetaphysicalandCavalierpoetsanewand
stimulatingforcehadenteredEnglishliterature:
AskmenomorewhereJovebestows,
WhenJuneispast,thefadingrose,
Forinyourbeauty'sorientdeep
Theseflowers,asintheircauses,sleep.
Askmenomorewherethosestarslight
Thatdownwardsfallindeadofnight,
Forinyoureyestheysit,andthere
Fixdbecomeasintheirsphere.
Askmenomoreifeastorwest
Thephoenixbuildsherspicynest,
Foruntoyouatlastsheflies,
Andinyourfragrantbosomdies.
ROBERTHERRICK(15911674).HerrickisthetrueCavalier,gay,devilmay
careindisposition,butbysomefreakoffateaclergymanofDeanPrior,
inSouthDevon,acountymadefamousbyhimandBlackmore.Here,ina
countryparish,heliveddiscontentedly,longingforthejoysofLondonand
theMermaidTavern,hisbachelorestablishmentconsistingofanold
housekeeper,acat,adog,agoose,atamelamb,onehen,forwhichhe

thankedGodinpoetrybecauseshelaidaneggeveryday,andapetpig
thatdrankbeerwithHerrickoutofatankard.Withadmirablegoodnature,
Herrickmadethebestoftheseuncongenialsurroundings.Hewatchedwith
sympathythecountrylifeabouthimandcaughtitsspiritinmanylyrics,a
fewofwhich,like"Corinna'sMaying,""Gatheryerosebudswhileyemay,"
and"ToDaffodils,"areamongthebestknowninourlanguage.Hispoems
coverawiderange,fromtriviallovesongs,paganinspirit,tohymnsof
deepreligiousfeeling.Onlythebestofhispoemsshouldberead;and
theseareremarkablefortheirexquisitesentimentandtheirgraceful,
melodiousexpression.Therest,sincetheyreflectsomethingofthe
coarsenessofhisaudience,maybepassedoverinsilence.
LateinlifeHerrickpublishedhisonebook,_HesperidesandNobleNumbers_
(1648).Thelatterhalfcontainshisreligiouspoems,andonehasonlyto
readtheretheremarkable"Litany"toseehowthereligiousterrorthat
findsexpressioninBunyan's_GraceAbounding_couldmastereventhemost
carelessofCavaliersingers.
SUCKLINGANDLOVELACE.SirJohnSuckling(16091642)wasoneofthemost
brilliantwitsofthecourtofCharlesI,whowrotepoetryasheexercised
ahorseorfoughtaduel,becauseitwasconsideredagentleman's
accomplishmentinthosedays.Hispoems,"struckfromhiswildlifelike
sparksfromhisrapier,"areutterlytrivial,and,eveninhisbestknown
"BalladUponaWedding,"rarelyriseabovemeredoggerel.Itisonlythe
romanceofhislifehisrich,brilliant,carelessyouth,andhispoverty
andsuicideinParis,whitherhefledbecauseofhisdevotiontothe
Stuartsthatkeepshisnamealiveinourliterature.
InhislifeandpoetrySirRichardLovelace(16181658)offersaremarkable
paralleltoSuckling,andthetwoareoftenclassedtogetherasperfect
representativesofthefollowersofKingCharles.Lovelace's_Lucasta_,a
volumeoflovelyrics,isgenerallyonahigherplanethanSuckling'swork;
andafewofthepoemslike"ToLucasta,"and"ToAlthea,fromPrison,"
deservethesecureplacetheyhavewon.Inthelatteroccurtheoftquoted
lines:
Stonewallsdonotaprisonmake,
Norironbarsacage;
Mindsinnocentandquiettake
Thatforanhermitage.
IfIhavefreedominmylove,
Andinmysoulamfree,
Angelsalonethatsoarabove
Enjoysuchliberty.
JOHNMILTON(16081674)
Thysoulwaslikeastaranddweltapart;
Thouhadstavoicewhosesoundwaslikethesea
Pureasthenakedheavens,majestic,free;
Sodidstthoutravelonlife'scommonway
Incheerfulgodliness:andyetthyheart
Thelowliestdutiesonherselfdidlay.
(FromWordsworth's"SonnetonMilton")
ShakespeareandMiltonarethetwofiguresthattowerconspicuouslyabove
thegoodlyfellowshipofmenwhohavemadeourliteraturefamous.Eachis
representativeoftheagethatproducedhim,andtogethertheyforma
suggestivecommentaryuponthetwoforcesthatruleourhumanity,the
forceofimpulseandtheforceofafixedpurpose.Shakespeareisthepoet
ofimpulse,oftheloves,hates,fears,jealousies,andambitionsthat
swayedthemenofhisage.Miltonisthepoetofsteadfastwilland
purpose,whomoveslikeagodamidthefearsandhopesandchanging
impulsesoftheworld,regardingthemastrivialandmomentarythingsthat
canneverswerveagreatsoulfromitscourse.

Itiswelltohavesomesuchcomparisoninmindwhilestudyingthe
literatureoftheElizabethanandthePuritanAge.WhileShakespeareand
BenJonsonandtheirunequaledcompanyofwitsmakemerryattheMermaid
Tavern,thereisalreadygrowinguponthesameLondonstreetapoetwho
shallbringanewforceintoliterature,whoshalladdtotheRenaissance
cultureandloveofbeautythetremendousmoralearnestnessofthePuritan.
Suchapoetmustbegin,asthePuritanalwaysbegan,withhisownsoul,to
disciplineandenlightenit,beforeexpressingitsbeautyinliterature.
"Hethatwouldhopetowritewellhereafterinlaudablethings,"says
Milton,"oughthimselftobeatruepoem;thatis,acompositionand
patternofthebestandmosthonorablethings."Hereisanewproposition
inartwhichsuggeststheloftyidealofFraAngelico,thatbeforeonecan
writeliterature,whichistheexpressionoftheideal,hemustfirst
developinhimselftheidealman.BecauseMiltonishumanhemustknowthe
bestinhumanity;thereforehestudies,givinghisdaystomusic,art,and
literature,hisnightstoprofoundresearchandmeditation.Butbecausehe
knowsthatmanismorethanmortalhealsoprays,depending,ashetells
us,on"devoutprayertothatEternalSpiritwhocanenrichwithall
utteranceandknowledge."Suchapoetisalreadyinspiritfarbeyondthe
Renaissance,thoughhelivesintheautumnofitsgloryandassociateswith
itsliterarymasters."Thereisaspiritinman,"saystheoldHebrewpoet,
"andtheinspirationoftheAlmightygivethhimunderstanding."Here,ina
word,isthesecretofMilton'slifeandwriting.Hencehislongsilences,
yearspassingwithoutaword;andwhenhespeaksitislikethevoiceofa
prophetwhobeginswiththesublimeannouncement,"TheSpiritoftheLord
isuponme."Hencehisstyle,producinganimpressionofsublimity,which
hasbeenmarkedforwonderbyeveryhistorianofourliterature.Hisstyle
wasunconsciouslysublimebecausehelivedandthoughtconsciouslyina
sublimeatmosphere.
LIFEOFMILTON.Miltonislikeanidealinthesoul,likealoftymountain
onthehorizon.Weneverattaintheideal;weneverclimbthemountain;but
lifewouldbeinexpressiblypoorerwereeithertobetakenaway.
FromchildhoodMilton'sparentssethimapartfortheattainmentofnoble
ends,andsoleftnothingtochanceinthematteroftraining.Hisfather,
JohnMilton,issaidtohaveturnedPuritanwhileastudentatOxfordand
tohavebeendisinheritedbyhisfamily;whereuponhesettledinLondonand
prosperedgreatlyasascrivener,thatis,akindofnotary.Incharacter
theelderMiltonwasararecombinationofscholarandbusinessman,a
radicalPuritaninpoliticsandreligion,yetamusician,whosehymntunes
arestillsung,andaloverofartandliterature.Thepoet'smotherwasa
womanofrefinementandsocialgrace,withadeepinterestinreligionand
inlocalcharities.Sotheboygrewupinahomewhichcombinedtheculture
oftheRenaissancewiththepietyandmoralstrengthofearlyPuritanism.
Hebegins,therefore,astheheirofonegreatageandtheprophetof
another.
ApparentlytheelderMiltonsharedBacon'sdislikefortheeducational
methodsofthetimeandsotookchargeofhisson'straining,encouraging
hisnaturaltastes,teachinghimmusic,andseekingoutatutorwhohelped
theboytowhathesoughtmosteagerly,notthegrammarandmechanismof
GreekandLatinbutratherthestories,theideals,thepoetrythathidein
theirincomparableliteratures.Attwelveyearswefindtheboyalreadya
scholarinspirit,unabletoresttillaftermidnightbecauseofthejoy
withwhichhisstudywasrewarded.Fromboyhoodtwogreatprinciplesseem
togovernMilton'scareer:one,theloveofbeauty,ofmusic,art,
literature,andindeedofeveryformofhumanculture;theother,a
steadfastdevotiontodutyasthehighestobjectinhumanlife.
AbriefcourseatthefamousSt.Paul'sschoolinLondonwasthepreludeto
Milton'sentrancetoChrist'sCollege,Cambridge.Hereagainhefollowed
hisnaturalbentand,likeBacon,foundhimselfofteninoppositiontothe
authorities.AsidefromsomeLatinpoems,themostnoteworthysongofthis

periodofMilton'slifeishissplendidode,'"OntheMorningofChrist's
Nativity,"whichwasbegunonChristmasday,1629.Milton,whiledeepin
theclassics,hadyetagreaterloveforhisnativeliterature.Spenserwas
foryearshismaster;inhisversewefindeveryevidenceofhis"loving
study"ofShakespeare,andhislastgreatpoemsshowclearlyhowhehad
beeninfluencedbyFletcher's_Christ'sVictoryandTriumph_.Butitis
significantthatthisfirstoderiseshigherthananythingofthekind
producedinthefamousAgeofElizabeth.
WhileatCambridgeitwasthedesireofhisparentsthatMiltonshouldtake
ordersintheChurchofEngland;buttheintenseloveofmentalliberty
whichstampedthePuritanwastoostrongwithinhim,andherefusedto
considerthe"oathofservitude,"ashecalledit,whichwouldmarkhis
ordination.ThroughouthislifeMilton,thoughprofoundlyreligious,held
alooffromthestrifeofsects.Inbelief,hebelongedtotheextreme
Puritans,calledSeparatists,Independents,Congregationalists,ofwhich
ourPilgrimFathersarethegreatexamples;butherefusedtobeboundby
anycreedorchurchdiscipline:
AseverinmygreatTaskMaster'seye.
Inthislastlineofoneofhissonnets[164]isfoundMilton'srejectionof
everyformofoutwardreligiousauthorityinfaceofthesupremePuritan
principle,thelibertyoftheindividualsoulbeforeGod.
AlongperiodofretirementfollowedMilton'swithdrawalfromthe
universityin1632.Athisfather'scountryhomeinHortonhegavehimself
upforsixyearstosolitaryreadingandstudy,roamingoverthewide
fieldsofGreek,Latin,Hebrew,Spanish,French,Italian,andEnglish
literatures,andstudyinghardatmathematics,science,theology,and
music,acuriouscombination.Tohisloveofmusicweowethemelodyof
allhispoetry,andwenoteitintherhythmandbalancewhichmakeeven
hismightyproseargumentsharmonious.In"Lycidas,""L'Allegro,""Il
Penseroso,""Arcades,""Comus,"andafew"Sonnets,"wehavethepoetic
resultsofthisretirementatHorton,few,indeed,butthemostperfectof
theirkindthatourliteraturehasrecorded.
Outofsolitude,wherehistalentwasperfected,Miltonenteredthebusy
worldwherehischaracterwastobeprovedtotheutmost.FromHortonhe
traveledabroad,throughFrance,Switzerland,andItaly,everywhere
receivedwithadmirationforhislearningandcourtesy,winningthe
friendshipoftheexiledDutchscholarGrotius,inParis,andofGalileoin
hissadimprisonmentinFlorence.[165]HewasonhiswaytoGreecewhen
newsreachedhimofthebreakbetweenkingandparliament.Withthe
practicalinsightwhichneverdesertedhimMiltonsawclearlythemeaning
ofthenews.HiscordialreceptioninItaly,socharyofpraisetoanything
notItalian,hadreawakenedinMiltontheolddesiretowriteanepicwhich
Englandwould"notwillinglyletdie";butatthoughtoftheconflictfor
humanfreedomallhisdreamswereflungtothewinds.Hegaveuphis
travelsandliteraryambitionsandhurriedtoEngland."ForIthoughtit
base,"hesays,"tobetravelingatmyeaseforintellectualculturewhile
myfellowcountrymenathomewerefightingforliberty."
Thenfornearlytwentyyearsthepoetofgreatachievementandstill
greaterpromisedisappears.Wehearnomoresongs,butonlytheprose
denunciationsandargumentswhichareasremarkableashispoetry.Inall
ourliteraturethereisnothingmoreworthyofthePuritanspiritthanthis
layingasideofpersonalambitionsinordertojoininthestrugglefor
humanliberty.Inhisbestknownsonnet,"OnHisBlindness,"whichreflects
hisgrief,notatdarkness,butathisabandoneddreams,wecatchthe
sublimespiritofthisrenunciation.
Milton'sopportunitytoservecameinthecrisisof1649.Thekinghadbeen
senttothescaffold,payingthepenaltyofhisowntreachery,andEngland
satshiveringatitsowndeed,likeachildoraRussianpeasantwhoin

suddenpassionresistsunbearablebrutalityandthenisafraidofthe
consequences.Twoweeksofanxiety,ofterrorandsilencefollowed;then
appearedMilton's_TenureofKingsandMagistrates_.ToEnglanditwaslike
thecomingofastrongman,notonlytoprotectthechild,buttojustify
hisblowforliberty.Kingsnolessthanpeoplearesubjecttotheeternal
principleoflaw;thedivinerightofapeopletodefendandprotect
themselves,thatwasthemightyargumentwhichcalmedapeople'sdreadand
proclaimedthatanewmanandanewprinciplehadariseninEngland.Milton
wascalledtobeSecretaryforForeignTonguesinthenewgovernment;and
forthenextfewyears,untiltheendoftheCommonwealth,thereweretwo
leadersinEngland,Cromwellthemanofaction,Miltonthemanofthought.
Itisdoubtfultowhichofthetwohumanityowesmostforitsemancipation
fromthetyrannyofkingsandprelates.
TwothingsofpersonalinterestdeservementioninthisperiodofMilton's
life,hismarriageandhisblindness.In1643hemarriedMaryPowell,a
shallow,pleasurelovinggirl,thedaughterofaRoyalist;andthatwasthe
beginningofsorrows.Afteramonth,tiringoftheausterelifeofa
Puritanhousehold,sheabandonedherhusband,who,withthesameradical
reasoningwithwhichhedealtwithaffairsofstate,promptlyrepudiated
themarriage.His_DoctrineandDisciplineofDivorce_andhis
_Tetrachordon_aretheargumentstojustifyhisposition;buttheyaroused
astormofprotestinEngland,andtheysuggesttoamodernreaderthat
Miltonwasperhapsasmuchtoblameashiswife,andthathehadscant
understandingofawoman'snature.Whenhiswife,fearingforherposition,
appearedbeforehimintears,allhisponderousargumentsweresweptaside
byagenerousimpulse;andthoughthemarriagewasneverahappyone,
Miltonneveragainmentionedhiswife'sdesertion.Thescenein_Paradise
Lost_,whereEvecomesweepingtoAdam,seekingpeaceandpardon,is
probablyareflectionofasceneinMilton'sownhousehold.Hiswifedied
in1653,andafewyearslaterhemarriedanother,whomwerememberforthe
sonnet,"MethoughtIsawmylateespousedsaint,"inwhichsheis
celebrated.Shediedafterfifteenmonths,andin1663hemarriedathird
wife,whohelpedtheblindoldmantomanagehispoorhousehold.
Fromboyhoodthestrainonthepoet'seyeshadgrownmoreandmoresevere;
butevenwhenhissightwasthreatenedheheldsteadilytohispurposeof
usinghispenintheserviceofhiscountry.Duringtheking'simprisonment
abookappearedcalled_EikonBasilike_(RoyalImage),givingarosy
pictureoftheking'spiety,andcondemningthePuritans.Thebookspeedily
becamefamousandwasthesourceofallRoyalistargumentsagainstthe
Commonwealth.In1649appearedMilton's_Eikonoklastes_(ImageBreaker),
whichdemolishedtheflimsyargumentsofthe_EikonBasilike_asacharge
ofCromwell'sIronsideshadoverwhelmedtheking'sfollowers.Afterthe
executionofthekingappearedanotherfamousattackuponthePuritans,
_DefensioRegiaproCarloI_,instigatedbyCharlesII,whowasthenliving
inexile.ItwaswritteninLatinbySalmasius,aDutchprofessorat
Leyden,andwashailedbytheRoyalistsasaninvincibleargument.Byorder
oftheCouncilofStateMiltonpreparedareply.Hiseyesighthadsadly
failed,andhewaswarnedthatanyfurtherstrainwouldbedisastrous.His
replywascharacteristicofthemanandthePuritan.Ashehadonce
sacrificedhispoetry,sohewasnowready,hesaid,tosacrificehiseyes
alsoonthealtarofEnglishliberty.Hismagnificent_DefensioproPopulo
Anglicano_isoneofthemostmasterlycontroversialworksinliterature.
ThepowerofthepresswasalreadystronglyfeltinEngland,andthenew
CommonwealthoweditsstandingpartlytoMilton'sprose,andpartlyto
Cromwell'spolicy.The_Defensio_wasthelastworkthatMiltonsaw.
Blindnessfelluponhimereitwasfinished,andfrom1652untilhisdeath
helaboredintotaldarkness.
ThelastpartofMilton'slifeisapictureofsolitarygrandeurunequaled
inliteraryhistory.WiththeRestorationallhislaborsandsacrificesfor
humanitywereapparentlywasted.Fromhisretirementhecouldhearthe
bellsandtheshoutsthatwelcomedbackaviciousmonarch,whosefirstact
wastosethisfootuponhispeople'sneck.Miltonwasimmediatelymarked

forpersecution;heremainedformonthsinhiding;hewasreducedto
poverty,andhisbookswereburnedbythepublichangman.Hisdaughters,
uponwhomhedependedinhisblindness,rebelledatthetaskofreadingto
himandrecordinghisthoughts.Inthemidstofallthesesorrowswe
understand,in_Samson_,thecryoftheblindchampionofIsrael:
Nowblind,disheartened,shamed,dishonored,quelled,
TowhatcanIbeuseful?whereinserve
Mynation,andtheworkfromHeavenimposed?
Buttositidleonthehouseholdhearth,
Aburdenousdrone;tovisitantsagaze,
Orpitiedobject.
Milton'sanswerisworthyofhisowngreatlife.Withoutenvyorbitterness
hegoesbacktotheearlydreamofanimmortalpoemandbeginswithsuperb
consciousnessofpowertodictatehisgreatepic.
_ParadiseLost_wasfinishedin1665,aftersevenyears'laborindarkness.
Withgreatdifficultyhefoundapublisher,andforthegreatwork,nowthe
mosthonoredpoeminourliterature,hereceivedlessthancertainverse
makersofourdayreceiveforalittlesonginoneofourpopular
magazines.Itssuccesswasimmediate,though,likeallhiswork,itmet
withvenomouscriticism.Drydensummeduptheimpressionmadeonthoughtful
mindsofhistimewhenhesaid,"Thismancutsusallout,andtheancients
too."Thereafterabitofsunshinecameintohisdarkenedhome,forthe
workstampedhimasoneoftheworld'sgreatwriters,andfromEnglandand
theContinentpilgrimscameinincreasingnumberstospeaktheirgratitude.
ThenextyearMiltonbeganhis_ParadiseRegained_.In1671appearedhis
lastimportantwork,_SamsonAgonistes_,themostpowerfuldramaticpoemon
theGreekmodelwhichourlanguagepossesses.ThepictureofIsrael's
mightychampion,blind,alone,afflictedbythoughtlessenemiesbut
preservinganobleidealtotheend,isafittingclosetothelifeworkof
thepoethimself.Foryearshewassilent,dreamingwhoshallsaywhat
dreamsinhisdarkness,andsayingcheerfullytohisfriends,"Stillguides
theheavenlyvision."Hediedpeacefullyin1674,themostsublimeandthe
mostlonelyfigureinourliterature.
MILTON'SEARLYPOETRY.[166]InhisearlyworkMiltonappearsasthe
inheritorofallthatwasbestinElizabethanliterature,andhisfirst
work,theode"OntheMorningofChrist'sNativity,"approachesthe
highwatermarkoflyricpoetryinEngland.Inthenextsixyears,from
1631to1637,hewrotebutlittle,scarcelymorethantwothousandlines,
buttheseareamongthemostexquisiteandthemostperfectlyfinishedin
ourlanguage.
"L'Allegro"and"IIPenseroso"aretwinpoems,containingmanylinesand
shortdescriptivepassageswhichlingerinthemindlikestrainsofmusic,
andwhichareknownandlovedwhereverEnglishisspoken."L'Allegro"(the
joyousorhappyman)islikeanexcursionintotheEnglishfieldsat
sunrise.Theairissweet;birdsaresinging;amultitudeofsights,
sounds,fragrances,fillallthesenses;andtothisappealofnaturethe
soulofmanrespondsbybeinghappy,seeingineveryflowerandhearingin
everyharmonysomeexquisitesymbolofhumanlife."IlPenseroso"takesus
overthesamegroundattwilightandatmoonrise.Theairisstillfresh
andfragrant;thesymbolismis,ifpossible,moretenderlybeautifulthan
before;butthegaymoodisgone,thoughitsmemorylingersinthe
afterglowofthesunset.Aquietthoughtfulnesstakestheplaceofthe
pure,joyoussensationofthemorning,athoughtfulnesswhichisnotsad,
thoughlikeallquietmoodsitisakintosadness,andwhichsoundsthe
deepsofhumanemotioninthepresenceofnature.Toquotescatteredlines
ofeitherpoemistodoinjusticetoboth.Theyshouldbereadintheir
entiretythesameday,oneatmorning,theotherateventide,ifoneisto
appreciatetheirbeautyandsuggestiveness.

The"MasqueofComus"isinmanyrespectsthemostperfectofMilton's
poems.Itwaswrittenin1634tobeperformedatLudlowCastlebeforethe
earlofBridgewaterandhisfriends.Thereisatraditionthattheearl's
threechildrenhadbeenlostinthewoods,and,whethertrueornot,Milton
takesthesimplethemeofapersonlost,callsinanAttendantSpiritto
protectthewanderer,andoutofthis,withitsnaturalactionand
melodioussongs,makesthemostexquisitepastoraldramathatwepossess.
Informitisamasque,likethosegorgeousproductsoftheElizabethanage
ofwhichBenJonsonwasthemaster.Englandhadborrowedtheideaofthe
masquefromItalyandhaduseditasthechiefentertainmentatall
festivals,untilithadbecometothenoblesofEnglandwhatthemiracle
playhadbeentothecommonpeopleofapreviousgeneration.Milton,with
hisstrongPuritanspirit,couldnotbecontentwiththemereentertainment
ofanidlehour."Comus"hasthegorgeoussceniceffects,themusicand
dancingofothermasques;butitsmoralpurposeanditsidealteachingsare
unmistakable."TheTriumphofVirtue"wouldbeabetternameforthis
perfectlittlemasque,foritsthemeisthatvirtueandinnocencecanwalk
throughanyperilofthisworldwithoutpermanentharm.Thiseternal
triumphofgoodoverevilisproclaimedbytheAttendantSpiritwhohas
protectedtheinnocentinthislifeandwhonowdisappearsfrommortal
sighttoresumeitslifeofjoy:
Mortals,thatwouldfollowme,
LoveVirtue;shealoneisfree.
Shecanteachyehowtoclimb
Higherthanthespherychime;
OrifVirtuefeeblewere,
Heavenitselfwouldstooptoher.
WhilethereareundoubtedtracesofJonsonandJohnFletcherinMilton's
"Comus,"thepoemfarsurpassesitspredecessorsintheairybeautyand
melodyofitsverses.
Inthenextpoem,"Lycidas,"apastoralelegywrittenin1637,andthelast
ofhisHortonpoems,Miltonisnolongertheinheritoroftheoldage,but
theprophetofanew.Acollegefriend,EdwardKing,hadbeendrownedin
theIrishSea,andMiltonfollowsthepoeticcustomofhisageby
representingbothhisfriendandhimselfintheguiseofshepherdsleading
thepastorallife.Miltonalsousesallthesymbolismofhispredecessors,
introducingfauns,satyrs,andseanymphs;butagainthePuritanisnot
contentwithheathensymbolism,andsointroducesanewsymbolofthe
Christianshepherdresponsibleforthesoulsofmen,whomhelikensto
hungrysheepthatlookupandarenotfed.ThePuritansandRoyalistsat
thistimeweredriftingrapidlyapart,andMiltonuseshisnewsymbolismto
denouncetheabusesthathadcreptintotheChurch.Inanyotherpoetthis
moralteachingwouldhinderthefreeuseoftheimagination;butMilton
seemsequaltothetaskofcombininghighmoralpurposewiththenoblest
poetry.Initsexquisitefinishandexhaustlessimagery"Lycidas"surpasses
mostofthepoetryofwhatisoftencalledthepaganRenaissance.
Besidesthesewellknownpoems,Miltonwroteinthisearlyperioda
fragmentarymasquecalled"Arcades";severalLatinpoemswhich,likehis
English,areexquisitelyfinished;andhisfamous"Sonnets,"whichbrought
thisItalianformofversenearlytothepointofperfection.Inthemhe
seldomwroteoflove,theusualsubjectwithhispredecessors,butof
patriotism,duty,music,andsubjectsofpoliticalinterestsuggestedby
thestruggleintowhichEnglandwasdrifting.Amongthesesonnetseach
readermustfindhisownfavorites.Thosebestknownandmostfrequently
quotedare"OnHisDeceasedWife,""TotheNightingale,""OnReachingthe
AgeofTwentythree,""TheMassacreinPiedmont,"andthetwo"OnHis
Blindness."
MILTON'SPROSE.OfMilton'sproseworkstherearemanydivergentopinions,
rangingfromMacaulay'sunboundedpraisetothecondemnationofsomeofour
moderncritics.FromaliteraryviewpointMilton'sprosewouldbestronger

iflessviolent,andamodernwriterwouldhardlybeexcusedforusinghis
languageorhismethods;butwemustrememberthetimesandthemethodsof
hisopponents.Inhisfieryzealagainstinjusticethepoetissuddenly
dominatedbythesoldier'sspirit.Hefirstmustershisfactsin
battalions,andchargesupontheenemytocrushandoverpowerwithout
mercy.ForMiltonhatesinjusticeand,becauseitisanenemyofhis
people,hecannotandwillnotspareit.Whenthevictoryiswon,heexults
inapaeanofvictoryassoulstirringastheSongofDeborah.Heisthe
poetagain,spiteofhimself,andhismindfillswithmagnificentimages.
Evenwithasubjectsodull,sobarrenofthebarepossibilitiesofpoetry,
ashis"AnimadversionsupontheRemonstrants'Defense,"hebreaksoutinto
aninvocation,"Oh,Thouthatsittestinlightandgloryunapproachable,
parentofangelsandmen,"whichislikeachapterfromtheApocalypse.In
suchpassagesMilton'sproseis,asTainesuggests,"anoutpouringof
splendors,"whichsuggeststhenoblestpoetry.
Onaccountoftheircontroversialcharactertheseproseworksareseldom
read,anditisprobablethatMiltonneverthoughtofthemasworthyofa
placeinliterature.Ofthemall_Areopagitica_hasperhapsthemost
permanentinterestandisbestworthreading.InMilton'stimetherewasa
lawforbiddingthepublicationofbooksuntiltheywereindorsedbythe
officialcensor.Needlesstosay,thecensor,holdinghisofficeandsalary
byfavor,wasnaturallymoreconcernedwiththedivinerightofkingsand
bishopsthanwiththedelightsofliterature,andmanybookswere
suppressedfornobetterreasonthanthattheyweredispleasingtothe
authorities.Miltonprotestedagainstthis,asagainsteveryotherformof
tyranny,andhis_Areopagitica_socalledfromtheAreopagusorForumof
Athens,theplaceofpublicappeal,andtheMarsHillofSt.Paul's
addressisthemostfamouspleainEnglishforthefreedomofthepress.
MILTON'SLATERPOETRY.UndoubtedlythenoblestofMilton'sworks,written
whenhewasblindandsuffering,are_ParadiseLost,ParadiseRegained_,
and_SamsonAgonistes_.Thefirstisthegreatest,indeedtheonly
generallyacknowledgedepicinourliteraturesince_Beowulf;_thelastis
themostperfectspecimenofadramaaftertheGreekmethodinour
language.
Ofthehistoryofthegreatepicwehavesomeinterestingglimpses.In
CambridgethereispreservedanotebookofMilton'scontainingalistof
nearlyonehundredsubjects[167]foragreatpoem,selectedwhilehewasa
boyattheuniversity.KingArthurattractedhimatfirst;buthischoice
finallysettledupontheFallofMan,andwehavefourseparateoutlines
showingMilton'sproposedtreatmentofthesubject.Theseoutlinesindicate
thathecontemplatedamightydramaormiracleplay;butwhetherbecauseof
Puritanantipathytoplaysandplayers,orbecauseofthewretcheddramatic
treatmentofreligioussubjectswhichMiltonhadwitnessedinItaly,he
abandonedtheideaofaplayandsettledontheformofanepicpoem;most
fortunately,itmustbeconceded,forMiltonhadnottheknowledgeofmen
necessaryforadrama.Asastudyofcharacter_ParadiseLost_wouldbea
grievousfailure.Adam,thecentralcharacter,issomethingofaprig;
whileSatanloomsupamagnificentfigure,entirelydifferentfromthe
devilofthemiracleplaysandcompletelyovershadowingtheherobothin
interestandinmanliness.Theothercharacters,theAlmighty,theSon,
Raphael,Michael,theangelsandfallenspirits,aremerelymouthpiecesfor
Milton'sdeclamations,withoutanypersonalorhumaninterest.Regardedas
adrama,therefore,_ParadiseLost_couldneverhavebeenasuccess;butas
poetry,withitssublimeimagery,itsharmoniousverse,itstitanic
backgroundofheaven,hell,andtheillimitablevoidthatliesbetween,it
isunsurpassedinanyliterature.
In1658Miltoninhisdarknesssatdowntodictatetheworkwhichhehad
plannedthirtyyearsbefore.Inordertounderstandthemightysweepofthe
poemitisnecessarytosumuptheargumentofthetwelvebooks,as
follows:

BookIopenswithastatementofthesubject,theFallofMan,andanoble
invocationforlightanddivineguidance.ThenbeginstheaccountofSatan
andtherebelangels,theirbanishmentfromheaven,andtheirplotto
opposethedesignoftheAlmightybydraggingdownhischildren,ourfirst
parents,fromtheirstateofinnocence.Thebookcloseswithadescription
ofthelandoffireandendlesspainwherethefallenspiritsabide,and
theerectionofPandemonium,thepalaceofSatan.BookIIisadescription
ofthecouncilofevilspirits,ofSatan'sconsenttoundertakethe
temptationofAdamandEve,andhisjourneytothegatesofhell,whichare
guardedbySinandDeath.BookIIItransportsustoheavenagain.God,
foreseeingthefall,sendsRaphaeltowarnAdamandEve,sothattheir
disobedienceshallbeupontheirownheads.ThentheSonoffershimselfa
sacrifice,totakeawaythesinofthecomingdisobedienceofman.Atthe
endofthisbookSatanappearsinadifferentscene,meetsUriel,theAngel
oftheSun,inquiresfromhimthewaytoearth,andtakeshisjourney
thitherdisguisedasanangeloflight.BookIVshowsusParadiseandthe
innocentstateofman.AnangelguardissetoverEden,andSatanis
arrestedwhiletemptingEveinadream,butiscuriouslyallowedtogofree
again.BookVshowsusEverelatingherdreamtoAdam,andthenthemorning
prayerandthedailyemploymentofourfirstparents.Raphaelvisitsthem,
isentertainedbyabanquet(whichEveproposesinordertoshowhimthat
allGod'sgiftsarenotkeptinheaven),andtellsthemoftherevoltof
thefallenspirits.HisstoryiscontinuedinBookVI.InBookVIIweread
thestoryofthecreationoftheworldasRaphaeltellsittoAdamandEve.
InBookVIIIAdamtellsRaphaelthestoryofhisownlifeandofhis
meetingwithEve.BookIXisthestoryofthetemptationbySatan,
followingtheaccountinGenesis.BookXrecordsthedivinejudgmentupon
AdamandEve;showstheconstructionbySinandDeathofahighwaythrough
chaostotheearth,andSatan'sreturntoPandemonium.AdamandEverepent
oftheirdisobedienceandSatanandhisangelsareturnedintoserpents.In
BookXItheAlmightyacceptsAdam'srepentance,butcondemnshimtobe
banishedfromParadise,andthearchangelMichaelissenttoexecutethe
sentence.Attheendofthebook,afterEve'sfemininegriefatthelossof
Paradise,Michaelbeginsapropheticvisionofthedestinyofman.BookXII
continuesMichael'svision.AdamandEvearecomfortedbyhearingofthe
futureredemptionoftheirrace.Thepoemendsastheywanderforthoutof
Paradiseandthedoorclosesbehindthem.
Itwillbeseenthatthisisacolossalepic,notofamanorahero,but
ofthewholeraceofmen;andthatMilton'scharactersaresuchasnohuman
handcouldadequatelyportray.Butthescenes,thesplendorsofheaven,the
horrorsofhell,theserenebeautyofParadise,thesunandplanets
suspendedbetweencelestiallightandgrossdarkness,arepicturedwithan
imaginationthatisalmostsuperhuman.Theabidinginterestofthepoemis
inthesecolossalpictures,andintheloftythoughtandthemarvelous
melodywithwhichtheyareimpressedonourminds.Thepoemisinblank
verse,andnotuntilMiltonuseditdidwelearntheinfinitevarietyand
harmonyofwhichitiscapable.Heplayedwithit,changingitsmelodyand
movementoneverypage,"asanorganistoutofasinglethemedevelopsan
unendingvarietyofharmony."
Lamartinehasdescribed_ParadiseLost_asthedreamofaPuritanfallen
asleepoverhisBible,andthissuggestivedescriptionleadsustothe
curiousfactthatitisthedream,notthetheologyorthedescriptionsof
Biblescenes,thatchieflyinterestsus.ThusMiltondescribesthe
separationofearthandwater,andthereislittleornothingaddedtothe
simplicityandstrengthof_Genesis_;butthesunsetwhichfollowsis
Milton'sowndream,andinstantlywearetransportedtoalandofbeauty
andpoetry:
NowcamestillEveningon,andTwilightgray
Hadinhersoberliveryallthingsclad;
Silenceaccompanied;forbeastandbird,
Theytotheirgrassycouch,thesetotheirnests
Wereslunk,allbutthewakefulnightingale.

Sheallnightlongheramorousdescantsung:
Silencewaspleased.Nowglowedthefirmament
Withlivingsapphires;Hesperus,thatled
Thestarryhost,rodebrightest,tilltheMoon,
Risingincloudedmajesty,atlength
Apparentqueen,unveiledherpeerlesslight,
Ando'erthedarkhersilvermantlethrew.
SoalsoMilton'sAlmighty,consideredpurelyasaliterarycharacter,is
unfortunatelytingedwiththenarrowandliteraltheologyofthetime.He
isabeingenormouslyegotistic,thedespotratherthantheservantofthe
universe,seateduponathronewithachorusofangelsabouthimeternally
singinghispraisesandministeringtoakindofdivinevanity.Itisnot
necessarytosearchheavenforsuchacharacter;thetypeistoocommon
uponearth.ButinSatanMiltonbreaksawayfromcrudemedival
conceptions;hefollowsthedreamagain,andgivesusacharactertoadmire
andunderstand:
"Isthistheregion,thisthesoil,theclime,"
SaidthenthelostArchangel,"thistheseat
ThatwemustchangeforHeaven?thismournfulgloom
Forthatcelestiallight?Beitso,sinceHe
Whonowissovrancandisposeandbid
Whatshallberight:farthestfromHimisbest,
Whomreasonhathequalled,forcehathmadesupreme
Abovehisequals.Farewell,happyfields,
Wherejoyforeverdwells!Hail,horrors!hail,
InfernalWorld!andthou,profoundestHell,
Receivethynewpossessoronewhobrings
Amindnottobechangedbyplaceortime.
Themindisitsownplace,andinitself
CanmakeaHeavenofHell,aHellofHeaven.
Whatmatterwhere,ifIbestillthesame,
AndwhatIshouldbe,allbutlessthanhe
Whomthunderhathmadegreater?Hereatleast
Weshallbefree;theAlmightyhathnotbuilt
Hereforhisenvy,willnotdriveushence:
Herewemayreignsecure;and,inmychoice,
Toreignisworthambition,thoughinHell:
BettertoreigninHellthanserveinHeaven."
InthismagnificentheroismMiltonhasunconsciouslyimmortalizedthe
Puritanspirit,thesameunconquerablespiritthatsetmentowritingpoems
andallegorieswheninprisonforthefaith,andthatsentthemoverthe
stormyseainacockleshelltofoundafreecommonwealthinthewildsof
America.
Foramodernreadertheunderstandingof_ParadiseLost_presupposestwo
things,aknowledgeofthefirstchaptersoftheScriptures,andofthe
generalprinciplesofCalvinistictheology;butitisapitytousethe
poem,ashassooftenbeendone,toteachaliteralacceptanceofoneor
theother.Ofthetheologyof_ParadiseLost_theleastsaidthebetter;
buttothesplendorofthePuritandreamandthegloriousmelodyofits
expressionnowordscandojustice.Evenaslightacquaintancewillmake
thereaderunderstandwhyitrankswiththe_DivinaCommedia_ofDante,and
whyitisgenerallyacceptedbycriticsasthegreatestsinglepoeminour
literature.
Soonafterthecompletionof_ParadiseLost_,ThomasEllwood,afriendof
Milton,askedonedayafterreadingtheParadisemanuscript,"Butwhathast
thoutosayofParadiseFound?"Itwasinresponsetothissuggestionthat
Miltonwrotethesecondpartofthegreatepic,knowntousas_Paradise
Regained_.Thefirsttellshowmankind,inthepersonofAdam,fellatthe
firsttemptationbySatanandbecameanoutcastfromParadiseandfrom
divinegrace;thesecondshowshowmankind,inthepersonofChrist,

withstandsthetempterandisestablishedoncemoreinthedivinefavor.
Christ'stemptationinthewildernessisthetheme,andMiltonfollowsthe
accountinthefourthchapterofMatthew'sgospel.Though_Paradise
Regained_wasMilton'sfavorite,andthoughithasmanypassagesofnoble
thoughtandsplendidimageryequaltothebestof_ParadiseLost_,thepoem
asawholefallsbelowthelevelofthefirst,andislessinterestingto
read.
In_SamsonAgonistes_Miltonturnstoamorevitalandpersonaltheme,and
hisgeniustransfiguresthestoryofSamson,themightychampionofIsrael,
nowblindandscorned,workingasaslaveamongthePhilistines.Thepoet's
aimwastopresentinEnglishapuretragedy,withallthepassionand
restraintwhichmarkedtheoldGreekdramas.Thathesucceededwhereothers
failedisduetotwocauses:first,Miltonhimselfsuggeststheheroofone
oftheGreektragedies,hissorrowandafflictiongivetohisnoblenature
thattouchofmelancholyandcalmdignitywhichisinperfectkeepingwith
hissubject.Second,Miltonistellinghisownstory.LikeSamsonhehad
struggledmightilyagainsttheenemiesofhisrace;hehadtakenawife
fromthePhilistinesandhadpaidthepenalty;hewasblind,alone,scorned
byhisvainandthoughtlessmasters.Totheessentialactionofthetragedy
Miltoncouldadd,therefore,thattouchofintenseyetrestrainedpersonal
feelingwhichcarriesmoreconvictionthananyargument._Samson_isin
manyrespectsthemostconvincingofhisworks.Entirelyapartfromthe
interestofitssubjectandtreatment,onemayobtainfromitabetteridea
ofwhatgreattragedywasamongtheGreeksthanfromanyotherworkinour
language.
Nothingisherefortears,nothingtowail
Orknockthebreast,noweakness,nocontempt,
Dispraiseorblame,nothingbutwellandfair,
Andwhatmayquietusinadeathsonoble.
III.PROSEWRITERSOFTHEPURITANPERIOD
JOHNBUNYAN(16281688)
AsthereisbutonepoetgreatenoughtoexpressthePuritanspirit,so
thereisbutonecommandingprosewriter,JohnBunyan.Miltonwasthechild
oftheRenaissance,inheritorofallitsculture,andthemostprofoundly
educatedmanofhisage.Bunyanwasapoor,uneducatedtinker.Fromthe
Renaissanceheinheritednothing;butfromtheReformationhereceivedan
excessofthatspiritualindependencewhichhadcausedthePuritanstruggle
forliberty.Thesetwomen,representingtheextremesofEnglishlifein
theseventeenthcentury,wrotethetwoworksthatstandtodayforthe
mightyPuritanspirit.Onegaveustheonlyepicsince_Beowulf_;theother
gaveusouronlygreatallegory,whichhasbeenreadmorethananyother
bookinourlanguagesavetheBible.
LIFEOFBUNYAN.Bunyanisanextraordinaryfigure;wemuststudyhim,as
wellashisbooks.Fortunatelywehavehislifestoryinhisownwords,
writtenwiththesamelovablemodestyandsinceritythatmarkedallhis
work.Readingthatstorynow,in_GraceAbounding_,weseetwogreat
influencesatworkinhislife.One,fromwithin,washisownvivid
imagination,whichsawvisions,allegories,parables,revelations,inevery
commonevent.Theother,fromwithout,wasthespiritualfermentofthe
age,themultiplicationofstrangesects,Quakers,FreeWillers,Ranters,
Anabaptists,Millenarians,andtheuntemperedzealofallclasses,likean
enginewithoutabalancewheel,whenmenwerebreakingawayfromauthority
andsettinguptheirownreligiousstandards.Bunyan'slifeisanepitome
ofthatastonishingreligiousindividualismwhichmarkedthecloseofthe
EnglishReformation.
HewasborninthelittlevillageofElstow,nearBedford,in1628,theson
ofapoortinker.Foralittlewhiletheboywassenttoschool,wherehe

learnedtoreadandwriteafterafashion;buthewassoonbusyinhis
father'sshop,where,amidtheglowingpotsandthefireandsmokeofhis
littleforge,hesawvividpicturesofhellandthedevilswhichhaunted
himallhislife.Whenhewassixteenyearsoldhisfathermarriedthe
secondtime,whereuponBunyanranawayandbecameasoldierinthe
Parliamentaryarmy.
ThereligiousfermentoftheagemadeatremendousimpressiononBunyan's
sensitiveimagination.Hewenttochurchoccasionally,onlytofindhimself
wrappedinterrorsandtormentsbysomefieryitinerantpreacher;andhe
wouldrushviolentlyawayfromchurchtoforgethisfearsbyjoiningin
Sundaysportsonthevillagegreen.Asnightcameonthesportswere
forgotten,buttheterrorsreturned,multipliedliketheevilspiritsof
theparable.Visionsofhellandthedemonsswarmedinhisbrain.Hewould
groanaloudinhisremorse,andevenyearsafterwardshebemoansthesins
ofhisearlylife.Whenwelookforthemfearfully,expectingsomeshocking
crimesandmisdemeanors,wefindthattheyconsistedofplayingballon
Sundayandswearing.Thelattersin,sadtosay,wasbegunbylisteningto
hisfathercursingsomeobstinatekettlewhichrefusedtobetinkered,and
itwasperfectedintheParliamentaryarmy.Onedayhisterribleswearing
scaredawoman,"averylooseandungodlywretch,"ashetellsus,who
reprimandedhimforhisprofanity.Thereproachofthepoorwomanwent
straighthome,likethevoiceofaprophet.Allhisprofanitylefthim;he
hungdownhisheadwithshame."Iwishedwithallmyheart,"hesays,"that
Imightbealittlechildagain,thatmyfathermightlearnmetospeak
withoutthiswickedwayofswearing."WithcharacteristicvehemenceBunyan
hurlshimselfuponapromiseofScripture,andinstantlythereformation
beginstoworkinhissoul.Hecastsoutthehabit,rootandbranch,and
findstohisastonishmentthathecanspeakmorefreelyandvigorouslythan
before.Nothingismorecharacteristicofthemanthanthissuddenseizing
uponatext,whichhehaddoubtlessheardmanytimesbefore,andbeing
suddenlyraiseduporcastdownbyitsinfluence.
WithBunyan'smarriagetoagoodwomantherealreformationinhislife
began.Whilestillinhisteenshemarriedagirlaspoorashimself."We
cametogether,"hesays,"aspoorasmightbe,havingnotsomuchhousehold
stuffasadishorspoonbetweenusboth."Theonlydowrywhichthegirl
broughttohernewhomewastwoold,threadbarebooks,_ThePlainMan's
PathwaytoHeaven_,and_ThePracticeofPiety_[168]Bunyanreadthese
books,whichinstantlygavefiretohisimagination.Hesawnewvisionsand
dreamedterriblenewdreamsoflostsouls;hisattendanceatchurchgrew
exemplary;hebeganslowlyandpainfullytoreadtheBibleforhimself,but
becauseofhisownignoranceandthecontradictoryinterpretationsof
Scripturewhichheheardoneveryside,hewastossedaboutlikeafeather
byallthewindsofdoctrine.
Therecordofthenextfewyearsislikeanightmare,soterribleis
Bunyan'sspiritualstruggle.Onedayhefeelshimselfanoutcast;thenext
thecompanionofangels;thethirdhetriesexperimentswiththeAlmighty
inordertoputhissalvationtotheproof.Ashegoesalongtheroadto
Bedfordhethinkshewillworkamiracle,likeGideonwithhisfleece.He
willsaytothelittlepuddlesofwaterinthehorses'tracks,"Beyedry";
andtoallthedrytrackshewillsay,"Beyepuddles."Asheisaboutto
performthemiracleathoughtoccurstohim:"Butgofirstunderyonder
hedgeandpraythattheLordwillmakeyouabletoperformamiracle."He
goespromptlyandprays.Thenheisafraidofthetest,andgoesonhisway
moretroubledthanbefore.
Afteryearsofsuchstruggle,chasedaboutbetweenheavenandhell,Bunyan
atlastemergesintoasaneratmosphere,evenasPilgrimcameoutofthe
horribleValleyoftheShadow.Soon,ledbyhisintensefeelings,he
becomesanopenairpreacher,andcrowdsoflaborersgatherabouthimon
thevillagegreen.Theylisteninsilencetohiswords;theyendingroans
andtears;scoresofthemamendtheirsinfullives.FortheAngloSaxon
peopleareremarkableforthis,thathoweverdeeplytheyareengagedin

businessorpleasure,theyarestillsensitiveasbarometerstoanytrue
spiritualinfluence,whetherofpriestorpeasant;theyrecognizewhat
Emersoncallsthe"accentoftheHolyGhost,"andinthisrecognitionof
spiritualleadershipliesthesecretoftheirdemocracy.Sothisvillage
tinker,withhisstrengthandsincerity,ispresentlytheacknowledged
leaderofanimmensecongregation,andhisinfluenceisfeltthroughout
England.Itisatributetohispowerthat,afterthereturnofCharlesII,
Bunyanwasthefirsttobeprohibitedfromholdingpublicmeetings.
ConcerningBunyan'simprisonmentinBedfordjail,whichfollowedhis
refusaltoobeythelawprohibitingreligiousmeetingswithoutthe
authorityoftheEstablishedChurch,thereisadifferenceofopinion.That
thelawwasunjustgoeswithoutsaying;buttherewasnoreligious
persecution,asweunderstandtheterm.Bunyanwasallowedtoworshipwhen
andhowhepleased;hewassimplyforbiddentoholdpublicmeetings,which
frequentlybecamefiercedenunciationsoftheEstablishedChurchand
government.HisjudgespleadedwithBunyantoconformwiththelaw.He
refused,sayingthatwhentheSpiritwasuponhimhemustgoupanddown
theland,callingonmeneverywheretorepent.Inhisrefusalweseemuch
heroism,alittleobstinacy,andperhapssomethingofthatdesirefor
martyrdomwhichtemptseveryspiritualleader.Thathisfinalsentenceto
indefiniteimprisonmentwasahardblowtoBunyanisbeyondquestion.He
groanedaloudatthethoughtofhispoorfamily,andespeciallyatthe
thoughtofleavinghislittleblinddaughter:
Ifoundmyselfamanencompassedwithinfirmities;thepartingwaslike
pullingthefleshfrommybones....Oh,thethoughtsofthehardshipI
thoughtmypoorblindonemightgounderwouldbreakmyhearttopieces.
Poorchild,thoughtI,whatsorrowthouartliketohaveforthyportionin
thisworld;thoumustbebeaten,mustbeg,sufferhunger,cold,nakedness,
andathousandcalamities,thoughIcannotnowendurethatthewindshould
blowuponthee.[169]
Andthen,becausehethinksalwaysinparablesandseeksoutmostcurious
textsofScripture,hespeaksof"thetwomilchkinethatweretocarrythe
arkofGodintoanothercountryandleavetheircalvesbehindthem."Poor
cows,poorBunyan!Suchisthemindofthisextraordinaryman.
WithcharacteristicdiligenceBunyansettoworkinprisonmakingshoe
laces,andsoearnedalivingforhisfamily.Hisimprisonmentlastedfor
nearlytwelveyears;buthesawhisfamilyfrequently,andwasforsome
timearegularpreacherintheBaptistchurchinBedford.Occasionallyhe
evenwentaboutlateatnight,holdingtheproscribedmeetingsand
increasinghisholduponthecommonpeople.Thebestresultofthis
imprisonmentwasthatitgaveBunyanlonghoursfortheworkingofhis
peculiarmindandforstudyofhistwoonlybooks,theKingJamesBibleand
Foxe's_BookofMartyrs_.Theresultofhisstudyandmeditationwas_The
Pilgrim'sProgress_,whichwasprobablywritteninprison,butwhichfor
somereasonhedidnotpublishtilllongafterhisrelease.
TheyearswhichfollowedarethemostinterestingpartofBunyan'sstrange
career.Thepublicationof_Pilgrim'sProgress_in1678madehimthemost
popularwriter,ashewasalreadythemostpopularpreacher,inEngland.
Books,tracts,sermons,nearlysixtyworksinall,camefromhispen;and
whenoneremembershisignorance,hispainfullyslowwriting,andhis
activityasanitinerantpreacher,onecanonlymarvel.Hisevangelistic
journeyscarriedhimoftenasfarasLondon,andwhereverhewentcrowds
throngedtohearhim.Scholars,bishops,statesmenwentinsecrettolisten
amongthelaborers,andcameawaywonderingandsilent.AtSouthwarkthe
largestbuildingcouldnotcontainthemultitudeofhishearers;andwhen
hepreachedinLondon,thousandswouldgatherinthecoldduskofthe
wintermorning,beforeworkbegan,andlistenuntilhehadmadeanendof
speaking."BishopBunyan"hewassooncalledonaccountofhismissionary
journeysandhisenormousinfluence.

Whatwemostadmireinthemidstofallthisactivityishisperfectmental
balance,hischarityandhumorinthestrifeofmanysects.Hewasbadgered
foryearsbypettyenemies,andhearousesourenthusiasmbyhistolerance,
hisselfcontrol,andespeciallybyhissincerity.Totheveryendhe
retainedthatsimplemodestywhichnosuccesscouldspoil.Oncewhenhehad
preachedwithunusualpowersomeofhisfriendswaitedaftertheserviceto
congratulatehim,tellinghimwhata"sweetsermon"hehaddelivered.
"Aye,"saidBunyan,"youneednotremindme;thedeviltoldmethatbefore
Iwasoutofthepulpit."
Forsixteenyearsthiswonderfulactivitycontinuedwithoutinterruption.
Then,onedaywhenridingthroughacoldstormonalaboroflove,to
reconcileastubbornmanwithhisownstubbornson,hecaughtaseverecold
andappeared,illandsufferingbutrejoicinginhissuccess,atthehouse
ofafriendinReading.Hediedthereafewdayslater,andwaslaidaway
inBunhillFieldsburialground,London,whichhasbeeneversincea_campo
santo_tothefaithful.
WORKSOFBUNYAN.Theworld'sliteraturehasthreegreat
allegories,Spenser's_FaeryQueen_,Dante's_DivinaCommedia_,and
Bunyan's_Pilgrim'sProgress_.Thefirstappealstopoets,thesecondto
scholars,thethirdtopeopleofeveryageandcondition.Hereisabrief
outlineofthefamouswork:
"AsIwalkedthroughthewildernessofthisworldIlightedonacertain
placewherewasaden[Bedfordjail]andlaidmedowninthatplaceto
sleep;and,asIslept,Idreamedadream."Sothestorybegins.Heseesa
mancalledChristiansettingoutwithabookinhishandandagreatload
onhisbackfromthecityofDestruction.Christianhastwoobjects,to
getridofhisburden,whichholdsthesinsandfearsofhislife,andto
makehiswaytotheHolyCity.AttheoutsetEvangelistfindshimweeping
becauseheknowsnotwheretogo,andpointshimtoawicketgateonahill
faraway.AsChristiangoesforwardhisneighbors,friends,wifeand
childrencalltohimtocomeback;butheputshisfingersinhisears,
cryingout,"Life,life,eternallife,"andsorushesacrosstheplain.
Thenbeginsajourneyintenstages,whichisavividpictureofthe
difficultiesandtriumphsoftheChristianlife.Everytrial,every
difficulty,everyexperienceofjoyorsorrow,ofpeaceortemptation,is
putintotheformanddiscourseofalivingcharacter.Otherallegorists
writeinpoetryandtheircharactersareshadowyandunreal;butBunyan
speaksinterse,idiomaticprose,andhischaractersarelivingmenand
women.ThereareMr.WorldlyWiseman,aselfsatisfiedanddogmatickindof
man,youthfulIgnorance,sweetPiety,courteousDemas,garrulousTalkative,
honestFaithful,andascoreofothers,whoarenotatallthebloodless
creaturesofthe_RomanceoftheRose_,butmenrealenoughtostopyouon
theroadandtoholdyourattention.Sceneafterscenefollows,inwhich
arepicturedmanyofourownspiritualexperiences.ThereistheSloughof
Despond,intowhichweallhavefallen,outofwhichPliablescrambleson
thehithersideandgoesbackgrumbling,butthroughwhichChristian
strugglesmightilytillHelpfulstretcheshimahandanddragshimouton
solidgroundandbidshimgoonhisway.ThencomeInterpreter'shouse,the
PalaceBeautiful,theLionsintheway,theValleyofHumiliation,thehard
fightwiththedemonApollyon,themoreterribleValleyoftheShadow,
VanityFair,andthetrialofFaithful.Thelatteriscondemnedtodeathby
ajurymadeupofMr.Blindman,Mr.Nogood,Mr.Heady,Mr.Liveloose,Mr.
Hatelight,andothersoftheirkindtowhomquestionsofjusticeare
committedbythejurysystem.MostfamousisDoubtingCastle,where
ChristianandHopefularethrownintoadungeonbyGiantDespair.Andthen
atlasttheDelectableMountainsofYouth,thedeepriverthatChristian
mustcross,andthecityofAllDelightandthegloriouscompanyofangels
thatcomesingingdownthestreets.Attheveryend,wheninsightofthe
cityandwhilehecanhearthewelcomewithwhichChristianisgreeted,
Ignoranceissnatchedawaytogotohisownplace;andBunyanquaintly
observes,"ThenIsawthattherewasawaytohellevenfromthegatesof

heavenaswellasfromthecityofDestruction.SoIawoke,andbeholdit
wasadream!"
Such,inbrief,isthestory,thegreatepicofaPuritan'sindividual
experienceinaroughworld,justas_ParadiseLost_wastheepicof
mankindasdreamedbythegreatPuritanwhohad"fallenasleepoverhis
Bible."
Thechieffactwhichconfrontsthestudentofliteratureashepauses
beforethisgreatallegoryisthatithasbeentranslatedintoseventyfive
languagesanddialects,andhasbeenreadmorethananyotherbooksaveone
intheEnglishlanguage.
Asforthesecretofitspopularity,Tainesays,"NexttotheBible,the
bookmostwidelyreadinEnglandisthe_Pilgrim'sProgress_....
Protestantismisthedoctrineofsalvationbygrace,andnowriterhas
equaledBunyaninmakingthisdoctrineunderstood."Andthisopinionis
echoedbythemajorityofourliteraryhistorians.Itisperhapssufficient
answertoquotethesimplefactthat_Pilgrim'sProgress_isnot
exclusivelyaProtestantstudy;itappealstoChristiansofeveryname,and
toMohammedansandBuddhistsinpreciselythesamewaythatitappealsto
Christians.WhenitwastranslatedintothelanguagesofCatholic
countries,likeFranceandPortugal,onlyoneortwoincidentswere
omitted,andthestorywasalmostaspopularthereaswithEnglishreaders.
Thesecretofitssuccessisprobablysimple.Itis,firstofall,nota
processionofshadowsrepeatingtheauthor'sdeclamations,butareal
story,thefirstextendedstoryinourlanguage.OurPuritanfathersmay
havereadthestoryforreligiousinstruction;butallclassesofmenhave
readitbecausetheyfoundinitatruepersonalexperiencetoldwith
strength,interest,humor,inaword,withallthequalitiesthatsucha
storyshouldpossess.Youngpeoplehavereadit,first,foritsintrinsic
worth,becausethedramaticinterestofthestoryluredthemontothevery
end;andsecond,becauseitwastheirintroductiontotrueallegory.The
childwithhisimaginativemindthemanalso,whohaspreservedhis
simplicitynaturallypersonifiesobjects,andtakespleasureingiving
thempowersofthinkingandspeakinglikehimself.Bunyanwasthefirst
writertoappealtothispleasantandnaturalinclinationinawaythatall
couldunderstand.Addtothisthefactthat_Pilgrim'sProgress_wasthe
onlybookhavinganystoryinterestinthegreatmajorityofEnglishand
Americanhomesforafullcentury,andwehavefoundtherealreasonfor
itswidereading.
_TheHolyWar_,publishedin1665,isthefirstimportantworkofBunyan.
Itisaprose_ParadiseLost_,andwouldundoubtedlybeknownasa
remarkableallegorywereitnotovershadowedbyitsgreatrival._Grace
AboundingtotheChiefofSinners_,publishedin1666,twelveyearsbefore
_Pilgrim'sProgress_,istheworkfromwhichweobtaintheclearestinsight
intoBunyan'sremarkablelife,andtoamanwithhistoricalorantiquarian
tastesitisstillexcellentreading.In1682appeared_TheLifeandDeath
ofMr.Badman_,arealisticcharacterstudywhichisaprecursorofthe
modernnovel;andin1684thesecondpartof_Pilgrim'sProgress_,showing
thejourneyofChristianaandherchildrentothecityofAllDelight.
BesidestheseBunyanpublishedamultitudeoftreatisesandsermons,allin
thesamestyle,direct,simple,convincing,expressingeverythoughtand
emotionperfectlyinwordsthatevenachildcanunderstand.Manyofthese
aremasterpieces,admiredbyworkingmenandscholarsalikefortheir
thoughtandexpression.Take,forinstance,"TheHeavenlyFootman,"putit
sidebysidewiththebestworkofLatimer,andtheresemblanceinstyleis
startling.Itisdifficulttorealizethatoneworkcamefromanignorant
tinkerandtheotherfromagreatscholar,bothengagedinthesamegeneral
work.AsBunyan'sonebookwastheBible,wehavehereasuggestionofits
influenceinallourproseliterature.
MINORPROSEWRITERS

ThePuritanPeriodisgenerallyregardedasonedestituteofliterary
interest;butthatwascertainlynottheresultofanylackofbooksor
writers.SaysBurtoninhis_AnatomyofMelancholy:_
Ihave...newbookseveryday,pamphlets,currantoes,stories,whole
cataloguesofvolumesofallsorts,newparadoxes,opinions,schisms,
heresies,controversiesinphilosophyandreligion.Nowcometidingsof
weddings,maskings,entertainments,jubilees,embassies,sports,plays;
thenagain,asinanewshippedscene,treasons,cheatings,tricks,
robberies,enormousvillainiesinallkinds,funerals,deaths,new
discoveries,expeditions;nowcomical,thentragicalmatters.....
Sotherecordcontinues,tillonerubshiseyesandthinkshemusthave
pickedupbymistakethelastliterarymagazine.Andforallthese
kaleidoscopiceventstherewerewaitingamultitudeofwriters,readyto
seizetheabundantmaterialandturnittoliteraryaccountforatract,an
article,avolume,oranencyclopedia.
Ifoneweretorecommendcertainofthesebooksasexpressiveofthisage
ofoutwardstormandinwardcalm,therearethreethatdeservemorethana
passingnotice,namely,the_ReligioMedici_,_HolyLiving_,and_The
CompleatAngler_.Thefirstwaswrittenbyabusyphysician,asupposedly
scientificmanatthattime;thesecondbythemostlearnedofEnglish
churchmen;andthethirdbyasimplemerchantandfisherman.Strangely
enough,thesethreegreatbooksthereflectionsofnature,science,and
revelationallinterprethumanlifealikeandtellthesamestoryof
gentleness,charity,andnobleliving.Iftheagehadproducedonlythese
threebooks,wecouldstillbeprofoundlygratefultoitforitsinspiring
message.
ROBERTBURTON(15771640).Burtonisfamouschieflyastheauthorofthe
_AnatomyofMelancholy_,oneofthemostastonishingbooksinall
literature,whichappearedin1621.Burtonwasaclergymanofthe
EstablishedChurch,anincomprehensiblegenius,giventobroodingsand
melancholyandtoreadingofeveryconceivablekindofliterature.Thanks
tohiswonderfulmemory,everythinghereadwasstoredupforuseor
ornament,tillhismindresembledahugecuriosityshop.Allhislifehe
sufferedfromhypochondria,butcuriouslytracedhismaladytothestars
ratherthantohisownliver.Itisrelatedofhimthatheusedtosuffer
sofromdespondencythatnohelpwastobefoundinmedicineortheology;
hisonlyreliefwastogodowntotheriverandhearthebargemenswearat
oneanother.
Burton's_Anatomy_wasbegunasamedicaltreatiseonmorbidness,arranged
anddividedwithalltheexactnessoftheschoolmen'sdemonstrationof
doctrines;butitturnedouttobeanenormoushodgepodgeofquotationsand
referencestoauthors,knownandunknown,livinganddead,whichseemedto
provechieflythat"muchstudyisawearinesstotheflesh."Bysomefreak
oftasteitbecameinstantlypopular,andwasproclaimedoneofthe
greatestbooksinliterature.Afewscholarsstillexploreitwithdelight,
asamineofclassicwealth;butthestyleishopelesslyinvolved,andto
theordinaryreadermostofhisnumerousreferencesarenowasunmeaningas
ahyperjacobiansurface.
SIRTHOMASBROWNE(16051682).Brownewasaphysicianwho,aftermuchstudy
andtravel,settleddowntohisprofessioninNorwich;buteventhenhe
gavefarmoretimetotheinvestigationofnaturalphenomenathantothe
barbarouspracticeswhichlargelyconstitutedthe"art"ofmedicineinhis
day.Hewasknownfarandwideasalearneddoctorandanhonestman,whose
scientificstudieshadplacedhiminadvanceofhisage,andwhose
religiousviewswereliberaltothepointofheresy.Withthisinmind,it
isinterestingtonote,asasignofthetimes,thatthismostscientific
doctorwasoncecalledtogive"expert"testimonyinthecaseoftwoold
womenwhowerebeingtriedforthecapitalcrimeofwitchcraft.He

testifiedunderoaththat"thefitswerenatural,butheightenedbythe
devil'scoperatingwiththewitches,atwhoseinstancehe[thealleged
devil]didthevillainies."
Browne'sgreatworkisthe_ReligioMedici_,i.e.TheReligionofa
Physician(1642),whichmetwithmostunusualsuccess."Hardlyeverwasa
bookpublishedinBritain,"saysOldys,achroniclerwhowrotenearlya
centurylater,"thatmademorenoisethanthe_ReligioMedici_."Its
successmaybeduelargelytothefactthat,amongthousandsofreligious
works,itwasoneofthefewwhichsawinnatureaprofoundrevelation,and
whichtreatedpurelyreligioussubjectsinareverent,kindly,tolerant
way,withoutecclesiasticalbias.Itisstill,therefore,excellent
reading;butitisnotsomuchthematterasthemannerthecharm,the
gentleness,theremarkableprosestylewhichhasestablishedthebookas
oneoftheclassicsofourliterature.
TwootherworksofBrowneare_VulgarErrors_(1646),acuriouscombination
ofscientificandcredulousresearchinthematterofpopularsuperstition,
and_UrnBurial_,atreatisesuggestedbythediscoveryofRomanburial
urnsatWalsingham.Itbeganasaninquiryintothevariousmethodsof
burial,butendedinadissertationonthevanityofearthlyhopeand
ambitions.FromaliterarypointofviewitisBrowne'sbestwork,butis
lessreadthanthe_ReligioMedici_.
THOMASFULLER(16081661).Fullerwasaclergymanandroyalistwhoselively
styleandwittyobservationswouldnaturallyplacehimwiththegay
Carolinepoets.Hisbestknownworksare_TheHolyWar,TheHolyStateand
theProfaneState,ChurchHistoryofBritain_,andthe_Historyofthe
WorthiesofEngland.TheHolyandProfaneState_ischieflyabiographical
record,thefirstpartconsistingofnumeroushistoricalexamplestobe
imitated,thesecondofexamplestobeavoided.The_ChurchHistory_isnot
ascholarlywork,notwithstandingitsauthor'sundoubtedlearning,butisa
livelyandgossipyaccountwhichhasatleastonevirtue,thatit
entertainsthereader.The_Worthies_,themostwidelyreadofhisworks,
isaracyaccountoftheimportantmenofEngland.Fullertraveled
constantlyforyears,collectinginformationfromoutofthewaysources
andgainingaminuteknowledgeofhisowncountry.This,withhis
overflowinghumorandnumerousanecdotesandillustrations,makeslively
andinterestingreading.Indeed,wehardlyfindadullpageinanyofhis
numerousbooks.
JEREMYTAYLOR(16131667).Taylorwasthegreatestoftheclergymenwho
madethisperiodfamous,amanwho,likeMilton,upheldanobleidealin
stormandcalm,andhimselfliveditnobly.Hehasbeencalled"the
Shakespeareofdivines,"and"akindofSpenserinacassock,"andboth
descriptionsapplytohimverywell.Hiswritings,withtheirexuberant
fancyandtheirnoblediction,belongrathertotheElizabethanthantothe
Puritanage.
Fromthelargenumberofhisworkstwostandoutasrepresentativeofthe
manhimself:_TheLibertyofProphesying_(1646),whichHallamcallsthe
firstpleafortoleranceinreligion,onacomprehensivebasisandon
deepseatedfoundations;and_TheRulesandExercisesofHolyLiving_
(1650).Tothelattermightbeaddeditscompanionvolume,_HolyDying_,
publishedinthefollowingyear._TheHolyLivingandDying_,asasingle
volume,wasformanyyearsreadinalmosteveryEnglishcottage.With
Baxter's_Saints'Rest,Pilgrim'sProgress_,andthe_KingJamesBible_,it
oftenconstitutedtheentirelibraryofmultitudesofPuritanhomes;andas
wereaditsnoblewordsandbreatheitsgentlespirit,wecannothelp
wishingthatourmodernlibrariesweregatheredtogetheronthesame
thoughtfulfoundations.
RICHARDBAXTER(16151691).This"busiestmanofhisage"stronglysuggests
Bunyaninhislifeandwritings.LikeBunyan,hewaspooranduneducated,a
nonconformistminister,exposedcontinuallytoinsultandpersecution;and,

likeBunyan,hethrewhimselfheartandsoulintotheconflictsofhisage,
andbecamebyhispublicspeechamightypoweramongthecommonpeople.
UnlikeJeremyTaylor,whowroteforthelearned,andwhoseinvolved
sentencesandclassicalallusionsaresometimeshardtofollow,Baxterwent
straighttohismark,appealingdirectlytothejudgmentandfeelingofhis
readers.
Thenumberofhisworksisalmostincrediblewhenonethinksofhisbusy
lifeasapreacherandtheslownessofmanualwriting.Inall,heleft
nearlyonehundredandseventydifferentworks,whichifcollectedwould
makefiftyorsixtyvolumes.Ashewrotechieflytoinfluencemenonthe
immediatequestionsoftheday,mostofthisworkhasfallenintooblivion.
Histwomostfamousbooksare_TheSaints'EverlastingRest_and_ACallto
theUnconverted_,bothofwhichwereexceedinglypopular,runningthrough
scoresofsuccessiveeditions,andhavebeenwidelyreadinourown
generation.
IZAAKWALTON(15931683).WaltonwasasmalltradesmanofLondon,who
preferredtroutbrooksandgoodreadingtotheprofitsofbusinessandthe
doubtfuljoysofacitylife;soatfiftyyears,whenhehadsavedalittle
money,heleftthecityandfollowedhisheartoutintothecountry.He
beganhisliterarywork,orratherhisrecreation,bywritinghisfamous
_Lives_,kindlyandreadableappreciationsofDonne,Wotton,Hooker,
Herbert,andSanderson,whichstandatthebeginningofmodernbiographical
writing.
In1653appeared_TheCompleatAngler_,whichhasgrownsteadilyin
appreciation,andwhichisprobablymorewidelyreadthananyotherbookon
thesubjectoffishing.Itbeginswithaconversationbetweenafalconer,a
hunter,andanangler;buttheanglersoondoesmostofthetalking,as
fishermensometimesdo;thehunterbecomesadisciple,andlearnsbythe
easymethodofhearingthefishermandiscourseabouthisart.The
conversations,itmustbeconfessed,areoftendiffuseandpedantic;but
theyonlymakeusfeelmostcomfortablysleepy,asoneinvariablyfeels
afteragoodday'sfishing.Sokindlyisthespiritoftheangler,so
exquisitehisappreciationofthebeautyoftheearthandsky,thatone
returnstothebook,astoafavoritetroutstream,withtheundying
expectationofcatchingsomething.Amongathousandbooksonanglingit
standsalmostaloneinpossessingacharmingstyle,andsoitwillprobably
bereadaslongasmengofishing.Bestofall,itleadstoabetter
appreciationofnature,anditdropslittlemorallessonsintothereader's
mindasgentlyasonecastsaflytoawarytrout;sothatonenever
suspectshisbetternatureisbeingangledfor.Thoughwehavesometimes
seenanglerscatchmorethantheyneed,orsneakaheadofbrotherfishermen
tothebestpools,weareglad,forWalton'ssake,tooverlooksuch
unaccountableexceptions,andagreewiththemilkmaidthat"weloveall
anglers,theybesuchhonest,civil,quietmen."
SUMMARYOFTHEPURITANPERIOD.Thehalfcenturybetween1625and1675is
calledthePuritanperiodfortworeasons:first,becausePuritanstandards
prevailedforatimeinEngland;andsecond,becausethegreatestliterary
figureduringalltheseyearswasthePuritan,JohnMilton.Historically
theagewasoneoftremendousconflict.ThePuritanstruggledfor
righteousnessandliberty,andbecauseheprevailed,theageisoneof
moralandpoliticalrevolution.InhisstruggleforlibertythePuritan
overthrewthecorruptmonarchy,beheadedCharlesI,andestablishedthe
CommonwealthunderCromwell.TheCommonwealthlastedbutafewyears,and
therestorationofCharlesIIin1660isoftenputastheendofthe
Puritanperiod.Theagehasnodistinctlimits,butoverlapsthe
Elizabethanperiodononeside,andtheRestorationperiodontheother.
Theageproducedmanywriters,afewimmortalbooks,andoneoftheworld's
greatliteraryleaders.Theliteratureoftheageisextremelydiversein
character,andthediversityisduetothebreakingupoftheidealsof
politicalandreligiousunity.Thisliteraturediffersfromthatofthe

precedingageinthreemarkedways:(1)Ithasnounityofspirit,asin
thedaysofElizabeth,resultingfromthepatrioticenthusiasmofall
classes.(2)IncontrastwiththehopefulnessandvigorofElizabethan
writings,muchoftheliteratureofthisperiodissomberincharacter;it
saddensratherthaninspiresus.(3)Ithaslosttheromanticimpulseof
youth,andbecomecriticalandintellectual;itmakesusthink,ratherthan
feeldeeply.
Inourstudywehavenoted(1)theTransitionPoets,ofwhomDanielis
chief;(2)theSongWriters,CampionandBreton;(3)theSpenserianPoets,
WitherandGilesFletcher;(4)theMetaphysicalPoets,DonneandHerbert;
(5)theCavalierPoets,Herrick,Carew,Lovelace,andSuckling;(6)John
Milton,hislife,hisearlyorHortonpoems,hismilitantprose,andhis
lastgreatpoeticalworks;(7)JohnBunyan,hisextraordinarylife,andhis
chiefwork,_ThePilgrim'sProgress;_(8)theMinorProseWriters,Burton,
Browne,Fuller,Taylor,Baxter,andWalton.Threebooksselectedfromthis
groupareBrowne's_ReligioMedici_,Taylor's_HolyLivingandDying_,and
Walton's_CompleteAngler_.
SELECTIONSFORREADING._Milton_.ParadiseLost,books12,L'Allegro,Il
Penseroso,Comus,Lycidas,andselectedSonnets,allinStandardEnglish
Classics;samepoems,moreorlesscomplete,invariousotherseries;
AreopagiticaandTreatiseonEducation,selections,inManly'sEnglish
Prose,orAreopagiticainArber'sEnglishReprints,ClarendonPressSeries,
Morley'sUniversalLibrary,etc.
_MinorPoets_.SelectionsfromHerrick,editedbyHale,inAthenaeumPress
Series;selectionsfromHerrick,Lovelace,Donne,Herbert,etc.,inManly's
EnglishPoetry,GoldenTreasury,OxfordBookofEnglishVerse,etc.;
Vaughan'sSilexScintillans,inTempleClassics,alsointheAldineSeries;
Herbert'sTheTemple,inEveryman'sLibrary,TempleClassics,etc.
_Bunyan_.ThePilgrim'sProgress,inStandardEnglishClassics,Pocket
Classics,etc.;GraceAbounding,inCassell'sNationalLibrary.
_MinorProseWriters_.Wentworth'sSelectionsfromJeremyTaylor;Browne's
ReligioMedici,Walton'sCompleteAngler,bothinEveryman'sLibrary,
TempleClassics,etc.;selectionsfromTaylor,Browne,andWaltonin
Manly'sEnglishProse,alsoinGarnett'sEnglishProse.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[170]
_HISTORY_._Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.238257;Cheyney,pp.431464;
Green,ch.8;Traill;Gardiner.
_SpecialWorks_.Wakeling'sKingandParliament(OxfordManuals);
Gardiner'sTheFirstTwoStuartsandthePuritanRevolution;Tulloch's
EnglishPuritanismanditsLeaders;LivesofCromwellbyHarrison,by
Church,andbyMorley;Carlyle'sOliverCromwell'sLettersandSpeeches.
_LITERATURE_.Saintsbury'sElizabethanLiterature(extendsto1660);
Masterman'sTheAgeofMilton;Dowden'sPuritanandAnglican.
_Milton_.Texts,PoeticalWorks,Globeedition,editedbyMasson;Cambridge
Poetsedition,editedbyMoody;EnglishProseWritings,editedbyMorley,
inCarisbrookeLibrary;alsoinBohn'sStandardLibrary.
Masson'sLifeofJohnMilton(8vols.);Life,byGarnett,byPattison
(EnglishMenofLetters).Raleigh'sMilton;Trent'sJohnMilton;Corson's
IntroductiontoMilton;Brooke'sMilton,inStudent'sLibrary;Macaulay's
Milton;Lowell'sEssays,inAmongMyBooks,andinLatestLiteraryEssays;
M.Arnold'sEssay,inEssaysinCriticism;Dowden'sEssay,inPuritanand
Anglican.
_CavalierPoets_.Schelling'sSeventeenthCenturyLyrics,inAthenaeum

PressSeries;CavalierandCourtierLyrists,inCanterburyPoetsSeries;
Gosse'sJacobeanPoets;Lovelace,etc.,inLibraryofOldAuthors.
_Donne_.Poems,inMuses'Library;Life,inWalton'sLives,inTemple
Classics,andinMorley'sUniversalLibrary;Life,byGosse;Jessup'sJohn
Donne;Dowden'sEssay,inNewStudies;Stephen'sStudiesofaBiographer,
vol.3.
_Herbert_.Palmer'sGeorgeHerbert;PoemsandProseSelections,editedby
Rhys,inCanterburyPoets;Dowden'sEssay,inPuritanandAnglican.
_Bunyan_.Brown'sJohnBunyan,HisLife,Times,andWorks;Life,by
Venables,andbyFroude(EnglishMenofLetters);EssaysbyMacaulay,by
Dowden,_supra_,andbyWoodberry,inMakersofLiterature.
_JeremyTaylor_.HolyLiving,HolyDying,inTempleClassics,andinBohn's
StandardLibrary;Selections,editedbyWentworth;Life,byHeber,andby
Gosse(EnglishMenofLetters);Dowden'sEssay,_supra_.
_ThomasBrowne_.Works,editedbyWilkin;thesame,inTempleClassics,and
inBohn'sLibrary;ReligioMedici,inEveryman'sLibrary;essaybyPater,
inAppreciations;byDowden,_supra;_andbyL.Stephen,inHoursina
Library;Life,byGosse(EnglishMenofLetters).
_IzaakWalton_.Works,inTempleClassics,Cassell'sLibrary,andMorley's
Library;Introduction,inA.Lang'sWalton'sCompleteAngler;Lowell's
Essay,inLatestLiteraryEssays.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.1.WhatismeantbythePuritanperiod?Whatwerethe
objectsandtheresultsofthePuritanmovementinEnglishhistory?
2.Whatarethemaincharacteristicsoftheliteratureofthisperiod?
CompareitwithElizabethanliterature.Howdidreligionandpolitics
affectPuritanliterature?Canyouquoteanypassagesornameanyworks
whichjustifyyouropinion?
3.WhatismeantbythetermsCavalierpoets,Spenserianpoets,
Metaphysicalpoets?Namethechiefwritersofeachgroup.Towhomarewe
indebtedforourfirstEnglishhymnbook?Wouldyoucallthisaworkof
literature?Why?
4.WhatarethequalitiesofHerrick'spoetry?Whatmarkedcontrastsare
foundinHerrickandinnearlyallthepoetsofthisperiod?
5.WhowasGeorgeHerbert?Forwhatpurposedidhewrite?Whatqualities
arefoundinhispoetry?
6.TellbrieflythestoryofMilton'slife.Whatarethethreeperiodsof
hisliterarywork?WhatismeantbytheHortonpoems?Compare"L'Allegro"
and"IlPenseroso."ArethereanyPuritanidealsin"Comus"?Whyis
"Lycidas"oftenputatthesummitofEnglishlyricalpoetry?Givethemain
ideaorargumentof_ParadiseLost_.Whatarethechiefqualitiesofthe
poem?Describeinoutline_ParadiseRegained_and_SamsonAgonistes_.What
personalelemententeredintothelatter?Whatqualitystrikesyoumost
forciblyinMilton'spoetry?WhatoccasionedMilton'sproseworks?Dothey
properlybelongtoliterature?Why?CompareMiltonandShakespsarewith
regardto(1)knowledgeofmen,(2)idealsoflife,(3)purposeinwriting.
7.TellthestoryofBunyan'slife.Whatunusualelementsarefoundinhis
lifeandwritings?Givethemainargumentof_ThePilgrim'sProgress_.If
youreadthestorybeforestudyingliterature,tellwhyyoulikedor
dislikedit.Whyisitaworkforallagesandforallraces?Whatarethe
chiefqualitiesofBunyan'sstyle?

8.Whoaretheminorprosewritersofthisage?Namethechiefworksof
JeremyTaylor,ThomasBrowne,andIzaakWalton.Canyoudescribefromyour
ownreadinganyoftheseworks?Howdoestheproseofthisagecomparein
interestwiththepoetry?(Miltonis,ofcourse,exceptedinthis
comparison.)
CHRONOLOGY
_SeventeenthCentury_
=====================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

|1621.Burton'sAnatomyofMelancholy
|
|1623.Wither'sHymnBook
|
1625.CharlesI|
Parliamentdissolved|
|
1628.PetitionofRight|1629.Milton'sOdeontheNativity
|
16301640.Kingruleswithout|
Parliament.Puritanmigration|
toNewEngland|16301633.Herbert'spoems
|
|16321637.Milton'sHortonpoems
|
1640.LongParliament|
|
1642.CivilWarbegins|1642.Browne'sReligioMedici
|
1643.ScotchCovenant|
|
1643.Presscensorship|1644.Milton'sAreopagitica
|
1645.BattleofNaseby;|
triumphofPuritans|
|
1649.ExecutionofCharlesI.|
CavaliermigrationtoVirginia|
|
16491660.Commonwealth|1649.Milton'sTenureofKings
|
|1650.Baxter'sSaints'Rest.
|JeremyTaylor'sHolyLiving
|
|1651.Hobbes'sLeviathan
|
16531658.Cromwell,Protector|1653.Walton'sCompleteAngler
|
16581660.RichardCromwell|
|
1660.RestorationofCharlesII|16631694.Dryden'sdramas
|(nextchapter)
|
|1666.Bunyan'sGraceAbounding
|
|1667.ParadiseLost
|
|1674.DeathofMilton
|
|1678.Pilgrim'sProgresspublished
|(writtenearlier)
=====================================================================

*****

CHAPTERVIII
PERIODOFTHERESTORATION(16601700)
THEAGEOFFRENCHINFLUENCE
HISTORYOFTHEPERIOD.Itseemsacuriouscontradiction,atfirstglance,
toplacethereturnofCharlesIIatthebeginningofmodernEngland,as
ourhistoriansarewonttodo;fortherewasneveratimewhentheprogress
ofliberty,whichhistoryrecords,wasmoreplainlyturnedbackwards.The
Puritanrgimehadbeentoosevere;ithadrepressedtoomanynatural
pleasures.Now,releasedfromrestraint,societyabandonedthedecenciesof
lifeandthereverenceforlawitself,andplungedintoexcessesmore
unnaturalthanhadbeentherestraintsofPuritanism.Theinevitableeffect
ofexcessisdisease,andforalmostanentiregenerationfollowingthe
Restoration,in1660,Englandlaysickofafever.Socially,politically,
morally,LondonsuggestsanItaliancityinthedaysoftheMedici;andits
literature,especiallyitsdrama,oftenseemsmorelikethedeliriumof
illnessthantheexpressionofahealthymind.Butevenafeverhasits
advantages.Whateverimpurityisintheblood"isburntandpurgedaway,"
andamanrisesfromfeverwithanewstrengthandanewideaofthevalue
oflife,likeKingHezekiah,whoafterhissicknessandfearofdeath
resolvedto"gosoftly"allhisdays.TheRestorationwasthegreatcrisis
inEnglishhistory;andthatEnglandlivedthroughitwasduesolelytothe
strengthandexcellenceofthatPuritanismwhichshethoughtshehadflung
tothewindswhenshewelcomedbackaviciousmonarchatDover.Thechief
lessonoftheRestorationwasthis,thatitshowedbyawfulcontrastthe
necessityoftruthandhonesty,andofastronggovernmentoffreemen,for
whichthePuritanhadstoodlikearockineveryhourofhisrugged
history.Throughfever,Englandcameslowlybacktohealth;throughgross
corruptioninsocietyandinthestateEnglandlearnedthatherpeoplewere
atheartsober,sincere,religiousfolk,andthattheircharacterwas
naturallytoostrongtofollowafterpleasureandbesatisfied.So
Puritanismsuddenlygainedallthatithadstruggledfor,andgainedit
eveninthehourwhenallseemedlost,whenMiltoninhissorrow
unconsciouslyportrayedthegovernmentofCharlesandhisCabalinthat
tremendoussceneofthecounciloftheinfernalpeersinPandemonium,
plottingtheruinoftheworld.
Ofthekingandhisfollowersitisdifficulttowritetemperately.Mostof
thedramaticliteratureofthetimeisatrocious,andwecanunderstandit
onlyaswerememberthecharacterofthecourtandsocietyforwhichitwas
written.Unspeakablyvileinhisprivatelife,thekinghadnoredeeming
patriotism,nosenseofresponsibilitytohiscountryforevenhispublic
acts.Hegavehighofficestoblackguards,stolefromtheexchequerlikea
commonthief,playedoffCatholicsandProtestantsagainsteachother,
disregardinghispledgestobothalike,brokehissolemntreatywiththe
Dutchandwithhisownministers,andbetrayedhiscountryforFrenchmoney
tospendonhisownpleasures.Itisuselesstopaintthedishonorofa
courtwhichfollowedgaylyaftersuchaleader.ThefirstParliament,while
itcontainedsomenobleandpatrioticmembers,wasdominatedbyyoungmen
whorememberedtheexcessofPuritanzeal,butforgotthedespotismand
injusticewhichhadcompelledPuritanismtostandupandassertthemanhood
ofEngland.Theseyoungpoliticiansviedwiththekinginpassinglawsfor
thesubjugationofChurchandState,andintheirthirstforrevengeupon
allwhohadbeenconnectedwithCromwell'sirongovernment.Oncemorea
wretchedformalismthatperpetualdangertotheEnglishChurchcameto
thefrontandexercisedauthorityoverthefreechurches.TheHouseof
Lordswaslargelyincreasedbythecreationofhereditarytitlesand
estatesforignoblemenandshamelesswomenwhohadflatteredtheking's
vanity.EventheBench,thatlaststrongrefugeofEnglishjustice,was

corruptedbytheappointmentofjudges,likethebrutalJeffreys,whose
aim,likethatoftheirroyalmaster,wastogetmoneyandtoexercise
powerwithoutpersonalresponsibility.Amidallthisdishonortheforeign
influenceandauthorityofCromwell'sstronggovernmentvanishedlike
smoke.ThevaliantlittleDutchnavyswepttheEnglishfleetfromthesea,
andonlythethunderofDutchgunsintheThames,undertheverywindowsof
London,awokethenationtotherealizationofhowlowithadfallen.
Twoconsiderationsmustmodifyourjudgmentofthisdisheartening
spectacle.First,thekingandhiscourtarenotEngland.Thoughour
historiesarelargelyfilledwiththerecordsofkingsandsoldiers,of
intriguesandfighting,thesenomoreexpressthereallifeofapeople
thanfeveranddeliriumexpressanormalmanhood.Thoughkingandcourtand
highsocietyarouseourdisgustorpity,recordsarenotwantingtoshow
thatprivatelifeinEnglandremainedhonestandpureevenintheworst
daysoftheRestoration.WhileLondonsocietymightbeentertainedbythe
degeneratepoetryofRochesterandthedramasofDrydenandWycherley,
EnglishscholarshailedMiltonwithdelight;andthecommonpeoplefollowed
BunyanandBaxterwiththeirtremendousappealtorighteousnessand
liberty.Second,theking,withallhispretensionstodivineright,
remainedonlyafigurehead;andtheAngloSaxonpeople,whentheytireof
onefigurehead,havealwaysthewillandthepowertothrowitoverboard
andchooseabetterone.Thecountrywasdividedintotwopolitical
parties:theWhigs,whosoughttolimittheroyalpowerintheinterestsof
Parliamentandthepeople;andtheTories,whostrovetocheckthegrowing
powerofthepeopleintheinterestsoftheirhereditaryrulers.Both
parties,however,werelargelydevotedtotheAnglicanChurch;andwhen
JamesII,afterfouryearsofmisrule,attemptedtoestablishanational
CatholicismbyintrigueswhicharousedtheprotestofthePope[171]aswell
asofParliament,thenWhigsandTories,CatholicsandProtestants,united
inEngland'slastgreatrevolution.
ThecompleteandbloodlessRevolutionof1688,whichcalledWilliamof
Orangetothethrone,wassimplytheindicationofEngland'srestored
healthandsanity.Itproclaimedthatshehadnotlongforgotten,andcould
neveragainforget,thelessontaughtherbyPuritanisminitshundred
yearsofstruggleandsacrifice.ModernEnglandwasfirmlyestablishedby
theRevolution,whichwasbroughtaboutbytheexcessesoftheRestoration.
LITERARYCHARACTERISTICS.IntheliteratureoftheRestorationwenotea
suddenbreakingawayfromoldstandards,justassocietybrokeawayfrom
therestraintsofPuritanism.Manyoftheliterarymenhadbeendrivenout
ofEnglandwithCharlesandhiscourt,orelsehadfollowedtheirpatrons
intoexileinthedaysoftheCommonwealth.Ontheirreturntheyrenounced
oldidealsanddemandedthatEnglishpoetryanddramashouldfollowthe
styletowhichtheyhadbecomeaccustomedinthegayetyofParis.Weread
withastonishmentinPepys's_Diary_(16601669)thathehasbeentoseea
playcalled_MidsummerNight'sDream_,butthathewillnevergoagainto
hearShakespeare,"foritisthemostinsipid,ridiculousplaythateverI
sawinmylife."AndagainwereadinthediaryofEvelyn,anotherwriter
whoreflectswithwonderfulaccuracythelifeandspiritofthe
Restoration,"Isaw_Hamlet_played;butnowtheoldplaysbeginto
disgustthisrefinedage,sincehisMajesty'sbeingsolongabroad."Since
ShakespeareandtheElizabethanswerenolongerinteresting,literarymen
begantoimitatetheFrenchwriters,withwhoseworkstheyhadjustgrown
familiar;andherebeginsthesocalledperiodofFrenchinfluence,which
showsitselfinEnglishliteratureforthenextcentury,insteadofthe
ItalianinfluencewhichhadbeendominantsinceSpenserandthe
Elizabethans.
OnehasonlytoconsiderforamomenttheFrenchwritersofthisperiod,
Pascal,Bossuet,Fnelon,Malherbe,Corneille,Racine,Molire,allthat
brilliantcompanywhichmakesthereignofLouisXIVtheElizabethanAgeof
Frenchliterature,toseehowfarastraytheearlywritersofthe
Restorationwentintheirwretchedimitation.Whenamantakesanotherfor

hismodel,heshouldcopyvirtuesnotvices;butunfortunatelymanyEnglish
writersreversedtherule,copyingthevicesofFrenchcomedywithoutany
ofitswitordelicacyorabundantideas.ThepoemsofRochester,theplays
ofDryden,Wycherley,Congreve,Vanbrugh,andFarquhar,allpopularin
theirday,aremostlyunreadable.Milton's"sonsofBelial,flownwith
insolenceandwine,"isagoodexpressionofthevilecharacterofthe
courtwritersandoftheLondontheatersforthirtyyearsfollowingthe
Restoration.Suchworkcanneversatisfyapeople,andwhenJeremy
Collier,[172]in1698,publishedavigorousattackupontheevilplaysand
theplaywrightsoftheday,allLondon,tiredofthecoarsenessand
excessesoftheRestoration,joinedtheliteraryrevolution,andthe
corruptdramawasdrivenfromthestage.
WiththefinalrejectionoftheRestorationdramawereachacrisisinthe
historyofourliterature.TheoldElizabethanspirit,withitspatriotism,
itscreativevigor,itsloveofromance,andthePuritanspiritwithits
moralearnestnessandindividualism,wereboththingsofthepast;andat
firsttherewasnothingtotaketheirplaces.Dryden,thegreatestwriter
oftheage,voicedageneralcomplaintwhenhesaidthatinhisproseand
poetryhewas"drawingtheoutlines"ofanewart,buthadnoteacherto
instructhim.Butliteratureisaprogressiveart,andsoonthewritersof
theagedevelopedtwomarkedtendenciesoftheirown,thetendencyto
realism,andthetendencytothatprecisenessandeleganceofexpression
whichmarksourliteratureforthenexthundredyears.
Inrealismthatis,therepresentationofmenexactlyastheyare,the
expressionoftheplain,unvarnishedtruthwithoutregardtoidealsor
romancethetendencywasatfirstthoroughlybad.TheearlyRestoration
writerssoughttopaintrealisticpicturesofacorruptcourtandsociety,
and,aswehavesuggested,theyemphasizedvicesratherthanvirtues,and
gaveuscoarse,lowplayswithoutinterestormoralsignificance.Like
Hobbes,theysawonlytheexternalsofman,hisbodyandappetites,nothis
soulanditsideals;andso,likemostrealists,theyresembleamanlost
inthewoods,whowandersaimlesslyaroundincircles,seeingtheconfusing
treesbutneverthewholeforest,andwhoseldomthinksofclimbingthe
nearesthighhilltogethisbearings.Later,however,thistendencyto
realismbecamemorewholesome.Whileitneglectedromanticpoetry,inwhich
youthiseternallyinterested,itledtoakeenerstudyofthepractical
motiveswhichgovernhumanaction.
Thesecondtendencyoftheagewastowarddirectnessandsimplicityof
expression,andtothisexcellenttendencyourliteratureisgreatly
indebted.InboththeElizabethanandthePuritanagesthegeneraltendency
ofwriterswastowardsextravaganceofthoughtandlanguage.Sentenceswere
ofteninvolved,andloadedwithLatinquotationsandclassicalallusions.
TheRestorationwritersopposedthisvigorously.FromFrancetheybrought
backthetendencytoregardestablishedrulesforwriting,toemphasize
closereasoningratherthanromanticfancy,andtouseshort,cleancut
sentenceswithoutanunnecessaryword.WeseethisFrenchinfluenceinthe
RoyalSociety,[173]whichhadforoneofitsobjectsthereformofEnglish
prosebygettingridofits"swellingsofstyle,"andwhichboundallits
memberstouse"aclose,naked,naturalwayofspeaking...asnearto
mathematicalplainnessastheycan."Drydenacceptedthisexcellentrule
forhisprose,andadoptedtheheroiccouplet,asthenextbestthing,for
thegreaterpartofhispoetry.Ashetellsushimself:
AndthisunpolishedruggedverseIchose
Asfittestfordiscourse,andnearestprose.
Itislargelyduetohimthatwritersdevelopedthatformalismofstyle,
thatprecise,almostmathematicalelegance,miscalledclassicism,which
ruledEnglishliteratureforthenextcentury.[174]
AnotherthingwhichthereaderwillnotewithinterestinRestoration
literatureistheadoptionoftheheroiccouplet;thatis,twoiambic

pentameterlineswhichrimetogether,asthemostsuitableformofpoetry.
Waller,[175]whobegantouseitin1623,isgenerallyregardedasthe
fatherofthecouplet,forheisthefirstpoettouseitconsistentlyin
thebulkofhispoetry.Chaucerhadusedtherimedcoupletwonderfullywell
inhis_CanterburyTales_,butinChauceritisthepoeticalthoughtmore
thantheexpressionwhichdelightsus.WiththeRestorationwriters,form
countsforeverything.WallerandDrydenmadethecouplettheprevailing
literaryfashion,andintheirhandsthecoupletbecomes"closed";thatis,
eachpairoflinesmustcontainacompletethought,statedaspreciselyas
possible.ThusWallerwrites:
Thesoul'sdarkcottage,batteredanddecayed,
Letsinnewlightthroughchinksthattimehasmade.[176]
ThatisakindofaphorismsuchasPopemadeinlargequantitiesinthe
followingage.Itcontainsathought,iscatchy,quotable,easyto
remember;andtheRestorationwritersdelightedinit.Soonthismechanical
closedcouplet,inwhichthesecondlinewasoftenmadefirst,[177]almost
excludedallotherformsofpoetry.ItwasdominantinEnglandforafull
century,andwehavegrownfamiliarwithit,andsomewhatwearyofits
monotony,insuchfamouspoemsasPope's"EssayonMan"andGoldsmith's
"DesertedVillage."These,however,areessaysratherthanpoems.Thateven
thecoupletiscapableofmelodyandvarietyisshowninChaucer's_Tales_
andinKeats'sexquisite_Endymion_.
Thesefourthings,thetendencytovulgarrealisminthedrama,ageneral
formalismwhichcamefromfollowingsetrules,thedevelopmentofasimpler
andmoredirectprosestyle,andtheprevalenceoftheheroiccoupletin
poetryarethemaincharacteristicsofRestorationliterature.Theyareall
exemplifiedintheworkofoneman,JohnDryden.
JOHNDRYDEN(16311700)
DrydenisthegreatestliteraryfigureoftheRestoration,andinhiswork
wehaveanexcellentreflectionofboththegoodandtheeviltendenciesof
theageinwhichhelived.Ifwecanthinkforamomentofliteratureasa
canalofwater,wemayappreciatethefigurethatDrydenisthe"lockby
whichthewatersofEnglishpoetrywereletdownfromthemountainsof
ShakespeareandMiltontotheplainofPope";thatis,hestandsbetween
twoverydifferentages,andservesasatransitionfromonetotheother.
LIFE.Dryden'slifecontainssomanyconflictingelementsofgreatnessand
littlenessthatthebiographeriscontinuallytakenawayfromthefacts,
whicharehischiefconcern,tojudgemotives,whicharemanifestlyoutside
hisknowledgeandbusiness.Judgedbyhisownopinionofhimself,as
expressedinthenumerousprefacestohisworks,Drydenwasthesoulof
candor,writingwithnoothermasterthanliterature,andwithnoother
objectthantoadvancethewelfareofhisageandnation.Judgedbyhis
acts,hewasapparentlyatimeserver,cateringtoadepravedaudiencein
hisdramas,anddedicatinghisworkwithmuchflatterytothosewhowere
easilycajoledbytheirvanityintosharingtheirpurseandpatronage.In
this,however,heonlyfollowedthegeneralcustomofthetime,andis
abovemanyofhiscontemporaries.
DrydenwasborninthevillageofAldwinkle,Northamptonshire,in1631.His
familywereprosperouspeople,whobroughthimupinthestrictPuritan
faith,andsenthimfirsttothefamousWestminsterschoolandthento
Cambridge.Hemadeexcellentuseofhisopportunitiesandstudiedeagerly,
becomingoneofthebesteducatedmenofhisage,especiallyinthe
classics.Thoughofremarkableliterarytaste,heshowedlittleevidenceof
literaryabilityuptotheageofthirty.Byhistrainingandfamily
connectionshewasalliedtothePuritanparty,andhisonlywellknown
workofthisperiod,the"HeroicStanzas,"waswrittenonthedeathof
Cromwell:

HisgrandeurhederivedfromHeavenalone,
ForhewasgreatereFortunemadehimso;
Andwars,likemiststhatriseagainstthesun,
Madehimbutgreaterseem,notgreatergrow.
Inthesefourlines,takenalmostatrandomfromthe"HeroicStanzas,"we
haveanepitomeofthethought,thepreciseness,andthepolishthatmark
allhisliterarywork.
ThispoemmadeDrydenwellknown,andhewasinafairwaytobecomethe
newpoetofPuritanismwhentheRestorationmadeacompletechangeinhis
methods.HehadcometoLondonforaliterarylife,andwhentheRoyalists
wereagaininpowerheplacedhimselfpromptlyonthewinningside.His
"AstraeaRedux,"apoemofwelcometoCharlesII,andhis"Panegyrictohis
SacredMajesty,"breathemoredevotionto"theoldgoat,"asthekingwas
knowntohiscourtiers,thanhadhisearlierpoemstoPuritanism.
In1667hebecamemorewidelyknownandpopularbyhis"AnnusMirabilis,"a
narrativepoemdescribingtheterrorsofthegreatfireinLondonandsome
eventsofthedisgracefulwarwithHolland;butwiththetheatersreopened
andnightlyfilled,thedramaofferedthemostattractivefieldtoonewho
madehislivingbyliterature;soDrydenturnedtothestageandagreedto
furnishthreeplaysyearlyfortheactorsoftheKing'sTheater.Fornearly
twentyyears,thebestofhislife,Drydengavehimselfuptothis
unfortunatework.Bothbynatureandhabitheseemstohavebeencleanin
hispersonallife;butthestagedemandeduncleanplays,andDryden
followedhisaudience.Thathedeploredthisisevidentfromsomeofhis
laterwork,andwehavehisstatementthathewroteonlyoneplay,his
best,topleasehimself.Thiswas_AllforLove_,whichwaswrittenin
blankverse,mostoftheothersbeinginrimedcouplets.
DuringthistimeDrydenhadbecomethebestknownliterarymanofLondon,
andwasalmostasmuchadictatortotheliterarysetwhichgatheredinthe
tavernsandcoffeehousesasBenJonsonhadbeenbeforehim.Hiswork,
meanwhile,wasrewardedbylargefinancialreturns,andbyhisbeing
appointedpoetlaureateandcollectoroftheportofLondon.Thelatter
office,itmayberemembered,hadoncebeenheldbyChaucer.
Atfiftyyearsofage,andbeforeJeremyCollierhaddrivenhisdramasfrom
thestage,Drydenturnedfromdramaticworktothrowhimselfintothe
strifeofreligionandpolitics,writingatthisperiodhisnumerousprose
andpoeticaltreatises.In1682appearedhis_ReligioLaici_(Religionofa
Layman),defendingtheAnglicanChurchagainstallothersects,especially
theCatholicsandPresbyterians;butthreeyearslater,whenJamesIIcame
tothethronewithschemestoestablishtheRomanfaith,Drydenturned
Catholicandwrotehismostfamousreligiouspoem,"TheHindandthe
Panther,"beginning:
AmilkwhiteHind,immortalandunchanged,
Fedonthelawnsandintheforestranged;
Withoutunspotted,innocentwithin,
Shefearednodanger,forsheknewnosin.
ThishindisasymbolfortheRomanChurch;andtheAnglicans,asa
panther,arerepresentedaspersecutingthefaithful.Numerousother
sectsCalvinists,Anabaptists,Quakerswererepresentedbythewolf,
boar,hare,andotheranimals,whichgavethepoetanexcellentchancefor
exercisinghissatire.Dryden'senemiesmadetheaccusation,oftensince
repeated,ofhypocrisyinthuschanginghischurch;butthathewassincere
inthemattercannowhardlybequestioned,forheknewhowto"sufferfor
thefaith"andtobetruetohisreligion,evenwhenitmeantmisjudgment
andlossoffortune.AttheRevolutionof1688herefusedallegianceto
WilliamofOrange;hewasdeprivedofallhisofficesandpensions,andas
anoldmanwasagainthrownbackonliteratureashisonlymeansof

livelihood.Hewenttoworkwithextraordinarycourageandenergy,writing
plays,poems,prefacesforothermen,eulogiesforfuneraloccasions,
everykindofliteraryworkthatmenwouldpayfor.Hismostsuccessful
workatthistimewashistranslations,whichresultedinthecomplete
_Aeneid_andmanyselectionsfromHomer,Ovid,andJuvenal,appearingin
Englishrimedcouplets.Hismostenduringpoem,thesplendidodecalled
"Alexander'sFeast,"waswrittenin1697.Threeyearslaterhepublished
hislastwork,_Fables_,containingpoeticalparaphrasesofthetalesof
BoccaccioandChaucer,andthemiscellaneouspoemsofhislastyears.Long
prefaceswerethefashioninDryden'sday,andhisbestcriticalworkis
foundinhisintroductions.Theprefacetothe_Fables_isgenerally
admiredasanexampleofthenewprosestyledevelopedbyDrydenandhis
followers.
Fromtheliteraryviewpointtheselasttroubledyearswerethebestof
Dryden'slife,thoughtheyweremadebitterbyobscurityandbythe
criticismofhisnumerousenemies.Hediedin1700andwasburiednear
ChaucerinWestminsterAbbey.
WORKSOFDRYDEN.ThenumerousdramaticworksofDrydenarebestleftin
thatobscurityintowhichtheyhavefallen.Nowandthentheycontainabit
ofexcellentlyricpoetry,andin_AllforLove_,anotherversionof
_AntonyandCleopatra_,whereheleaveshischerishedheroiccoupletfor
theblankverseofMarloweandShakespeare,heshowswhathemighthave
donehadhenotsoldhistalentstoadepravedaudience.Onthewhole,
readinghisplaysislikenibblingatarottingapple;eventhegoodspots
areaffectedbythedecay,andoneendsbythrowingthewholethinginto
thegarbagecan,wheremostofthedramaticworksofthisperiodbelong.
Thecontroversialandsatiricalpoemsareonahigherplane;though,it
mustbeconfessed,Dryden'ssatireoftenstrikesusascuttingand
revengeful,ratherthanwitty.Thebestknownofthese,andamasterpiece
ofitskind,is"AbsalomandAchitophel,"whichisundoubtedlythemost
powerfulpoliticalsatireinourlanguage.TakingtheBiblestoryofDavid
andAbsalom,heusesittoridiculetheWhigpartyandalsotorevenge
himselfuponhisenemies.CharlesIIappearedasKingDavid;hisnatural
son,theDukeofMonmouth,whowasmixedupintheRyeHousePlot,paraded
asAbsalom;ShaftesburywasAchitophel,theevilCounselor;andtheDukeof
BuckinghamwassatirizedasZimri.Thepoemhadenormouspolitical
influence,andraisedDryden,intheopinionofhiscontemporaries,tothe
frontrankofEnglishpoets.Twoextractsfromthepowerful
characterizationsofAchitophelandZimriaregivenheretoshowthestyle
andspiritofthewholework.
(SHAFTESBURY)
OfthesethefalseAchitophelwasfirst;
Anametoallsucceedingagescursed:
Forclosedesignsandcrookedcounselsfit;
Sagacious,bold,andturbulentofwit;
Restless,unfixedinprinciplesandplace;
Inpowerunpleased,impatientofdisgrace:
Afierysoul,which,workingoutitsway,
Frettedthepygmybodytodecay....
Adaringpilotinextremity,
Pleasedwiththedanger,whenthewaveswenthigh
Hesoughtthestorms:butforacalmunfit,
Wouldsteertoonighthesandstoboasthiswit.
Greatwitsaresuretomadnessnearallied,
Andthinpartitionsdotheirboundsdivide;
Elsewhyshouldhe,withwealthandhonorblest,
Refusehisagetheneedfulhoursofrest?
Punishabodywhichhecouldnotplease;
Bankruptoflife,yetprodigalofease?
Andalltoleavewhatwithhistoilhewon,
Tothatunfeatheredtwoleggedthing,ason....

Infriendshipfalse,implacableinhate;
Resolvedtoruinortorulethestate;...
Thenseizedwithfear,yetstillaffectingfame,
Usurpedapatriot'sallatoningname.
Soeasystillitprovesinfactioustimes
Withpubliczealtocancelprivatecrimes.
(THEDUKEOFBUCKINGHAM)
Someoftheirchiefswereprincesoftheland;
InthefirstrankofthesedidZimristand,
Amansovarious,thatheseemedtobe
Notone,butallmankind'sepitome:
Stiffinopinions,alwaysinthewrong,
Waseverythingbystartsandnothinglong;
But,inthecourseofonerevolvingmoon,
Waschymist,fiddler,statesman,andbuffoon;
Thenallforwomen,painting,rhyming,drinking,
Besidestenthousandfreaksthatdiedinthinking.
Blestmadman,whocouldeveryhouremploy
Withsomethingnewtowishortoenjoy!
Railingandpraisingwerehisusualthemes,
Andboth,toshowhisjudgment,inextremes:
Sooverviolent,orovercivil,
ThateverymanwithhimwasGodordevil.
OfthemanymiscellaneouspoemsofDryden,thecuriousreaderwillgetan
ideaofhissustainednarrativepowerfromthe_AnnusMirabilis_.Thebest
expressionofDryden'sliterarygenius,however,isfoundin"Alexander's
Feast,"whichishismostenduringode,andoneofthebestinour
language.
AsaprosewriterDrydenhadaverymarkedinfluenceonourliteraturein
shorteninghissentences,andespeciallyinwritingnaturally,without
dependingonliteraryornamentationtogiveeffecttowhatheissaying.If
wecomparehisprosewiththatofMilton,orBrowne,orJeremyTaylor,we
notethatDrydencareslessforstylethananyoftheothers,buttakes
morepainstostatehisthoughtclearlyandconcisely,asmenspeakwhen
theywishtobeunderstood.Theclassicalschool,whichfollowedthe
Restoration,lookedtoDrydenasaleader,andtohimweowelargelythat
tendencytoexactnessofexpressionwhichmarksoursubsequentprose
writing.Withhisprose,Drydenrapidlydevelopedhiscriticalability,and
becametheforemostcritic[178]ofhisage.Hiscriticisms,insteadof
beingpublishedasindependentworks,weregenerallyusedasprefacesor
introductionstohispoetry.Thebestknownofthesecriticismsarethe
prefacetothe_Fables_,"OfHeroicPlays,""DiscourseonSatire,"and
especiallythe"EssayofDramaticPoesy"(1668),whichattemptstolaya
foundationforallliterarycriticism.
DRYDEN'SINFLUENCEONLITERATURE.Dryden'splaceamongauthorsisdue
partlytohisgreatinfluenceonthesucceedingageofclassicism.Briefly,
thisinfluencemaybesummedupbynotingthethreenewelementswhichhe
broughtintoourliterature.Theseare:(1)theestablishmentoftheheroic
coupletasthefashionforsatiric,didactic,anddescriptivepoetry;(2)
hisdevelopmentofadirect,serviceableprosestylesuchaswestill
cultivate;and(3)hisdevelopmentoftheartofliterarycriticisminhis
essaysandinthenumerousprefacestohispoems.Thisiscertainlyalarge
workforonemantoaccomplish,andDrydenisworthyofhonor,though
comparativelylittleofwhathewroteisnowfoundonourbookshelves.
SAMUELBUTLER(16121680).InmarkedcontrastwithDryden,whodevotedhis
lifetoliteratureandwonhissuccessbyhardwork,isSamuelButler,who
jumpedintofamebyasingle,carelesswork,whichrepresentsnotany
seriousintentoreffort,butthepastimeofanidlehour.Weareto
rememberthat,thoughtheRoyalistshadtriumphedintheRestoration,the
Puritanspiritwasnotdead,norevensleeping,andthatthePuritanheld
steadfastlytohisownprinciples.Againsttheseprinciplesofjustice,

truth,andlibertytherewasnoargument,sincetheyexpressedthemanhood
ofEngland;butmanyofthePuritanpracticeswereopentoridicule,and
theRoyalists,inrevengefortheirdefeat,begantouseridiculewithout
mercy.DuringtheearlyyearsoftheRestorationdoggerelversesridiculing
Puritanism,andburlesque,thatis,aridiculousrepresentationofserious
subjects,oraseriousrepresentationofridiculoussubjects,werethe
mostpopularformofliteraturewithLondonsociety.Ofallthisburlesque
anddoggerelthemostfamousisButler's_Hudibras_,aworktowhichwecan
tracemanyoftheprejudicesthatstillprevailagainstPuritanism.
OfButlerhimselfweknowlittle;heisoneofthemostobscurefiguresin
ourliterature.DuringthedaysofCromwell'sProtectoratehewasinthe
employofSirSamuelLuke,acrabbedandextremetypeofPuritannobleman,
andherehecollectedhismaterialandprobablywrotethefirstpartofhis
burlesque,which,ofcourse,hedidnotdaretopublishuntilafterthe
Restoration.
_Hudibras_isplainlymodeleduponthe_DonQuixote_ofCervantes.It
describestheadventuresofafanaticaljusticeofthepeace,SirHudibras,
andofhissquire,Ralpho,intheirendeavortoputdownallinnocent
pleasures.InHudibrasandRalphothetwoextremetypesofthePuritan
party,PresbyteriansandIndependents,aremercilesslyridiculed.Whenthe
poemfirstappearedinpublic,in1663,aftercirculatingsecretlyfor
yearsinmanuscript,itbecameatonceenormouslypopular.Thekingcarried
acopyinhispocket,andcourtiersviedwitheachotherinquotingits
mostscurrilouspassages.Asecondandathirdpart,continuingthe
adventuresofHudibras,werepublishedin1664and1668.Atbestthework
isawretcheddoggerel,butitwascleverenoughandstrikinglyoriginal;
andsinceitexpressedtheRoyalistspirittowardsthePuritans,it
speedilyfounditsplaceinaliteraturewhichreflectseveryphaseof
humanlife.Afewoddlinesaregivenheretoshowthecharacterofthe
work,andtointroducethereadertothebestknownburlesqueinour
language:
Hewasinlogicagreatcritic,
Profoundlyskilledinanalytic;
Hecoulddistinguish,anddivide
Ahair'twixtsouthandsouthwestside;
Oneitherwhichhewoulddispute,
Confute,changehands,andstillconfute;
He'dundertaketoprove,byforce
Ofargument,aman'snohorse;
He'drunindebtbydisputation,
Andpaywithratiocination.
Forhewasofthatstubborncrew
Oferrantsaints,whomallmengrant
TobethetrueChurchMilitant;
Suchasdobuildtheirfaithupon
Theholytextofpikeandgun;
Decideallcontroversiesby
Infallibleartillery;
Andprovetheirdoctrineorthodox
Byapostolicblowsandknocks;
Compoundforsinstheyareinclinedto,
Bydamningthosetheyhavenomindto.
HOBBESANDLOCKE.ThomasHobbes(15881679)isoneofthewritersthat
puzzlethehistorianwithadoubtastowhetherornotheshouldbe
includedinthestoryofliterature.Theonebookforwhichheisfamousis
called_Leviathan,ortheMatter,Form,andPowerofaCommonwealth_
(1651).Itispartlypolitical,partlyaphilosophicalbook,combiningtwo
centralideaswhichchallengeandstartletheattention,namely,that
selfinterestistheonlyguidingpowerofhumanity,andthatblind
submissiontorulersistheonlytruebasisofgovernment.[179]Inaword,
Hobbesreducedhumannaturetoitspurelyanimalaspects,andthenasserted

confidentlythattherewasnothingmoretostudy.Certainly,therefore,as
areflectionoftheunderlyingspiritofCharlesandhisfollowersithas
noequalinanypurelyliteraryworkofthetime.
JohnLocke(16321704)isfamousastheauthorofasinglegreat
philosophicalwork,the_EssayconcerningHumanUnderstanding_(1690).This
isastudyofthenatureofthehumanmindandoftheoriginofideas,
which,farmorethantheworkofBaconandHobbes,isthebasisuponwhich
Englishphilosophyhassincebeenbuilt.Asidefromtheirsubjects,both
worksaremodelsofthenewprose,direct,simple,convincing,forwhich
DrydenandtheRoyalSocietylabored.Theyareknowntoeverystudentof
philosophy,butareseldomincludedinaworkofliterature.[180]
EVELYNANDPEPYS.Thesetwomen,JohnEvelyn(16201706)andSamuelPepys
(16331703),arefamousasthewritersofdiaries,inwhichtheyjotted
downthedailyoccurrencesoftheirownlives,withoutanythoughtthatthe
worldwouldeverseeorbeinterestedinwhattheyhadwritten.
Evelynwastheauthorof_Sylva_,thefirstbookontreesandforestryin
English,and_Terra_,whichisthefirstattemptatascientificstudyof
agriculture;buttheworldhaslostsightofthesetwogoodbooks,whileit
cherisheshisdiary,whichextendsoverthegreaterpartofhislifeand
givesusvividpicturesofsocietyinhistime,andespeciallyofthe
frightfulcorruptionoftheroyalcourt.
Pepysbeganlifeinasmallwayasaclerkinagovernmentoffice,butsoon
rosebyhisdiligenceandindustrytobeSecretaryoftheAdmiralty.Here
hewasbroughtintocontactwitheverygradeofsociety,fromtheking's
ministerstothepoorsailorsofthefleet.Beinginquisitiveasablue
jay,heinvestigatedtherumorsandgossipofthecourt,aswellasthe
smallaffairsofhisneighbors,andwrotethemalldowninhisdiarywith
evidentinterest.Butbecausehechatteredmostfreely,andtoldhislittle
bookagreatmanysecretswhichitwerenotwellfortheworldtoknow,he
concealedeverythinginshorthand,andhereagainhewasliketheblue
jay,whichcarriesoffandhideseverybrighttrinketitdiscovers.The
_Diary_coverstheyearsfrom1660to1669,andgossipsabouteverything,
fromhisownpositionanddutiesattheoffice,hisdressandkitchenand
cookandchildren,tothegreatpoliticalintriguesofofficeandthe
scandalsofhighsociety.Noothersuchminutepictureofthedailylifeof
anagehasbeenwritten.Yetforacenturyandahalfitremainedentirely
unknown,andnotuntil1825wasPepys'sshorthanddecipheredandpublished.
Sincethenithasbeenwidelyread,andisstilloneofthemost
interestingexamplesofdiarywritingthatwepossess.Followingareafew
extracts,[181]coveringonlyafewdaysinApril,1663,fromwhichonemay
infertheminuteandinterestingcharacteroftheworkthatthisclerk,
politician,presidentoftheRoyalSociety,andgeneralbusybodywroteto
pleasehimself:
April1st.IwenttotheTempletomyCozenRogerPepys,toseeandtalk
withhimalittle:whotellsmethat,withmuchado,theParliamentdo
agreetothrowdownPopery;buthesaysitiswithsomuchspiteand
passion,andanendeavorofbringingallNonconformistsintothesame
condition,thatheisafeardmatterswillnotgosowellashecould
wish....Tomyofficealltheafternoon;Lord!howSirJ.Minnes,likea
madcoxcomb,didswearandstamp,swearingthatCommissionerPetthath
stilltheoldheartagainsttheKingthateverhehad,...andallthe
damnablereproachesintheworld,atwhichIwasashamed,butsaidlittle;
but,uponthewhole,Ifindhimstillafoole,ledbythenosewithstories
toldbySirW.Batten,whetherwithorwithoutreason.So,vexedinmymind
toseethingsorderedsounlikegentlemen,ormenofreason,Iwenthome
andtobed.
3d.ToWhiteHallandtoChappell,whichbeingmostmonstrousfull,Icould
notgointomypew,butsatamongthequire.Dr.Creeton,theScotchman,
preachedamostadmirable,good,learned,honest,andmostseveresermon,

yetcomicall....HerailedbitterlyeverandanonagainstJohnCalvinand
hisbrood,thePresbyterians,andagainstthepresentterme,nowinuse,of
"tenderconsciences."HerippedupHughPeters(callinghimtheexecrable
skellum),hispreachingandstirringupthemaydsofthecitytobringin
theirbodkinsandthimbles.ThencegoingoutofWhiteHall,ImetCaptain
Grove,whodidgivemealetterdirectedtomyselffromhimself.I
discernedmoneytobeinit,andtookit,knowing,asIfoundittobe,the
proceedoftheplaceIhavegothim,thetakingupofvesselsforTangier.
ButIdidnotopenittillIcamehometomyoffice,andthereIbrokeit
open,notlookingintoittillallthemoneywasout,thatImightsayI
sawnomoneyinthepaper,ifeverIshouldbequestionedaboutit.There
wasapieceofgoldand4insilver.
4th.Tomyoffice.Hometodinner,whitherbyandbycomesRogerPepys,
etc.Verymerryat,before,andafterdinner,andthemoreforthatmy
dinnerwasgreat,andmostneatlydressedbyourowneonlymayde.Wehada
fricaseeofrabbitsandchickens,alegofmuttonboiled,threecarpsina
dish,agreatdishofasideoflambe,adishofroastedpigeons,adishof
fourlobsters,threetarts,alampreypie(amostrarepie),adishof
anchovies,goodwineofseveralsorts,andallthingsmightynobleandto
mygreatcontent.
5th(Lord'sday).Upandspentthemorning,tilltheBarbercame,in
readinginmychamberpartofOsborne'sAdvicetohisSon,whichIshall
notneverenoughadmireforsenseandlanguage,andbeingbyandby
trimmed,toChurch,myself,wife,Ashwell,etc.Homeand,whiledinnerwas
prepared,tomyofficetoreadovermyvowswithgreataffectionandto
verygoodpurpose.Thentochurchagain,whereasimplebawlingyoungScot
preached.
19th(Easterday).Upandthisdayputonmyclosekneedcolouredsuit,
which,withnewstockingsofthecolour,withbeltandnewgilthandled
sword,isveryhandsome.Tochurchalone,andafterdinnertochurchagain,
wheretheyoungScotchmanpreaching,Isleptallthewhile.Aftersupper,
fellindiscourseofdancing,andIfindthatAshwellhathaveryfine
carriage,whichmakesmywifealmostashamedofherselftoseeherselfso
outdone,buttomorrowshebeginstolearntodanceforamonthortwo.So
toprayersandtobed.Willbeinggone,withmyleave,tohisfather'sthis
dayforadayortwo,totakephysiquetheseholydays.
23d.St.George'sdayandCoronacion,theKingandCourtbeingatWindsor,
attheinstallingoftheKingofDenmarkebyproxyandtheDukeof
Monmouth....Spenttheeveningwithmyfather.Atcardstilllate,and
beingatsupper,myboybeingsentforsomemustardtoaneat'stongue,the
roguestaidhalfanhoureinthestreets,itseemsatabonfire,atwhichI
wasveryangry,andresolvetobeathimtomorrow.
24th.Upbetimes,andwithmysalteelewentdownintotheparlerandthere
gotmyboyanddidbeathimtillIwasfaintotakebreathtwoorthree
times,yetforallIamafearditwillmaketheboyneverthebetter,heis
grownsohardenedinhistricks,whichIamsorryfor,hebeingcapableof
makingabraveman,andisaboythatIandmywifeloveverywell.
SUMMARYOFTHERESTORATIONPERIOD.ThechiefthingtonoteinEngland
duringtheRestorationisthetremendoussocialreactionfromthe
restraintsofPuritanism,whichsuggeststhewideswingofapendulumfrom
oneextremetotheother.Foragenerationmanynaturalpleasureshadbeen
suppressed;nowthetheaterswerereopened,bullandbearbaitingrevived,
andsports,music,dancing,awilddelightinthepleasuresandvanities
ofthisworldreplacedthatabsorptionin"otherworldliness"which
characterizedtheextremeofPuritanism.
Inliteraturethechangeisnolessmarked.FromtheElizabethandrama
playwrightsturnedtocoarse,evilscenes,whichpresentlydisgustedthe

peopleandweredrivenfromthestage.Fromromance,writersturnedto
realism;fromItalianinfluencewithitsexuberanceofimaginationthey
turnedtoFrance,andlearnedtorepresstheemotions,tofollowthehead
ratherthantheheart,andtowriteinaclear,concise,formalstyle,
accordingtosetrules.Poetsturnedfromthenobleblankverseof
ShakespeareandMilton,fromthevarietyandmelodywhichhadcharacterized
EnglishpoetrysinceChaucer'sday,tothemonotonousheroiccoupletwith
itsmechanicalperfection.
ThegreatestwriteroftheageisJohnDryden,whoestablishedtheheroic
coupletastheprevailingverseforminEnglishpoetry,andwhodevelopeda
newandserviceableprosestylesuitedtothepracticalneedsoftheage.
ThepopularridiculeofPuritanisminburlesqueanddoggerelisbest
exemplifiedinButler's_Hudibras_.Therealistictendency,thestudyof
factsandofmenastheyare,isshownintheworkoftheRoyalSociety,in
thephilosophyofHobbesandLocke,andinthediariesofEvelynandPepys,
withtheirminutepicturesofsociallife.Theagewasoneoftransition
fromtheexuberanceandvigorofRenaissanceliteraturetotheformality
andpolishoftheAugustanAge.Instrongcontrastwiththeprecedingages,
comparativelylittleofRestorationliteratureisfamiliartomodern
readers.
SELECTIONSFORREADING._Dryden_.Alexander'sFeast,SongforSt.Cecilia's
Day,selectionsfromAbsalomandAchitophel,ReligioLaici,Hindand
Panther,AnnusMirabilis,inManly'sEnglishPoetry,orWard'sEnglish
Poets,orCassell'sNationalLibrary;PalamonandArcite(Dryden'sversion
ofChaucer'stale),inStandardEnglishClassics,RiversideLiterature,
etc.;Dryden'sAnEssayofDramaticPoesy,inManly's,orGarnett's,
EnglishProse.
_Butler_.SelectionsfromHudibras,inManly'sEnglishPoetry,Ward's
EnglishPoets,orMorley'sUniversalLibrary.
_Pepys_.SelectionsinManly'sEnglishProse;theDiaryinEveryman's
Library.
BIBLIOGRAPHY._HISTORY_._Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.257280;Cheyney,pp.
466514;Green,ch.9;Traill;Gardiner;Macaulay.
_SpecialWorks_.Sydney'sSocialLifeinEnglandfromtheRestorationto
theRevolution;Airy'sTheEnglishRestorationandLouisXIV;Hale'sThe
FalloftheStuarts.
_LITERATURE_.Garnett'sTheAgeofDryden;Dowden'sPuritanandAnglican.
_Dryden_.PoeticalWorks,withLife,editedbyChristie;thesame,edited
byNoyes,inCambridgePoetsSeries;LifeandWorks(18vols.),byWalter
Scott,revised(1893)bySaintsbury;Essays,editedbyKer;Life,by
Saintsbury(EnglishMenofLetters);Macaulay'sEssay;Lowell'sEssay,in
AmongMyBooks(orinLiteraryEssays,vol.3);Dowden'sEssay,_supra_.
_Butler_.Hudibras,inMorley'sUniversalLibrary;PoeticalWorks,edited
byJohnson;Dowden'sEssay,_supra_.
_Pepys_.DiaryinEveryman'sLibrary;thesame,editedbyWheatley(8
vols.);Wheatley'sSamuelPepysandtheWorldHeLivedIn;Stevenson's
Essay,inFamiliarStudiesofMenandBooks.
_TheRestorationDrama_.PlaysintheMermaidSeries;Hazlitt'sLectureson
theEnglishComicWriters;Meredith'sEssayonComedyandtheComicSpirit;
Lamb'sEssayontheArtificialComedy;Thackeray'sEssayonCongreve,in
EnglishHumorists.

SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.1.Whatmarkedchangeinsocialconditionsfollowed
theRestoration?Howarethesechangesreflectedinliterature?
2.WhatarethechiefcharacteristicsofRestorationliterature?Whyis
thisperiodcalledtheAgeofFrenchinfluence?Whatnewtendencieswere
introduced?WhateffectdidtheRoyalSocietyandthestudyofsciencehave
uponEnglishprose?Whatismeantbyrealism?byformalism?
3.Whatismeantbytheheroiccouplet?Explainwhyitbecamethe
prevailingformofEnglishpoetry.Whatareitsgoodqualitiesandits
defects?Namesomewellknownpoemswhicharewrittenincouplets.Howdo
Dryden'scoupletscomparewithChaucer's?Canyouexplainthedifference?
4.GiveabriefaccountofDryden'slife.Whatarehischiefpoetical
works?Forwhatnewobjectdidheusepoetry?Issatireapoeticalsubject?
Whyisapoeticalsatiremoreeffectivethanasatireinprose?Whatwas
Dryden'scontributiontoEnglishprose?Whatinfluencedidheexertonour
literature?
5.WhatisButler's_Hudibras_?Explainitspopularity.Readapassageand
commentuponit,first,assatire;second,asadescriptionofthe
Puritans.Is_Hudibras_poetry?Why?
6.Namethephilosophersandpoliticaleconomistsofthisperiod.Canyou
explainwhyHobbesshouldcallhiswork_Leviathan_?Whatimportant
AmericandocumentsshowtheinfluenceofLocke?
7.TellbrieflythestoryofPepysandhis_Diary_.Whatlightdoesthe
latterthrowonthelifeoftheage?Isthe_Diary_aworkofliterature?
Why?
CHRONOLOGY
_LastHalfoftheSeventeenthCentury_
=====================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

|
1649.ExecutionofCharlesI|
|
16491660.Commonwealth|1651.Hobbes'sLeviathan
|
1660.RestorationofCharlesII|16601669,Pepys'sDiary
|
|1662.RoyalSocietyfounded
|
|1663.Butler'sHudibras
16651666.PlagueandFireofLondon|
WarwithHolland|
|
1667.DutchfleetintheThames|1667.Milton'sParadiseLost.
|Dryden'sAnnusMirabilis
|
|16631694.Dryden'sdramas
|
|1671.ParadiseRegained
|
|1678.Pilgrim'sProgress
|published
1680.RiseofWhigsandTories|
|1681.Dryden'sAbsalomand
|Achitophel
1685.JamesII|
Monmouth'sRebellion|
|1687.Newton'sPrincipia

|provesthelawof
|gravitation
1688.EnglishRevolution,Williamof|
Orangecalledtothrone|
|
1689.BillofRights.TolerationAct|
|1690.Locke'sHuman
|Understanding
|1698.JeremyCollierattacks
|stage
|1700.DeathofDryden
=========================================================================
*****

CHAPTERIX
EIGHTEENTHCENTURYLITERATURE(17001800)
I.AUGUSTANORCLASSICAGE
HISTORYOFTHEPERIOD.TheRevolutionof1688,whichbanishedthelastof
theStuartkingsandcalledWilliamofOrangetothethrone,markstheend
ofthelongstruggleforpoliticalfreedominEngland.Thereafterthe
Englishmanspenthistremendousenergy,whichhisforbearshadlargely
spentinfightingforfreedom,inendlesspoliticaldiscussionsandin
effortstoimprovehisgovernment.Inordertobringaboutreforms,votes
werenownecessary;andtogetvotesthepeopleofEnglandmustbe
approachedwithideas,facts,arguments,information.Sothenewspaperwas
born,[182]andliteratureinitswidestsense,includingthebook,the
newspaper,andthemagazine,becamethechiefinstrumentofanation's
progress.
Thefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcenturyisremarkablefortherapidsocial
developmentinEngland.Hithertomenhadbeenmoreorlessgovernedbythe
narrow,isolatedstandardsoftheMiddleAges,andwhentheydifferedthey
fellspeedilytoblows.Nowforthefirsttimetheysetthemselvestothe
taskoflearningtheartoflivingtogether,whilestillholdingdifferent
opinions.Inasinglegenerationnearlytwothousandpubliccoffeehouses,
eachacenterofsociability,sprangupinLondonalone,andthenumberof
privateclubsisquiteasastonishing.[183]Thisnewsociallifehada
markedeffectinpolishingmen'swordsandmanners.ThetypicalLondonerof
QueenAnne'sdaywasstillrude,andalittlevulgarinhistastes;the
citywasstillveryfilthy,thestreetsunlightedandinfestedatnightby
bandsofrowdiesand"Mohawks";butoutwardlymensoughttorefinetheir
mannersaccordingtoprevailingstandards;andtobeelegant,tohave"good
form,"wasaman'sfirstduty,whetherheenteredsocietyorwrote
literature.Onecanhardlyreadabookorpoemoftheagewithoutfeeling
thissuperficialelegance.GovernmentstillhaditsopposingToryandWhig
parties,andtheChurchwasdividedintoCatholics,Anglicans,and
Dissenters;butthegrowingsociallifeoffsetmanyantagonisms,producing
atleasttheoutwardimpressionofpeaceandunity.Nearlyeverywriterof
theagebusiedhimselfwithreligionaswellaswithpartypolitics,the
scientistNewtonassincerelyasthechurchmanBarrow,thephilosophical
LockenolessearnestlythantheevangelicalWesley;butnearlyall
temperedtheirzealwithmoderation,andarguedfromreasonandScripture,
oruseddelicatesatireupontheiropponents,insteadofdenouncingthemas
followersofSatan.Therewereexceptions,ofcourse_;_butthegeneral
tendencyoftheagewastowardtoleration.Manhadfoundhimselfinthe
longstruggleforpersonalliberty;nowheturnedtothetaskof
discoveringhisneighbor,offindinginWhigandTory,inCatholicand
Protestant,inAnglicanandDissenter,thesamegeneralhuman
characteristicsthathefoundinhimself.Thisgoodworkwashelped,

moreover,bythespreadofeducationandbythegrowthofthenational
spfrit,followingthevictoriesofMarlboroughontheContinent.Inthe
midstofheatedargumentitneededonlyawordGibraltar,Blenheim,
Ramillies,Malplaquetorapoemofvictorywritteninagarret[184]to
tellapatrioticpeoplethatundertheirmanydifferencestheywereall
alikeEnglishmen.
Inthelatterhalfofthecenturythepoliticalandsocialprogressis
almostbewildering.Themodernformofcabinetgovernmentresponsibleto
ParliamentandthepeoplehadbeenestablishedunderGeorgeI;andin1757
thecynicalandcorruptpracticesofWalpole,premierofthefirstTory
cabinet,werereplacedbythemoreenlightenedpoliciesofPitt.Schools
wereestablished;clubsandcoffeehousesincreased;booksandmagazines
multiplieduntilthepresswasthegreatestvisiblepowerinEngland;the
moderngreatdailies,the_Chronicle,Post_,and_Times_,begantheir
careerofpubliceducation.Religiously,allthechurchesofEnglandfelt
thequickeningpowerofthattremendousspiritualrevivalknownas
Methodism,underthepreachingofWesleyandWhitefield.Outsideherown
bordersthreegreatmenCliveinIndia,WolfeonthePlainsofAbraham,
CookinAustraliaandtheislandsofthePacificwereunfurlingthebanner
ofSt.Georgeovertheuntoldwealthofnewlands,andspreadingthe
worldwideempireoftheAngloSaxons.
LITERARYCHARACTERISTICS.Ineveryprecedingagewehavenotedespecially
thepoeticalworks,whichconstitute,accordingtoMatthewArnold,the
gloryofEnglishliterature.Nowforthefirsttimewemustchroniclethe
triumphofEnglishprose.Amultitudeofpracticalinterestsarisingfrom
thenewsocialandpoliticalconditionsdemandedexpression,notsimplyin
books,butmoreespeciallyinpamphlets,magazines,andnewspapers.Poetry
wasinadequateforsuchatask;hencethedevelopmentofprose,ofthe
"unfetteredword,"asDantecallsit,adevelopmentwhichastonishesusby
itsrapidityandexcellence.ThegracefuleleganceofAddison'sessays,the
tersevigorofSwift'ssatires,theartisticfinishofFielding'snovels,
thesonorouseloquenceofGibbon'shistoryandofBurke'sorations,these
havenoparallelinthepoetryoftheage.Indeed,poetryitselfbecame
prosaicinthisrespect,thatitwasusednotforcreativeworksof
imagination,butforessays,forsatire,forcriticism,forexactlythe
samepracticalendsaswasprose.Thepoetryofthefirsthalfofthe
century,astypifiedintheworkofPope,ispolishedandwittyenough,but
artificial;itlacksfire,finefeeling,enthusiasm,theglowofthe
ElizabethanAgeandthemoralearnestnessofPuritanism.Inaword,it
interestsusasastudyoflife,ratherthandelightsorinspiresusbyits
appealtotheimagination.Thevarietyandexcellenceofproseworks,and
thedevelopmentofaserviceableprosestyle,whichhadbeenbegunby
Dryden,untilitservedtoexpressclearlyeveryhumaninterestand
emotion,thesearethechiefliterarygloriesoftheeighteenthcentury.
Intheliteratureoftheprecedingagewenotedtwomarkedtendencies,the
tendencytorealisminsubjectmatter,andthetendencytopolishand
refinementofexpression.Boththesetendencieswerecontinuedinthe
AugustanAge,andareseenclearlyinthepoetryofPope,whobroughtthe
couplettoperfection,andintheproseofAddison.Athirdtendencyis
shownintheprevalenceofsatire,resultingfromtheunfortunateunionof
politicswithliterature.Wehavealreadynotedthepowerofthepressin
thisage,andtheperpetualstrifeofpoliticalparties.Nearlyevery
writerofthefirsthalfofthecenturywasusedandrewardedbyWhigsor
Toriesforsatirizingtheirenemiesandforadvancingtheirspecial
politicalinterests.Popewasamarkedexception,buthenevertheless
followedtheprosewritersinusingsatiretoolargelyinhispoetry.Now
satirethatis,aliteraryworkwhichsearchesoutthefaultsofmenor
institutionsinordertoholdthemuptoridiculeisatbestadestructive
kindofcriticism.Asatiristislikealaborerwhoclearsawaytheruins
andrubbishofanoldhousebeforethearchitectandbuildersbeginona
newandbeautifulstructure.Theworkmaysometimesbenecessary,butit
rarelyarousesourenthusiasm.WhilethesatiresofPope,Swift,and

Addisonaredoubtlessthebestinourlanguage,wehardlyplacethemwith
ourgreatliterature,whichisalwaysconstructiveinspirit;andwehave
thefeelingthatallthesemenwerecapableofbetterthingsthantheyever
wrote.
THECLASSICAGE.Theperiodwearestudyingisknowntousbyvarious
names.ItisoftencalledtheAgeofQueenAnne;but,unlikeElizabeth,
this"meeklystupid"queenhadpracticallynoinfluenceuponour
literature.ThenameClassicAgeismoreoftenheard;butinusingitwe
shouldrememberclearlythesethreedifferentwaysinwhichtheword
"classic"isappliedtoliterature:(1)theterm"classic"refers,in
general,towritersofthehighestrankinanynation.Asusedinour
literature,itwasfirstappliedtotheworksofthegreatGreekandRoman
writers,likeHomerandVirgil;andanyEnglishbookwhichfollowedthe
simpleandnoblemethodofthesewriterswassaidtohaveaclassicstyle.
Laterthetermwasenlargedtocoverthegreatliteraryworksofother
ancientnations;sothattheBibleandtheAvestas,aswellastheIliad
andtheAeneid,arecalledclassics.(2)Everynationalliteraturehasat
leastoneperiodinwhichanunusualnumberofgreatwritersareproducing
books,andthisiscalledtheclassicperiodofanation'sliterature.Thus
thereignofAugustusistheclassicorgoldenageofRome;thegeneration
ofDanteistheclassicageofItalianliterature;theageofLouisXIVis
theFrenchclassicage;andtheageofQueenAnneisoftencalledthe
classicageofEngland.(3)Theword"classic"acquiredanentirely
differentmeaningintheperiodwearestudying;andweshallbetter
understandthisbyreferencetotheprecedingages.TheElizabethanwriters
wereledbypatriotism,byenthusiasm,and,ingeneral,byromantic
emotions.Theywroteinanaturalstyle,withoutregardtorules;and
thoughtheyexaggeratedandusedtoomanywords,theirworksaredelightful
becauseoftheirvigorandfreshnessandfinefeeling.Inthefollowingage
patriotismhadlargelydisappearedfrompoliticsandenthusiasmfrom
literature.Poetsnolongerwrotenaturally,butartificially,withstrange
andfantasticverseformstogiveeffect,sincefinefeelingwaswanting.
AndthisisthegeneralcharacterofthepoetryofthePuritanAge.[185]
Graduallyourwritersrebelledagainsttheexaggerationsofboththe
naturalandthefantasticstyle.Theydemandedthatpoetryshouldfollow
exactrules;andinthistheywereinfluencedbyFrenchwriters,especially
byBoileauandRapin,whoinsistedonprecisemethodsofwritingpoetry,
andwhoprofessedtohavediscoveredtheirrulesintheclassicsofHorace
andAristotle.InourstudyoftheElizabethandramawenotedthegood
influenceoftheclassicmovementininsistinguponthatbeautyofformand
definitenessofexpressionwhichcharacterizethedramasofGreeceand
Rome;andintheworkofDrydenandhisfollowersweseearevivalof
classicismintheefforttomakeEnglishliteratureconformtorules
establishedbythegreatwritersofothernations.Atfirsttheresults
wereexcellent,especiallyinprose;butasthecreativevigorofthe
Elizabethanswaslackinginthisage,writingbyrulesoondevelopedakind
ofelegantformalism,whichsuggeststheelaboratesocialcodeofthetime.
Justasagentlemanmightnotactnaturally,butmustfollowexactrulesin
doffinghishat,oraddressingalady,orenteringaroom,orwearinga
wig,orofferinghissnuffboxtoafriend,soourwriterslost
individualityandbecameformalandartificial.Thegeneraltendencyof
literaturewastolookatlifecritically,toemphasizeintellectrather
thanimagination,theformratherthanthecontentofasentence.Writers
strovetorepressallemotionandenthusiasm,andtouseonlypreciseand
elegantmethodsofexpression.Thisiswhatisoftenmeantbythe
"classicism"oftheagesofPopeandJohnson.Itreferstothecritical,
intellectualspiritofmanywriters,tothefinepolishoftheirheroic
coupletsortheeleganceoftheirprose,andnottoanyresemblancewhich
theirworkbearstotrueclassicliterature.Inaword,theclassic
movementhadbecomepseudoclassic,i.e.afalseorshamclassicism;and
thelattertermisnowoftenusedtodesignateaconsiderablepartof
eighteenthcenturyliterature.[186]Toavoidthiscriticaldifficultywe
haveadoptedthetermAugustanAge,anamechosenbythewriters
themselves,whosawinPope,Addison,Swift,Johnson,andBurkethemodern

parallelstoHorace,Virgil,Cicero,andallthatbrilliantcompanywho
madeRomanliteraturefamousinthedaysofAugustus.
ALEXANDERPOPE(16881744)
Popeisinmanyrespectsauniquefigure.Inthefirstplace,hewasfora
generation"thepoet"ofagreatnation.Tobesure,poetrywaslimitedin
theearlyeighteenthcentury;therewerefewlyrics,littleornolove
poetry,noepics,nodramasorsongsofnatureworthconsidering;butin
thenarrowfieldofsatiricanddidacticversePopewastheundisputed
master.Hisinfluencecompletelydominatedthepoetryofhisage,andmany
foreignwriters,aswellasthemajorityofEnglishpoets,lookedtohimas
theirmodel.Second,hewasaremarkablyclearandadequatereflectionof
thespiritoftheageinwhichhelived.Thereishardlyanideal,a
belief,adoubt,afashion,awhimofQueenAnne'stime,thatisnotneatly
expressedinhispoetry.Third,hewastheonlyimportantwriterofthat
agewhogavehiswholelifetoletters.Swiftwasaclergymanand
politician;Addisonwassecretaryofstate;otherwritersdependedon
patronsorpoliticsorpensionsforfameandalivelihood;butPopewas
independent,andhadnoprofessionbutliterature.Andfourth,bythesheer
forceofhisambitionhewonhisplace,andheldit,inspiteofreligious
prejudice,andinthefaceofphysicalandtemperamentalobstaclesthat
wouldhavediscouragedastrongerman.ForPopewasdeformedandsickly,
dwarfishinsoulandbody.Heknewlittleoftheworldofnatureorofthe
worldofthehumanheart.Hewaslacking,apparently,innoblefeeling,and
instinctivelychosealiewhenthetruthhadmanifestlymoreadvantages.
Yetthisjealous,peevish,waspishlittlemanbecamethemostfamouspoet
ofhisageandtheacknowledgedleaderofEnglishliterature.Werecordthe
factwithwonderandadmiration;butwedonotattempttoexplainit.
LIFE.PopewasborninLondonin1688,theyearoftheRevolution.His
parentswerebothCatholics,whopresentlyremovedfromLondonandsettled
inBinfield,nearWindsor,wherethepoet'schildhoodwaspassed.Partly
becauseofanunfortunateprejudiceagainstCatholicsinthepublic
schools,partlybecauseofhisownweaknessanddeformity,Popereceived
verylittleschooleducation,butbrowsedforhimselfamongEnglishbooks
andpickedupasmatteringoftheclassics.Veryearlyhebegantowrite
poetry,andrecordsthefactwithhisusualvanity:
Asyetachild,noryetafooltofame,
Ilispedinnumbers,forthenumberscame.
Beingdebarredbyhisreligionfrommanydesirableemployments,heresolved
tomakeliteraturehislifework;andinthisheresembledDryden,who,he
tellsus,washisonlymaster,thoughmuchofhisworkseemstodependon
Boileau,theFrenchpoetandcritic.[187]Whenonlysixteenyearsoldhe
hadwrittenhis"Pastorals";afewyearslaterappearedhis"Essayon
Criticism,"whichmadehimfamous.Withthepublicationofthe_Rapeofthe
Lock_,in1712,Pope'snamewasknownandhonoredalloverEngland,and
thisdwarfoftwentyfouryears,bythesheerforceofhisownambition,
hadjumpedtotheforemostplaceinEnglishletters.Itwassoonafterthis
thatVoltairecalledhim"thebestpoetofEnglandand,atpresent,ofall
theworld,"whichisaboutasnearthetruthasVoltairegenerallygetsin
hisnumerousuniversaljudgments.ForthenexttwelveyearsPopewasbusy
withpoetry,especiallywithhistranslationsofHomer;andhisworkwasso
successfulfinanciallythatheboughtavillaatTwickenham,ontheThames,
andremainedhappilyindependentofwealthypatronsforalivelihood.
Ledbyhissuccess,PopereturnedtoLondonandforatimeendeavoredto
livethegayanddissolutelifewhichwassupposedtobesuitablefora
literarygenius;buthewasutterlyunfittedforit,mentallyand
physically,andsoonretiredtoTwickenham.Therehegavehimselfupto
poetry,manufacturedalittlegardenmoreartificialthanhisverses,and
cultivatedhisfriendshipwithMarthaBlount,withwhomformanyyearshe

spentagoodpartofeachday,andwhoremainedfaithfultohimtotheend
ofhislife.AtTwickenhamhewrotehis_MoralEpistles_(poeticalsatires
modeledafterHorace)andrevengedhimselfuponallhiscriticsinthe
bitterabuseofthe_Dunciad_.Hediedin1744andwasburiedat
Twickenham,hisreligionpreventinghimfromthehonor,whichwascertainly
hisdue,ofarestingplaceinWestminsterAbbey.
WORKSOFPOPE.ForconveniencewemayseparatePope'sworkintothree
groups,correspondingtotheearly,middle,andlaterperiodofhislife.
Inthefirsthewrotehis"Pastorals,""WindsorForest,""Messiah,""Essay
onCriticism,""EloisetoAbelard,"andthe_RapeoftheLock;_inthe
second,histranslationsofHomer;inthethirdthe_Dunciad_andthe
_Epistles_,thelattercontainingthefamous"EssayonMan"andthe
"EpistletoDr.Arbuthnot,"whichisintruthhis"Apologia,"andinwhich
aloneweseePope'slifefromhisownviewpoint.
The"EssayonCriticism"sumsuptheartofpoetryastaughtfirstby
Horace,thenbyBoileauandtheeighteenthcenturyclassicists.Though
writteninheroiccouplets,wehardlyconsiderthisasapoembutratheras
astorehouseofcriticalmaxims."Forfoolsrushinwhereangelsfearto
tread";"Toerrishuman,toforgivedivine";"Alittlelearningisa
dangerousthing,"theselines,andmanymorelikethemfromthesame
source,havefoundtheirwayintoourcommonspeech,andareused,without
thinkingoftheauthor,wheneverweneedanaptquotation.
The_RapeoftheLock_isamasterpieceofitskind,andcomesnearerto
beinga"creation"thananythingelsethatPopehaswritten.Theoccasion
ofthefamouspoemwastrivialenough.AfopatthecourtofQueenAnne,
oneLordPetre,snippedalockofhairfromtheabundantcurlsofapretty
maidofhonornamedArabellaFermor.Theyoungladyresentedit,andthe
twofamilieswereplungedintoaquarrelwhichwasthetalkofLondon.
Pope,beingappealedto,seizedtheoccasiontoconstruct,notaballad,as
theCavalierswouldhavedone,noranepigram,asFrenchpoetslovetodo,
butalongpoeminwhichallthemannerismsofsocietyarepicturedin
minutestdetailandsatirizedwiththemostdelicatewit.Thefirst
edition,consistingoftwocantos,waspublishedin1712;anditisamazing
nowtoreadofthetrivialcharacterofLondoncourtlifeatthetimewhen
EnglishsoldierswerebattlingforagreatcontinentintheFrenchand
Indianwars.ItsinstantsuccesscausedPopetolengthenthepoembythree
morecantos;andinordertomakeamoreperfectburlesqueofanepicpoem,
heintroducesgnomes,sprites,sylphs,andsalamanders,[188]insteadofthe
godsofthegreatepics,withwhichhisreaderswerefamiliar.Thepoemis
modeledaftertwoforeignsatires:Boileau's_LeLutrin_(readingdesk),a
satireontheFrenchclergy,whoraisedahugequarreloverthelocationof
alectern;and_LaSecchiaRapita_(stolenbucket),afamousItaliansatire
onthepettycausesoftheendlessItalianwars.Pope,however,wentfar
aheadofhismastersinstyleandindelicacyofhandlingamockheroic
theme,andduringhislifetimethe_RapeoftheLock_wasconsideredasthe
greatestpoemofitskindinallliterature.Thepoemisstillwellworth
reading;forasanexpressionoftheartificiallifeoftheageofits
cards,parties,toilettes,lapdogs,teadrinking,snufftaking,andidle
vanitiesitisasperfectinitswayas_Tamburlaine_,whichreflectsthe
boundlessambitionoftheElizabethans.
ThefameofPope's_Iliad_,whichwasfinanciallythemostsuccessfulof
hisbooks,wasduetothefactthatheinterpretedHomerintheelegant,
artificiallanguageofhisownage.Notonlydohiswordsfollowliterary
fashionsbuteventheHomericcharacterslosetheirstrengthandbecome
fashionablemenofthecourt.SothecriticismofthescholarBentleywas
mostappropriatewhenhesaid,"Itisaprettypoem,Mr.Pope,butyoumust
notcallitHomer."Popetranslatedtheentire_Iliad_andhalfofthe
_Odyssey_;andthelatterworkwasfinishedbytwoCambridgescholars,
ElijahFentonandWilliamBroome,whoimitatedthemechanicalcoupletsso
perfectlythatitisdifficulttodistinguishtheirworkfromthatofthe
greatestpoetoftheage.Asingleselectionisgiventoshowhow,inthe

noblerpassages,evenPopemayfaintlysuggesttheelementalgrandeurof
Homer:
Thetroopsexultingsatinorderround,
Andbeamingfiresilluminedalltheground.
Aswhenthemoon,refulgentlampofnight,
O'erHeaven'sclearazurespreadshersacredlight,
Whennotabreathdisturbsthedeepserene,
Andnotacloudo'ercaststhesolemnscene;
Aroundherthronethevividplanetsroll,
Andstarsunnumberedgildtheglowingpole,
O'erthedarktreesayellowerverdureshed,
Andtipwithsilvereverymountain'shead.
The"Essay"isthebestknownandthemostquotedofallPope'sworks.
Exceptinformitisnotpoetry,andwhenoneconsidersitasanessayand
reducesittoplainprose,itisfoundtoconsistofnumerousliterary
ornamentswithoutanyverysolidstructureofthoughttorestupon.The
purposeoftheessayis,inPope'swords,to"vindicatethewaysofGodto
Man";andastherearenounansweredproblemsinPope'sphilosophy,the
vindicationisperfectlyaccomplishedinfourpoeticalepistles,concerning
man'srelationstotheuniverse,tohimself,tosociety,andtohappiness.
Thefinalresultissummedupinafewwellknownlines:
Allnatureisbutart,unknowntothee;
Allchance,directionwhichthoucanstnotsee;
Alldiscord,harmonynotunderstood;
Allpartialevil,universalgood:
And,spiteofpride,inerringreason'sspite,
Onetruthisclear,whateveris,isright.
Likethe"EssayonCriticism,"thepoemaboundsinquotablelines,suchas
thefollowing,whichmaketheentireworkwellworthreading:
Hopespringseternalinthehumanbreast:
Manneveris,butalwaystobeblest.
Knowthenthyself,presumenotGodtoscan;
TheproperstudyofMankindisMan.
Thesameambitioncandestroyorsave,
Andmakesapatriotasitmakesaknave.
Honorandshamefromnoconditionrise;
Actwellyourpart,thereallthehonorlies.
Viceisamonsterofsofrightfulmien,
As,tobehated,needsbuttobeseen;
Yetseentoooft,familiarwithherface,
Wefirstendure,thenpity,thenembrace.
Beholdthechild,byNature'skindlylaw,
Pleasedwitharattle,tickledwithastraw:
Somelivelierplaythinggiveshisyouthdelight,
Alittlelouder,butasemptyquite:
Scarfs,garters,gold,amusehisriperstage,
Andbeadsandprayerbooksarethetoysofage:
Pleasedwiththisbaublestill,asthatbefore;
Tilltiredhesleeps,andLife'spoorplayiso'er.[189]
_TheDunciad_(i.e.the"IliadoftheDunces")beganoriginallyasa
controversyconcerningShakespeare,butturnedouttobeacoarseand
revengefulsatireuponalltheliterarymenoftheagewhohadaroused
Pope'sangerbytheircriticismorlackofappreciationofhisgenius.
Thoughbrilliantlywrittenandimmenselypopularatonetime,itspresent
effectonthereaderistoarouseasenseofpitythatamanofsuch
acknowledgedpowerandpositionshouldabusebothbydevotinghistalents
topersonalspiteandpettyquarrels.Amongtherestofhisnumerousworks
thereaderwillfindPope'sestimateofhimselfbestsetforthinhis
"EpistletoDr.Arbuthnot,"anditwillbewelltocloseourstudyofthis

strangemixtureofvanityandgreatnesswith"TheUniversalPrayer,"which
showsatleastthatPopehadconsidered,andjudgedhimself,andthatall
furtherjudgmentisconsequentlysuperfluous.
JONATHANSWIFT(16671745)
IneachofMarlowe'stragedieswehavethepictureofamandominatedbya
singlepassion,thelustofpowerforitsownsake.Ineachweseethata
powerfulmanwithoutselfcontrolislikeadangerousinstrumentinthe
handsofachild;andthetragedyendsinthedestructionofthemanbythe
ungovernedpowerwhichhepossesses.ThelifeofSwiftisjustsucha
livingtragedy.Hehadthepowerofgainingwealth,liketheheroofthe
_JewofMalta_;yetheuseditscornfully,andinsadironyleftwhat
remainedtohimofalargepropertytofoundahospitalforlunatics.By
hardworkhewonenormousliterarypower,andusedittosatirizeour
commonhumanity.HewrestedpoliticalpowerfromthehandsoftheTories,
andusedittoinsulttheverymenwhohadhelpedhim,andwhoheldhis
fateintheirhands.Byhisdominantpersonalityheexercisedacurious
poweroverwomen,anduseditbrutallytomakethemfeeltheirinferiority.
Beinglovedsupremelybytwogoodwomen,hebroughtsorrowanddeathto
both,andendlessmiserytohimself.Sohispowerbroughtalwaystragedyin
itswake.Itisonlywhenwerememberhislifeofstruggleand
disappointmentandbitternessthatwecanappreciatethepersonalquality
inhissatire,andperhapsfindsomesympathyforthisgreatestgeniusof
alltheAugustanwriters.
LIFE.SwiftwasborninDublin,ofEnglishparents,in1667.Hisfather
diedbeforehewasborn;hismotherwaspoor,andSwift,thoughproudas
Lucifer,wascompelledtoacceptaidfromrelatives,whogaveit
grudgingly.AttheKilkennyschool,andespeciallyatDublinUniversity,he
detestedthecurriculum,readingonlywhatappealedtohisownnature;but,
sinceadegreewasnecessarytohissuccess,hewascompelledtoacceptit
asafavorfromtheexaminers,whomhedespisedinhisheart.After
graduationtheonlypositionopentohimwaswithadistantrelative,Sir
WilliamTemple,whogavehimthepositionofprivatesecretarylargelyon
accountoftheunwelcomerelationship.
Templewasastatesmanandanexcellentdiplomatist;buthethoughthimself
tobeagreatwriteraswell,andheenteredintoaliterarycontroversy
concerningtherelativemeritsoftheclassicsandmodernliterature.
Swift'sfirstnotablework,_TheBattleoftheBooks_,writtenatthistime
butnotpublished,isakeensatireuponbothpartiesinthecontroversy.
Thefirsttouchofbitternessshowsitselfhere;forSwiftwasinagalling
positionforamanofhispride,knowinghisintellectualsuperiorityto
themanwhoemployedhim,andyetbeinglookeduponasaservantandeating
attheservants'table.Thushespenttenofthebestyearsofhislifein
theprettyMoorPark,Surrey,growingmorebittereachyearandsteadily
cursinghisfate.Neverthelesshereadandstudiedwidely,and,afterhis
positionwithTemplegrewunbearable,quarreledwithhispatron,took
orders,andenteredtheChurchofEngland.Someyearslaterwefindhim
settledinthelittlechurchofLaracor,Ireland,acountrywhichhe
dislikedintensely,butwhitherhewentbecausenoother"living"wasopen
tohim.
InIreland,faithfultohischurchduties,Swiftlaboredtobetterthe
conditionoftheunhappypeoplearoundhim.Neverbeforehadthepoorof
hisparishesbeensowellcaredfor;butSwiftchafedunderhisyoke,
growingmoreandmoreirritatedashesawsmallmenadvancedtolarge
positions,whileheremainedunnoticedinalittlecountrychurch,largely
becausehewastooproudandtoobluntwiththosewhomighthaveadvanced
him.WhileatLaracorhefinishedhis_TaleofaTub_,asatireonthe
variouschurchesoftheday,whichwaspublishedinLondonwiththe_Battle
oftheBooks_in1704.Theworkbroughthimintonoticeasthemost
powerfulsatiristoftheage,andhesoongaveuphischurchtoenterthe

strifeofpartypolitics.Thecheappamphletwasthenthemostpowerful
politicalweaponknown;andasSwifthadnoequalatpamphletwriting,he
soonbecameaveritabledictator.Forseveralyears,especiallyfrom1710
to1713,SwiftwasoneofthemostimportantfiguresinLondon.TheWhigs
fearedthelashofhissatire;theToriesfearedtolosehissupport.He
wascourted,flattered,cajoledoneveryside;buttheusehemadeofhis
newpowerissadtocontemplate.Anunbearablearrogancetookpossessionof
him.Lords,statesmen,evenladieswerecompelledtosueforhisfavorand
toapologizeforeveryfanciedslighttohisegoism.Itisatthistime
thathewritesinhis_JournaltoStella:_
Mr.SecretarytoldmetheDukeofBuckinghamhadbeentalkingmuchaboutme
anddesiredmyacquaintance.Ianswereditcouldnotbe,forhehadnotyet
madesufficientadvances;thenShrewsburysaidhethoughttheDukewasnot
usedtomakeadvances.IsaidIcouldnothelpthat,forIalwaysexpected
advancesinproportiontomen'squality,andmorefromaDukethanany
otherman.
WritingtotheDuchessofQueensberryhesays:
Iamgladyouknowyourduty;forithasbeenaknownandestablishedrule
abovetwentyyearsinEnglandthatthefirstadvanceshavebeenconstantly
mademebyallladieswhoaspiretomyacquaintance,andthegreatertheir
qualitythegreaterweretheiradvances.
WhentheTorieswentoutofpowerSwift'spositionbecameuncertain.He
expectedandhadprobablybeenpromisedabishopricinEngland,withaseat
amongthepeersoftherealm;buttheToriesofferedhiminsteadtheplace
ofdeanofSt.Patrick'sCathedralinDublin.Itwasgallingtoamanof
hisproudspirit;butafterhismercilesssatireonreligion,in_TheTale
ofaTub_,anyecclesiasticalpositioninEnglandwasrenderedimpossible.
Dublinwasthebesthecouldget,andheaccepteditbitterly,oncemore
cursingthefatewhichhehadbroughtuponhimself.
WithhisreturntoIrelandbeginsthelastactinthetragedyofhislife.
Hisbestknownliterarywork,_Gulliver'sTravels_,wasdonehere;butthe
bitternessoflifegrewslowlytoinsanity,andafrightfulpersonal
sorrow,ofwhichheneverspoke,reacheditsclimaxinthedeathofEsther
Johnson,abeautifulyoungwoman,whohadlovedSwifteversincethetwo
hadmetinTemple'shousehold,andtowhomhehadwrittenhis_Journalto
Stella_.Duringthelastyearsofhislifeabraindisease,ofwhichhehad
shownfrequentsymptoms,fasteneditsterribleholduponSwift,andhe
becamebyturnsanidiotandamadman.Hediedin1745,andwhenhiswill
wasopeneditwasfoundthathehadleftallhispropertytofoundSt.
Patrick'sAsylumforlunaticsandincurables.Itstandstodayasthemost
suggestivemonumentofhispeculiargenius.
THEWORKSOFSWIFT.FromSwift'slifeonecanreadilyforeseethekindof
literaturehewillproduce.Takentogetherhisworksareamonstroussatire
onhumanity;andthespiritofthatsatireisshownclearlyinalittle
incidentofhisfirstdaysinLondon.Therewasinthecityatthattimea
certainastrologernamedPartridge,whodupedthepublicbycalculating
nativitiesfromthestars,andbysellingayearlyalmanacpredicting
futureevents.Swift,whohatedallshams,wrote,withagreatshowof
learning,hisfamous_BickerstaffAlmanac_,containing"Predictionsforthe
Year1708,asDeterminedbytheUnerringStars."AsSwiftrarelysignedhis
nametoanyliterarywork,lettingitstandorfallonitsownmerits,his
burlesqueappearedoverthepseudonymofIsaacBickerstaff,aname
afterwardsmadefamousbySteelein_TheTatler_.Amongthepredictionswas
thefollowing:
Myfirstpredictionisbutatrifle;yetIwillmentionittoshowhow
ignorantthosesottishpretenderstoastrologyareintheirownconcerns:
itrelatestoPartridgethealmanackmaker;Ihaveconsultedthestarof
hisnativitybymyownrules,andfindhewillinfalliblydieuponthe29th

ofMarchnext,aboutelevenatnight,ofaragingfever;thereforeIadvise
himtoconsiderofit,andsettlehisaffairsintime.
OnMarch30,thedayafterthepredictionwastobefulfilled,there
appearedinthenewspapersaletterfromarevenueofficergivingthe
detailsofPartridge'sdeath,withthedoingsofthebailiffandthecoffin
maker;andonthefollowingmorningappearedanelaborate"ElegyofMr.
Partridge."WhenpoorPartridge,whosuddenlyfoundhimselfwithout
customers,publishedadenialoftheburial,Swiftansweredwithan
elaborate"VindicationofIsaacBickerstaff,"inwhichheprovedby
astrologicalrulesthatPartridgewasdead,andthatthemannowinhis
placewasanimpostortryingtocheattheheirsoutoftheirinheritance.
ThisferociousjokeissuggestiveofallSwift'ssatires.Againstanycase
ofhypocrisyorinjusticehesetsuparemedyofpreciselythesamekind,
onlymoreatrocious,anddefendshisplanwithsuchseriousnessthatthe
satireoverwhelmsthereaderwithasenseofmonstrousfalsity.Thushis
solemn"ArgumenttoprovethattheAbolishingofChristianitymaybe
attendedwithSomeInconveniences"issuchafrightfulsatireuponthe
abusesofChristianitybyitsprofessedfollowersthatitisimpossiblefor
ustosaywhetherSwiftintendedtopointoutneededreforms,ortosatisfy
hisconscience,[190]ortoperpetrateajokeontheChurch,ashehaddone
onpoorPartridge.Soalsowithhis"ModestProposal,"concerningthe
childrenofIreland,whichsetsupthepropositionthatpoorIrishfarmers
oughttoraisechildrenasdainties,tobeeaten,likeroastpigs,onthe
tablesofprosperousEnglishmen.Inthismostcharacteristicworkitis
impossibletofindSwiftorhismotive.TheinjusticeunderwhichIreland
suffered,herperversityinraisinglargefamiliestocertainpoverty,and
theindifferenceofEnglishpoliticianstohersufferingandprotestsare
allmercilesslyportrayed;butwhy?Thatisstilltheunansweredproblemof
Swift'slifeandwritings.
Swift'stwogreatestsatiresarehis_TaleofaTub_and_Gulliver's
Travels_.The_Tale_beganasagrimexposureoftheallegedweaknessesof
threeprincipalformsofreligiousbelief,Catholic,Lutheran,and
Calvinist,asopposedtotheAnglican;butitendedinasatireuponall
scienceandphilosophy.
Swiftexplainshiswhimsicaltitlebythecustomofmarinersinthrowing
outatubtoawhale,inordertooccupythemonster'sattentionanddivert
itfromanattackupontheship,whichonlyproveshowlittleSwiftknew
ofwhalesorsailors.Butletthatpass.Hisbookisatubthrownoutto
theenemiesofChurchandStatetokeepthemoccupiedfromfurtherattacks
orcriticism;andthesubstanceoftheargumentisthatallchurches,and
indeedallreligionandscienceandstatesmanship,arearranthypocrisy.
Thebestknownpartofthebookistheallegoryoftheoldmanwhodiedand
leftacoat(whichisChristianTruth)toeachofhisthreesons,Peter,
Martin,andJack,withminutedirectionsforitscareanduse.Thesethree
namesstandforCatholics,Lutherans,andCalvinists;andthewayinwhich
thesonsevadetheirfather'swillandchangethefashionoftheirgarment
ispartofthebittersatireuponallreligioussects.Thoughitprofesses
todefendtheAnglicanChurch,thatinstitutionfaresperhapsworsethan
theothers;fornothingislefttoherbutathincloakofcustomunder
whichtohideherallegedhypocrisy.
In_Gulliver'sTravels_thesatiregrowsmoreunbearable.Strangelyenough,
thisbook,uponwhichSwift'sliteraryfamegenerallyrests,wasnot
writtenfromanyliterarymotive,butratherasanoutletfortheauthor's
ownbitternessagainstfateandhumansociety.Itisstillreadwith
pleasure,as_RobinsonCrusoe_isread,fortheinterestingadventuresof
thehero;andfortunatelythosewhoreaditgenerallyoverlookits
degradinginfluenceandmotive.
_Gulliver'sTravels_recordsthepretendedfourvoyagesofoneLemuel
Gulliver,andhisadventuresinfourastoundingcountries.Thefirstbook

tellsofhisvoyageandshipwreckinLilliput,wheretheinhabitantsare
aboutastallasone'sthumb,andalltheiractsandmotivesareonthe
samedwarfishscale.Inthepettyquarrelsofthesedwarfswearesupposed
toseethelittlenessofhumanity.Thestatesmenwhoobtainplaceandfavor
bycuttingmonkeycapersonthetightropebeforetheirsovereign,andthe
twogreatparties,theLittleendiansandBigendians,whoplungethecountry
intocivilwaroverthemomentousquestionofwhetheraneggshouldbe
brokenonitsbigoronitslittleend,aresatiresonthepoliticsof
Swift'sowndayandgeneration.Thestyleissimpleandconvincing;the
surprisingsituationsandadventuresareasabsorbingasthoseofDefoe's
masterpiece;andaltogetheritisthemostinterestingofSwift'ssatires.
OnthesecondvoyageGulliverisabandonedinBrobdingnag,wherethe
inhabitantsaregiants,andeverythingisdoneuponanenormousscale.The
meannessofhumanityseemsallthemoredetestableinviewofthegreatness
ofthesesuperiorbeings.WhenGullivertellsabouthisownpeople,their
ambitionsandwarsandconquests,thegiantscanonlywonderthatsuch
greatvenomcouldexistinsuchlittleinsects.
InthethirdvoyageGullivercontinueshisadventuresinLaputa,andthis
isasatireuponallthescientistsandphilosophers.Laputaisaflying
island,heldupintheairbyaloadstone;andalltheprofessorsofthe
famousacademyatLagadoareofthesameairyconstitution.Thephilosopher
whoworkedeightyearstoextractsunshinefromcucumbersistypicalof
Swift'ssatirictreatmentofallscientificproblems.Itisinthisvoyage
thatwehearoftheStruldbrugs,aghastlyraceofmenwhoaredoomedto
liveuponearthafterlosinghopeandthedesireforlife.Thepictureis
allthemoreterribleinviewofthelastyearsofSwift'sownlife,in
whichhewascompelledtoliveon,aburdentohimselfandhisfriends.
Inthesethreevoyagestheevidentpurposeistostripofftheveilof
habitandcustom,withwhichmendeceivethemselves,andshowthecrude
vicesofhumanityasSwiftfanciesheseesthem.Inthefourthvoyagethe
mercilesssatireiscarriedouttoitslogicalconclusion.Thisbringsus
tothelandoftheHouyhnhnms,inwhichhorses,superiorandintelligent
creatures,aretherulinganimals.Allourinterest,however,iscentered
ontheYahoos,afrightfulrace,havingtheformandappearanceofmen,but
livinginunspeakabledegradation.
The_JournaltoStella_,writtenchieflyintheyears17101713forthe
benefitofEstherJohnson,isinterestingtousfortworeasons.Itis,
first,anexcellentcommentaryoncontemporarycharactersandpolitical
events,byoneofthemostpowerfulandoriginalmindsoftheage;and
second,initslovepassagesandpurelypersonaldescriptionsitgivesus
thebestpicturewepossessofSwifthimselfatthesummitofhispowerand
influence.Aswereadnowitswordsoftendernessforthewomanwholoved
him,andwhobroughtalmosttheonlyrayofsunlightintohislife,wecan
onlywonderandbesilent.Entirelydifferentarehis_Drapier'sLetters_,
amodelofpoliticalharangueandofpopularargument,whichrousedan
unthinkingEnglishpublicanddidmuchbenefittoIrelandbypreventingthe
politicians'planofdebasingtheIrishcoinage.Swift'spoems,though
vigorousandoriginal(likeDefoe's,ofthesameperiod),aregenerally
satirical,oftencoarse,andseldomriseabovedoggerel.Unlikehisfriend
Addison,Swiftsaw,inthegrowingpolishanddecencyofsociety,onlya
maskforhypocrisy;andheoftenusedhisversetoshockthenewborn
modestybypointingoutsomenativeuglinesswhichhisdiseasedmind
discoveredundereverybeautifulexterior.
ThatSwiftisthemostoriginalwriterofhistime,andoneofthegreatest
mastersofEnglishprose,isundeniable.Directness,vigor,simplicity,
markeverypage.Amongwritersofthatagehestandsalmostaloneinhis
disdainofliteraryeffects.Keepinghisobjectsteadilybeforehim,he
drivesstraightontotheend,withaconvincingpowerthathasneverbeen
surpassedinourlanguage.Eveninhismostgrotesquecreations,thereader
neverlosesthesenseofreality,ofbeingpresentasaneyewitnessofthe

mostimpossibleevents,sopowerfulandconvincingisSwift'sprose.Defoe
hadthesamepower;butinwriting_RobinsonCrusoe_,forinstance,his
taskwascomparativelyeasy,sincehisheroandhisadventureswereboth
natural;whileSwiftgivesrealitytopygmies,giants,andthemost
impossiblesituations,aseasilyasifhewerewritingoffacts.
Notwithstandingtheseexcellentqualities,theordinaryreaderwilldowell
toconfinehimselfto_Gulliver'sTravels_andabookofwellchosen
selections.For,itmustbeconfessed,thebulkofSwift'sworkisnot
wholesomereading.Itistooterriblysatiricanddestructive;it
emphasizesthefaultsandfailingsofhumanity;andsorunscountertothe
generalcourseofourliterature,whichfromCynewulftoTennysonfollows
theIdeal,asMerlinfollowedtheGleam,[191]andisnotsatisfiedtillthe
hiddenbeautyofman'ssoulandthedivinepurposeofhisstruggleare
manifest.
JOSEPHADDISON(16721719)
Inthepleasantartoflivingwithone'sfellows,Addisoniseasilya
master.Itisduetohisperfectexpressionofthatart,ofthatnewsocial
lifewhich,aswehavenoted,wascharacteristicoftheAgeofAnne,that
Addisonoccupiessuchalargeplaceinthehistoryofliterature.Ofless
powerandoriginalitythanSwift,heneverthelesswields,anddeservesto
wield,amorelastinginfluence.Swiftisthestorm,roaringagainstthe
iceandfrostofthelatespringofEnglishlife.Addisonisthesunshine,
whichmeltstheiceanddriesthemudandmakestheearththrillwithlight
andhope.LikeSwift,hedespisedshams,butunlikehim,heneverlost
faithinhumanity;andinallhissatiresthereisagentlekindliness
whichmakesonethinkbetterofhisfellowmen,evenwhilehelaughsat
theirlittlevanities.
TwothingsAddisondidforourliteraturewhichareofinestimablevalue.
First,heovercameacertaincorrupttendencybequeathedbyRestoration
literature.Itwastheapparentaimofthelowdrama,andevenofmuchof
thepoetryofthatage,tomakevirtueridiculousandviceattractive.
Addisonsethimselfsquarelyagainstthisunworthytendency.Tostripoff
themaskofvice,toshowitsuglinessanddeformity,buttorevealvirtue
initsownnativeloveliness,thatwasAddison'spurpose;andhesucceeded
sowellthatnever,sincehisday,hasourEnglishliteratureseriously
followedafterfalsegods.AsMacaulaysays,"Soeffectuallydidheretort
onvicethemockerywhichhadrecentlybeendirectedagainstvirtue,that
sincehistimetheopenviolationofdecencyhasalwaysbeenconsidered
amongstusasuremarkofafool."Andsecond,promptedandaidedbythe
moreoriginalgeniusofhisfriendSteele,Addisonseizeduponthenew
sociallifeoftheclubsandmadeitthesubjectofendlesspleasantessays
upontypesofmenandmanners._TheTatler_and_TheSpectator_arethe
beginningofthemodernessay;andtheirstudiesofhumancharacter,as
exemplifiedinSirRogerdeCoverley,areapreparationforthemodern
novel.
LIFE.Addison'slife,likehiswritings,isinmarkedcontrasttothatof
Swift.HewasborninMilston,Wiltshire,in1672.Hisfatherwasa
scholarlyEnglishclergyman,andallhislifeAddisonfollowednaturally
thequietandculturedwaystowhichhewasearlyaccustomed.Atthefamous
CharterhouseSchool,inLondon,andinhisuniversitylifeatOxford,he
excelledincharacterandscholarshipandbecameknownasawriterof
gracefulverses.Hehadsomeintention,atonetime,ofenteringthe
Church,butwaseasilypersuadedbyhisfriendstotakeupthegovernment
serviceinstead.UnlikeSwift,whoabusedhispoliticalsuperiors,Addison
tookthemoretactfulwayofwinningthefriendshipofmeninlargeplaces.
HislinestoDrydenwonthatliteraryleader'sinstantfavor,andoneof
hisLatinpoems,"ThePeaceofRyswick"(1697),withitskindly
appreciationofKingWilliam'sstatesmen,broughthimintofavorable
politicalnotice.Itbroughthimalsoapensionofthreehundredpoundsa
year,withasuggestionthathetravelabroadandcultivatetheartof

diplomacy;whichhepromptlydidtohisowngreatadvantage.
FromaliteraryviewpointthemostinterestingworkofAddison'searly
lifeishis_AccountoftheGreatestEnglishPoets_(1693),writtenwhile
hewasafellowofOxfordUniversity.OnerubshiseyestofindDryden
lavishlypraised,Spenserexcusedorpatronized,whileShakespeareisnot
evenmentioned.ButAddisonwaswritingunderBoileau's"classic"rules;
andthepoet,liketheage,wasperhapstooartificialtoappreciate
naturalgenius.
Whilehewastravelingabroad,thedeathofWilliamandthelossofpower
bytheWhigssuddenlystoppedAddison'spension;necessitybroughthim
home,andforatimehelivedinpovertyandobscurity.Thenoccurredthe
battleofBlenheim,andintheefforttofindapoettocelebratethe
event,AddisonwasbroughttotheTories'attention.Hispoem,"The
Campaign,"celebratingthevictory,tookthecountrybystorm.Insteadof
makingtheheroslayhisthousandsandtenthousands,liketheoldepic
heroes,Addisonhadsomesenseofwhatisrequiredinamoderngeneral,and
somadeMarlboroughdirectthebattlefromtheoutside,comparinghimtoan
angelridingonthewhirlwind:
'TwasthengreatMarlbro'smightysoulwasproved,
That,intheshockofcharginghostsunmoved,
Amidstconfusion,horror,anddespair,
Examinedallthedreadfulscenesofwar;
Inpeacefulthoughtthefieldofdeathsurveyed,
Tofaintingsquadronssentthetimelyaid,
Inspiredrepulsedbattalionstoengage,
Andtaughtthedoubtfulbattlewheretorage.
Sowhenanangelbydivinecommand
Withrisingtempestsshakesaguiltyland,
(Suchasoflateo'erpaleBritanniapast,)
Calmandserenehedrivesthefuriousblast;
And,pleasedth'Almighty'sorderstoperform,
Ridesinthewhirlwind,anddirectsthestorm.
ThatonedoubtfulsimilemadeAddison'sfortune.Neverbeforeorsincewas
apoet'smechanicalworksowellrewarded.Itwascalledthefinestthing
everwritten,andfromthatdayAddisonrosesteadilyinpoliticalfavor
andoffice.HebecameinturnUndersecretary,memberofParliament,
SecretaryforIreland,andfinallySecretaryofState.Probablynoother
literaryman,aidedbyhispenalone,everrosesorapidlyandsohighin
office.
TherestofAddison'slifewasdividedbetweenpoliticaldutiesand
literature.Hisessaysforthe_Tatler_and_Spectator_,whichwestill
cherish,werewrittenbetween1709and1714;buthewonmoreliteraryfame
byhisclassictragedy_Cato_,whichwehavealmostforgotten.In1716he
marriedawidow,theCountessofWarwick,andwenttoliveatherhome,the
famousHollandHouse.Hismarriedlifelastedonlythreeyears,andwas
probablynotahappyone.Certainlyheneverwroteofwomenexceptwith
gentlesatire,andhebecamemoreandmoreaclubman,spendingmostofhis
timeintheclubsandcoffeehousesofLondon.Uptothistimehislifehad
beensingularlypeaceful;buthislastyearswereshadowedbyquarrels,
firstwithPope,thenwithSwift,andfinallywithhislifelongfriend
Steele.Thefirstquarrelwasonliterarygrounds,andwaslargelythe
resultofPope'sjealousy.Thelatter'svenomouscaricatureofAddisonas
Atticusshowshowhetookhispettyrevengeonagreatandgoodmanwhohad
beenhisfriend.TheotherquarrelswithSwift,andespeciallywithhisold
friendSteele,weretheunfortunateresultofpoliticaldifferences,and
showhowimpossibleitistomingleliteraryidealswithpartypolitics.He
diedserenelyin1719.AbriefdescriptionfromThackeray's_English
Humorists_ishisbestepitaph:
Alifeprosperousandbeautiful,acalmdeath;animmensefameand

affectionafterwardsforhishappyandspotlessname.
WORKSOFADDISON.ThemostenduringofAddison'sworksarehisfamous
_Essays_,collectedfromthe_Tatler_and_Spectator._Wehavespokenof
himasamasteroftheartofgentleliving,andtheseessaysarea
perpetualinducementtootherstoknowandtopracticethesamefineart.
Toanageoffundamentalcoarsenessandartificialityhecamewitha
wholesomemessageofrefinementandsimplicity,muchasRuskinandArnold
spoketoalaterageofmaterialism;onlyAddison'ssuccesswasgreater
thantheirsbecauseofhisgreaterknowledgeoflifeandhisgreaterfaith
inmen.Heattacksallthelittlevanitiesandallthebigvicesofhis
time,notinSwift'sterribleway,whichmakesusfeelhopelessof
humanity,butwithakindlyridiculeandgentlehumorwhichtakesspeedy
improvementforgranted.ToreadSwift'sbrutal"LetterstoaYoungLady,"
andthentoreadAddison's"DissectionofaBeau'sHead"andhis
"DissectionofaCoquette'sHeart,"istoknowatoncethesecretofthe
latter'smoreenduringinfluence.
Threeotherresultsofthesedelightfulessaysareworthyofattention:
first,theyarethebestpicturewepossessofthenewsociallifeof
England,withitsmanynewinterests;second,theyadvancedtheartof
literarycriticismtoamuchhigherstagethanithadeverbeforereached,
andhowevermuchwedifferfromtheirjudgmentandtheirinterpretationof
suchamanasMilton,theycertainlyledEnglishmentoabetterknowledge
andappreciationoftheirownliterature;andfinally,inNedSoftlythe
literarydabbler,WillWimblethepoorrelation,SirAndrewFreeportthe
merchant,WillHoneycombthefop,andSirRogerthecountrygentleman,they
giveuscharactersthatliveforeveraspartofthatgoodlycompanywhich
extendsfromChaucer'scountryparsontoKipling'sMulvaney.Addisonand
Steelenotonlyintroducedthemodernessay,butinsuchcharactersas
thesetheyheraldthedawnofthemodernnovel.Ofallhisessaysthebest
knownandlovedarethosewhichintroduceustoSirRogerdeCoverley,the
genialdictatoroflifeandmannersinthequietEnglishcountry.
Instyletheseessaysareremarkableasshowingthegrowingperfectionof
theEnglishlanguage.Johnsonsays,"WhoeverwishestoattainanEnglish
style,familiarbutnotcoarse,andelegantbutnotostentatious,mustgive
hisdaysandnightstothevolumesofAddison."Andagainhesays,"Give
nightsanddays,sir,tothestudyofAddisonifyoumeantobeagood
writer,or,whatismoreworth,anhonestman."Thatwasgoodcriticismfor
itsday,andevenatthepresenttimecriticsareagreedthatAddison's
_Essays_arewellworthreadingoncefortheirownsake,andmanytimesfor
theirinfluenceinshapingaclearandgracefulstyleofwriting.
Addison'spoems,whichwereenormouslypopularinhisday,arenowseldom
read.His_Cato_,withitsclassicunitiesandlackofdramaticpower,must
beregardedasafailure,ifwestudyitastragedy;butitoffersan
excellentexampleoftherhetoricandfinesentimentwhichwerethen
consideredtheessentialsofgoodwriting.Thebestscenefromthistragedy
isinthefifthact,whereCatosoliloquizes,withPlato's_Immortalityof
theSoul_openinhishand,andadrawnswordonthetablebeforehim:
ItmustbesoPlato,thoureason'stwell!
Elsewhencethispleasinghope,thisfonddesire,
Thislongingafterimmortality?
Orwhencethissecretdread,andinwardhorror,
Offallingintonought?whyshrinksthesoul
Backonherself,andstartlesatdestruction?
'Tisthedivinitythatstirswithinus;
'Tisheavenitself,thatpointsoutanhereafter,
Andintimateseternitytoman.
ManyreadersmakefrequentuseofoneportionofAddison'spoetrywithout
knowingtowhomtheyareindebted.Hisdevoutnaturefoundexpressionin
manyhymns,afewofwhicharestillusedandlovedinourchurches.Manya

congregationthrills,asThackeraydid,tothesplendidsweepofhis"God
inNature,"beginning,"Thespaciousfirmamentonhigh."Almostaswell
knownandlovedarehis"Traveler'sHymn,"andhis"ContinuedHelp,"
beginning,"Whenallthymercies,OmyGod."Thelatterhymnwrittenina
stormatseaofftheItaliancoast,whenthecaptainandcrewwere
demoralizedbyterrorshowsthatpoetry,especiallyagoodhymnthatone
cansinginthesamespiritasonewouldsayhisprayers,issometimesthe
mostpracticalandhelpfulthingintheworld.
RICHARDSTEELE(16721729).Steelewasinalmosteveryrespectthe
antithesisofhisfriendandfellowworker,arollicking,goodhearted,
emotional,lovableIrishman.AttheCharterhouseSchoolandatOxfordhe
sharedeverythingwithAddison,askingnothingbutloveinreturn.Unlike
Addison,hestudiedbutlittle,andlefttheuniversitytoentertheHorse
Guards.Hewasinturnsoldier,captain,poet,playwright,essayist,member
ofParliament,managerofatheater,publisherofanewspaper,andtwenty
otherthings,allofwhichhebeganjoyouslyandthenabandoned,sometimes
againsthiswill,aswhenhewasexpelledfromParliament,andagain
becausesomeotherinterestofthemomenthadmoreattraction.Hispoems
andplaysarenowlittleknown;butthereaderwhosearchesthemoutwill
findoneortwosuggestivethingsaboutSteelehimself.Forinstance,he
loveschildren;andheisoneofthefewwritersofhistimewhoshowa
sincereandunswervingrespectforwomanhood.EvenmorethanAddisonhe
ridiculesviceandmakesvirtuelovely.Heistheoriginatorofthe
_Tatler_,andjoinswithAddisonincreatingthe_Spectator_,thetwo
periodicalswhich,intheshortspaceoflessthanfouryears,didmoreto
influencesubsequentliteraturethanallothermagazinesofthecentury
combined.Moreover,heistheoriginalgeniusofSirRoger,andofmany
othercharactersandessaysforwhichAddisonusuallyreceivesthewhole
credit.Itisoftenimpossibleinthe_Tatler_essaystoseparatethework
ofthetwomen;butthemajorityofcriticsholdthatthemoreoriginal
parts,thecharacters,thethought,theoverflowingkindliness,arelargely
Steele'screation;whiletoAddisonfelltheworkofpolishingand
perfectingtheessays,andofaddingthattouchofhumorwhichmadethem
themostwelcomeliteraryvisitorsthatEnglandhadeverreceived.
THETATLERANDTHESPECTATOR.Onaccountofhistalentinwritingpolitical
pamphlets,Steelewasawardedthepositionofofficialgazetteer.Whilein
thisposition,andwritingforseveralsmallnewspapers,theideaoccurred
toSteeletopublishapaperwhichshouldcontainnotonlythepolitical
news,butalsothegossipoftheclubsandcoffeehouses,withsomelight
essaysonthelifeandmannersoftheage.TheimmediateresultforSteele
neverletanidearemainidlewasthefamous_Tatler_,thefirstnumberof
whichappearedApril12,1709.Itwasasmallfoliosheet,appearingon
postdays,threetimesaweek,anditsoldforapennyacopy.Thatithad
aseriouspurposeisevidentfromthisdedicationtothefirstvolumeof
collected_Tatler_essays:
Thegeneralpurposeofthispaperistoexposethefalseartsoflife,to
pulloffthedisguisesofcunning,vanity,andaffectation,andto
recommendageneralsimplicityinourdress,ourdiscourse,andour
behavior.
Thesuccessofthisunheardofcombinationofnews,gossip,andessaywas
instantaneous.NotacluboracoffeehouseinLondoncouldaffordtobe
withoutit,andoverit'spagesbeganthefirstgeneralinterestin
contemporaryEnglishlifeasexpressedinliterature.Steeleatfirstwrote
theentirepaperandsignedhisessayswiththenameofIsaacBickerstaff,
whichhadbeenmadefamousbySwiftafewyearsbefore.Addisonissaidto
havesoonrecognizedoneofhisownremarkstoSteele,andthesecretof
theAuthorshipwasout.FromthattimeAddisonwasaregularcontributor,
andoccasionallyotherwritersaddedessaysonthenewsociallifeof
England.[192]
Steelelosthispositionasgazetteer,andthe_Tatler_wasdiscontinued

afterlessthantwoyears'life,butnottillitwonanastonishing
popularityandmadereadythewayforitssuccessor.Twomonthslater,on
March1,1711,appearedthefirstnumberofthe_Spectator_.Inthenew
magazinepoliticsandnews,assuch,wereignored;itwasaliterary
magazine,pureandsimple,anditsentirecontentsconsistedofasingle
lightessay.Itwasconsideredacrazyventureatthetime,butitsinstant
successprovedthatmenwereeagerforsomeliteraryexpressionofthenew
socialideals.Thefollowingwhimsicallettertotheeditormayserveto
indicatethepartplayedbythe_Spectator_inthedailylifeofLondon:
Mr.Spectator,Yourpaperisapartofmyteaequipage;andmyservant
knowsmyhumorsowell,thatincallingformybreakfastthismorning(it
beingpastmyusualhour)sheanswered,the_Spectator_wasnotyetcome
in,buttheteakettleboiled,andsheexpectediteverymoment.
Itisintheincomparable_Spectator_papersthatAddisonshowshimself
most"worthytoberemembered."Hecontributedthemajorityofitsessays,
andinitsfirstnumberappearsthisdescriptionoftheSpectator,bywhich
nameAddisonisnowgenerallyknown:
ThereisnoplaceofgeneralresortwhereinIdonotoftenmakemy
appearance;sometimesIamseenthrustingmyheadintoaroundof
politiciansatWill's[Coffeehouse]andlisteningwithgreatattentionto
thenarrativesthataremadeinthoselittlecircularaudiences.Sometimes
IsmokeapipeatChild's,and,whilstIseemattentivetonothingbut_The
Postman_,overheartheconversationofeverytableintheroom.Iappearon
SundaynightsatSt.James's,andsometimesjointhelittlecommitteeof
politicsintheinnerroom,asonewhocomestohearandimprove.Myface
islikewiseverywellknownattheGrecian,theCocoaTree,andinthe
theatersbothofDruryLaneandtheHaymarket.Ihavebeentakenfora
merchantupontheExchangeforabovethesetenyears;andsometimespass
foraJewintheassemblyofstockjobbersatJonathan's....ThusIlivein
theworldratherasaspectatorofmankindthanasoneofthespecies,...
whichisthecharacterIintendtopreserveinthispaper.
Thelargeplacewhichthesetwolittlemagazinesholdinourliterature
seemsmostdisproportionatetotheirshortspanofdays.Intheshortspace
offouryearsinwhichAddisonandSteeleworkedtogetherthelightessay
wasestablishedasoneofthemostimportantformsofmodernliterature,
andtheliterarymagazinewonitsplaceastheexpressionofthesocial
lifeofanation.
SAMUELJOHNSON(17091784)
ThereaderofBoswell's_Johnson_,afterlisteningtoendlessgrumblings
andwatchingtheclumsyactionsofthehero,oftenfindshimselfwondering
whyheshouldendhisreadingwithaprofoundrespectforthis"oldbear"
whoistheobjectofBoswell'sgrovelingattention.Hereisamanwhowas
certainlynotthegreatestwriterofhisage,perhapsnotevenagreat
writeratall,butwhowasneverthelessthedictatorofEnglishletters,
andwhostillloomsacrossthecenturiesofamagnificentliteratureasits
moststrikingandoriginalfigure.Here,moreover,isahuge,fat,awkward
man,ofvulgarmannersandappearance,whomonopolizesconversation,argues
violently,abuseseverybody,clubsdownopposition,"Madam"(speakingto
hiscultivatedhostessattable),"talknomorenonsense";"Sir"(turning
toadistinguishedguest),"IperceiveyouareavileWhig."Whiletalking
hemakescuriousanimalsounds,"sometimesgivingahalfwhistle,sometimes
cluckinglikeahen";andwhenhehasconcludedaviolentdisputeandlaid
hisopponentslowbydogmatismorridicule,heleansbackto"blowouthis
breathlikeawhale"andgulpdownnumberlesscupsofhottea.Yetthis
curiousdictatorofanelegantagewasaveritablelion,muchsoughtafter
bysociety;andaroundhiminhisownpoorhousegatheredtheforemost
artists,scholars,actors,andliterarymenofLondon,allhonoringthe
man,lovinghim,andlisteningtohisdogmatismastheGreekslistenedto

thevoiceoftheiroracle.
Whatisthesecretofthisastoundingspectacle?Ifthereaderturns
naturallytoJohnson'sworksforanexplanation,hewillbedisappointed.
Readinghisverses,wefindnothingtodelightorinspireus,butrather
gloomandpessimism,withafewmoralobservationsinrimedcouplets:
But,scarceobserved,theknowingandthebold
Fallinthegeneralmassacreofgold;
Widewastingpest!thatragesunconfined,
Andcrowdswithcrimestherecordsofmankind;
Forgoldhisswordthehirelingruffiandraws,
Forgoldthehirelingjudgedistortsthelaws;
Wealthheapedonwealthnortruthnorsafetybuys;
Thedangersgatherasthetreasuresrise.[193]
Thatisexcellentcommonsense,butitisnotpoetry;anditisnot
necessarytohuntthroughJohnson'sbulkyvolumesfortheinformation,
sinceanymoralistcangiveusoffhandthesamedoctrine.Asforhis
_Rambler_essays,oncesosuccessful,thoughwemarvelatthebigwords,
thecarefullybalancedsentences,theclassicalallusions,onemightas
welltrytogetinterestedinanoldfashioned,threehoursermon.Weread
afewpageslistlessly,yawn,andgotobed.
Sincetheman'sworkfailstoaccountforhisleadershipandinfluence,we
examinehispersonality;andhereeverythingisinteresting.Becauseofa
fewoftquotedpassagesfromBoswell'sbiography,Johnsonappearstousas
aneccentricbear,whoamusesusbyhisgrowlingsandclumsyantics.But
thereisanotherJohnson,abrave,patient,kindly,religioussoul,who,as
Goldsmithsaid,had"nothingofthebearbuthisskin";amanwhobattled
likeaheroagainstpovertyandpainandmelancholyandtheawfulfearof
death,andwhoovercamethemmanfully."_Thattroublepassedaway;sowill
this,_"sangthesorrowingDeorinthefirstoldAngloSaxonlyric;and
thatexpressesthegreatandsufferingspiritofJohnson,whointheface
ofenormousobstaclesneverlostfaithinGodorinhimself.Thoughhewas
areactionaryinpolitics,upholdingthearbitrarypowerofkingsand
opposingthegrowinglibertyofthepeople,yethispoliticaltheories,
likehismanners,werenodeeperthanhisskin;forinallLondontherewas
nonemorekindtothewretched,andnonemorereadytoextendanopenhand
toeverystrugglingmanandwomanwhocrossedhispath.Whenhepassedpoor
homelessArabssleepinginthestreetshewouldslipacoinintotheir
hands,inorderthattheymighthaveahappyawakening;forhehimselfknew
wellwhatitmeanttobehungry.SuchwasJohnson,a"massofgenuine
manhood,"asCarlylecalledhim,andassuch,menlovedandhonored
him.[194]
LifeofJohnson.JohnsonwasborninLichfield,Staffordshire,in1709.He
wasthesonofasmallbookseller,apoorman,butintelligentandfondof
literature,asbooksellersinvariablywereinthegooddayswheneverytown
haditsbookshop.FromhischildhoodJohnsonhadtostruggleagainst
physicaldeformityanddiseaseandtheconsequentdisinclinationtohard
work.Hepreparedfortheuniversity,partlyintheschools,butlargelyby
omnivorousreadinginhisfather'sshop,andwhenheenteredOxfordhehad
readmoreclassicalauthorsthanhadmostofthegraduates.Before
finishinghiscoursehehadtoleavetheuniversityonaccountofhis
poverty,andatoncehebeganhislongstruggleasahackwritertoearn
hisliving.
Attwentyfiveyearshemarriedawomanoldenoughtobehismother,a
genuinelovematch,hecalledit,andwithherdowryof800theystarted
aprivateschooltogether,whichwasadismalfailure.Then,withoutmoney
orinfluentialfriends,helefthishomeandwifeinLichfieldandtramped
toLondon,accompaniedonlybyDavidGarrick,afterwardsthefamousactor,
whohadbeenoneofhispupils.Here,ledbyoldassociations,Johnsonmade
himselfknowntothebooksellers,andnowandthenearnedapennyby

writingprefaces,reviews,andtranslations.
Itwasadog'slife,indeed,thatheledtherewithhisliterarybrethren.
Manyofthewritersoftheday,whoareridiculedinPope'sheartless
_Dunciad_,havingnowealthypatronstosupportthem,livedlargelyinthe
streetsandtaverns,sleepingonanashheaporunderawharf,likerats;
gladofacrust,andhappyoverasinglemealwhichenabledthemtowork
forawhilewithoutthereminderofhunger.Afewfavoredoneslivedin
wretchedlodgingsinGrubStreet,whichhassincebecomeasynonymforthe
fortunesofstrugglingwriters.[195]Often,Johnsontellsus,hewalkedthe
streetsallnightlong,indrearyweather,whenitwastoocoldtosleep,
withoutfoodorshelter.Buthewrotesteadilyforthebooksellersandfor
the_Gentleman'sMagazine_,andpresentlyhebecameknowninLondonand
receivedenoughworktoearnabareliving.
Theworkswhichoccasionedthissmallsuccesswerehispoem,"London,"and
his_LifeofthePoetSavage_,awretchedlife,atbest,whichwereperhaps
betterleftwithoutabiographer.Buthissuccesswasgenuine,though
small,andpresentlythebooksellersofLondonarecomingtohimtoaskhim
towriteadictionaryoftheEnglishlanguage.Itwasanenormouswork,
takingnearlyeightyearsofhistime,andlongbeforehehadfinishedit
hehadeatenupthemoneywhichhereceivedforhislabor.Intheleisure
intervalsofthisworkhewrote"TheVanityofHumanWishes"andother
poems,andfinishedhisclassictragedyof_Irene_.
Ledbythegreatsuccessofthe_Spectator_,Johnsonstartedtwomagazines,
_TheRambler_(17501752)and_TheIdler_(17581760).Laterthe
_Rambler_essayswerepublishedinbookformandranrapidlythroughten
editions;butthefinancialreturnsweresmall,andJohnsonspentalarge
partofhisearningsincharity.Whenhismotherdied,in1759,Johnson,
althoughoneofthebestknownmeninLondon,hadnomoney,andhurriedly
finished_Rasselas_,hisonlyromance,inorder,itissaid,topayforhis
mother'sburial.
Itwasnottill1762,whenJohnsonwasfiftythreeyearsold,thathis
literarylaborswererewardedintheusualwaybyroyalty,andhereceived
fromGeorgeIIIayearlypensionofthreehundredpounds.Thenbegana
littlesunshineinhislife.WithJoshuaReynolds,theartist,hefounded
thefamousLiteraryClub,ofwhichBurke,Pitt,Fox,Gibbon,Goldsmith,and
indeedallthegreatliterarymenandpoliticiansofthetime,were
members.ThisistheperiodofJohnson'sfamousconversations,whichwere
caughtinminutestdetailbyBoswellandgiventotheworld.Hisideaof
conversation,asshowninahundredplacesinBoswell,istoovercomeyour
adversaryatanycost;toknockhimdownbyarguments,or,whenthesefail,
bypersonalridicule;todogmatizeoneverypossiblequestion,pronouncea
feworacles,andthendesistwiththeairofvictory.Concerningthe
philosopherHume'sviewofdeathhesays:"Sir,ifhereallythinksso,his
perceptionsaredisturbed,heismad.Ifhedoesnotthinkso,helies."
Exitopposition.Thereisnothingmoretobesaid.Curiouslyenough,itis
oftenthepalpableblundersofthesemonologuesthatnowattractus,asif
wewereenjoyingagoodjokeatthedictator'sexpense.Oncealadyasked
him,"Dr.Johnson,whydidyoudefine_pastern_asthekneeofahorse?"
"Ignorance,madame,pureignorance,"thunderedthegreatauthority.
Whenseventyyearsofage,Johnsonwasvisitedbyseveralbooksellersof
thecity,whowereabouttobringoutaneweditionoftheEnglishpoets,
andwhowantedJohnson,astheleadingliterarymanofLondon,towritethe
prefacestotheseveralvolumes.Theresultwashis_LivesofthePoets_,
asitisnowknown,andthisishislastliterarywork.Hediedinhispoor
FleetStreethouse,in1784,andwasburiedamongEngland'shonoredpoets
inWestminsterAbbey.
JOHNSON'SWORKS."Abook,"saysDr.Johnson,"shouldhelpuseitherto
enjoylifeortoendureit."Judgedbythisstandard,oneispuzzledwhat
torecommendamongJohnson'snumerousbooks.Thetwothingswhichbelong

amongthethings"worthytoberemembered"arehis_Dictionary_andhis
_LivesofthePoets_,thoughboththesearevaluable,notasliterature,
butratherasastudyofliterature.The_Dictionary_,asthefirst
ambitiousattemptatanEnglishlexicon,isextremelyvaluable,
notwithstandingthefactthathisderivationsareoftenfaulty,andthathe
frequentlyexerciseshishumororprejudiceinhiscuriousdefinitions.In
defining"oats,"forexample,asagraingiveninEnglandtohorsesandin
Scotlandtothepeople,heindulgeshisprejudiceagainsttheScotch,whom
heneverunderstood,justas,inhisdefinitionof"pension,"hetakes
occasiontorapthewriterswhohadflatteredtheirpatronssincethedays
ofElizabeth;thoughheafterwardsacceptedacomfortablepensionfor
himself.Withcharacteristichonestyherefusedtoalterhisdefinitionin
subsequenteditionsofthe_Dictionary_.
The_LivesofthePoets_arethesimplestandmostreadableofhisliterary
works.Fortenyearsbeforebeginningthesebiographieshehadgiven
himselfuptoconversation,andtheponderousstyleofhis_Rambler_essays
heregiveswaytoalighterandmorenaturalexpression.Ascriticismsthey
areoftenmisleading,givingpraisetoartificialpoets,likeCowleyand
Pope,anddoingscantjusticeorabundantinjusticetonoblerpoetslike
GrayandMilton;andtheyarenottobecomparedwiththosefoundinThomas
Warton's_HistoryofEnglishPoetry_,whichwaspublishedinthesame
generation.Asbiographies,however,theyareexcellentreading,andweowe
tothemsomeofourbestknownpicturesoftheearlyEnglishpoets.
OfJohnson'spoemsthereaderwillhaveenoughifheglanceover"The
VanityofHumanWishes."Hisonlystory,_Rasselas,PrinceofAbyssinia_,
isamatterofrhetoricratherthanofromance,butisinterestingstillto
thereaderwhowantstohearJohnson'spersonalviewsofsociety,
philosophy,andreligion.Anyoneofhis_Essays_,likethaton"Reading,"
or"ThePerniciousEffectsofRevery,"willbeenoughtoacquaintthe
readerwiththeJohnsonesestyle,whichwasoncemuchadmiredandcopiedby
orators,butwhichhappilyhasbeenreplacedbyamorenaturalwayof
speaking.Mostofhisworks,itmustbeconfessed,arerathertiresome.It
isnottohisbooks,butrathertothepictureofthemanhimself,asgiven
byBoswell,thatJohnsonoweshisgreatplaceinourliterature.
BOSWELL'S"LIFEOFJOHNSON"
InJamesBoswell(17401795)wehaveanotherextraordinaryfigure,a
shallowlittleScotchbarrister,whotrotsaboutlikeadogattheheelsof
hisbigmaster,franticatacaressandgrovelingatacuff,andabundantly
contentedifonlyhecanbenearhimandrecordhisoracles.Allhislife
longBoswell'soneambitionseemstohavebeentoshineinthereflected
gloryofgreatmen,andhischieftasktorecordtheirsayingsanddoings.
WhenhecametoLondon,attwentytwoyearsofage,Johnson,thenatthe
beginningofhisgreatfame,wastothisinsatiablelittlegloryseeker
likeaSilverDoctortoahungrytrout.Hesoughtanintroductionasaman
seeksgold,hauntedeveryplacewhereJohnsondeclaimed,untilinDavies's
bookstorethesupremeopportunitycame.Thisishisrecordofthegreat
event:
Iwasmuchagitated[saysBoswell]andrecollectinghisprejudiceagainst
theScotch,ofwhichIhadheardmuch,IsaidtoDavies,"Don'ttellhim
whereIcomefrom.""FromScotland,"criedDaviesroguishly."Mr.Johnson,"
saidI,"IdoindeedcomefromScotland,butIcannothelpit."..."That,
sir"[criedJohnson],"Ifindiswhataverygreatmanyofyourcountrymen
cannothelp."Thisstrokestunnedmeagooddeal;andwhenwehadsatdown
Ifeltmyselfnotalittleembarrassed,andapprehensiveofwhatmightcome
next.
Thenforseveralyears,withapersistencythatnorebuffscouldabate,and
withathickskinthatnoamountofridiculecouldrendersensitive,he
followsJohnson;forceshiswayintotheLiteraryClub,whereheisnot

welcome,inordertobenearhisidol;carrieshimoffonavisittothe
Hebrides;talkswithhimoneverypossibleoccasion;and,whenheisnot
invitedtoafeast,waitsoutsidethehouseortaverninordertowalkhome
withhismasterinthethickfogoftheearlymorning.Andthemomentthe
oracleisoutofsightandinbed,Boswellpattershometorecordindetail
allthathehasseenandheard.Itistohisminuterecordthatweoweour
onlyperfectpictureofagreatman;allhisvanityaswellashis
greatness,hisprejudices,superstitions,andeventhedetailsofhis
personalappearance:
Thereisthegiganticbody,thehugefaceseamedwiththescarsofdisease,
thebrowncoat,theblackworstedstockings,thegraywigwiththescorched
foretop,thedirtyhands,thenailsbittenandparedtothequick.Wesee
theeyesandmouthmovingwithconvulsivetwitches;weseetheheavyform
rolling;wehearitpuffing;andthencomesthe"Why,sir!"andthe"What
then,sir?"andthe"No,sir!"andthe"Youdon'tseeyourwaythroughthe
question,sir!"[196]
ToBoswell'srecordweareindebtedalsoforourknowledgeofthosefamous
conversations,thosewordy,knockdownbattles,whichmadeJohnsonfamousin
histimeandwhichstillmoveustowonder.Hereisaspecimen
conversation,takenalmostatrandomfromahundredsuchinBoswell's
incomparablebiography.AfterlisteningtoJohnson'sprejudiceagainst
Scotland,andhisdogmaticutterancesonVoltaire,Robertson,andtwenty
others,anunfortunatetheoristbringsuparecentessayonthepossible
futurelifeofbrutes,quotingsomepossibleauthorityfromthesacred
scriptures:
Johnson,whodidnotliketohearanythingconcerningafuturestatewhich
wasnotauthorizedbytheregularcanonsoforthodoxy,discouragedthis
talk;andbeingoffendedatitscontinuation,hewatchedanopportunityto
givethegentlemanablowofreprehension.Sowhenthepoorspeculatist,
withaserious,metaphysical,pensiveface,addressedhim,"Butreally,
sir,whenweseeaverysensibledog,wedon'tknowwhattothinkofhim";
Johnson,rollingwithjoyatthethoughtwhichbeamedinhiseye,turned
quicklyroundandreplied,"True,sir;andwhenweseeavery_foolish
fellow_,wedon'tknowwhattothinkof_him_."Hethenroseup,stridedto
thefire,andstoodforsometimelaughingandexulting.
Thentheoracleproceedstotalkofscorpionsandnaturalhistory,denying
facts,anddemandingproofswhichnobodycouldpossiblyfurnish:
Heseemedpleasedtotalkofnaturalphilosophy."Thatwoodcocks,"saidhe,
"flyoverthenortherncountriesisproved,becausetheyhavebeenobserved
atsea.Swallowscertainlysleepallthewinter.Anumberofthem
conglobulatetogetherbyflyingroundandround,andthenallinaheap
throwthemselvesunderwaterandlieinthebedofariver."Hetoldusone
ofhisfirstessayswasaLatinpoemupontheglowworm:IamsorryIdid
notaskwhereitwastobefound.
Thenfollowsanastonishingarrayofsubjectsandopinions.Hecatalogues
libraries,settlesaffairsinChina,pronouncesjudgmentonmenwhomarry
womensuperiortothemselves,floutspopularliberty,hammersSwift
unmercifully,andaddsafewmiscellaneousoracles,mostofwhichareabout
asreliableashisknowledgeofthehibernationofswallows.
WhenIcalleduponDr.JohnsonnextmorningIfoundhimhighlysatisfied
withhiscolloquialprowesstheprecedingevening."Well,"saidhe,"wehad
goodtalk.""Yes,sir"[saysI],"youtossedandgoredseveralpersons."
Farfromresentingthiscuriousmentaldictatorship,hisauditorsnever
seemtoweary.Theyhanguponhiswords,praisehim,flatterhim,repeat
hisjudgmentsalloverLondonthenextday,andreturnintheevening
hungryformore.Whenevertheconversationbeginstoflag,Boswellislike
awomanwithaparrot,orlikeamanwithadancingbear.Hemustexcite

thecreature,makehimtalkordancefortheedificationofthecompany.He
sidlesobsequiouslytowardshisheroand,withutterirrelevancy,propounds
aquestionoftheology,asocialtheory,afashionofdressormarriage,a
philosophicalconundrum:"Doyouthink,sir,thatnaturalaffectionsare
bornwithus?"or,"Sir,ifyouwereshutupinacastleandanewbornbabe
withyou,whatwouldyoudo?"ThenfollowmoreJohnsonianlaws,judgments,
oracles;theinsatiableaudienceclustersaroundhimandapplauds;while
Boswelllistens,withshiningface,andpresentlygoeshometowritethe
wonderdown.Itisanastonishingspectacle;onedoesnotknowwhetherto
laughorgrieveoverit.Butweknowtheman,andtheaudience,almostas
wellasifwehadbeenthere;andthat,unconsciously,isthesuperbartof
thismatchlessbiographer.
WhenJohnsondiedtheopportunitycameforwhichBoswellhadbeenwatching
andwaitingsometwentyyears.Hewouldshineintheworldnow,notby
reflection,butbyhisownluminosity.Hegatheredtogetherhisendless
notesandrecords,andbegantowritehisbiography;buthedidnothurry.
SeveralbiographiesofJohnsonappeared,inthefouryearsafterhisdeath,
withoutdisturbingBoswell'sperfectcomplacency.Aftersevenyears'labor
hegavetheworldhis_LifeofJohnson_.Itisanimmortalwork;praiseis
superfluous;itmustbereadtobeappreciated.LiketheGreeksculptors,
thelittleslaveproducedamoreenduringworkthanthegreatmaster.The
manwhoreadsitwillknowJohnsonasheknowsnoothermanwhodwells
acrosstheborder;andhewilllacksensitiveness,indeed,ifhelaydown
theworkwithoutagreaterloveandappreciationofallgoodliterature.
LATERAUGUSTANWRITERS.WithJohnson,whosucceededDrydenandPopeinthe
chiefplaceofEnglishletters,theclassicmovementhadlargelyspentits
force;andthelatterhalfoftheeighteenthcenturygivesusanimposing
arrayofwriterswhodiffersowidelythatitisalmostimpossibleto
classifythem.Ingeneral,threeschoolsofwritersarenoticeable:first,
theclassicists,who,underJohnson'slead,insisteduponeleganceand
regularityofstyle;second,theromanticpoets,likeCollins,Gray,
Thomson,andBurns,whorevoltedfromPope'sartificialcoupletsandwrote
ofnatureandthehumanheart[197];third,theearlynovelists,likeDefoe
andFielding,whointroducedanewtypeofliterature.Theromanticpoets
andthenovelistsarereservedforspecialchapters;andoftheother
writersBerkeleyandHumeinphilosophy;Robertson,Hume,andGibbonin
history;ChesterfieldandLadyMontaguinletterwriting;AdamSmithin
economics;Pitt,Burke,Fox,andascoreoflesserwritersinpoliticswe
selectonlytwo,BurkeandGibbon,whoseworksaremosttypicalofthe
Augustan,i.e.theelegant,classicstyleofprosewriting.
EDMUNDBURKE(17291797)
ToreadallofBurke'scollectedworks,andsotounderstandhim
thoroughly,issomethingofatask.Fewareequaltoit.Ontheotherhand,
toreadselectionshereandthere,asmostofusdo,istogetawrongidea
ofthemanandtojoineitherinfulsomepraiseofhisbrilliantoratory,
orinhonestconfessionthathisperiodsareponderousandhisideasoften
buriedunderJohnsonianverbiage.Sucharethecontraststobefoundon
successivepagesofBurke'stwelvevolumes,whichcovertheenormousrange
ofthepoliticalandeconomicthoughtoftheage,andwhichminglefactand
fancy,philosophy,statistics,andbrilliantflightsoftheimagination,to
adegreeneverbeforeseeninEnglishliterature.ForBurkebelongsin
spirittothenewromanticschool,whileinstyleheisamodelforthe
formalclassicists.Wecanonlyglanceatthelifeofthismarvelous
Irishman,andthenconsiderhisplaceinourliterature.
LIFE.BurkewasborninDublin,thesonofanIrishbarrister,in1729.
AfterhisuniversitycourseinTrinityCollegehecametoLondontostudy
law,butsoongaveuptheideatofollowliterature,whichinturnledhim
topolitics.Hehadthesoul,theimaginationofapoet,andthelawwas
onlyaclogtohisprogress.Histwofirstworks,_AVindicationofNatural

Society_and_TheOriginofourIdeasoftheSublimeandtheBeautiful_,
broughthimpoliticalaswellasliteraryrecognition,andseveralsmall
officeswereinturngiventohim.Whenthirtysixyearsoldhewaselected
toParliamentasmemberfromWendover;andforthenextthirtyyearshewas
theforemostfigureintheHouseofCommonsandthemosteloquentorator
whichthatbodyhaseverknown.Pureandincorruptibleinhispoliticsas
inhispersonallife,nomorelearnedordevotedservantofthe
Commonwealtheverpleadedforjusticeandhumanliberty.Hewasatthe
summitofhisinfluenceatthetimewhenthecolonieswerestrugglingfor
independence;andthefactthathechampionedtheircauseinoneofhis
greatestspeeches,"OnConciliationwithAmerica,"giveshimanadded
interestintheeyesofAmericanreaders.HischampionshipofAmericais
allthemoreremarkablefromthefactthat,inothermatters,Burkewasfar
fromliberal.Hesethimselfsquarelyagainsttheteachingsoftheromantic
writers,whowereenthusiasticovertheFrenchRevolution;hedenouncedthe
principlesoftheRevolutionists,brokewiththeliberalWhigpartytojoin
theTories,andwaslargelyinstrumentalinbringingontheterriblewar
withFrance,whichresultedinthedownfallofNapoleon.
Itisgoodtorememberthat,inallthestrifeandbitternessofparty
politics,Burkeheldsteadilytothenoblestpersonalidealsoftruthand
honesty;andthatinallhiswork,whetheropposingtheslavetrade,or
pleadingforjusticeforAmerica,orprotectingthepoornativesofIndia
fromthegreedofcorporations,orsettinghimselfagainstthepopular
sympathyforFranceinherdesperatestruggle,heaimedsolelyatthe
welfareofhumanity.Whenheretiredonapensionin1794,hehadwon,and
hedeserved,thegratitudeandaffectionofthewholenation.
WORKS.TherearethreedistinctlymarkedperiodsinBurke'scareer,and
thesecorrespondcloselytotheyearsinwhichhewasbusiedwiththe
affairsofAmerica,India,andFrancesuccessively.Thefirstperiodwas
oneofprophecy.HehadstudiedthehistoryandtemperoftheAmerican
colonies,andhewarnedEnglandofthedisasterwhichmustfollowher
persistenceinignoringtheAmericandemands,andespeciallytheAmerican
spirit.Hisgreatspeeches,"OnAmericanTaxation"and"OnConciliation
withAmerica,"weredeliveredin1774and1775,precedingtheDeclaration
ofIndependence.InthisperiodBurke'slaborseemedallinvain;helost
hiscause,andEnglandhergreatestcolony.
Thesecondperiodisoneofdenunciationratherthanofprophecy.England
hadwonIndia;butwhenBurkestudiedthemethodsofhervictoryand
understoodthesoullesswayinwhichmillionsofpoornativesweremadeto
servetheinterestsofanEnglishmonopoly,hissoulroseinrevolt,and
againhewasthechampionofanoppressedpeople.Histwogreatestspeeches
ofthisperiodare"TheNabobofArcot'sDebts"andhistremendous
"ImpeachmentofWarrenHastings."Againheapparentlylosthiscause,
thoughhewasstillfightingonthesideofright.Hastingswasacquitted,
andthespoliationofIndiawenton;buttheseedsofreformweresown,and
grewandborefruitlongafterBurke'slaborswereended.
Thethirdperiodis,curiouslyenough,oneofreaction.Whetherbecausethe
horrorsoftheFrenchRevolutionhadfrightenedhimwiththedangerof
popularliberty,orbecausehisownadvanceinofficeandpowerhadmade
himsideunconsciouslywiththeupperclasses,isunknown.Thathewasas
sincereandnoblenowasinallhispreviouslifeisnotquestioned.He
brokewiththeliberalWhigsandjoinedforceswiththereactionaryTories.
Heopposedtheromanticwriters,whowereonfirewithenthusiasmoverthe
FrenchRevolution,andthunderedagainstthedangerswhichthe
revolutionaryspiritmustbreed,forgettingthatitwasarevolutionwhich
hadmademodernEnglandpossible.Here,wherewemustjudgehimtohave
beenmistakeninhiscause,hesucceededforthefirsttime.Itwasdue
largelytoBurke'sinfluencethatthegrowingsympathyfortheFrench
peoplewascheckedinEngland,andwarwasdeclared,whichendedinthe
frightfulvictoriesofTrafalgarandWaterloo.

Burke'sbestknownworkofthisperiodishis_ReflectionsontheFrench
Revolution_,whichhepolishedandrevisedagainEssayonandagainbefore
itwasfinallyprinted.Thisambitiousliteraryessay,thoughitmetwith
remarkablesuccess,isadisappointmenttothereader.ThoughofCeltic
blood,BurkedidnotunderstandtheFrench,ortheprinciplesforwhichthe
commonpeoplewerefightingintheirownway[198];andhisdenunciations
andapostrophestoFrancesuggestapreacherwithouthumor,hammeringaway
atsinnerswhoarenotpresentinhiscongregation.Theessayhasfew
illuminatingideas,butagreatdealofJohnsonianrhetoric,whichmakeits
periodstiresome,notwithstandingouradmirationforthebrilliancyofits
author.MoresignificantisoneofBurke'sfirstessays,_APhilosophical
InquiryIntotheOriginofOurIdeasoftheSublimeandBeautiful_,which
issometimesreadinordertoshowthecontrastinstylewithAddison's
_Spectator_essaysonthe"PleasuresoftheImagination."
Burke'sbestknownspeeches,"OnConciliationwithAmerica,""American
Taxation,"andthe"ImpeachmentofWarrenHastings,"arestillmuchstudied
inourschoolsasmodelsofEnglishprose;andthisfacttendstogivethem
anexaggeratedliteraryimportance.Viewedpurelyasliterature,theyhave
faultsenough;andthefirstofthese,socharacteristicoftheClassic
Age,isthattheyaboundinfinerhetoricbutlacksimplicity.[199]Ina
strictsense,theseeloquentspeechesarenotliterature,todelightthe
readerandtosuggestideas,butstudiesinrhetoricandinmental
concentration.Allthis,however,isonthesurface.Acarefulstudyofany
ofthesethreefamousspeechesrevealscertainadmirablequalitieswhich
accountfortheimportantplacetheyaregiveninthestudyofEnglish.
First,asshowingthestatelinessandtherhetoricalpowerofourlanguage,
thesespeechesarealmostunrivaled.Second,thoughBurkespeaksinprose,
heisessentiallyapoet,whoseimagery,likethatofMilton'sproseworks,
ismoreremarkablethanthatofmanyofourwritersofverse.Hespeaksin
figures,images,symbols;andthemusicalcadenceofhissentencesreflects
theinfluenceofhiswidereadingofpoetry.Notonlyinfigurative
expression,butmuchmoreinspirit,hebelongswiththepoetsofthe
revival.Attimeshislanguageispseudoclassic,reflectingtheinfluence
ofJohnsonandhisschool;buthisthoughtisalwaysromantic;heis
governedbyidealratherthanbypracticalinterests,andaprofound
sympathyforhumanityisperhapshismostmarkedcharacteristic.
Third,thesupremeobjectoftheseorations,sodifferentfromthemajority
ofpoliticalspeeches,isnottowinapprovalortogainvotes,butto
establishthetruth.LikeourownLincoln,Burkehadasuperbfaithinthe
compellingpowerofthetruth,afaithinmenalso,who,ifthehistoryof
ourracemeansanything,willnotwillinglyfollowalie.Themethodsof
thesetwogreatleadersarestrikinglysimilarinthisrespect,thateach
repeatshisideainmanyways,presentingthetruthfromdifferentview
points,sothatitwillappealtomenofwidelydifferentexperiences.
Otherwisethetwomenareinmarkedcontrast.TheuneducatedLincolnspeaks
insimple,homelywords,drawshisillustrationsfromthefarm,andoften
addsahumorousstory,soaptand"telling"thathishearerscannever
forgetthepointofhisargument.ThescholarlyBurkespeaksinornate,
majesticperiods,andsearchesallhistoryandallliteratureforhis
illustrations.Hiswealthofimageryandallusions,togetherwithhisrare
combinationofpoeticandlogicalreasoning,maketheseorations
remarkable,entirelyapartfromtheirsubjectandpurpose.
Fourth(andperhapsmostsignificantofthemanandhiswork),Burketakes
hisstandsquarelyupontheprincipleofjustice.Hehasstudiedhistory,
andhefindsthattoestablishjustice,betweenmanandmanandbetween
nationandnation,hasbeenthesupremeobjectofeveryreformersincethe
worldbegan.Nosmallormerelytemporarysuccessattractshim;onlythe
truthwillsufficeforanargument;andnothinglessthanjusticewillever
settleaquestionpermanently.Suchishisplatform,simpleastheGolden
Rule,unshakableasthemorallaw.Hence,thoughheapparentlyfailsofhis
immediatedesireineachofthesethreeorations,theprincipleforwhich
hecontendscannotfail.AsamodernwritersaysofLincoln,"Thefull,

richfloodofhislifethroughthenation'spulseisyetbeating";andhis
wordsarestillpotentinshapingthecourseofEnglishpoliticsintheway
ofjustice.
EDWARDGIBBON(17371794)
TounderstandBurkeorJohnson,onemustreadamultitudeofbooksandbe
waryinhisjudgment;butwithGibbonthetaskiscomparativelyeasy,for
onehasonlytoconsidertwobooks,his_Memoirs_andthefirstvolumeof
his_History_,tounderstandtheauthor.Inhis_Memoirs_wehavean
interestingreflectionofGibbon'sownpersonality,amanwholookswith
satisfactiononthematerialsideofthings,whoseeksalwaystheeasiest
pathforhimself,andavoidslife'sdifficultiesandresponsibilities."I
sighedasalover;butIobeyedasason,"hesays,when,tosavehis
inheritance,hegaveupthewomanhelovedandcamehometoenjoythe
paternalloavesandfishes.Thatissuggestiveoftheman'swholelife.His
_History_,ontheotherhand,isaremarkablework.Itwasthefirstinour
languagetobewrittenonscientificprinciples,andwithasolidbasisof
fact;andthestyleistheveryclimaxofthatclassicismwhichhadruled
Englandforanentirecentury.Itscombinationofhistoricalfactand
literarystylemakes_TheDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire_theone
thingofGibbon'slifethatis"worthytoberemembered."
GIBBON'SHISTORY.FormanyyearsGibbonhadmeditated,likeMilton,uponan
immortalwork,andhadtriedseveralhistoricalsubjects,onlytogivethem
upidly.Inhis_Journal_hetellsushowhisvagueresolutionswere
broughttoafocus:
ItwasatRome,onthefifteenthofOctober,1764,asIsatmusingamidst
theruinsoftheCapitol,whilethebarefootedfriarsweresingingvespers
intheTempleofJupiter,thattheideaofwritingthedeclineandfallof
thecityfirststartedtomymind.
Twelveyearslater,in1776,Gibbonpublishedthefirstvolumeof_The
DeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire;_andtheenormoussuccessofthework
encouragedhimtogoonwiththeotherfivevolumes,whichwerepublished
atintervalsduringthenexttwelveyears.TheHistorybeginswiththe
reignofTrajan,inA.D.98,and"buildsastraightRomanroad"throughthe
confusedhistoriesofthirteencenturies,endingwiththefallofthe
ByzantineEmpirein1453.ThescopeoftheHistoryisenormous.Itincludes
notonlythedeclineoftheRomanEmpire,butsuchmovementsasthedescent
ofthenorthernbarbarians,thespreadofChristianity,thereorganization
oftheEuropeannations,theestablishmentofthegreatEasternEmpire,the
riseofMohammedanism,andthesplendoroftheCrusades.Ontheonehandit
lacksphilosophicalinsight,beingsatisfiedwithfactswithout
comprehendingthecauses;and,asGibbonseemslackinginabilityto
understandspiritualandreligiousmovements,itisutterlyinadequatein
itstreatmentofthetremendousinfluenceofChristianity.Ontheother
hand,Gibbon'sscholarshipleaveslittletocriticise;hereadenormously,
siftedhisfactsoutofmultitudesofbooksandrecords,andthenmarshaled
themintheimposingarraywithwhichwehavegrownfamiliar.Moreover,he
issingularlyjustanddiscriminatingintheuseofalldocumentsand
authoritiesathiscommand.Hencehehasgivenusthefirsthistoryin
Englishthathasbornesuccessfullythetestofmodernresearchand
scholarship.
Thestyleoftheworkisasimposingashisgreatsubject.Indeed,with
almostanyothersubjectthesonorousrollofhismajesticsentenceswould
beoutofplace.Whileitdeservesalltheadjectivesthathavebeen
appliedtoitbyenthusiasticadmirers,finished,elegant,splendid,
rounded,massive,sonorous,copious,elaborate,ornate,exhaustive,it
mustbeconfessed,thoughonewhisperstheconfession,thatthestyle
sometimesobscuresourinterestinthenarrative.Ashesiftedhisfacts
fromamultitudeofsources,soheoftenhidesthemagaininendless

periods,andonemustoftensiftthemoutagaininordertobequitesure
ofeventhesimplefacts.AnotherdrawbackisthatGibbonishopelessly
worldlyinhispointofview;helovespageantsandcrowdsratherthan
individuals,andheislackinginenthusiasmandinspiritualinsight.The
resultissofranklymaterialattimesthatonewondersifheisnot
readingofforcesormachines,ratherthanofhumanbeings.Alittle
readingofhisHistoryhereandthereisanexcellentthing,leavingone
impressedwiththeelegantclassicalstyleandthescholarship;buta
continuedreadingisveryapttoleaveuslongingforsimplicity,for
naturalness,and,aboveall,fortheglowofenthusiasmwhichmakesthe
deadheroesliveoncemoreinthewrittenpages.
Thisjudgment,however,mustnotobscurethefactthatthebookhada
remarkablylargesale;andthatthis,ofitself,isanevidencethat
multitudesofreadersfounditnotonlyerudite,butreadableand
interesting.
II.THEREVIVALOFROMANTICPOETRY
Theoldorderchangeth,yieldingplacetonew;
AndGodfulfillsHimselfinmanyways,
Lestonegoodcustomshouldcorrupttheworld.
Tennyson's"ThePassingofArthur."
THEMEANINGOFROMANTICISM.WhileDryden,Pope,andJohnsonwere
successivelythedictatorsofEnglishletters,andwhile,undertheir
leadership,theheroiccoupletbecamethefashionofpoetry,andliterature
ingeneralbecamesatiricorcriticalinspirit,andformalinexpression,
anewromanticmovementquietlymadeitsappearance.Thomson's_The
Seasons_(1730)wasthefirstnoteworthypoemoftheromanticrevival;and
thepoemsandthepoetsincreasedsteadilyinnumberandimportancetill,
intheageofWordsworthandScott,thespiritofRomanticismdominatedour
literaturemorecompletelythanClassicismhadeverdone.Thisromantic
movementwhichVictorHugocalls"liberalisminliterature"issimplythe
expressionoflifeasseenbyimagination,ratherthanbyprosaic"common
sense,"whichwasthecentraldoctrineofEnglishphilosophyinthe
eighteenthcentury.Ithassixprominentcharacteristicswhichdistinguish
itfromthesocalledclassicliteraturewhichwehavejuststudied:
1.Theromanticmovementwasmarked,andisalwaysmarked,byastrong
reactionandprotestagainstthebondageofruleandcustom,which,in
scienceandtheology,aswellasinliterature,generallytendtofetter
thefreehumanspirit.
2.Romanticismreturnedtonatureandtoplainhumanityforitsmaterial,
andsoisinmarkedcontrasttoClassicism,whichhadconfineditself
largelytotheclubsanddrawingrooms,andtothesocialandpolitical
lifeofLondon.Thomson's_Seasons_,whateveritsdefects,wasarevelation
ofthenaturalwealthandbeautywhich,fornearlyacentury,hadbeen
hardlynoticedbythegreatwritersofEngland.
3.Itbroughtagainthedreamofagoldenage[200]inwhichthestern
realitiesoflifewereforgottenandtheidealsofyouthwereestablished
astheonlypermanentrealities."Forthedreamerlivesforever,butthe
toilerdiesinaday,"expresses,perhaps,onlythewildfancyofamodern
poet;but,whenwethinkofitseriously,thedreamsandidealsofapeople
arecherishedpossessionslongaftertheirstonemonumentshavecrumbled
awayandtheirbattlesareforgotten.Theromanticmovementemphasized
theseeternalidealsofyouth,andappealedtothehumanheartasthe
classiceleganceofDrydenandPopecouldneverdo.
4.Romanticismwasmarkedbyintensehumansympathy,andbyaconsequent
understandingofthehumanheart.Nottointellectortosciencedoesthe
heartunlockitstreasures,butrathertothetouchofasympathetic
nature;andthingsthatarehiddenfromthewiseandprudentarerevealed

untochildren.Popehadnoappreciablehumanity;Swift'sworkisa
frightfulsatire;Addisondelightedpolitesociety,buthadnomessagefor
plainpeople;whileevenJohnson,withallhiskindness,hadnofeelingfor
meninthemass,butsupportedSirRobertWalpoleinhispolicyofletting
evilsaloneuntilforcedbyarevolutiontotakenoticeofhumanity's
appeal.Withtheromanticrevivalallthiswaschanged.WhileHowardwas
workingheroicallyforprisonreform,andWilberforcefortheliberationof
theslaves,Graywrotehis"shortandsimpleannalsofthepoor,"and
Goldsmithhis_DesertedVillage_,andCowpersang,
Myearispained,
Mysoulissickwitheveryday'sreport
Ofwrongandoutragewithwhichearthisfilled.
Thereisnofleshinman'sobdurateheart,
Itdoesnotfeelforman.[201]
Thissympathyforthepoor,andthiscryagainstoppression,grewstronger
andstrongertillitculminatedin"Bobby"Burns,who,morethananyother
writerinanylanguage,isthepoetoftheunletteredhumanheart.
5.Theromanticmovementwastheexpressionofindividualgeniusrather
thanofestablishedrules.Inconsequence,theliteratureoftherevivalis
asvariedasthecharactersandmoodsofthedifferentwriters.Whenwe
readPope,forinstance,wehaveageneralimpressionofsameness,asif
allhispolishedpoemsweremadeinthesamemachine;butintheworkof
thebestromanticiststhereisendlessvariety.Toreadthemislike
passingthroughanewvillage,meetingascoreofdifferenthumantypes,
andfindingineachonesomethingtoloveortoremember.Natureandthe
heartofmanareasnewasifwehadneverstudiedthem.Hence,inreading
theromanticists,whowenttothesesourcesfortheirmaterial,weare
seldomweariedbutoftensurprised;andthesurpriseislikethatofthe
sunrise,orthesea,whichalwaysofferssomenewbeautyandstirsus
deeply,asifwehadneverseenitbefore.
6.Theromanticmovement,whileitfolloweditsowngenius,wasnot
altogetherunguided.Strictlyspeaking,thereisnonewmovementeitherin
historyorinliterature;eachgrowsoutofsomegoodthingwhichhas
precededit,andlooksbackwithreverencetopastmasters.Spenser,
Shakespeare,andMiltonweretheinspirationoftheromanticrevival;and
wecanhardlyreadapoemoftheearlyromanticistswithoutfindinga
suggestionoftheinfluenceofoneofthesegreatleaders.[202]
TherearevariousothercharacteristicsofRomanticism,butthesesixthe
protestagainstthebondageofrules,thereturntonatureandthehuman
heart,theinterestinoldsagasandmedivalromancesassuggestiveofa
heroicage,thesympathyforthetoilersoftheworld,theemphasisupon
individualgenius,andthereturntoMiltonandtheElizabethans,instead
oftoPopeandDryden,forliterarymodelsarethemostnoticeableand
themostinteresting.Rememberingthem,weshallbetterappreciatethework
ofthefollowingwriterswho,invaryingdegree,illustratetherevivalof
romanticpoetryintheeighteenthcentury.
THOMASGRAY(17161771)
Thecurfewtollstheknellofpartingday;
Thelowingherdwindslowlyo'erthelea;
Theplowmanhomewardplodshiswearyway,
Andleavestheworldtodarknessandtome.
Nowfadestheglimmeringlandscapeonthesight,
Andalltheairasolemnstillnessholds,
Savewherethebeetlewheelshisdroningflight,
Anddrowsytinklingslullthedistantfolds.
Sobegins"thebestknownpoemintheEnglishlanguage,"apoemfullofthe
gentlemelancholywhichmarksallearlyromanticpoetry.Itshouldberead

entire,asaperfectmodelofitskind.NotevenMilton's"IlPenseroso,"
whichitstronglysuggests,excelsitinbeautyandsuggestiveness.
LIFEOFGRAY.Theauthorofthefamous"Elegy"isthemostscholarlyand
wellbalancedofalltheearlyromanticpoets.Inhisyouthhewasa
weakling,theonlyoneoftwelvechildrenwhosurvivedinfancy;andhis
unhappychildhood,thetyrannyofhisfather,andtheseparationfromhis
lovedmother,gavetohiswholelifethestampofmelancholywhichis
noticeableinallhispoems.AtthefamousEtonschoolandagainat
Cambridge,heseemstohavefollowedhisownscholarlytastesratherthan
thecurriculum,andwasshocked,likeGibbon,atthegeneralidlenessand
aimlessnessofuniversitylife.Onehappyresultofhisschoollifewashis
friendshipforHoraceWalpole,whotookhimabroadforathreeyears'tour
oftheContinent.
Nobetterindexoftheessentialdifferencebetweentheclassicalandthe
newromanticschoolcanbeimaginedthanthatwhichisrevealedinthe
lettersofGrayandAddison,astheyrecordtheirimpressionsofforeign
travel.Thus,whenAddisoncrossedtheAlps,sometwentyfiveyearsbefore,
ingoodweather,hewrote:"Averytroublesomejourney....Youcannot
imaginehowIampleasedwiththesightofaplain."GraycrossedtheAlps
inthebeginningofwinter,"wrappedinmuffs,hoodsandmasksofbeaver,
furboots,andbearskins,"butwroteecstatically,"Notaprecipice,nota
torrent,notacliffbutispregnantwithreligionandpoetry."
OnhisreturntoEngland,GraylivedforashorttimeatStokePoges,where
hewrotehis"OdeonEton,"andprobablysketchedhis"Elegy,"which,
however,wasnotfinishedtill1750,eightyearslater.Duringthelatter
yearsofhisshyandscholarlylifehewasProfessorofModernHistoryand
LanguagesatCambridge,withoutanytroublesomeworkoflecturingto
students.Herehegavehimselfuptostudyandtopoetry,varyinghiswork
by"prowlings"amongthemanuscriptsofthenewBritishMuseum,andbyhis
"Lilliputian"travelsinEnglandandScotland.Hediedinhisroomsat
PembrokeCollegein1771,andwasburiedinthelittlechurchyardofStoke
Poges.
WORKSOFGRAY.Gray's_Letters_,publishedin1775,areexcellentreading,
andhis_Journal_isstillamodelofnaturaldescription;butitistoa
singlesmallvolumeofpoemsthatheoweshisfameandhisplacein
literature.Thesepoemsdividethemselvesnaturallyintothreeperiods,in
whichwemaytracetheprogressofGray'semancipationfromtheclassic
ruleswhichhadsolonggovernedEnglishliterature.Inthefirstperiodhe
wroteseveralminorpoems,ofwhichthebestarehis"HymntoAdversity"
andtheodes"ToSpring"and"OnaDistantProspectofEtonCollege."These
earlypoemsrevealtwosuggestivethings:first,theappearanceofthat
melancholywhichcharacterizesallthepoetryoftheperiod;andsecond,
thestudyofnature,notforitsownbeautyortruth,butratherasa
suitablebackgroundfortheplayofhumanemotions.
Thesecondperiodshowsthesametendenciesmorestronglydeveloped.The
"ElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard"(1750),themostperfectpoemof
theage,belongstothisperiod.ToreadMilton's"IlPenseroso"andGray's
"Elegy"istoseethebeginningandtheperfectionofthat"literatureof
melancholy"whichlargelyoccupiedEnglishpoetsformorethanacentury.
TwootherwellknownpoemsofthissecondperiodarethePindaricodes,
"TheProgressofPoesy"and"TheBard."Thefirstisstronglysuggestiveof
Dryden's"Alexander'sFeast,"butshowsMilton'sinfluenceinagreater
melodyandvarietyofexpression."TheBard"is,ineveryway,more
romanticandoriginal.Anoldminstrel,thelastoftheWelshsingers,
haltsKingEdwardandhisarmyinawildmountainpass,andwithfine
poeticfrenzyprophesiestheterroranddesolationwhichmusteverfollow
thetyrant.Fromitsfirstline,"Ruinseizethee,ruthlessKing!"tothe
end,whentheoldbardplungesfromhisloftycraganddisappearsinthe
river'sflood,thepoemthrillswiththefireofanancientandnoblerace
ofmen.Itbreaksabsolutelywiththeclassicalschoolandproclaimsa

literarydeclarationofindependence.
InthethirdperiodGrayturnsmomentarilyfromhisWelshmaterialand
revealsanewfieldofromanticinterestintwoNorsepoems,"TheFatal
Sisters"and"TheDescentofOdin"(1761).Graytranslatedhismaterial
fromtheLatin,andthoughthesetwopoemslackmuchoftheelemental
strengthandgrandeuroftheNorsesagas,theyareremarkableforcalling
attentiontotheunusedwealthofliterarymaterialthatwashiddenin
Northernmythologv.ToGrayandtoPercy(whopublishedhis_Northern
Antiquities_in1770)isdueinlargemeasuretheprofoundinterestinthe
oldNorsesagaswhichhascontinuedtoourownday.
Takentogether,Gray'sworksformamostinterestingcommentaryonthe
variedlifeoftheeighteenthcentury.Hewasascholar,familiarwithall
theintellectualinterestsofhisage,andhisworkhasmuchofthe
precisionandpolishoftheclassicalschool;buthesharesalsothe
reawakenedinterestinnature,incommonman,andinmedivalculture,and
hisworkisgenerallyromanticbothinstyleandinspirit.Thesame
conflictbetweentheclassicandromanticschools,andthetriumphof
Romanticism,isshownclearlyinthemostversatileofGray's
contemporaries,OliverGoldsmith.
OLIVERGOLDSMITH(17281774)
Because_TheDesertedVillage_isoneofthemostfamiliarpoemsinour
language,Goldsmithisgenerallygivenahighplaceamongthepoetsofthe
romanticdawn.Butthe_Village_,whenwereaditcarefully,turnsoutto
bearimedessayinthestyleofPope'sfamous_EssayonMan_;itowesits
popularitytothesympatheticmemorieswhichitawakens,ratherthantoits
poeticexcellence.ItisasaprosewriterthatGoldsmithexcels.Heisan
essayist,withAddison'sfinepolishbutwithmoresympathyforhumanlife;
heisadramatist,oneoftheveryfewwhohaveeverwrittenacomedythat
cankeepitspopularityunchangedwhileacenturyrollsoveritshead;but
greater,perhaps,thanthepoetandessayistanddramatistisGoldsmiththe
novelist,whosethimselftotheimportantworkofpurifyingtheearly
novelofitsbrutalandindecenttendencies,andwhohasgivenus,in_The
VicarofWakefield_,oneofthemostenduringcharactersinEnglish
fiction.Inhismanner,especiallyinhispoetry,Goldsmithwastoomuch
influencedbyhisfriendJohnsonandtheclassicists;butinhismatter,in
hissympathyfornatureandhumanlife,hebelongsunmistakablytothenew
romanticschool.Altogetherheisthemostversatile,themostcharming,
themostinconsistent,andthemostlovablegeniusofalltheliterarymen
whomadefamoustheageofJohnson.
LIFE.Goldsmith'scareeristhatofanirresponsible,unbalancedgenius,
whichwouldmakeonedespairifthemanhimselfdidnotremainsolovable
inallhisinconsistencies.HewasborninthevillageofPallas,Ireland,
thesonofapoorIrishcuratewhosenoblecharacterisportrayedinDr.
Primrose,of_TheVicarofWakefield_,andinthecountryparsonof_The
DesertedVillage_.Afteranunsatisfactorycourseinvariousschools,where
hewasregardedashopelesslystupid,GoldsmithenteredTrinityCollege,
Dublin,asasizar,i.e.astudentwhopayswithlaborforhistuition.By
hisescapadeshewasbroughtintodisfavorwiththeauthorities,butthat
troubledhimlittle.Hewasalsowretchedlypoor,whichtroubledhimless;
forwhenheearnedafewshillingsbywritingballadsforstreetsingers,
hismoneywentoftenertoidlebeggarsthantothepayingofhishonest
debts.Afterthreeyearsofuniversitylifeheranaway,indimenovel
fashion,andnearlystarvedtodeathbeforehewasfoundandbroughtback
indisgrace.Thenheworkedalittle,andobtainedhisdegreein1749.
Strangethatsuchanidleandirresponsibleyouthshouldhavebeenurgedby
hisfamilytotakeholyorders;butsuchwasthefact.Fortwoyearsmore
Goldsmithlaboredwiththeology,onlytoberejectedwhenhepresented
himselfasacandidatefortheministry.Hetriedteaching,andfailed.
ThenhisfancyturnedtoAmerica,and,providedwithmoneyandagood

horse,hestartedoffforCork,wherehewastoembarkfortheNewWorld.
HeloafedalongthepleasantIrishways,missedhisship,andpresently
turnedupcheerfullyamongsthisrelatives,minusallhismoney,andriding
asorrynagcalledFiddleback,forwhichhehadtradedhisownonthe
way.[203]Heborrowedfiftypoundsmore,andstartedforLondontostudy
law,butspeedilylosthismoneyatcards,andagainappeared,amiableand
irresponsibleasever,amonghisdespairingrelatives.Thenextyearthey
senthimtoEdinburghtostudymedicine.Hereforacoupleofyearshe
becamepopularasasingerofsongsandatelleroftales,towhommedicine
wasonlyatroublesomeaffliction.Suddenlythe_Wanderlust_seizedhimand
hestartedabroad,ostensiblytocompletehismedicaleducation,butin
realitytowanderlikeacheerfulbeggaroverEurope,singingandplaying
hisfluteforfoodandlodging.HemayhavestudiedalittleatLeydenand
atPadua,butthatwasonlyincidental.Afterayearormoreofvagabondage
hereturnedtoLondonwithanallegedmedicaldegree,saidtohavebeen
obtainedatLouvainorPadua.
Thenextfewyearsareapitifulstruggletomakealivingastutor,
apothecary'sassistant,comedian,usherinacountryschool,andfinallyas
aphysicianinSouthwark.Graduallyhedriftedintoliterature,andlived
fromhandtomouthbydoinghackworkfortheLondonbooksellers.Someof
hisessaysandhis_CitizenoftheWorld_(17601761)broughthimtothe
attentionofJohnson,wholookedhimup,wasattractedfirstbyhispoverty
andthenbyhisgenius,andpresentlydeclaredhimtobe"oneofthefirst
menwenowhaveasanauthor."Johnson'sfriendshipprovedinvaluable,and
presentlyGoldsmithfoundhimselfamemberoftheexclusiveLiteraryClub.
HepromptlyjustifiedJohnson'sconfidencebypublishing_TheTraveller_
(1764),whichwashailedasoneofthefinestpoemsofthecentury.Money
nowcametohimliberally,withordersfromthebooksellers;hetooknew
quartersinFleetStreetandfurnishedthemgorgeously;buthehadan
inordinatevanityforbrightcoloredclothes,andfasterthanheearned
moneyhespentitonvelvetcloaksandinindiscriminatecharity.Fora
timeheresumedhispracticeasaphysician,buthisfineclothesdidnot
bringpatients,asheexpected;andpresentlyheturnedtowritingagain,
topayhisdebtstothebooksellers.Heproducedseveralsuperficialand
grosslyinaccurateschoolbooks,likehis_AnimatedNature_andhis
historiesofEngland,Greece,andRome,whichbroughthimbreadandmore
fineclothes,andhis_VicarofWakefield,TheDesertedVillage_,and_She
StoopstoConquer_,whichbroughthimundyingfame.
AftermeetingwithJohnson,GoldsmithbecametheobjectofBoswell'smagpie
curiosity;andtoBoswell's_LifeofJohnson_weareindebtedformanyof
thedetailsofGoldsmith'slife,hishomeliness,hisawkwardways,his
drolleriesandabsurdities,whichmadehimalternatelythebuttandthewit
ofthefamousLiteraryClub.BoswelldislikedGoldsmith,andsodrawsan
unflatteringPortrait,buteventhisdoesnotdisguisethecontagiousgood
humorwhichmademenlovehim.Wheninhisfortyseventhyear,hefellsick
ofafever,andwithchildishconfidenceturnedtoaquackmedicinetocure
himself.Hediedin1774,andJohnsonplacedatablet,withasonorous
Latinepitaph,inWestminsterAbbey,thoughGoldsmithwasburiedelsewhere.
"Letnothisfrailtiesberemembered;hewasaverygreatman,"said
Johnson;andtheliteraryworldwhich,likethatolddictator,iskind
enoughatheart,thoughoftenroughinitsmethodsisgladtoacceptand
recordtheverdict.
WORKSOFGOLDSMITH.OfGoldsmith'searlyessaysandhislaterschool
historieslittleneedbesaid.Theyhavesettledintotheirownplace,far
outofsightoftheordinaryreader.Perhapsthemostinterestingofthese
isaseriesoflettersforthe_PublicLedger_(afterwardspublishedas
_TheCitizenoftheWorld_),writtenfromtheviewpointofanalleged
Chinesetraveler,andgivingthelatter'scommentsonEnglish
civilization.[204]Thefollowingfiveworksarethoseuponwhich
Goldsmith'sfamechieflyrests:
_TheTraveller_(1764)madeGoldsmith'sreputationamonghis

contemporaries,butisnowseldomread,exceptbystudentswhowould
understandhowGoldsmithwas,atonetime,dominatedbyJohnsonandhis
pseudoclassicideals.Itisalongpoem,inrimedcouplets,givinga
surveyandcriticismofthesociallifeofvariouscountriesinEurope,and
reflectsmanyofGoldsmith'sownwanderingsandimpressions.
_TheDesertedVillage_(1770),thoughwritteninthesamemechanicalstyle,
issopermeatedwithhonesthumansympathy,andvoicessoperfectlythe
revoltoftheindividualmanagainstinstitutions,thatamultitudeof
commonpeoplehearditgladly,withoutconsultingthecriticsastowhether
theyshouldcallitgoodpoetry.Notwithstandingitsfaults,towhich
MatthewArnoldhascalledsufficientattention,ithasbecomeoneofour
bestknownpoems,thoughwecannothelpwishingthatthemonotonyofits
coupletshadbeenbrokenbysomeoftheIrishfolksongsandballadsthat
charmedstreetaudiencesinDublin,andthatbroughtGoldsmithawelcome
fromtheFrenchpeasantswhereverhestoppedtosing.Inthevillageparson
andtheschoolmaster,GoldsmithhasincreasedChaucer'slistbytwolovable
charactersthatwillendureaslongastheEnglishlanguage.Thecriticism
thatthepictureofprosperous"SweetAuburn"neverappliedtoanyvillage
inIrelandisjust,nodoubt,butitisoutsidethequestion.Goldsmithwas
ahopelessdreamer,boundtoseeeverything,ashesawhisdebtsandhis
gayclothes,inapurelyidealisticway.
_TheGoodNaturedMan_and_SheStoopstoConquer_areGoldsmith'stwo
comedies.Theformer,acomedyofcharacter,thoughithassomelaughable
scenesandonelaughablecharacter,Croaker,metwithfailureonthestage,
andhasneverbeenrevivedwithanysuccess.Thelatter,acomedyof
intrigue,isoneofthefewplaysthathasneverlostitspopularity.Its
lively,bustlingscenes,anditspleasantlyabsurdcharacters,Marlowe,the
Hardcastles,andTonyLumpkin,stillholdtheattentionofmoderntheater
goers;andnearlyeveryamateurdramaticclubsoonerorlaterplaces_She
StoopstoConquer_onitslistofattractions.
_TheVicarofWakefield_isGoldsmith'sonlynovel,andthefirstinany
languagethatgivestohomelifeanenduringromanticinterest.However
muchweadmirethebeginningsoftheEnglishnovel,towhichweshall
presentlyrefer,weareneverthelessshockedbyitsfrequentbrutalities
andindecencies.GoldsmithlikeSteele,hadtheIrishreverenceforpure
womanhood,andthisreverencemadehimshunasapestthevulgarityand
coarsenessinwhichcontemporarynovelists,likeSmollettandSterne,
seemedtodelight.SohedidforthenovelwhatAddisonandSteelehaddone
forthesatireandtheessay;herefinedandelevatedit,makingitworthy
oftheoldAngloSaxonidealswhichareourbestliteraryheritage.
Briefly,_TheVicarofWakefield_isthestoryofasimpleEnglish
clergyman,Dr.Primrose,andhisfamily,whopassfromhappinessthrough
greattribulation.Misfortunes,whicharesaidnevertocomesingly,appear
inthiscaseinflocks;butthroughpoverty,sorrow,imprisonment,andthe
unspeakablelossofhisdaughters,theVicar'sfaithinGodandmanemerges
triumphant.Totheveryendheislikeoneoftheoldmartyrs,whosings
_Alleluia_whilethelionsroarabouthimandhischildreninthearena.
Goldsmith'soptimism,itmustbeconfessed,isherestretchedtothe
breakingpoint.ThereaderissometimesofferedfineJohnsonianphrases
wherehewouldnaturallyexpecthomelyandvigorouslanguage;andheis
continuallyhauntedbythesuspicionthat,eveninthisbestofall
possibleworlds,theVicar'scloudsofafflictionweresomewhattooeasily
convertedintoshowersofblessing;yetheisforcedtoreadon,andatthe
endheconfessesgladlythatGoldsmithhassucceededinmakingamost
interestingstoryoutofmaterialthat,inotherhands,wouldhave
developedeitheraburlesqueorabrutaltragedy.Layingasideallromantic
passion,intrigue,andadventure,uponwhichothernovelistsdepended,
Goldsmith,inthissimplestoryofcommonlife,hasaccomplishedthree
noteworthyresults:hehasmadehumanfatherhoodalmostadivinething;he
hasglorifiedthemoralsentimentswhichclusteraboutthefamilylifeas
thecenterofcivilization;andhehasgivenus,inDr.Primrose,a

strikingandenduringfigure,whichseemsmorelikeapersonalacquaintance
thanacharacterinabook.
WILLIAMCOWPER(17311800)
InCowperwehaveanotherinterestingpoet,who,likeGrayandGoldsmith,
showsthestrugglebetweenromanticandclassicideals.Inhisfirstvolume
ofpoems,CowperismorehamperedbyliteraryfashionsthanwasGoldsmith
inhis_Traveller_andhis_DesertedVillage_.Inhissecondperiod,
however,Cowperusesblankversefreely;andhisdelightinnatureandin
homelycharacters,liketheteamsterandthemailcarrierof_TheTask_,
showsthathisclassicismisbeingrapidlythawedoutbyromanticfeeling.
Inhislaterwork,especiallyhisimmortal"JohnGilpin,"Cowperflings
fashionsaside,givesPegasusthereins,takestotheopenroad,andso
proveshimselfaworthypredecessorofBurns,whoisthemostspontaneous
andthemostinterestingofalltheearlyromanticists.
LIFE.Cowper'slifeisapatheticstoryofashyandtimidgenius,who
foundtheworldofmentoorough,andwhowithdrewtonaturelikeawounded
animal.HewasbornatGreatBerkhamstead,Hertfordshire,in1731,theson
ofanEnglishclergyman.Hewasadelicate,sensitivechild,whoseearly
lifewassaddenedbythedeathofhismotherandbyhisneglectathome.At
sixyearshewassentawaytoaboys'school,wherehewasterrifiedby
youngbarbarianswhomadehislifemiserable.Therewasoneatrociousbully
intowhosefaceCowpercouldneverlook;herecognizedhisenemybyhis
shoebuckles,andshiveredathisapproach.Thefierceinvectivesofhis
"Tirocinium,oraReviewofSchools"(1784),showshowtheseschool
experienceshadaffectedhismindandhealth.Fortwelveyearshestudied
law,butattheapproachofapublicexaminationforanofficehewasso
terrifiedthatheattemptedsuicide.Theexperienceunsettledhisreason,
andthenexttwelvemonthswerespentinanasylumatSt.Alban's.The
deathofhisfather,in1756,hadbroughtthepoetasmallpatrimony,which
placedhimabovethenecessityofstruggling,likeGoldsmith,forhisdaily
bread.UponhisrecoveryheboardedforyearsatthehouseoftheUnwins,
culturedpeoplewhorecognizedthegeniushiddeninthisshyandmelancholy
yetquaintlyhumorousman.Mrs.Unwin,inparticular,caredforhimasa
son;andwhateverhappinessheexperiencedinhispoorlifewastheresult
ofthedevotionofthisgoodwoman,whoisthe"Mary"ofallhispoems.
AsecondattackofinsanitywasbroughtonbyCowper'smorbidinterestin
religion,influenced,perhaps,bytheuntemperedzealofoneJohnNewton,a
curate,withwhomCowperworkedinthesmallparishofOlney,andwithwhom
hecompiledthefamousOlneyHymns.Therestofhislife,betweenintervals
ofmelancholiaorinsanity,wasspentingardening,inthecareofhis
numerouspets,andinwritinghispoems,histranslationofHomer,andhis
charmingletters.Histwobestknownpoemsweresuggestedbyalivelyand
cultivatedwidow,LadyAusten,whotoldhimthestoryofJohnGilpinand
calledforaballadonthesubject.Shealsourgedhimtowritealongpoem
inblankverse;andwhenhedemandedasubject,shewhimsicallysuggested
thesofa,whichwasanewarticleoffurnitureatthattime.Cowper
immediatelywrote"TheSofa,"and,influencedbythepoeticpossibilities
thatlieinunexpectedplaces,headdedtothispoemfromtimetotime,and
calledhiscompletedwork_TheTask_.Thiswaspublishedin1785,andthe
authorwasinstantlyrecognizedasoneofthechiefpoetsofhisage.The
lastyearsofhislifewerealongbattlewithinsanity,untildeath
mercifullyendedthestrugglein1800.Hislastpoem,"TheCastaway,"isa
cryofdespair,inwhich,underguiseofamanwashedoverboardinastorm,
hedescribeshimselfperishinginthesightoffriendswhoarepowerlessto
help.
COWPER'SWORKS.Cowper'sfirstvolumeofpoems,containing"TheProgressof
Error,""Truth,""TableTalk,"etc.,isinterestingchieflyasshowinghow
thepoetwasboundbytheclassicalrulesofhisage.Thesepoemsare
dreary,onthewhole,butacertaingentleness,andespeciallyaveinof

purehumor,occasionallyrewardsthereader.ForCowperwasahumorist,and
onlytheconstantshadowofinsanitykepthimfrombecomingfamousinthat
linealone.
_TheTask_,writteninblankverse,andpublishedin1785,isCowper's
longestpoem.UsedaswearetothenaturalpoetryofWordsworthand
Tennyson,itishardforustoappreciatethestrikingoriginalityofthis
work.Muchofitisconventionaland"wooden,"tobesure,likemuchof
Wordsworth'spoetry;butwhen,afterreadingtherimedessaysandthe
artificialcoupletsofJohnson'sage,weturnsuddenlytoCowper's
descriptionofhomelyscenes,ofwoodsandbrooks,ofplowmenandteamsters
andthelettercarrieronhisrounds,werealizethatweareatthedawnof
abetterdayinpoetry:
Hecomes,theheraldofanoisyworld,
Withspatter'dboots,strapp'dwaist,andfrozenlocks:
Newsfromallnationslumberingathisback.
Truetohischarge,theclosepackedloadbehind,
Yetcarelesswhathebrings,hisoneconcern
Istoconductittothedestinedinn,
And,havingdroppedtheexpectedbag,passon.
Hewhistlesashegoes,lightheartedwretch,
Coldandyetcheerful:messengerofgrief
Perhapstothousands,andofjoytosome;
Tohimindifferentwhethergrieforjoy.
Housesinashes,andthefallofstocks,
Births,deaths,andmarriages,epistleswet
Withtearsthattrickleddownthewriter'scheeks
Fastastheperiodsfromhisfluentquill,
Orchargedwithamoroussighsofabsentswains,
Ornymphsresponsive,equallyaffect
Hishorseandhim,unconsciousofthemall.
Cowper'smostlaboriouswork,thetranslationofHomerinblankverse,was
publishedin1791.Itsstately,Miltonlikemovement,anditsbetter
renderingoftheGreek,makethistranslationfarsuperiortoPope's
artificialcouplets.Itisalsobetter,inmanyrespects,thanChapman's
morefamousandmorefancifulrendering;butforsomereasonitwasnot
successful,andhasneverreceivedtherecognitionwhichitdeserves.
Entirelydifferentinspiritarethepoet'snumeroushymns,whichwere
publishedintheOlneyCollectionin1779andwhicharestillusedinour
churches.Itisonlynecessarytomentionafewfirstlines"Godmovesin
amysteriousway,""Oh,foracloserwalkwithGod,""Sometimesalight
surprises"toshowhowhisgentleanddevoutspirithasleftitsimpress
uponthousandswhonowhardlyknowhisname.WithCowper'scharming
_Letters_,publishedin1803,wereachtheendofhisimportantworks,and
thestudentwhoenjoysreadingletterswillfindthattheserankamongthe
bestoftheirkind.Itisnot,however,forhisambitiousworksthatCowper
isremembered,butratherforhisminorpoems,whichhavefoundtheirown
wayintosomanyhomes.Amongthese,theonethatbringsquickestresponse
fromheartsthatunderstandishislittlepoem,"OntheReceiptofMy
Mother'sPicture."beginningwiththestrikingline,"Oh,thatthoselips
hadlanguage."Another,called"AlexanderSelkirk,"beginning,"Iam
monarchofallIsurvey,"suggestshowSelkirk'sexperiencesasacastaway
(whichgaveDefoehisinspirationfor_RobinsonCrusoe_)affectedthe
poet'stimidnatureandimagination.Lastandmostfamousofallishis
immortal"JohnGilpin."Cowperwasinaterriblefitofmelancholywhen
LadyAustentoldhimthestory,whichprovedtobebetterthanmedicine,
forallnightlongchucklesandsuppressedlaughterwereheardinthe
poet'sbedroom.Nextmorningatbreakfastherecitedtheballadthathad
affordeditsauthorsomuchdelightinthemaking.Thestudentshouldread
it,evenifhereadsnothingelsebyCowper;andhewillbelackingin
humororappreciationifheisnotreadytoechoheartilythelaststanza:
Nowletussing,LonglivetheKing,

AndGilpin,longlivehe!
Andwhenhenextdothrideabroad
MayIbetheretosee.
ROBERTBURNS(17591796)
AfteracenturyandmoreofClassicism,wenotedwithinteresttheworkof
threemen,Gray,Goldsmith,andCowper,whosepoetry,likethechorusof
awakeningbirds,suggeststhedawnofanotherday.Twootherpoetsofthe
sameagesuggestthesunrise.ThefirstistheplowmanBurns,whospeaks
straightfromthehearttotheprimitiveemotionsoftherace;thesecond
isthemysticBlake,whoonlyhalfunderstandshisownthoughts,andwhose
wordsstirasensitivenatureasmusicdoes,orthemooninmidheaven,
rousinginthesoulthosevaguedesiresandaspirationswhichordinarily
sleep,andwhichcanneverbeexpressedbecausetheyhavenonames.Blake
livedhisshy,mystic,spirituallifeinthecrowdedcity,andhismessage
istothefewwhocanunderstand.Burnslivedhissad,toilsome,erring
lifeintheopenair,withthesunandtherain,andhissongstouchall
theworld.Thelatter'spoetry,sofarasithasaphilosophy,restsupon
twoprincipleswhichtheclassicschoolneverunderstood,thatcommon
peopleareatheartromanticandloversoftheideal,andthatsimplehuman
emotionsfurnishtheelementsoftruepoetry.Largelybecausehefollows
thesetwoprinciples,Burnsisprobablythegreatestsongwriterofthe
world.Hispoeticcreedmaybesummedupinoneofhisownstanzas:
Givemeaesparko'Nature'sfire,
That'sa'thelearningIdesire;
Then,thoughItrudgethro'duban'mire
Atpleughorcart,
MyMuse,thoughhamelyinattire,
Maytouchtheheart.
LIFE.[205]Burns'slifeis"alifeoffragments,"asCarlylecalledit;and
thedifferentfragmentsareasunlikeasthenoble"Cotter'sSaturday
Night"andtherantandriotof"TheJollyBeggars."Thedetailsofthis
sadanddisjointedlifewerebetter,perhaps,forgotten.Wecallattention
onlytothefactswhichhelpustounderstandthemanandhispoetry.
BurnswasborninaclaycottageatAlloway,Scotland,inthebleakwinter
of1759.HisfatherwasanexcellenttypeoftheScotchpeasantofthose
days,apoor,honest,Godfearingman,whotoiledfromdawntilldarkto
wrestalivingforhisfamilyfromthestubbornsoil.Histallfigurewas
bentwithunceasinglabor;hishairwasthinandgray,andinhiseyeswas
thecareworn,huntedlookofapeasantdrivenbypovertyandunpaidrents
fromonepoorfarmtoanother.Thefamilyoftenfastedofnecessity,and
livedinsolitudetoavoidthetemptationofspendingtheirhardearned
money.Thechildrenwentbarefootandbareheadedinallweathers,and
sharedtheparents'toilandtheiranxietyovertherents.Atthirteen
Bobby,theeldest,wasdoingapeasant'sfullday'slabor;atsixteenhe
waschieflaboreronhisfather'sfarm;andhedescribesthelifeas"the
cheerlessgloomofahermit,andtheunceasingmoilofagalleyslave."In
1784thefather,afteralifetimeoftoil,wassavedfromadebtor'sprison
byconsumptionanddeath.Torescuesomethingfromthewreckofthehome,
andtowinapoorchanceofbreadforthefamily,thetwoolderboyssetup
aclaimforarrearsofwagesthathadneverbeenpaid.Withthesmallsum
allowedthem,theyburiedtheirfather,tookanotherfarm,Mossgiel,in
Mauchline,andbeganagainthelongstrugglewithpoverty.
Such,inoutline,isBurns'sownstoryofhisearlylife,takenmostlyfrom
hisletters.Thereisanotherandmorepleasingsidetothepicture,of
whichwehaveglimpsesinhispoemsandinhisCommonplaceBook.Herewe
seetheboyatschool;forlikemostScotchpeasants,thefathergavehis
boysthebesteducationhepossiblycould.Weseehimfollowingtheplow,
notlikeaslave,butlikeafreeman,crooningoveranoldScotchsongand

makingabetteronetomatchthemelody.Weseehimstoptheplowtolisten
towhatthewindissaying,orturnasidelesthedisturbthebirdsat
theirsingingandnestmaking.Atsupperweseethefamilyaboutthetable,
happynotwithstandingtheirscantfare,eachchildwithaspooninonehand
andabookintheother.WehearBettyDavidsonreciting,fromhergreat
store,someheroicballadthatfiredtheyoungheartstoenthusiasmand
madethemforgettheday'stoil.Andin"TheCotter'sSaturdayNight"we
haveaglimpseofScotchpeasantlifethatmakesusalmostreverencethese
heroicmenandwomen,whokepttheirfaithandtheirselfrespectinthe
faceofpoverty,andwhosehearts,undertheirroughexteriors,weretender
andtrueassteel.
AmostunfortunatechangeinBurns'slifebeganwhenheleftthefarm,at
seventeen,andwenttoKirkoswaldtostudysurveying.Thetownwasthe
hauntofsmugglers,roughliving,harddrinkingmen;andBurnsspeedily
foundhiswayintothosescenesof"riotandroaringdissipation"which
werehisbaneeverafterwards.Foralittlewhilehestudieddiligently,
butoneday,whiletakingthealtitudeofthesun,hesawaprettygirlin
theneighboringgarden,andloveputtrigonometrytoflight.Soonhegave
uphisworkandwanderedbacktothefarmandpovertyagain.
WhentwentysevenyearsofageBurnsfirstattractedliteraryattention,
andinthesamemomentsprangtothefirstplaceinScottishletters.In
despairoverhispovertyandpersonalhabits,heresolvedtoemigrateto
Jamaica,andgatheredtogetherafewofhisearlypoems,hopingtosell
themforenoughtopaytheexpensesofhisjourney.Theresultwasthe
famousKilmarnockeditionofBurns,publishedin1786,forwhichhewas
offeredtwentypounds.Itissaidthatheevenboughthisticket,andon
thenightbeforetheshipsailedwrotehis"FarewelltoScotland,"
beginning,"Thegloomynightisgatheringfast,"whichheintendedtobe
hislastsongonScottishsoil.
Inthemorninghechangedhismind,ledpartlybysomedimforeshadowingof
theresultofhisliteraryadventure;forthelittlebooktookallScotland
bystorm.Notonlyscholarsandliterarymen,but"evenplowboysandmaid
servants,"saysacontemporary,eagerlyspenttheirhardearnedshillings
forthenewbook.InsteadofgoingtoJamaica,theyoungpoethurriedto
Edinburghtoarrangeforanothereditionofhiswork.Hisjourneywasa
constantovation,andinthecapitalhewaswelcomedandfeastedbythe
bestofScottishsociety.Thisinexpectedtriumphlastedonlyonewinter.
Burns'sfondnessfortavernsandriotouslivingshockedhiscultured
entertainers,andwhenhereturnedtoEdinburghnextwinter,aftera
pleasurejauntthroughtheHighlands,hereceivedscantattention.Heleft
thecityinangeranddisappointment,andwentbacktothesoilwherehe
wasmoreathome.
ThelastfewyearsofBurns'slifeareasadtragedy,andwepassoverthem
hurriedly.HeboughtthefarmEllisland,Dumfriesshire,andmarriedthe
faithfulJeanArmour,in1788,Thathecouldwriteofher,
Iseeherinthedewyflowers,
Iseehersweetandfair;
Ihearherinthetunefu'birds,
Ihearhercharmtheair:
There'snotabonieflowerthatsprings
Byfountain,shaw,orgreen;
There'snotaboniebirdthatsings,
Butmindsmeo'myJean,
isenoughforustoremember.Thenextyearhewasappointedexciseman,
i.e.collectorofliquorrevenues,andthesmallsalary,withthereturn
fromhispoems,wouldhavebeensufficienttokeephisfamilyinmodest
comfort,hadhebutkeptawayfromtaverns.Forafewyearshislifeof
alternatetoilanddissipationwasoccasionallyilluminedbyhissplendid
lyricgenius,andheproducedmanysongs"BonnieDoon,""MyLove'slikea

Red,RedRose,""AuldLangSyne,""HighlandMary,"andthesoulstirring
"Scotswhahae,"composedwhilegallopingoverthemoorinastormwhich
havemadethenameofBurnsknownwherevertheEnglishlanguageisspoken,
andhonoredwhereverScotchmengathertogether.Hediedmiserablyin1796,
whenonlythirtysevenyearsold.Hislastletterwasanappealtoafriend
formoneytostaveoffthebailiff,andoneofhislastpoemsatributeto
JessieLewars,akindlassiewhohelpedtocareforhiminhisillness.
Thislastexquisitelyric,"Owertthouinthecauldblast,"setto
Mendelssohn'smusic,isoneofourbestknownsongs,thoughitshistoryis
seldomsuspectedbythosewhosingit.
THEPOETRYOFBURNS.ThepublicationoftheKilmarnockBurns,withthe
title_PoemsChieflyintheScottishDialect_(1786),marksanepochinthe
historyofEnglishLiterature,likethepublicationofSpenser's
_Shepherd'sCalendar_.Afteracenturyofcoldandformalpoetry,relieved
onlybytheromanticismofGrayandCowper,thesefreshinspiredsongswent
straighttotheheart,likethemusicofreturningbirdsinspringtime.It
wasalittlevolume,butagreatbook;andwethinkofMarlowe'sline,
"Infiniterichesinalittleroom,"inconnectionwithit.Suchpoemsas
"TheCotter'sSaturdayNight,""ToaMouse,""ToMountainDaisy,""Manwas
MadeToMourn,""TheTwaDogs,""AddresstotheDeil,"and"Halloween,"
suggestthatthewholespiritoftheromanticrevivalisembodiedinthis
obscureplowman.Love,humor,pathos,theresponsetonature,allthe
poeticqualitiesthattouchthehumanheartarehere;andtheheartwas
touchedasithadnotbeensincethedaysofElizabeth.Ifthereaderwill
noteagainthesixcharacteristicsoftheromanticmovement,andthenread
sixpoemsofBurns,hewillseeatoncehowperfectlythisoneman
expressesthenewidea.Ortakeasinglesuggestion,
Aefondkiss,andthenwesever!
Aefarewell,andthenforever!
DeepinheartwrungtearsI'llpledgethee,
WarringsighsandgroansI'llwagethee.
WhoshallsaythatFortunegrieveshim
Whilethestarofhopesheleaveshim?
Me,naecheerfu'twinklelightsme;
Darkdespairaroundbenightsme.
I'llne'erblamemypartialfancy,
NaethingcouldresistmyNancy;
Buttoseeherwastoloveher;
Lovebuther,andloveforever.
Hadweneverlov'dsaekindly,
Hadweneverlov'dsaeblindly,
Nevermetorneverparted
Wehadne'erbeenbrokenhearted.
The"essenceofathousandlovetales"isinthatonelittlesong.Because
heembodiesthenewspiritofromanticism,criticsgivehimahighplacein
thehistoryofourliterature;andbecausehissongsgostraighttothe
heart,heisthepoetofcommonmen.
OfBurns'smanysongsformusiclittleneedbesaid.Theyhavefoundtheir
wayintotheheartsofawholepeople,andtheretheyspeakforthemselves.
Theyrangefromtheexquisite"Owertthouinthecauldblast,"tothe
tremendousappealtoScottishpatriotismin"Scotswhahaewi'Wallace
bled,"which,Carlylesaid,shouldbesungwiththethroatofthe
whirlwind.Manyofthesesongswerecomposedinhisbestdays,when
followingtheploworrestingafterhiswork,whilethemusicofsomeold
Scotchsongwasringinginhishead.Itislargelybecausehethoughtof
musicwhilehecomposedthatsomanyofhispoemshavethesingingquality,
suggestingamelodyaswereadthem.
Amonghispoemsofnature,"ToaMouse"and"ToaMountainDaisy"are
unquestionablythebest,suggestingthepoeticalpossibilitiesthatdaily
passunnoticedunderourfeet.ThesetwopoemsareasnearasBurnsever

comestoappreciatingnatureforitsownsake.Themajorityofhispoems,
like"Winter"and"Yebanksandbraeso'bonieDoon,"regardnatureinthe
samewaythatGrayregardedit,asabackgroundfortheplayofhuman
emotions.
Ofhispoemsofemotionthereisanimmensenumber.Itisacuriousfact
thattheworldisalwayslaughingandcryingatthesamemoment;andwecan
hardlyreadapageofBurnswithoutfindingthisnaturaljuxtapositionof
smilesandtears.Itisnoteworthyalsothatallstrongemotions,when
expressednaturally,lendthemselvestopoetry;andBurns,morethanany
otherwriter,hasanastonishingfacultyofdescribinghisownemotions
withvividnessandsimplicity,sothattheyappealinstantlytoourown.
Onecannotread,"IlovemyJean,"forinstance,withoutbeinginlovewith
someidealizedwoman;or"ToMaryinHeaven,"withoutsharingthepersonal
griefofonewhohaslovedandlost.
Besidesthesongsofnatureandofhumanemotion,Burnshasgivenusa
largenumberofpoemsforwhichnogeneraltitlecanbegiven.Noteworthy
amongtheseare"Aman'samanfora'that,"whichvoicesthenewromantic
estimateofhumanity;"TheVision,"fromwhichwegetastrongimpression
ofBurns'searlyideals;the"EpistletoaYoungFriend,"fromwhich,
ratherthanfromhissatires,welearnBurns'spersonalviewsofreligion
andhonor;the"AddresstotheUncoGuid,"whichisthepoet'spleafor
mercyinjudgment;and"ABard'sEpitaph,"which,asasummaryofhisown
life,mightwellbewrittenattheendofhispoems."Halloween,"apicture
ofrusticmerrymaking,and"TheTwaDogs"acontrastbetweentherichand
poor,aregenerallyclassedamongthepoet'sbestworks;butoneunfamiliar
withtheScotchdialectwillfindthemratherdifficult.
OfBurns'slongerpoemsthetwobestworthreadingare"TheCotter's
SaturdayNight"and"Tamo'Shanter,"theonegivingthemostperfect
picturewepossessofanoblepoverty;theotherbeingthemostlivelyand
theleastobjectionableofhishumorousworks.Itwouldbedifficultto
findelsewheresuchacombinationofthegrewsomeandtheridiculousasis
packedupin"Tamo'Shanter."Withtheexceptionofthesetwo,thelonger
poemsaddlittletotheauthor'sfameortoourownenjoyment.Itisbetter
forthebeginnertoreadBurns'sexquisitesongsandgladlytorecognize
hisplaceintheheartsofapeople,andforgettherest,sincetheyonly
saddenusandobscurethepoet'sbetternature.
WILLIAMBLAKE(17571827)
Pipingdownthevalleyswild,
Pipingsongsofpleasantglee,
OnacloudIsawachild,
Andhelaughingsaidtome:
"Pipeasongaboutalamb;"
SoIpipedwithmerrycheer.
"Piper,pipethatsongagain;"
SoIpiped:,hewepttohear.
"Piper,sittheedownandwrite
Inabook,thatallmayread;"
Sohevanishedfrommysight,
AndIpluckedahollowreed,
AndImadearuralpen,
AndIstainedthewaterclear,
AndIwrotemyhappysongs
Everychildmayjoytohear.[206]
Ofalltheromanticpoetsoftheeighteenthcentury,Blakeisthemost
independentandthemostoriginal.Inhisearliestwork,writtenwhenhe
wasscarcelymorethanachild,heseemstogobacktotheElizabethansong
writersforhismodels;butforthegreaterpartofhislifehewasthe
poetofinspirationalone,followingnoman'slead,andobeyingnovoice

butthatwhichheheardinhisownmysticsoul.Thoughthemost
extraordinaryliterarygeniusofhisage,hehadpracticallynoinfluence
uponit.Indeed,wehardlyyetunderstandthispoetofpurefancy,this
mysticthistranscendentalmadman,whoremainedtotheendofhisbusylife
anincomprehensiblechild.
LIFE.Blake,thesonofaLondontradesman,wasastrange,imaginative
child,whosesoulwasmoreathomewithbrooksandflowersandfairiesthan
withthecrowdofthecitystreets.Beyondlearningtoreadandwrite,he
receivededucation;buthebegan,attenyears,tocopyprintsandtowrite
verses.Healsobeganalongcourseofartstudy,whichresultedinhis
publishinghisownbooks,adornedwithmarginalengravingscoloredby
hand,anunusualsetting,worthyofthestrongartisticsensethatshows
itselfinmanyofhisearlyverses.AsachildhehadvisionsofGodand
theangelslookinginathiswindow;andasamanhethoughthereceived
visitsfromthesoulsofthegreatdead,Moses,Virgil,Homer,Dante,
Milton,"majesticshadows,graybutluminous,"hecallsthem.Heseems
nevertohaveaskedhimselfthequestionhowfarthesevisionswerepure
illusions,butbelievedandtrustedthemimplicitly.Tohimallnaturewas
avastspiritualsymbolism,whereinhesawelves,fairies,devils,
angels,alllookingathiminfriendshiporenmitythroughtheeyesof
flowersandstars:
Withtheblueskyspreadoverwithwings,
Andthemildsunthatmountsandsings;
Withtreesandfieldsfulloffairyelves,
Andlittledevilswhofightforthemselves;
Withangelsplantedinhawthornebowers,
AndGodhimselfinthepassinghours.
Andthiscurious,pantheisticconceptionofnaturewasnotamatterof
creed,buttheveryessenceofBlake'slife.Strangelyenough,hemadeno
attempttofoundanewreligiouscult,butfollowedhisownway,singing
cheerfully,workingpatiently,inthefaceofdiscouragementandfailure.
Thatwritersoffarlessgeniuswereexaltedtofavor,whileheremained
poorandobscure,doesnotseemtohavetroubledhimintheleast.Forover
fortyyearshelaboreddiligentlyatbookengraving,guidedinhisartby
MichaelAngelo.butinventinghisowncuriousdesigns,atwhichwestill
wonder.TheillustrationsforYoung's"NightThoughts,"forBlair's
"Grave,"andthe"InventionstotheBookofJob,"showthepeculiarityof
Blake'smindquiteasclearlyashispoems.Whileheworkedathistradehe
flungoffforheneverseemedtocomposedisjointedvisionsand
incomprehensiblerhapsodies,withanoccasionallittlegemthatstillsets
ourheartstosinging:
Ah,sunflower,wearyoftime,
Whocountestthestepsofthesun;
Seekingafterthatsweetgoldenclime
Wherethetraveller'sjourneyisdone;
Wheretheyouthpinedawaywithdesire,
Andthepalevirginshroudedinsnow,
Risefromtheirgraves,andaspire
Wheremysunflowerwishestogo!
ThatisacuriousflowertofindgrowingintheLondonstreet;butit
suggestsBlake'sownlife,whichwasoutwardlybusyandquiet,butinwardly
fullofadventureandexcitement.Hislasthugepropheticworks,like
_Jerusalem_and_Milton_(1804),weredictatedtohim,hedeclares,by
supernaturalmeans,andevenagainsthisownwill.Theyareonlyhalf
intelligible,buthereandthereoneseesflashesofthesamepoeticbeauty
thatmarkshislittlepoems.CriticsgenerallydismissBlakewiththeword
"madman";butthatisonlyanevasion.Atbest,heisthewriterof
exquisitelyrics;atworst,heismadonly"northnorthwest,"likeHamlet;
andthepuzzleistofindthemethodinhismadness.Themostamazingthing
abouthimistheperfectlysaneandcheerfulwayinwhichhemovedthrough

povertyandobscurity,flingingoutexquisitepoemsorsenseless
rhapsodies,asachildmightplaywithgemsorstrawsorsunbeams
indifferently.Hewasagentle,kindly,mostunworldlylittleman,with
extraordinaryeyes,whichseemeveninthelifelessportraitstoreflect
someunusualhypnoticpower.Hediedobscurely,smilingatavisionof
Paradise,in1827.Thatwasnearlyacenturyago,yethestillremainsone
ofthemostincomprehensiblefiguresinourliterature.
WORKSOFBLAKE.The_PoeticalSketches_,publishedin1783,isacollection
ofBlake'searliestpoetry,muchofitwritteninboyhood.Itcontainsmuch
crudeandincoherentwork,butalsoafewlyricsofstrikingoriginality.
Twolaterandbetterknownvolumesare_SongsofInnocence_and_Songsof
Experience_,reflectingtwowidelydifferentviewsofthehumansoul.Asin
allhisworks,thereisanabundanceofapparentlyworthlessstuffinthese
songs;but,inthelanguageofminers,itisall"paydirt";itshows
gleamsofgoldengrainsthatawaitoursifting,andnowandthenwefinda
nuggetunexpectedly:
Mylordwaslikeafloweruponthebrows
OflustyMay;ahlifeasfrailasflower!
Mylordwaslikeastarinhighestheaven
Drawndowntoearthbyspellsandwickedness;
Mylordwasliketheopeningeyeofday;
Butheisdarkened;likethesummermoon
Clouded;fall'nlikethestatelytree,cutdown;
Thebreathofheavendweltamonghisleaves.
OnaccountofthechaoticcharacterofmostofBlake'swork,itiswellto
beginourreadingwithashortbookofselections,containingthebest
songsofthesethreelittlevolumes.SwinburnecallsBlaketheonlypoetof
"supremeandsimplepoeticgenius"oftheeighteenthcentury,theoneman
ofthatagefit,onallaccounts,torankwiththeoldgreatmasters.[207]
Thepraiseisdoubtlessextravagant,andthecriticismsomewhat
intemperate;butwhenwehaveread"TheEveningStar,""Memory,""Night,"
"Love,""TotheMuses,""Spring,""Summer,""TheTiger,""TheLamb,""The
ClodandthePebble,"wemaypossiblyshareSwinburne'senthusiasm.
Certainly,inthesethreevolumeswehavesomeofthemostperfectandthe
mostoriginalsongsinourlanguage.
OfBlake'slongerpoems,histitanicpropheciesandapocalypticsplendors,
itisimpossibletowritejustlyinsuchabriefworkasthis.Outwardly
theysuggestahugechaffpile,andthescatteredgrainsofwheathardly
warrantthelaborofwinnowing.Thecuriousreaderwillgetanideaof
Blake'samazingmysticismbydippingintoanyoftheworksofhismiddle
life,_Urizen,GatesofParadise,MarriageofHeavenandHell,America,
TheFrenchRevolution_,or_TheVisionoftheDaughtersofAlbion_.His
latestworks,like_Jerusalem_and_Milton_,aretooobscuretohaveany
literaryvalue.Toreadanyoftheseworkscasuallyistocalltheauthora
madman;tostudythem,rememberingBlake'ssongsandhisgenius,isto
quotesoftlyhisownanswertothechildwhoaskedaboutthelandof
dreams:
"Owhatlandisthelandofdreams,
Whatareitsmountainsandwhatareitsstreams?
Ofather,Isawmymotherthere,
Amongtheliliesbywatersfair."
"Dearchild,Ialsobypleasantstreams
Havewanderedallnightinthelandofdreams;
Butthoughcalmandwarmthewaterswide,
Icouldnotgettotheotherside."
MINORPOETSOFTHEREVIVAL
Wehavechosenthefiveprecedingpoets,Gray,Goldsmith,Cowper,Burns,

andBlake,asthemosttypicalandthemostinterestingofthewriterswho
proclaimedthedawnofRomanticismintheeighteenthcentury.Withthemwe
associateagroupofminorwriters,whoseworkswereimmenselypopularin
theirownday.Theordinaryreaderwillpassthemby,buttothestudent
theyareallsignificantasexpressionsofverydifferentphasesofthe
romanticrevival.
JAMESTHOMSON(17001748).Thomsonbelongsamongthepioneersof
Romanticism.LikeGrayandGoldsmith,hewaveredbetweenPseudoclassicand
thenewromanticideals,andforthisreason,iffornoother,hisearly
workisinteresting,liketheuncertaintyofachildwhohesitateswhether
tocreepsafelyonallfoursorriskafallbywalking.Heis"worthytobe
remembered"forthreepoems,"RuleBritannia,"whichisstilloneofthe
nationalsongsofEngland_TheCastleofIndolence_,and_TheSeasons_.The
dreamyandromantic_Castle_(1748),occupiedbyenchanterIndolenceand
hiswillingcaptivesinthelandofDrowsyhed,ispurelySpenserianinits
imagery,andiswrittenintheSpenserianstanza._TheSeasons_(1726
1730),writteninblankverse,describesthesightsandsoundsofthe
changingyearandthepoet'sownfeelingsinthepresenceofnature.These
twopoems,thoughratherdulltoamodernreader,weresignificantofthe
earlyromanticrevivalinthreeways:theyabandonedtheprevailingheroic
couplet;theywentbacktotheElizabethans,insteadoftoPope,fortheir
models;andtheycalledattentiontothelongneglectedlifeofnatureasa
subjectforpoetry.
WILLIAMCOLLINS(17211759).Collins,thefriendanddiscipleofThomson,
wasofadelicate,nervoustemperament,likeCowper;andoverhimalso
broodedtheawfulshadowofinsanity.Hisfirstwork,_OrientalEclogues_
(1742),isromanticinfeeling,butiswrittenintheprevailingmechanical
couplets.Allhislaterworkisromanticinboththoughtandexpression.
His"OdeonthePopularSuperstitionsoftheHighlands"(1750)isan
interestingeventintheromanticrevival,foritintroducedanewworld,
ofwitches,pygmies,fairies,andmedivalkings,fortheimaginationto
playin.Collins'sbestknownpoemsaretheodes"ToSimplicity,""To
Fear,""TothePassions,"thelittleunnamedlyricbeginning"Howsleepthe
brave,"andtheexquisite"OdetoEvening."Inreadingthelatter,oneis
scarcelyawarethatthelinesaresodelicatelybalancedthattheyhaveno
needofrimetoaccentuatetheirmelody.
GEORGECRABBE(17541832).Crabbeisaninterestingcombinationofrealism
andromanticism,hisworkofdepictingcommonlifebeing,attimes,vaguely
suggestiveofFielding'snovels._TheVillage_(1783),apoemwithouta
rivalasapictureoftheworkingmenofhisage,issometimeslikeFielding
initscoarsevigor,andagainlikeDrydeninitspreciseversification.
Thepoemwasnotsuccessfulatfirst,andCrabbeabandonedhisliterary
dreams.Forovertwentyyearshesettleddownasaclergymaninacountry
parish,observingkeenlythecommonlifeabouthim.Thenhepublishedmore
poems,exactlylike_TheVillage_,whichimmediatelybroughthimfameand
money.TheybroughthimalsothefriendshipofWalterScott,who,like
others,regardedCrabbeasoneofthefirstpoetsoftheage.Theselater
poems,_TheParishRegister_(1807),_TheBorough_(1810),_TalesinVerse_
(1812),and_TalesoftheHall_(1819),areinthesamestrain.Theyare
writtenincouplets;theyarereflectionsofnatureandofcountrylife;
theycontainmuchthatissordidanddull,butareneverthelessreal
picturesofrealmenandwomen,justasCrabbesawthem,andassuchthey
arestillinteresting.GoldsmithandBurnshadidealizedthepoor,andwe
admirethemfortheirsympathyandinsight.ItremainedforCrabbetoshow
thatinwretchedfishingvillages,inthelivesofhardworkingmenand
women,children,laborers,smugglers,paupers,allsortsandconditions
ofcommonmen,thereisabundantromanticwithoutexaggeratingor
idealizingtheirvicesandvirtues.
JAMESMACPHERSON(17361796).InMacphersonwehaveanunusualfigure,who
cateredtothenewromanticinterestintheoldepicheroes,andwon
immensethoughmomentaryfame,byaseriesofliteraryforgeries.

MacphersonwasaScotchschoolmaster,aneducatedman,butevidentlynot
overtenderofconscience,whoseimaginationhadbeenstirredbycertain
oldpoemswhichhemayhaveheardinGaelicamongtheHighlanders.In1760
hepublishedhis_FragmentsofAncientPoetrycollectedintheHighlands_,
andallegedthathisworkwasbutatranslationofGaelicmanuscripts.
Whethertheworkofitselfwouldhaveattractedattentionisdoubtful;but
thefactthatanabundanceofliterarymaterialmightbeawaitingdiscovery
ledtoaninterestsuchasnowattendstheopeningofanEgyptiantomb,and
asubscriptionwaspromptlyraisedinEdinburghtosendMacphersonthrough
theHighlandstocollectmore"manuscripts."Theresultwastheepic
_Fingal_(1762),"thatlankandlamentablecounterfeitofpoetry,"as
Swinburnecallsit,whichtheauthorprofessedtohavetranslatedfromthe
GaelicofthepoetOssian.Itssuccesswasastonishing,andMacpherson
followeditupwith_Temora_(1763),anotherepicinthesamestrain.In
boththeseworksMacphersonsucceedsingivinganairofprimalgrandeurto
hisheroes;thecharactersarebigandshadowy;theimageryisattimes
magnificent;thelanguageisakindofchanting,bombasticprose:
NowFingalaroseinhismightandthriceherearedhisvoice.Cromla
answeredaround,andthesonsofthedesertstoodstill.Theybenttheir
redfacestoearth,ashamedatthepresenceofFingal.Hecamelikeacloud
ofraininthedaysofthesun,whenslowitrollsonthehill,andfields
expecttheshower.SwaranbeheldtheterriblekingofMorven,andstopped
inthemidstofhiscourse.Darkheleanedonhisspearrollinghisred
eyesaround.SilentandtallheseemedasanoakonthebanksofLubar,
whichhaditsbranchesblastedofoldbythelightningofheaven.His
thousandspouraroundthehero,andthedarknessofbattlegathersonthe
hill.[208]
Thepublicationofthisgloomy,imaginativeworkproducedaliterarystorm.
Afewcritics,ledbyDr.Johnson,demandedtoseetheoriginal
manuscripts,andwhenMacphersonrefusedtoproducethem,[209]theOssianic
poemswerebrandedasaforgery;neverthelesstheyhadenormoussuccess.
Macphersonwashonoredasaliteraryexplorer;hewasgivenanofficial
position,carryingasalaryforlife;andathisdeath,in1796,hewas
buriedinWestminsterAbbey.Blake,Burns,andindeedmostofthepoetsof
theagewereinfluencedbythisshampoetry.EventhescholarlyGraywas
deceivedanddelightedwith"Ossian";andmenasfarapartasGoetheand
Napoleonpraiseditimmoderately.
THOMASCHATTERTON(17521770).This"marvelousboy,"towhomKeats
dedicatedhis"Endymion,"andwhoiscelebratedinShelley's"Adonais,"is
oneofthesaddestandmostinterestingfiguresoftheromanticrevival.
DuringhischildhoodhehauntedtheoldchurchofSt.MaryRedcliffe,in
Bristol,wherehewasfascinatedbythemedivalairoftheplace,and
especiallybyoneoldchest,knownasCanynge'scoffer,containingmusty
documentswhichhadbeenpreservedforthreehundredyears.Withstrange,
uncannyintentnessthechildporedovertheserelicsofthepast,copying
theminsteadofhiswritingbook,untilhecouldimitatenotonlythe
spellingandlanguagebuteventhehandwritingoftheoriginal.Soonafter
the"Ossian"forgeriesappeared,Chattertonbegantoproducedocuments,
apparentlyveryold,containingmedivalpoems,legends,andfamily
histories,centeringaroundtwocharacters,ThomasRowley,priestand
poet,andWilliamCanynge,merchantofBristolinthedaysofHenryVI.It
seemsincrediblethatthewholedesignofthesemedivalromancesshould
havebeenworkedoutbyachildofeleven,andthathecouldreproducethe
styleandthewritingofCaxton'sdaysowellthattheprinterswere
deceived;butsuchisthefact.Moreandmore_RowleyPapers_,astheywere
called,wereproducedbyChatterton,apparentlyfromthearchivesofthe
oldchurch;inrealityfromhisownimagination,delightingalargecircle
ofreaders,anddeceivingallbutGrayandafewscholarswhorecognized
theoccasionalmisuseoffifteenthcenturyEnglishwords.Allthisworkwas
carefullyfinished,andboretheunmistakablestampofliterarygenius.
Readingnowhis"lla,"orthe"BalladofCharite,"orthelongpoemin
balladstylecalled"BristoweTragedie,"itishardtorealizethatitisa

boy'swork.AtseventeenyearsofageChattertonwentforaliterarycareer
toLondon,wherehesoonafterwardstookpoisonandkilledhimselfinafit
ofchildishdespondency,broughtonbypovertyandhunger.
THOMASPERCY(17291811).ToPercy,bishopoftheIrishchurch,inDromore,
weareindebtedforthefirstattemptatasystematiccollectionofthe
folksongsandballadswhicharecountedamongthetreasuresofanation's
literature.[210]In1765hepublished,inthreevolumes,hisfamous
_ReliquesofAncientEnglishPoetry_.Themostvaluablepartofthiswork
istheremarkablecollectionofoldEnglishandScottishBallads,suchas
"ChevyChase,"the"NutBrownMayde,""ChildrenoftheWood,""Battleof
Otterburn,"andmanymore,whichbutforhislabormighteasilyhave
perished.Wehavenowmuchbetterandmorereliableeditionsofthesesame
ballads;forPercygarbledhismaterials,addingandsubtractingfreely,
andeveninventingafewballadsofhisown.Twomotivesprobably
influencedhiminthis.First,thedifferentversionsofthesameballad
variedgreatly;andPercy,inchangingthemtosuithimself,tookthesame
libertyashadmanyotherwritersindealingwiththesamematerial.
Second;PercywasundertheinfluenceofJohnsonandhisschool,and
thoughtitnecessarytoaddafewelegantballads"toatoneforthe
rudenessofthemoreobsoletepoems."Thatsoundsqueernow,usedasweare
toexactnessindealingwithhistoricalandliterarymaterial;butit
expressesthegeneralspiritoftheageinwhichhelived.
Notwithstandingthesedrawbacks,Percy's_Reliques_marksanepochinthe
historyofRomanticism,anditisdifficulttomeasureitsinfluenceonthe
wholeromanticmovement.Scottsaysofit,"ThefirsttimeIcouldscrapea
fewshillingstogether,Iboughtmyselfacopyofthesebelovedvolumes;
nordoIbelieveIeverreadabookhalfsofrequently,orwithhalfthe
enthusiasm."Scott'sownpoetryisstronglymodeledupontheseearly
ballads,andhis_MinstrelsyoftheScottishBorder_isduechieflytothe
influenceofPercy'swork.
Besidesthe_Reliques_,Percyhasgivenusanothergoodworkinhis
_NorthernAntiquities_(1770)translatedfromtheFrenchofMallet's
_HistoryofDenmark_.Thisalsowasofimmenseinfluence,sinceit
introducedtoEnglishreadersanewandfascinatingmythology,morerugged
andprimitivethanthatoftheGreeks;andwearestill,inmusicasin
letters,underthespellofThorandOdin,ofFreaandtheValkyrmaidens,
andofthatstupendousdramaofpassionandtragedywhichendedinthe
"TwilightoftheGods."Theliteraryworldowesadebtofgratitudeto
Percy,whowrotenothingofimportancehimself,butwho,bycollectingand
translatingtheworksofothermen,didmuchtohastenthetriumphof
Romanticisminthenineteenthcentury.
III.THEFIRSTENGLISHNOVELISTS
Thechiefliteraryphenomenaofthecomplexeighteenthcenturyarethe
reignofsocalledClassicism,therevivalofromanticpoetry,andthe
discoveryofthemodernnovel.Ofthesethree,thelastisprobablythe
mostimportant.Asidefromthefactthatthenovelisthemostmodern,and
atpresentthemostwidelyreadandinfluentialtypeofliterature,wehave
acertainprideinregardingitasEngland'soriginalcontributiontothe
worldofletters.Othergreattypesofliterature,liketheepic,the
romance,andthedrama,werefirstproducedbyothernations;buttheidea
ofthemodernnovelseemstohavebeenworkedoutlargelyonEnglish
soil;[211]andinthenumberandthefinequalityofhernovelists,England
hashardlybeenrivaledbyanyothernation.Beforewestudythewriters
whodevelopedthisnewtypeofliterature,itiswelltoconsiderbriefly
itsmeaningandhistory.
MEANINGOFTHENOVEL.Probablythemostsignificantremarkmadebythe
ordinaryreaderconcerningaworkoffictiontakestheformofaquestion:
Isitagoodstory?Forthereaderoftodayismuchlikethechildandthe

primitivemaninthisrespect,thathemustbeattractedandheldbythe
storyelementofanarrativebeforehelearnstoappreciateitsstyleor
moralsignificance.Thestoryelementisthereforeessentialtothenovel;
butwherethestoryoriginatesisimpossibletosay.Aswellmightweseek
fortheoriginoftherace;forwhereverprimitivemenarefound,therewe
seethemgatheringeagerlyaboutthestoryteller.Inthehallsofour
Saxonancestorsthescopandthetalebringerwereeverthemostwelcome
guests;andinthebarkwigwamsoftheAmericanIndiansthemanwhotold
thelegendsofHiawathahadanaudiencequiteasattentiveasthatwhich
gatheredattheGreekfestivalstohearthestoryofUlysses'swanderings.
Toman'sinstinctorinnateloveforastoryweareindebtedforallour
literature;andthenovelmustinsomedegreesatisfythisinstinct,or
failofappreciation.
Thesecondquestionwhichweaskconcerningaworkoffictionis,Howfar
doestheelementofimaginationenterintoit?Forupontheelementof
imaginationdepends,largely,ourclassificationofworksoffictioninto
novels,romances,andmereadventurestories.Thedivisionshereareas
indefiniteastheborderlandbetweenchildhoodandyouth,betweeninstinct
andreason;buttherearecertainprinciplestoguideus.Wenote,inthe
developmentofanynormalchild,thattherecomesatimewhenforhis
storieshedesiresknights,giants,elves,fairies,witches,magic,and
marvelousadventureswhichhavenobasisinexperience.Hetells
extraordinarytalesabouthimself,whichmaybeonlythevagueremembrances
ofadreamorthecreationsofadawningimagination,bothofwhichareas
realtohimasanyotherpartoflife.Whenwesaythatsuchachild
"romances,"wegiveexactlytherightnametoit;forthissuddeninterest
inextraordinarybeingsandeventsmarksthedevelopmentofthehuman
imagination,runningriotatfirst,becauseitisnotguidedbyreason,
whichisalaterdevelopment,andtosatisfythisnewinterestthe
romance[212]wasinvented.Theromanceis,originally,aworkoffictionin
whichtheimaginationisgivenfullplaywithoutbeinglimitedbyfactsor
probabilities.Itdealswithextraordinaryevents,withheroeswhosepowers
areexaggerated,andoftenaddstheelementofsuperhumanorsupernatural
characters.Itisimpossibletodrawthelinewhereromanceends;butthis
elementofexcessiveimaginationandofimpossibleheroesandincidentsis
itsdistinguishingmarkineveryliterature.
Wherethenovelbeginsitislikewiseimpossibletosay;butagainwehave
asuggestionintheexperienceofeveryreader.Therecomesatime,
naturallyandinevitably,inthelifeofeveryyouthwhentheromanceno
longerenthrallshim.Helivesinaworldoffacts;getsacquaintedwith
menandwomen,somegood,somebad,butallhuman;andhedemandsthat
literatureshallexpresslifeasheknowsitbyexperience.Thisisthe
stageoftheawakenedintellect,andinourstoriestheintellectaswell
astheimaginationmustnowbesatisfied.Atthebeginningofthisstagewe
delightin_RobinsonCrusoe;_wereadeagerlyamultitudeofadventure
narrativesandafewsocalledhistoricalnovels;butineachcasewemust
beluredbyastory,mustfindheroesand"movingaccidentsbyfloodand
field"toappealtoourimagination;andthoughtheheroandtheadventure
maybeexaggerated,theymustbothbenaturalandwithintheboundsof
probability.Graduallytheelementofadventureorsurprisingincident
growslessandlessimportant,aswelearnthattruelifeisnot
adventurous,butaplain,heroicmatterofworkandduty,andthedaily
choicebetweengoodandevil.Lifeisthemostrealthingintheworld
now,notthelifeofkings,orheroes,orsuperhumancreatures,butthe
individuallifewithitsstrugglesandtemptationsandtriumphsor
failures,likeourown;andanyworkthatfaithfullyrepresentslife
becomesinteresting.Sowedroptheadventurestoryandturntothenovel.
Forthenovelisaworkoffictioninwhichtheimaginationandthe
intellectcombinetoexpresslifeintheformofastoryandthe
imaginationisalwaysdirectedandcontrolledbytheintellect.Itis
interestedchiefly,notinromanceoradventure,butinmenandwomenas
theyare;itaimstoshowthemotivesandinfluenceswhichgovernhuman
life,andtheeffectsofpersonalchoiceuponcharacteranddestiny.Such

isthetruenovel,[213]andassuchitopensawiderandmoreinteresting
fieldthananyothertypeofliterature.
PRECURSORSOFTHENOVEL.Beforethenovelcouldreachitsmodernstage,of
amoreorlesssincereattempttoexpresshumanlifeandcharacter,ithad
topassthroughseveralcenturiesofalmostimperceptibledevelopment.
Amongtheearlyprecursorsofthenovelwemustplaceacollectionoftales
knownastheGreekRomances,datingfromthesecondtothesixthcenturies.
Theseareimaginativeanddelightfulstoriesofidealloveandmarvelous
adventure,[214]whichprofoundlyaffectedromancewritingforthenext
thousandyears.AsecondgroupofpredecessorsisfoundintheItalianand
Spanishpastoralromances,whichwereinspiredbythe_Eclogues_ofVirgil.
Thesewereextremelypopularinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,and
theirinfluenceisseenlaterinSidney's_Arcadia_,whichisthebestof
thistypeinEnglish.
Thethirdandmostinfluentialgroupofpredecessorsofthenovelismade
upoftheromancesofchivalry,suchasarefoundinMalory's_Morte
d'Arthur_.Itisnoticeable,inreadingthesebeautifuloldromancesin
differentlanguages,thateachnationchangesthemsomewhat,soastomake
themmoreexpressiveofnationaltraitsandideals.Inaword,theold
romancetendsinevitablytowardsrealism,especiallyinEngland,wherethe
excessiveimaginationiscurbedandtheheroesbecomemorehuman.In
Malory,intheunknownauthorof_SirGawainandtheGreenKnight_,and
especiallyinChaucer,weseetheeffectofthepracticalEnglishmindin
givingtheseoldromancesamorenaturalsetting,andinmakingtheheroes
suggest,thoughfaintly,themenandwomenoftheirownday.The
_CanterburyTales_,withtheirstoryinterestandtheircharacters
delightfullytruetonature,haveinthemthesuggestion,atleast,ofa
connectedstorywhosechiefaimistoreflectlifeasitis.
IntheElizabethanAgetheideaofthenovelgrowsmoredefinite.In
Sidney's_Arcadia_(1580),aromanceofchivalry,thepastoralsettingat
leastisgenerallytruetonature;ourcredulityisnottaxed,asinthe
oldromances,bythecontinualappearanceofmagicormiracles;andthe
characters,thoughidealizedtilltheybecometiresome,occasionallygive
theimpressionofbeingrealmenandwomen.InBacon's_TheNewAtlantis_
(1627)wehavethestoryofthediscoverybymarinersofanunknown
country,inhabitedbyasuperiorraceofmen,morecivilizedthan
ourselves,anideawhichhadbeenusedbyMoreinhis_Utopia_in1516.
Thesetwobooksareneitherromancesnornovels,inthestrictsense,but
studiesofsocialinstitutions.Theyusetheconnectedstoryasameansof
teachingmorallessons,andofbringingaboutneededreforms;andthis
valuablesuggestionhasbeenadoptedbymanyofourmodernwritersinthe
socalledproblemnovelsandnovelsofpurpose.
NearertothetruenovelisLodge'sromanticstoryof_Rosalynde_,which
wasusedbyShakespearein_AsYouLikeIt_.Thiswasmodeleduponthe
Italiannovella,orshortstory,whichbecameverypopularinEngland
duringtheElizabethanAge.InthesameagewehaveintroducedintoEngland
theSpanishpicaresquenovel(from_picaro_,aknaveorrascal),whichat
firstwasakindofburlesqueonthemedivalromance,andwhichtookfor
itsherosomelowscoundreloroutcast,insteadofaknight,andfollowed
himthroughalongcareerofscandalsandvillainies.Oneoftheearliest
typesofthispicaresquenovelinEnglishisNash's_TheUnfortunate
Traveller,ortheLifeofJackWilton_(1594),whichisalsoaforerunner
ofthehistoricalnovel,sinceitsactiontakesplaceduringthatgorgeous
interviewbetweenHenryVIIIandthekingofFranceontheFieldofthe
ClothofGold.Inalltheseshortstoriesandpicaresquenovelsthe
emphasiswaslaidnotsomuchonlifeandcharacterasontheadventuresof
thehero;andtheinterestconsistedlargelyinwonderingwhatwouldhappen
next,andhowtheplotwouldend.Thesamemethodisemployedinalltrashy
novelsanditisespeciallythebaneofmanymodernstorywriters.This
excessiveinterestinadventuresorincidentsfortheirownsake,andnot
fortheireffectoncharacter,iswhatdistinguishesthemodernadventure

storyfromthetruenovel.
InthePuritanAgeweapproachstillnearertothemodernnovel,especially
intheworkofBunyan;andasthePuritanalwayslaidemphasison
character,storiesappearedhavingadefinitemoralpurpose.Bunyan's_The
Pilgrim'sProgress_(1678)differsfromthe_FaeryQueen_,andfromall
othermedivalallegories,inthisimportantrespect,thatthecharacters,
farfrombeingbloodlessabstractions,arebutthinlydisguisedmenand
women.Indeed,manyamodernman,readingthestoryoftheChristian;has
foundinitthereflectionofhisownlifeandexperience.In_TheLifeand
DeathofMr.Badman_(1682)wehaveanotherandevenmorerealisticstudy
ofamanashewasinBunyan'sday.Thesetwostrikingfigures,Christian
andMr.Badman,belongamongthegreatcharactersofEnglishfiction.
Bunyan'sgoodwork,hiskeeninsight,hisdelineationofcharacter,and
hisemphasisuponthemoraleffectsofindividualaction,wascarriedon
byAddisonandSteelesomethirtyyearslater.ThecharacterofSirRoger
deCoverleyisarealreflectionofEnglishcountrylifeintheeighteenth
century;andwithSteele'sdomesticsketchesin_TheTatler,The
Spectator_,and_TheGuardian_(17091713),wedefinitelycrosstheborder
landthatliesoutsideofromance,andentertheregionofcharacterstudy
wherethenovelhasitsbeginning.
THEDISCOVERYOFTHEMODERNNOVEL.Notwithstandingthislonghistoryof
fiction,towhichwehavecalledattention,itissafetosaythat,until
thepublicationofRichardson's_Pamela_in1740,notruenovelhad
appearedinanyliterature.Byatruenovelwemeansimplyaworkof
fictionwhichrelatesthestoryofaplainhumanlife,understressof
emotion,whichdependsforitsinterestnotonincidentoradventure,but
onitstruthtonature.AnumberofEnglishnovelistsGoldsmith,
Richardson,Fielding,Smollett,Sterneallseemtohaveseizeduponthe
ideaofreflectinglifeasitis,intheformofastory,andtohave
developeditsimultaneously.Theresultwasanextraordinaryawakeningof
interest,especiallyamongpeoplewhohadneverbeforebeengreatly
concernedwithliterature.Wearetorememberthat,inpreviousperiods,
thenumberofreaderswascomparativelysmall;andthat,withtheexception
ofafewwriterslikeLanglandandBunyan,authorswrotelargelyforthe
upperclasses.Intheeighteenthcenturythespreadofeducationandthe
appearanceofnewspapersandmagazinesledtoanimmenseincreaseinthe
numberofreaders;andatthesametimethemiddleclasspeopleassumeda
foremostplaceinEnglishlifeandhistory.Thesenewreadersandthisnew,
powerfulmiddleclasshadnoclassictraditiontohamperthem.Theycared
littlefortheopinionsofDr.JohnsonandthefamousLiteraryClub;and,
sofarastheyreadfictionatall,theyapparentlytooklittleinterestin
theexaggeratedromances,ofimpossibleheroesandthepicaresquestories
ofintrigueandvillainywhichhadinterestedtheupperclasses.Somenew
typeofliteraturewasdemanded,thisnewtypemustexpressthenewideal
oftheeighteenthcentury,namely,thevalueandtheimportanceofthe
individuallife.Sothenovelwasborn,expressing,thoughinadifferent
way,exactlythesameidealsofpersonalityandofthedignityofcommon
lifewhichwerelaterproclaimedintheAmericanandintheFrench
Revolution,andwerewelcomedwithrejoicingbythepoetsoftheromantic
revival.Totellmen,notaboutknightsorkingsortypesofheroes,but
aboutthemselvesintheguiseofplainmenandwomen,abouttheirown
thoughtsandmotivesandstruggles,andtheresultsofactionsupontheir
owncharacters,thiswasthepurposeofourfirstnovelists.Theeagerness
withwhichtheirchapterswerereadinEngland,andtherapiditywithwhich
theirworkwascopiedabroad,showhowpowerfullythenewdiscovery
appealedtoreaderseverywhere.
Beforeweconsidertheworkofthesewriterswhofirstdevelopedthemodern
novel,wemustglanceattheworkofapioneer,DanielDefoe,whomweplace
amongtheearlynovelistsforthesimplereasonthatwedonotknowhow
elsetoclassifyhim.

DANIELDEFOE(1661(?)1731)
ToDefoeisoftengiventhecreditforthediscoveryofthemodernnovel;
butwhetherornothedeservesthathonorisanopenquestion.Evena
casualreadingof_RobinsonCrusoe_(1719),whichgenerallyheadsthelist
ofmodernfiction,showsthatthisexcitingtaleislargelyanadventure
story,ratherthanthestudyofhumancharacterwhichDefoeprobably
intendedittobe.Youngpeoplestillreaditastheymightadimenovel,
skippingitsmoralizingpassagesandhurryingontomoreadventures;but
theyseldomappreciatetheexcellentmaturereasonswhichbanishthedime
noveltoasecretplaceinthehaymow,while_Crusoe_hangsproudlyonthe
Christmastreeorholdsanhonoredplaceonthefamilybookshelf.Defoe's
_ApparitionofMrs.Veal,MemoirsofaCavalier_,and_Journalofthe
PlagueYear_aresuchmixturesoffact,fiction,andcredulitythatthey
defyclassification;whileothersocalled"novels,"like_Captain
Singleton,MollFlanders_,and_Roxana_,arebut,littlebetterthan
picaresquestories,withadealofunnaturalmoralizingandrepentance
addedforpuritanicaleffect.In_Crusoe_,Defoebroughttherealistic
adventurestorytoaveryhighstageofitsdevelopment;buthisworks
hardlydeserve,tobeclassedastruenovels,whichmustsubordinate
incidenttothefaithfulportrayalofhumanlifeandcharacter.
LIFE.DefoewasthesonofaLondonbutchernamedFoe,andkepthisfamily
nameuntilhewasfortyyearsofage,whenheaddedthearistocraticprefix
withwhichwehavegrownfamiliar.Theeventsofhisbusyseventyyearsof
life,inwhichhepassedthroughallextremes,frompovertytowealth,from
prosperousbrickmakertostarvelingjournalist,fromNewgateprisonto
immensepopularityandroyalfavor,areobscureenoughindetails;butfour
factsstandoutclearly,whichhelpthereadertounderstandthecharacter
ofhiswork.First,Defoewasajackatalltrades,aswellasawriter;
hisinterestwaslargelywiththeworkingclasses,andnotwithstandingmany
questionablepractices,heseemstohavehadsomecontinuedpurposeof
educatingandupliftingthecommonpeople.Thispartiallyaccountsforthe
enormouspopularityofhisworks,andforthefactthattheywere
criticisedbyliterarymenasbeing"fitonlyforthekitchen."Second,he
wasaradicalNonconformistinreligion,andwasintendedbyhisfatherfor
theindependentministry.ThePuritanzealforreformpossessedhim,andhe
triedtodobyhispenwhatWesleywasdoingbyhispreaching,without,
however,havinganygreatmeasureofthelatter'ssincerityorsingleness
ofpurpose.Thiszealforreformmarksallhisnumerousworks,andaccounts
forthemoralizingtobefoundeverywhere.Third,Defoewasajournalist
andpamphleteer,withareporter'seyeforthepicturesqueandanewspaper
man'sinstinctformakinga"goodstory."Hewroteanimmensenumberof
pamphlets,poems,andmagazinearticles;conductedseveralpapers,oneof
themostpopular,the_Review_,beingissuedfromprison,andthefact
thattheyoftenblewhotandcolduponthesamequestionwashardly
noticed.Indeed,soextraordinarilyinterestingandplausiblewereDefoe's
articlesthathegenerallymanagedtokeepemployedbythepartyinpower,
whetherWhigorTory.Thislongjournalisticcareer,lastinghalfa
century,accountsforhisdirect,simple,narrativestyle,whichholdsus
evennowbyitsintensereality.ToDefoe'sgeniuswearealsoindebtedfor
twodiscoveries,the"interview"andtheleadingeditorial,bothofwhich
arestillindailyuseinourbestnewspapers.
ThefourthfacttorememberisthatDefoeknewprisonlife;andthereby
hangsatale.In1702Defoepublishedaremarkablepamphletcalled"The
ShortestWaywiththeDissenters,"supportingtheclaimsofthefree
churchesagainstthe"HighFliers,"i.e.ToriesandAnglicans.Inaveinof
grimhumorwhichrecallsSwift's"ModestProposal,"Defoeadvocatedhanging
alldissentingministers,andsendingallmembersofthefreechurchesinto
exile;andsoferociouslyrealisticwasthesatirethatbothDissentersand
Toriestooktheauthorliterally.Defoewastried,foundguiltyof
seditiouslibel,andsentencedtobefined,tostandthreedaysinthe
pillory,andtobeimprisoned.Hardlyhadthesentencebeenpronouncedwhen
Defoewrotehis"HymntothePillory,"

Hailhieroglyphicstatemachine,
Contrivedtopunishfancyin,
asetofdoggerelversesridiculinghisprosecutors,whichDefoe,witha
keeneyeforadvertising,scatteredalloverLondon.Crowdsflockedto
cheerhiminthepillory;andseeingthatDefoewasmakingpopularityout
ofpersecution,hisenemiesbundledhimofftoNewgateprison.Heturned
thisexperiencealsotoaccountbypublishingapopularnewspaper,andby
gettingacquaintedwithrogues,pirates,smugglers,andmiscellaneous
outcasts,eachonewitha"goodstory"tobeusedlater.Afterhisrelease
fromprison,in1704,heturnedhisknowledgeofcriminalstofurther
account,andenteredthegovernmentemployasakindofspyorsecret
serviceagent.Hisprisonexperience,andthefurtherknowledgeof
criminalsgainedinovertwentyyearsasaspy,accountsforhisnumerous
storiesofthievesandpirates,_JonathanWild_and_CaptainAvery_,and
alsoforhislaternovels,whichdealalmostexclusivelywithvillainsand
outcasts.
WhenDefoewasnearlysixtyyearsofageheturnedtofictionandwrotethe
greatworkbywhichheisremembered._RobinsonCrusoe_wasaninstant
success,andtheauthorbecamefamousalloverEurope.Otherstories
followedrapidly,andDefoeearnedmoneyenoughtoretiretoNewingtonand
liveincomfort;butnotidly,forhisactivityinproducingfictionis
rivaledonlybythatofWalterScott.Thus,in1720appeared_Captain
Singleton,DuncanCampbell_,and_MemoirsofaCavalier_;in1722,_Colonel
Jack,MollFlanders_,andtheamazinglyrealistic_JournalofthePlague
Year_.Sothelistgrowswithastonishingrapidity,endingwiththe
_HistoryoftheDevil_in1726.
InthelatteryearDefoe'ssecretconnectionwiththegovernmentbecame
known,andagreathowlofindignationroseagainsthiminthepublic
print,destroyinginanhourthepopularitywhichhehadgainedbya
lifetimeofintrigueandlabor.HefledfromhishometoLondon,wherehe
diedobscurely,in1731,whilehidingfromrealorimaginaryenemies.
WORKSOFDEFOE.Attheheadoftheliststands_RobinsonCrusoe_(1719
1720),oneofthefewbooksinanyliteraturewhichhashelditspopularity
undiminishedfornearlytwocenturies.Thestoryisbaseduponthe
experiencesofAlexanderSelkirk,orSelcraig,whohadbeenmaroonedinthe
islandofJuanFernandez,offthecoastofChile,andwhohadlivedthere
insolitudeforfiveyears.OnhisreturntoEnglandin1709,Selkirk's
experiencesbecameknown,andSteelepublishedanaccountofthemin_The
Englishman_,without,however,attractinganywideattention.ThatDefoe
usedSelkirk'sstoryispracticallycertain;butwithhisusualduplicity
heclaimedtohavewritten_Crusoe_in1708,ayearbeforeSelkirk's
return.Howeverthatmaybe,thestoryitselfisrealenoughtohavecome
straightfromasailor'slogbook.Defoe,asshowninhis_Journalofthe
PlagueYear_andhis_MemoirsofaCavalier_,hadtheartofdescribing
thingshehadneverseenwiththeaccuracyofaneyewitness.
Thecharmofthestoryisitsintensereality,inthesuccessionof
thoughts,feelings,incidents,whicheveryreaderrecognizestobe
absolutelytruetolife.Atfirstglanceitwouldseemthatonemanona
desertislandcouldnotpossiblyfurnishthematerialforalongstory;but
aswereadwerealizewithamazementthateveryslightestthoughtand
actionthesavingofthecargooftheshipwreckedvessel,thepreparation
fordefenseagainstimaginaryfoes,theintenseagitationoverthe
discoveryofafootprintinthesandisarecordofwhatthereader
himselfwoulddoandfeelifhewerealoneinsuchaplace.Defoe'slong
andvariedexperiencenowstoodhimingoodstead;infact,he"wasthe
onlymanoflettersinhistimewhomighthavebeenthrownonadesert
islandwithoutfindinghimselfatalosswhattodo;"[215]andheputs
himselfsoperfectlyinhishero'splacethatherepeatshisblundersas
wellashistriumphs.Thus,whatreadereverfollowedDefoe'sherothrough

weary,feverishmonthsofbuildingahugeboat,whichwastoobigtobe
launchedbyoneman,withoutrecallingsomeboywhospentmanystormydays
inshedorcellarbuildingaboatordoghouse,andwho,whenthethingwas
paintedandfinished,founditafootwiderthanthedoor,andhadtoknock
ittopieces?Thisabsolutenaturalnesscharacterizesthewholestory.It
isastudyofthehumanwillalso,ofpatience,fortitude,andthe
indomitableSaxonspiritovercomingallobstacles;anditwasthiselement
whichmadeRousseaurecommend_RobinsonCrusoe_asabettertreatiseon
educationthananythingwhichAristotleorthemodernshadeverwritten.
AndthissuggeststhemostsignificantthingaboutDefoe'smasterpiece,
namely,thattheherorepresentsthewholeofhumansociety,doingwithhis
ownhandsallthethingswhich,bythedivisionoflaborandthedemandsof
moderncivilization,arenowdonebymanydifferentworkers.Heis
thereforethetypeofthewholecivilizedraceofmen.
IntheremainingworksofDefoe,morethantwohundredinnumber,thereis
anastonishingvariety;butallaremarkedbythesamesimple,narrative
style,andthesameintenserealism.Thebestknownofthesearethe
_JournalofthePlagueYear_,inwhichthehorrorsofafrightfulplague
areminutelyrecorded;the_MemoirsofaCavalier_,sorealisticthat
ChathamquoteditashistoryinParliament;andseveralpicaresquenovels,
like_CaptainSingleton,ColonelJack,MollFlanders_,and_Roxana_.The
lastworkisbysomecriticsgivenaveryhighplaceinrealisticfiction,
butliketheotherthree,andlikeDefoe'sminornarrativesofJack
SheppardandCartouche,itisadisagreeablestudyofvice,endingwitha
forcedandunnaturalrepentance.
SAMUELRICHARDSON(16891761)
ToRichardsonbelongsthecreditofwritingthefirstmodernnovel.Hewas
thesonofaLondonjoiner,who,foreconomy'ssake,residedinsome
unknowntowninDerbyshire,whereSamuelwasbornin1689.Theboyreceived
verylittleeducation,buthehadanaturaltalentforwritingletters,and
evenasaboywefindhimfrequentlyemployedbyworkinggirlstowrite
theirlovelettersforthem.Thisearlyexperience,togetherwithhis
fondnessforthesocietyof"hisdearestladies"ratherthanofmen,gave
himthatintimateknowledgeoftheheartsofsentimentalanduneducated
womenwhichismanifestinallhiswork.Moreover,hewasakeenobserver
ofmanners,andhissurprisinglyaccuratedescriptionsoftencompelusto
listen,evenwhenheismosttedious.Atseventeenyearsofagehewentto
Londonandlearnedtheprinter'strade,whichhefollowedtotheendofhis
life.Whenfiftyyearsofagehehadasmallreputationasawriterof
elegantepistles,andthisreputationledcertainpublisherstoapproach
himwithaproposalthathewriteaseriesof_FamiliarLetters_,which
couldbeusedasmodelsbypeopleunusedtowriting.Richardsongladly
acceptedtheproposal,andhadthehappyinspirationtomaketheseletters
telltheconnectedstoryofagirl'slife.Defoehadtoldanadventure
storyofhumanlifeonadesertisland,butRichardsonwouldtellthestory
ofagirl'sinnerlifeinthemidstofEnglishneighbors.Thatsounds
simpleenoughnow,butitmarkedanepochinthehistoryofliterature.
Likeeveryothergreatandsimplediscovery,itmakesuswonderwhysome
onehadnotthoughtofitbefore.
RICHARDSON'SNOVELS.TheresultofRichardson'sinspirationwas_Pamela,or
VirtueRewarded_,anendlessseriesofletters[216]tellingofthetrials,
tribulations,andthefinalhappymarriageofatoosweetyoungmaiden,
publishedinfourvolumesextendingovertheyears1740and1741.Itschief
fameliesinthefactthatitisourfirstnovelinthemodernsense.Aside
fromthisimportantfact,andviewedsolelyasanovel,itissentimental,
grandiloquent,andwearisome.Itssuccessatthetimewasenormous,and
Richardsonbegananotherseriesofletters(hecouldtellastoryinno
otherway)whichoccupiedhisleisurehoursforthenextsixyears.The
resultwas_Clarissa,orTheHistoryofaYoungLady_,publishedineight
volumesin17471748.Thiswasanother,andsomewhatbetter,sentimental

novel;anditwasreceivedwithimmenseenthusiasm.OfallRichardson's
heroinesClarissaisthemosthuman.Inherdoubtsandscruplesof
conscience,andespeciallyinherbittergriefandhumiliation,sheisa
realwoman,inmarkedcontrastwiththemechanicalhero,Lovelace,who
simplyillustratestheauthor'sinabilitytoportrayaman'scharacter.The
dramaticelementinthisnovelisstrong,andisincreasedbymeansofthe
letters,whichenablethereadertokeepclosetothecharactersofthe
storyandtoseelifefromtheirdifferentviewpoints.Macaulay,whowas
deeplyimpressedby_Clarissa_,issaidtohavemadetheremarkthat,were
thenovellost,hecouldrestorealmostthewholeofitfrommemory.
Richardsonnowturnedfromhismiddleclassheroines,andinfiveorsix
yearscompletedanotherseriesofletters,inwhichheattemptedtotell
thestoryofamanandanaristocrat.Theresultwas_SirCharles
Grandison_(1754),anovelinsevenvolumes,whoseherowasintendedtobe
amodelofaristocraticmannersandvirtuesforthemiddleclasspeople,
wholargelyconstitutedthenovelist'sreaders.ForRichardson,whobegan
in_Pamela_withthepurposeofteachinghishearershowtowrite,ended
withthedeliberatepurposeofteachingthemhowtolive;andinmostof
hisworkhischiefobjectwas,inhisownwords,toinculcatevirtueand
gooddeportment.Hisnovels,therefore,sufferasmuchfromhispurposeas
fromhisownlimitations.Notwithstandinghistediousmoralizingandhis
otherdefects,Richardsoninthesethreebooksgavesomethingentirelynew
totheliteraryworld,andtheworldappreciatedthegift.Thiswasthe
storyofhumanlife,toldfromwithin,anddependingforitsinterestnot
onincidentoradventure,butonitstruthtohumannature.Readinghis
workis,onthewhole,likeexaminingtheantiquatedmodelofasternwheel
steamer;itisinterestingforitsundevelopedpossibilitiesratherthan
foritsachievement.
HENRYFIELDING(17071754)
LIFE.Judgedbyhisabilityalone,Fieldingwasthegreatestofthisnew
groupofnovelwriters,andoneofthemostartisticthatourliterature
hasproduced.HewasborninEastStour,Dorsetshire,in1707.Incontrast
withRichardson,hewaswelleducated,havingspentseveralyearsatthe
famousEtonschool,andtakenadegreeinlettersattheUniversityof
Leydenin1728.Moreover,hehadadeeperknowledgeoflife,gainedfrom
hisownvariedandsometimesriotousexperience.Forseveralyearsafter
returningfromLeydenhegainedaprecariouslivingbywritingplays,
farces,andbuffoneriesforthestage.In1735hemarriedanadmirable
woman,ofwhomwehaveglimpsesintwoofhischaracters,Amelia,and
SophiaWestern,andlivedextravagantlyonherlittlefortuneatEast
Stour.Havingusedupallhismoney,hereturnedtoLondonandstudiedlaw,
gaininghislivingbyoccasionalplaysandbynewspaperwork.Forten
years,ormore,littleisdefinitelyknownofhim,savethathepublished
hisfirstnovel,_JosephAndrews_,in1742,andthathewasmadejusticeof
thepeaceforWestminsterin1748.Theremainingyearsofhislife,in
whichhisbestnovelswerewritten,werenotgiventoliterature,but
rathertohisdutiesasmagistrate,andespeciallytobreakingupthegangs
ofthievesandcutthroatswhichinfestedthestreetsofLondonafter
nightfall.HediedinLisbon,whitherhehadgoneforhishealth,in1754,
andliesburiedthereintheEnglishcemetery.Thepatheticaccountofthis
lastjourney,togetherwithaninklingofthegenerosityand
kindheartednessoftheman,notwithstandingthescandalsand
irregularitiesofhislife,arefoundinhislastwork,the_Journalofa
VoyagetoLisbon_.
FIELDING'SWORK.Fielding'sfirstnovel,_JosephAndrews_(1742),was
inspiredbythesuccessof_Pamela_,andbeganasaburlesqueofthefalse
sentimentalityandtheconventionalvirtuesofRichardson'sheroine.He
tookforhisherotheallegedbrotherofPamela,whowasexposedtothe
samekindoftemptations,butwho,insteadofbeingrewardedforhis
virtue,wasunceremoniouslyturnedoutofdoorsbyhismistress.Therethe

burlesqueends;theherotakestotheopenroad,andFieldingforgetsall
aboutPamelaintellingtheadventuresofJosephandhiscompanion,Parson
Adams.UnlikeRichardson,whohasnohumor,whominceswords,and
moralizes,anddotesonthesentimentalwoesofhisheroines,Fieldingis
direct,vigorous,hilarious,andcoarsetothepointofvulgarity.Heis
fullofanimalspirits,andhetellsthestoryofavagabondlife,notfor
thesakeofmoralizing,likeRichardson,orforemphasizingaforced
repentance,likeDefoe,butsimplybecauseitinterestshim,andhisonly
concernis"tolaughmenoutoftheirfollies."Sohisstory,thoughit
aboundsinunpleasantincidents,generallyleavesthereaderwiththe
strongimpressionofreality.
Fielding'slaternovelsare_JonathanWild_,thestoryofarogue,which
suggestsDefoe'snarrative;_TheHistoryofTomJones,aFoundling_(1749),
hisbestwork;and_Amelia_(1751),thestoryofagoodwifeincontrast
withanunworthyhusband.Hisstrengthinalltheseworksisinthe
vigorousbutcoarsefigures,likethoseofJanSteen'spictures,whichfill
mostofhispages;hisweaknessisinlackoftaste,andinbarrennessof
imaginationorinvention,whichleadshimtorepeathisplotsandincidents
withslightvariations.Inallhisworksincerityisperhapsthemost
markedcharacteristic.Fieldinglikesvirilemen,justastheyare,good
andbad,butdetestsshamsofeverysort.HissatirehasnoneofSwift's
bitterness,butissubtleasthatofChaucer,andgoodnaturedasthatof
Steele.Henevermoralizes,thoughsomeofhispowerfullydrawnscenes
suggestadeepermorallessonthananythinginDefoeorRichardson;andhe
neverjudgeseventheworstofhischaracterswithoutrememberinghisown
frailtyandtemperingjusticewithmercy.Onthewhole,thoughmuchofhis
workisperhapsinbadtasteandistoocoarseforpleasantorprofitable
reading,Fieldingmustberegardedasanartist,averygreatartist,in
realisticfiction;andtheadvancedstudentwhoreadshimwillprobably
concurinthejudgmentofamoderncriticthat,bygivingusgenuine
picturesofmenandwomenofhisownage,withoutmoralizingovertheir
vicesandvirtues,hebecametherealfounderofthemodernnovel.
SMOLLETTANDSTERNE
TobiasSmollett(17211771)apparentlytriedtocarryonFielding'swork;
buthelackedFielding'sgenius,aswellashishumorandinherent
kindness,andsocrowdedhispageswiththehorrorsandbrutalitieswhich
aresometimesmistakenforrealism.Smollettwasaphysician,ofeccentric
mannersandferociousinstincts,whodevelopedhisunnaturalpeculiarities
bygoingasasurgeononabattleship,whereheseemstohavepickedupall
theevilsofthenavyandofthemedicalprofessiontouselaterinhis
novels.
Histhreebestknownworksare_RoderickRandom_(1748),aseriesof
adventuresrelatedbythehero;_PeregrinePickle_(1751)inwhichhe
reflectswithbrutaldirectnesstheworstofhisexperiencesatsea;and
_HumphreyClinker_(1771),hislastwork,recountingthemildadventuresof
aWelshfamilyinajourneythroughEnglandandScotland.Thislastalone
canbegenerallyreadwithoutarousingthereadersprofounddisgust.
Withoutanyparticularability,hemodelshisnovelson_DonQuixote_,and
theresultissimplyaseriesofcoarseadventureswhicharecharacteristic
ofthepicaresquenovelofhisage.Wereitnotforthefactthathe
unconsciouslyimitatesJonson's_EveryManinHisHumour_,hewouldhardly
benamedamongourwritersoffiction;butinseizinguponsomegrotesque
habitorpeculiarityandmakingacharacteroutofitsuchasCommodore
Trunnionin_PeregrinePickle_,MatthewBramblein_HumphreyClinker_,and
Bowlingin_RoderickRandom_helaidthefoundationforthatexaggeration
inportrayinghumaneccentricitieswhichfindsaclimaxinDickens's
caricatures.
LawrenceSterne(17131768)hasbeencomparedtoa"littlebronzesatyrof
antiquityinwhosehollowbodyexquisiteodorswerestored."Thatistrue,

sofarasthesatyrisconcerned;foramoreweazened,unlovelypersonality
wouldbehardtofind.Theonlyquestioninthecomparisonisinregardto
thecharacteroftheodors,andthatisamatteroftaste.Inhisworkhe
isthereverseofSmollett,thelatterbeinggivenovertocoarse
vulgarities,whichareoftenmistakenforrealism;theformertowhimsand
vagariesandsentimentaltears,whichfrequentlyonlydisguiseasneerat
humangriefandpity.
ThetwobooksbywhichSterneisrememberedare_TristramShandy_and_A
SentimentalJourneythroughFranceandItaly_.Thesearetermednovelsfor
thesimplereasonthatweknownotwhatelsetocallthem.Theformerwas
begun,inhisownwords,"withnorealideaofhowitwastoturnout";its
ninevolumes,publishedatintervalsfrom1760to1767,proceededinthe
mostaimlessway,recordingtheexperiencesoftheeccentricShandyfamily;
andthebookwasneverfinished.Itsstrengthlieschieflyinitsbrilliant
style,themostremarkableoftheage,andinitsoddcharacters,like
UncleTobyandCorporalTrim,which,withalltheireccentricities,areso
humanizedbytheauthor'sgeniusthattheybelongamongthegreat
"creations"ofourliterature.The_SentimentalJourney_isacurious
combinationoffiction,sketchesoftravel,miscellaneousessaysonodd
subjects,allmarkedbythesamebrilliancyofstyle,andallstampedwith
Sterne'sfalseattitudetowardseverythinginlife.Manyofitsbest
passageswereeitheradaptedortakenbodilyfromBurton,Rabelais,anda
scoreofotherwriters;sothat,inreadingSterne,oneisneverquitesure
howmuchishisownwork,thoughthemarkofhisgrotesquegeniusison
everypage.
THEFIRSTNOVELISTSANDTHEIRWORK.WiththepublicationofGoldsmith's
_VicarofWakefield_in1766thefirstseriesofEnglishnovelscametoa
suitableclose.Ofthiswork,withitsabundanceofhomelysentiment
clusteringaboutthefamilylifeasthemostsacredofAngloSaxon
institutions,wehavealreadyspoken[217]Ifweexcept_RobinsonCrusoe_,
asanadventurestory,the_VicarofWakefield_istheonlynovelofthe
periodwhichcanbefreelyrecommendedtoallreaders,asgivingan
excellentideaofthenewliterarytype,whichwasperhapsmoreremarkable
foritspromisethanforitsachievement.Intheshortspaceoftwentyfive
yearstheresuddenlyappearedandflourishedanewformofliterature,
whichinfluencedallEuropefornearlyacentury,andwhichstillfurnishes
thelargestpartofourliteraryenjoyment.Eachsuccessivenovelist
broughtsomenewelementtothework,aswhenFieldingsuppliedanimal
vigorandhumortoRichardson'sanalysisofahumanheart,andSterneadded
brilliancy,andGoldsmithemphasizedpurityandthehonestdomestic
sentimentswhicharestillthegreatestrulingforceamongmen.Sothese
earlyworkerswerelikemenengagedincarvingaperfectcameofromthe
reverseside.Oneworkstheprofile,anothertheeyes,athirdthemouth
andthefinelinesofcharacter;andnottilltheworkisfinished,andthe
cameoturned,doweseethecompletehumanfaceandreaditsmeaning.Such,
inaparable,isthestoryoftheEnglishnovel.
SUMMARYOFTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY.Theperiodwearestudyingisincluded
betweentheEnglishRevolutionof1688andthebeginningoftheFrench
Revolutionof1789.Historically,theperiodbeginsinaremarkablewayby
theadoptionoftheBillofRightsin1689.Thisfamousbillwasthethird
andfinalstepintheestablishmentofconstitutionalgovernment,thefirst
stepbeingtheGreatCharter(1215),andthesecondthePetitionofRight
(1628).Themodernformofcabinetgovernmentwasestablishedinthereign
ofGeorgeI(17141727).TheforeignprestigeofEnglandwasstrengthened
bythevictoriesofMarlboroughontheContinent,intheWaroftheSpanish
Succession;andtheboundsofempirewereenormouslyincreasedbyClivein
India,byCookinAustraliaandtheislandsofthePacific,andbyEnglish
victoriesovertheFrenchinCanadaandtheMississippiValley,duringthe
SevenYears',orFrenchandIndian,Wars.Politically,thecountrywas
dividedintoWhigsandTories:theformerseekinggreaterlibertyforthe
people;thelatterupholdingthekingagainstpopulargovernment.The
continuedstrifebetweenthesetwopoliticalpartieshadadirect(and

generallyaharmful)influenceonliterature,asmanyofthegreatwriters
wereusedbytheWhigorTorypartytoadvanceitsowninterestsandto
satirizeitsenemies.Notwithstandingthisperpetualstrifeofparties,the
ageisremarkablefortherapidsocialdevelopment,whichsoonexpressed
itselfinliterature.Clubsandcoffeehousesmultiplied,andthesocial
lifeoftheseclubsresultedinbettermanners,inageneralfeelingof
toleration,andespeciallyinakindofsuperficialelegancewhichshows
itselfinmostoftheproseandpoetryoftheperiod.Ontheotherhand,
themoralstandardofthenationwasverylow;bandsofrowdiesinfested
thecitystreetsafternightfall;briberyandcorruptionweretherulein
politics;anddrunkennesswasfrightfullyprevalentamongallclasses.
Swift'sdegradedraceofYahoosisareflectionofthedegradationtobe
seeninmultitudesofLondonsaloons.Thislowstandardofmorals
emphasizestheimportanceofthegreatMethodistrevivalunderWhitefield
andWesley,whichbeganinthesecondquarteroftheeighteenthcentury.
Theliteratureofthecenturyisremarkablycomplex,butwemayclassifyit
allunderthreegeneralheads,theReignofsocalledClassicism,the
RevivalofRomanticPoetry,andtheBeginningoftheModernNovel.The
firsthalfofthecentury,especially,isanageofprose,owinglargelyto
thefactthatthepracticalandsocialinterestsoftheagedemanded
expression.Modernnewspapers,likethe_Chronicle,Post_,and_Times_,and
literarymagazines,likethe_Tatler_and_Spectator_,whichbeganinthis
age,greatlyinfluencedthedevelopmentofaserviceableprosestyle.The
poetryofthefirsthalfofthecentury,astypifiedinPope,waspolished,
unimaginative,formal;andtheclosedcoupletwasingeneraluse,
supplantingallotherformsofverse.Bothproseandpoetryweretoo
frequentlysatiric,andsatiredoesnottendtoproduceahightypeof
literature.Thesetendenciesinpoetryweremodified,inthelatterpartof
thecentury,bytherevivalofromanticpoetry.
Inourstudywehavenoted:(1)theAugustanorClassicAge;themeaningof
Classicism;thelifeandworkofAlexanderPope,thegreatestpoetofthe
age;ofJonathanSwift,thesatirist;ofJosephAddison,theessayist;of
RichardSteele,whowastheoriginalgeniusofthe_Tatler_andthe
_Spectator_;ofSamuelJohnson,whofornearlyhalfacenturywasthe
dictatorofEnglishletters;ofJamesBoswell,whogaveustheimmortal
_LifeofJohnson_;ofEdmundBurke,thegreatestofEnglishorators;andof
EdwardGibbon,thehistorian,famousforhis_DeclineandFalloftheRoman
Empire_.
(2)TheRevivalofRomanticPoetry;themeaningofRomanticism;thelife
andworkofThomasGray;ofOliverGoldsmith,famousaspoet,dramatist,
andnovelist;ofWilliamCowper;ofRobertBurns,thegreatestofScottish
poets;ofWilliamBlake,themystic;andtheminorpoetsoftheearly
romanticmovement,JamesThomson,WilliamCollins,GeorgeCrabbe,James
Macpherson,authoroftheOssianpoems,ThomasChatterton,theboywho
originatedtheRowleyPapers,andThomasPercy,whoseworkforliterature
wastocollecttheoldballads,whichhecalledthe_ReliquesofAncient
EnglishPoetry_,andtotranslatethestoriesofNorsemythologyinhis
_NorthernAntiquities_.
(3)TheFirstEnglishNovelists;themeaningandhistoryofthemodern
novel;thelifeandworkofDanielDefoe,authorof_RobinsonCrusoe_,who
ishardlytobecalledanovelist,butwhomweplacedamongthepioneers;
andthenovelsofRichardson,Fielding,Smollett,Sterne,andGoldsmith.
SELECTIONSFORREADING.Manly'sEnglishPoetryandManly'sEnglishProse
(GinnandCompany)aretwoexcellentvolumescontainingselectionsfromall
authorsstudied.Ward'sEnglishPoets(4vols.),Craik'sEnglishProse
Selections(5vols.),andGarnett'sEnglishProsefromElizabethto
Victoriaareusefulforsupplementaryreading.Allimportantworksshould
bereadentire,inoneofthefollowinginexpensiveeditions,publishedfor
schooluse.(Fortitlesandpublishers,seeGeneralBibliographyatendof

thisbook.)
_Pope_.RapeoftheLockandOtherPoems,editedbyParrott,inStandard
EnglishClassics.VariousotherschooleditionsoftheEssayonMan,and
RapeoftheLock,inRiversideLiteratureSeries,PocketClassics,etc.;
Pope'sIliad,I,VI,XXII,XXIV,inStandardEnglishClassics,etc.
SelectionsfromPope,editedbyReed,inHolt'sEnglishReadings.
_Swift_.Gulliver'sTravels,schooleditionbyGinnandCompany;alsoin
TempleClassics,etc.SelectionsfromSwift,editedbyWinchester,in
AthenaeumPress(announced);thesame,editedbyCraik,inClarendonPress;
thesame,editedbyPrescott,inHolt'sEnglishReadings.Battleofthe
Books,inKing'sClassics,Bohn'sLibrary,etc.
_AddisonandSteele_.SirRogerdeCoverleyPapers,inStandardEnglish
Classics,RiversideLiterature,etc.;SelectionsfromAddison,editedby
WendellandGreenough,andSelectionsfromSteele,editedbyCarpenter,
bothinAthenaeumPress;variousotherselections,inGoldenTreasury
Series,CamelotSeries,Holt'sEnglishReadings,etc.
_Johnson_.LivesofthePoets,inCassell'sNationalLibrary;Selected
Essays,editedbyG.B.Hill(Dent);Selections,inLittleMasterpieces
Series;Rasselas,inHolt'sEnglishReadings,andinMorley'sUniversal
Library.
_Boswell_.LifeofJohnson(2vols.),inEveryman'sLibrary;thesame(3
vols.),inLibraryofEnglishClassics;alsoinTempleClassics,andBohn's
Library.
_Burke_.AmericanTaxation,ConciliationwithAmerica,LettertoaNoble
Lord,inStandardEnglishClassics;variousspeeches,inPocketClassics,
RiversideLiteratureSeries,etc.;Selections,editedbyB.Perry(Holt);
SpeechesonAmerica(Heath,etc.).
_Gibbon_.TheStudent'sGibbon,abridged(Murray);Memoirs,editedby
Emerson,inAthenaeumPress.
_Gray_.Selections,editedbyW.L.Phelps,inAthenaeumPress;Selections
fromGrayandCowper,inCanterburyPoets,RiversideLiterature,etc.;
Gray'sElegy,inSelectionsfromFiveEnglishPoets(GinnandCompany).
_Goldsmith_.DesertedVillage,inStandardEnglishClassics,etc.;Vicarof
Wakefield,inStandardEnglishClassics,Everyman'sLibrary,King's
Classics,etc.;SheStoopstoConquer,inPocketClassics,BellesLettres
Series,etc.
_Cowper_.Selections,editedbyMurray,inAthenaeumPress;Selections,in
Cassell'sNationalLibrary,CanterburyPoets,etc.;TheTask,inTemple
Classics.
_Burns_.RepresentativePoems,withCarlyle'sEssayonBurns,editedby
C.L.Hanson,inStandardEnglishClassics;Selections,inPocketClassics,
RiversideLiterature,etc.
_Blake_.Poems,editedbyW.B.Yeats,inMuses'Library;Selections,in
CanterburyPoets,etc.
_MinorPoets_.Thomson,Collins,Crabbe,etc.Selections,inManly's
EnglishPoetry.Thomson'sTheSeasons,andCastleofIndolence,inModern
Classics;thesamepoemsinClarendonPress,andinTempleClassics;
SelectionsfromThomson,inCassell'sNationalLibrary.Chatterton'spoems,
inCanterburyPoets.Macpherson'sOssian,inCanterburyPoets.Percy's
Reliques,inEveryman'sLibrary,ChandosClassics,Bohn'sLibrary,etc.
Morerecentandreliablecollectionsofpopularballads,forschooluse,
areGummere'sOldEnglishBallads,inAthenaeumPress;TheBalladBook,

editedbyAllingham,inGoldernTreasurySeries;GayleyandFlaherty's
PoetryofthePeople(GinnandCompany),etc.SeeBibliographyonp.64.
_Defoe_.RobinsonCrusoe,schooledition,byGinnandCompany;thesamein
PocketClassics,etc.;JournalofthePlagueYear,editedbyHurlbut(Ginn
andCompany);thesame,inEveryman'sLibrary,etc.;EssayonProjects,in
Cassell'sNationalLibrary.
_TheNovelists_.Manly'sEnglishProse;Craik'sEnglishProseSelections,
vol.4;Goldsmith'sVicarofWakefield(seeabove);SelectedEssaysof
Fielding,editedbyGerould,inAthenumPress.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[218]
_HISTORY_._Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.280322;Cheyney,pp.516574.
_GeneralWorks_,Greene,ch.9,sec.7,toch.10,sec.4;Traill,
Gardiner,Macaulay,etc._SpecialWorks_,Lecky'sHistoryofEnglandinthe
EighteenthCentury,vols.13;Morris'sTheAgeofQueenAnneandtheEarly
Hanoverians(EpochsofModernHistory);Seeley'sTheExpansionofEngland;
Macaulay'sClive,andChatham;Thackeray'sTheFourGeorges,andthe
EnglishHumorists;Ashton'sSocialLifeintheReignofQueenAnne;Susan
Hale'sMenandMannersoftheEighteenthCentury;Sydney'sEnglandandthe
EnglishintheEighteenthCentury.
_LITERATURE.GeneralWorks_.TheCambridgeLiterature,Taine,Saintsbury,
etc._SpecialWorks_.Perry'sEnglishLiteratureintheEighteenthCentury;
L.Stephen'sEnglishLiteratureintheEighteenthCentury;Seccombe'sThe
AgeofJohnson;Dennis'sTheAgeofPope;Gosse'sHistoryofEnglish
LiteratureintheEighteenthCentury;Whitwell'sSomeEighteenthCentury
MenofLetters(Cowper,Sterne,Fielding,Goldsmith,Gray,Johnson,and
Boswell);Johnson'sEighteenthCenturyLettersandLetterWriters;
Williams'sEnglishLettersandLetterWritersoftheEighteenthCentury;
Minto'sManualofEnglishProseWriters;Clark'sStudyofEnglishProse
Writers;Bourne'sEnglishNewspapers;J.B.Williams'sAHistoryofEnglish
Journalism;L.Stephen'sHistoryofEnglishThoughtintheEighteenth
Century.
_TheRomanticRevival_.W.L.Phelps'sTheBeginningsoftheEnglish
RomanticMovement;Beers'sEnglishRomanticismintheEighteenthCentury.
_TheNovel_.Raleigh'sTheEnglishNovel;Simonds'sAnIntroductiontothe
StudyofEnglishFiction;Cross'sTheDevelopmentoftheEnglishNovel;
Jusserand'sTheEnglishNovelintheTimeofShakespeare;Stoddard'sThe
EvolutionoftheEnglishNovel;Warren'sTheHistoryoftheEnglishNovel
previoustotheSeventeenthCentury;Masson'sBritishNovelistsandtheir
Styles;S.Lanier'sTheEnglishNovel;Hamilton'stheMaterialsandMethods
ofFiction;Perry'sAStudyofProseFiction.
_Pope_.Texts:WorksinGlobeEdition,editedbyA.W.Ward;inCambridge
Poets,editedbyH.W.Boynton;SatiresandEpistles,inClarendonPress;
Letters,inEnglishLettersandLetterWritersoftheEighteenthCentury,
editedbyH.Williams(Bell).Life:byCourthope;byL.Stephen(English
MenofLettersSeries);byWard,inGlobeEdition;byJohnson,inLivesof
thePoets(Cassell'sNationalLibrary,etc.).Criticism:Essays,byL.
Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary;byLowell,inMyStudyWindows;byDe
Quincey,inBiographicalEssays,andinEssaysonthePoets;byThackeray,
inEnglishHumorists;bySainteBeuve,inEnglishPortraits.Warton's
GeniusandWritingsofPope(interestingchieflyfromthehistoricalview
point,asthefirstdefiniteandextendedattackonPope'swritings).
_Swift_.Texts:Works,19vols.,ed.byWalterScott(Edinburgh,1814
1824);besteditionofproseworksiseditedbyT.Scott,withintroduction
byLecky,12vols.(Bonn'sLibrary);Selections,editedbyWinchester(Ginn
andCompany);alsoinCamelotSeries,CarisbrookeLibrary,etc.,Journalto
Stella,(Dutton,alsoPutnam);Letters,inEighteenthCenturyLettersand

LetterWriters,ed.byT.B.Johnson.Life:byL.Stephen(EnglishMenof
Letters);byCollins;byCraik;byJ.Forster;byMacaulay;byWalter
Scott;byJohnson,inLivesofthePoets.Criticism:Essays,byThackeray,
inEnglishHumorists;byA.Dobson,inEighteenthCenturyVignettes;by
Masson,intheThreeDevilsandOtherEssays.
_Addison_.Texts:Works,inBohn'sBritishClassics;Selections,in
AthenaeumPress,etc.Life:byLucyAiken;byCourthope(EnglishMenof
Letters);byJohnson,inLivesofthePoets.Criticism:Essays,by
Macaulay;byThackeray.
_Steele_.Texts:Selections,editedbyCarpenterinAthenaeumPress(Ginn
andCompany);variousotherSelectionspublishedbyPutnam,Bangs,in
CamelotSeries,etc.;Plays,editedbyAitken,inMermaidSeries.Life:by
Aitken;byA.Dobson(EnglishWorthiesSeries).Criticism:Essaysby
Thackeray;byDobson,inEighteenthCenturyVignettes.
_Johnson_.Texts:Works,editedbyWalesby,11vols.(Oxford,1825);the
same,editedbyG.B.Hill,inClarendonPress.Essays,editedbyG.B.Hill
(Dent);thesame,inCamelotseries;Rasselas,variousschooleditions,by
GinnandCompany,Holt,etc.;SelectionsfromLivesofthePoets,with
Macaulay'sLifeofJohnson,editedbyMatthewArnold(Macmillan).Life:
Boswell'sLifeofJohnson,inEveryman'sLibrary,TempleClassics,Library
ofEnglishClassics,etc.;byL.Stephen(EnglishMenofLetters);by
Grant.Criticism:G.B.Hill'sDr.Johnson,hisFriendsandCritics;Essays,
byL.Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary;byMacaulay,Birrell,etc.
_Boswell_.Texts:LifeofJohnson,editedbyG.B.Hill(London,1874);
variousothereditions(seeabove).Life:byFitzgerald(London,1891);
Roger'sBoswelliana(London,1874).Whitfield'sSomeEighteenthCenturyMen
ofLetters.
_Burke_.Texts:Works,12vols.(Boston,1871);reprinted,6vols.,in
Bohn'sLibrary;SelectedWorks,editedbyPayne,inClarendonPress;Onthe
SublimeandBeautiful,inTempleClassics.Forvariousspeeches,see
SelectionsforReading,above.Life:byPrior;byMorley(EnglishMenof
Letters).Criticism:Essay,byBirrell,inObiterDicta.SeealsoDowden's
FrenchRevolutionandEnglishLiterature,andWoodrowWilson'sMere
Literature.
_Gibbon_.Texts:DeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire,editedbyBury,7
vols.(London,18961900);variousothereditions;TheStudent'sGibbon,
abridged(Murray);Memoirs,editedbyEmerson,inAthenaeumPress(Ginnand
Company).Life:byMorison(EnglishMenofLetters).Criticism:Essays,by
Birrell,inCollectedEssaysandResJudicatae;byStephen,inStudiesofa
Biographer;byRobertson,inPioneerHumanists;byFrederickHarrison,in
RuskinandOtherLiteraryEstimates;byBagehot,inLiteraryStudies;by
SainteBeuve,inEnglishPortraits.SeealsoAnton'sMastersinHistory.
_Sheridan_.Texts:Speeches,5vols.(London,1816);Plays,editedbyW.F.
Rae(London,1902);thesame,editedbyR.Dircks,inCamelotSeries;Major
Dramas,inAthenaeumPress;PlaysalsoinMorley'sUniversalLibrary,
Macmillan'sEnglishClassics,etc.Life:byRae;byM.Oliphant(English
MenofLetters);byL.Sanders(GreatWriters).
_Gray_.Texts:Works,editedbyGosse(Macmillan);Poems,inRoutledge's
PocketLibrary,ChandosClassics,etc.;Selections,inAthenaeumPress,
etc.;Letters,editedbyD.C.Tovey(Bohn).Life:byGosse(EnglishMenof
Letters).Criticism:Essays,byLowell,inLatestLiteraryEssays;byM.
Arnold,inEssaysinCriticism;byL.Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary;byA.
Dobson,inEighteenthCenturyVignettes.
_Goldsmith_.Texts:editedbyMasson,Globeedition;Works,editedbyAiken
andTuckerman(Crowell);thesame,editedbyA.Dobson(Dent);Morley's
UniversalLibrary;Arber'sTheGoldsmithAnthology(Frowde).Seealso

SelectionsforReading,above.Life:byWashingtonIrving;byA.Dobson
(GreatWriter'sSeries);byBlack(EnglishMenofLetters);byJ.Forster;
byPrior.Criticism:Essays,byMacaulay;byThackeray;byDeQuincey;by
A.Dobson,inMiscellanies.
_Cowper_.Texts:Works,GlobeandAldineeditions;alsoinChandos
Classics;Selections,inAthenasumPress,CanterburyPoets,etc.The
CorrespondenceofWilliamCowper,editedbyT.Wright,4vols.(Dodd,Mead
&Company).Life:byGoldwinSmith(EnglishMenofLetters);byWright;by
Southey.Criticism:Essays,byL.Stephen;byBagehot;bySainteBeuve;by
Birrell;byStopfordBrooke;byA.Dobson(seeabove).SeealsoWoodberry's
MakersofLiterature.
_Burns_.Texts:Works,CambridgePoetsEdition(containingHenley'sStudy
ofBurns),GlobeandAldineeditions,ClarendonPress,CanterburyPoets,
etc.;Selections,inAthenaeumPress,etc.;Letters,inCamelotSeries.
Life:byCunningham;byHenley;bySetoun;byBlackie(GreatWriters);by
Shairp(EnglishMenofLetters).Criticism:Essays,byCarlyle;byR.L.
Stevenson,inFamiliarStudies;byHazlitt,inLecturesontheEnglish
Poets;byStopfordBrooke,inTheologyintheEnglishPoets;byJ.Forster,
inGreatTeachers.
_Blake_.Texts:Poems,Aldineedition;alsoinCanterburyPoets;Complete
Works,editedbyEllisandYeats(London,1893);Selections,editedbyW.B.
Yeats,intheMuses'Library(Dutton);Letters,withLifebyF.Tatham,
editedbyA.G.B.Russell(Scribner's,1896).Life:byGilchrist;byStory;
bySymons.Criticism:Swinburne'sWilliamBlake,aCriticalStudy;Ellis's
TheRealBlake(McClure,1907);ElizabethCary'sTheArtofWilliamBlake
(Moffat,Yard&Company,1907).Essay,byA.C.Benson,inEssays.
_Thomson_.Texts:Works,Aldineedition;TheSeasons,andCastleof
Indolence,inClarendonPress,etc.Life:byBayne;byG.B.Macaulay
(EnglishMenofLetters).Essay,byHazlitt,inLecturesontheEnglish
Poets.
_Collins_.Works,editedbyBronson,inAthenaeumPress;alsoinAldine
edition.Life:byJohnson,inLivesofthePoets.Essay,bySwinburne,in
Miscellanies.SeealsoBeers'sEnglishRomanticismintheEighteenth
Century.
_Crabbe_.Works,withmemoirbyhisson,G.Crabbe,8vols.(London,
18341835);Poems,editedbyA.W.Ward,3vols.,inCambridgeEnglish
Classics(Cambridge,1905);Selections,inTempleClassics,Canterbury
Poets,etc.Life:byKebbel(GreatWriters);byAinger(EnglishMenof
Letters).Essays,byL.Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary;byWoodberry,in
MakersofLiterature;bySaintsbury,inEssaysinEnglishLiterature;by
Courthope,inWard'sEnglishPoets;byEdwardFitzgerald,inMiscellanies;
byHazlitt,inSpiritoftheAge.
_Macpherson_.Texts:Ossian,inCanterburyPoets;Poems,translatedby
Macpherson,editedbyTodd(London,1888).LifeandLetters,editedby
Saunders(London,1894).Criticism:J.S.Smart'sJamesMacpherson(Nutt,
1905).SeealsoBeers'sEnglishRomanticism.ForrelationofMacpherson's
worktotheoriginalOssian,seeDeanofLismore'sBook,editedby
MacLauchlan(Edinburgh,1862);alsoPoemsofOssian,translatedbyClerk
(Edinburgh,1870).
_Chatterton_.Works,editedbySkeat(London,1875);Poems,inCanterbury
Poets.Life:byRussell;byWilson;Masson'sChatterton,aBiography.
Criticism:C.E.Russell'sThomasChatterton(Moffatt,Yard&Company);
Essays,byWattsDunton,inWard'sEnglishPoets;byMasson,inEssays
BiographicalandCritical.SeealsoBeers'sEnglishRomanticism.
_Percy_.Reliques,editedbyWheatley(London,1891);thesame,in
Everyman'sLibrary,ChandosClassics,etc.Essay,byJ.W.Hales,Revivalof

BalladPoetry,inFoliaLiteraria.SeealsoBeers'sEnglishRomanticism,
etc.(Specialworks,above.)
_Defoe_.Texts:RomancesandNarratives,editedbyAitken(Dent);Poemsand
Pamphlets,inArber'sEnglishGarner,vol.8;schooleditionsofRobinson
Crusoe,andJournalofthePlagueYear(GinnandCompany,etc.);Captain
Singleton,andMemoirsofaCavalier,inEveryman'sLibrary;Early
Writings,inCarisbrookeLibrary(Routledge).Life:byW.Lee;byMinto
(EnglishMenofLetters);byWright;alsoinWestminsterBiographies
(Small,Maynard).Essay,byL.Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary.
_Richardson_.Works:editedbyL.Stephen(London,1883);editedby
Philips,withlife(NewYork,1901);Correspondence,editedbyA.Barbauld,
6vols.(London,1804).Life:byThomson;byA.Dobson.Essays,byL.
Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary;byA.Dobson,inEighteenthCentury
Vignettes.
_Fielding_.Works:TempleEdition,editedbySaintsbury(Dent);Selected
Essays,inAthenaeumPress;JournalofaVoyagetoLisbon,inCassell's
NationalLibrary.Life:byDobson(EnglishMenofLetters);Lawrence'sLife
andTimesofFielding.Essays,byLowell;byThackeray;byL.Stephen;by
A.Dobson(seeabove);byG.B.Smith,inPoetsandNovelists.
_Smollett_.Works,editedbySaintsbury(London,1895);Works,editedby
Henley(Scribner).Life:byHannah(GreatWriters);bySmeaton;by
Chambers.Essays,byThackeray;byHenley;byDobson,inEighteenthCentury
Vignettes.
_Sterne_.Works:editedbySaintsbury(Dent);TristramShandy,andA
SentimentalJourney,inTempleClassics,Morley'sUniversalLibrary,etc.
Life:byFitzgerald;byTraill(EnglishMenofLetters);LifeandTimes,by
W.L.Cross(Macmillan).Essays,byThackeray;byBagehot,inLiterary
Studies.
_HoraceWalpole_.Texts:CastleofOtranto,inKing'sClassics,Cassell's
NationalLibrary,etc.Letters,editedbyC.D.Yonge.Morley'sWalpole,in
TwelveEnglishStatesmen(Macmillan).Essay,byL.Stephen,inHoursina
Library.SeealsoBeers'sEnglishRomanticism.
_FrancesBurney_(Madamed'Arblay).Texts:Evelina,inTempleClassics,2
vols.(Macmillan).DiaryandLetters,editedbyS.C.Woolsey.Seeley's
FannyBurneyandherFriends.Essay,byMacaulay.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.1.Describebrieflythesocialdevelopmentofthe
eighteenthcentury.Whateffectdidthishaveonliterature?Whataccounts
fortheprevalenceofprose?Whatinfluencedidthefirstnewspapersexert
onlifeandliterature?Howdothereadersofthisagecomparewiththose
oftheAgeofElizabeth?
2.Howdoyouexplainthefactthatsatirewaslargelyusedinbothprose
andpoetry?Nametheprincipalsatiresoftheage.Whatisthechiefobject
ofsatire?ofliterature?Howdothetwoobjectsconflict?
3.Whatisthemeaningoftheterm"classicism,"asappliedtothe
literatureofthisage?DidtheclassicismofJohnson,forinstance,have
anyrelationtoclassicliteratureinitstruesense?Whyisthisperiod
calledtheAugustanAge?WhywasShakespearenotregardedbythisageasa
classicalwriter?
4._Pope_.InwhatrespectisPopeauniquewriter?Tellbrieflythestory
ofhislife.Whatarehisprincipalworks?Howdoeshereflectthecritical
spiritofhisage?Whatarethechiefcharacteristicsofhispoetry?What
doyoufindtocopyinhisstyle?Whatislackinginhispoetry?Compare
hissubjectswiththoseofBurnsofTennysonorMilton,forinstance.How

wouldChaucerorBurnstellthestoryoftheRapeoftheLock?What
similaritydoyoufindbetweenPope'spoetryandAddison'sprose?
5._Swift_.WhatisthegeneralcharacterofSwift'swork?Namehischief
satires.Whatistheretocopyinhisstyle?Doesheeverstrivefor
ornamentoreffectinwriting?CompareSwift's_Gulliver'sTravels_with
Defoe's_RobinsonCrusoe_,instyle,purposeofwriting,andinterest.What
resemblancesdoyoufindinthesetwocontemporarywriters?Canyouexplain
thecontinuedpopularityof_Gulliver'sTravels_?
6._AddisonandSteele_.WhatgreatworkdidAddisonandSteeledofor
literature?Makeabriefcomparisonbetweenthesetwomen,havinginmind
theirpurpose,humor,knowledgeoflife,andhumansympathy,asshown,for
instance,inNo.112andNo.2oftheSpectatorEssays.Comparetheirhumor
withthatofSwift.Howistheirworkapreparationforthenovel?
7._Johnson_.ForwhatisDr.Johnsonfamousinliterature?Canyouexplain
hisgreatinfluence?ComparehisstylewiththatofSwiftorDefoe.What
aretheremarkableelementsinBoswell's_LifeofJohnson_?Writea
descriptionofanimaginarymeetingofJohnson,Goldsmith,andBoswellina
coffeehouse.
8._Burke_.ForwhatisBurkeremarkable?Whatgreatobjectsinfluencedhim
inthethreeperiodsofhislife?Whyhashebeencalledaromanticpoet
whospeaksinprose?Comparehisuseofimagerywiththatofotherwriters
oftheperiod.Whatistheretocopyandwhatistheretoavoidinhis
style?CanyoutracetheinfluenceofBurke'sAmericanspeechesonlater
Englishpolitics?WhatsimilaritiesdoyoufindbetweenBurkeandMilton,
asrevealedintheirproseworks?
9._Gibbon_.ForwhatisGibbon"worthytoberemembered"?Whydoeshemark
anepochinhistoricalwriting?Whatismeantbythescientificmethodof
writinghistory?CompareGibbon'sstylewiththatofJohnson.Contrastit
withthatofSwift,andalsowiththatofsomemodernhistorian,Parkman,
forexample.
10.Whatismeantbytheterm"romanticism?"Whatareitschief
characteristics?Howdoesitdifferfromclassicism?Illustratethemeaning
fromtheworkofGray,Cowper,orBurns.Canyouexplaintheprevalenceof
melancholyinromanticism?
11._Gray_.WhatarethechiefworksofGray?Canyouexplainthecontinued
popularityofhis"Elegy"?Whatromanticelementsarefoundinhispoetry?
WhatresemblancesandwhatdifferencesdoyoufindintheworksofGrayand
ofGoldsmith?
12._Goldsmith_.TellthestoryofGoldsmith'slife.Whatarehischief
works?Showfrom_TheDesertedVillage_theromanticandthesocalled
classicelementsinhiswork.Whatgreatworkdidhedofortheearly
novel,in_TheVicarofWakefield_?Canyouexplainthepopularityof_She
StoopstoConquer_?NamesomeofGoldsmith'scharacterswhohavefounda
permanentplaceinourliterature.Whatpersonalreminiscenceshaveyou
notedin_TheTraveller_,_TheDesertedVillage_,and_SheStoopsto
Conquer_?
13._Cowper_.DescribeCowper's_TheTask_.Howdoesitshowtheromantic
spirit?Givepassagesfrom"JohnGilpin"toillustrateCowper'shumor.
14._Burns_.TellthestoryofBurns'slife.Someonehassaid,"The
measureofaman'ssinisthedifferencebetweenwhatheisandwhathe
mightbe."Commentuponthis,withreferencetoBurns.Whatisthegeneral
characterofhispoetry?Whyishecalledthepoetofcommonmen?What
subjectsdoeshechooseforhispoetry?Comparehim,inthisrespect,with
Pope.Whatelementsinthepoet'scharacterarerevealedinsuchpoemsas
"ToaMouse"and"ToaMountainDaisy"?HowdoBurnsandGrayregard

nature?WhatpoemsshowhissympathywiththeFrenchRevolution,andwith
democracy?Read"TheCotter'sSaturdayNight,"andexplainitsenduring
interest.CanyouexplainthesecretofBurns'sgreatpopularity?
15._Blake_.WhatarethecharacteristicsofBlake'spoetry?Canyou
explainwhyBlake,thoughthegreatestpoeticgeniusoftheage,isso
littleappreciated?
16._Percy_.InwhatrespectdidPercy's_Reliques_influencetheromantic
movement?Whatarethedefectsinhiscollectionofballads?Canyou
explainwhysuchacrudepoemas"ChevyChase"shouldbepopularwithan
agethatdelightedinPope's"EssayonMan"?
17._Macpherson_.WhatismeantbyMacpherson's"Ossian"?Canyouaccount
fortheremarkablesuccessoftheOssianicforgeries?
18._Chatterton_.TellthestoryofChattertonandtheRowleyPoems.Read
Chatterton's"BristoweTragedie,"andcompareit,instyleandinterest,
withtheoldballads,like"TheBattleofOtterburn"or"TheHuntingofthe
Cheviot"(allinManly's_EnglishPoetry_).
19._TheFirstNovelists_.Whatismeantbythemodernnovel?Howdoesit
differfromtheearlyromanceandfromtheadventurestory?Whataresome
oftheprecursorsofthenovel?Whatwasthepurposeofstoriesmodeled
after_DonQuixote_?Whatisthesignificanceof_Pamela_?Whatelements
didFieldingaddtothenovel?WhatgoodworkdidGoldsmith's_Vicarof
Wakefield_accomplish?CompareGoldsmith,inthisrespect,withSteeleand
Addison.
CHRONOLOGY
_EndofSeventeenthandtheEighteenthCentury_
============================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

1689.WilliamandMary|16831719.Defoe'searlywritings
BillofRights.|
TolerationAct|
|1695.Pressmadefree
1700(?)BeginningofLondonclubs|
1702.Anne(d.1714)|
WarofSpanishSuccession|
|1702.Firstdailynewspaper
1704.BattleofBlenheim|1704.Addison'sTheCampaign
|Swift'sTaleofaTub
1707.UnionofEnglandandScotland|
|1709.TheTatler
|Johnsonborn(d.1784)
|17101713.SwiftinLondon.Journal
|toStella
|1711.TheSpectator
|1712.Pope'sRapeoftheLock
1714.GeorgeI(d.1727)|
|1719.RobinsonCrusoe
1721.Cabinetgovernment,Walpole|
firstprimeminister|
|1726.Gulliver'sTravels
|17261730.Thomson'sTheSeasons
1727.GeorgeII(d.1760)|
|17321734.EssayonMan
1738.RiseofMethodism|
|1740.Richardson'sPamela
1740.WarofAustrianSuccession|
|1742.Fielding'sJoesphAndrews
1746.JacobiteRebellion|

|1749.Fielding'sTomJones
|17501752.Johnson'sTheRambler
17501757.ConquestofIndia|1751.Gray'sElegy
|1755.Johnson'sDictionary
1756.WarwithFrance|
1759.WolfatQuebec|
1760.GeorgeIII(d.1820)|17601767.Sterne'sTristramShandy
|1764.Johnson'sLiteraryClub
1765.StampAct|1765.Percy'sReliques
|1766.Goldsmith'sVicarof
|Wakefield
|
|1770.Goldsmith'sDesertedVillage
|1771.Beginningofgreatnewspapers
1773.BostonTeaParty|
1774.Howard'sprisonreforms|17741775.Burke'sAmericanspeeches
1775.AmericanRevolution|17761788.Gibbon'sRome
1776.DeclarationofIndependence|1779.Cowper'sOlneyHymns
|177981.Johnson'sLivesofthePoets
1783.TreatyofParis|1783.Blake'sPoeticalSketches
|1785.Cowper'sTheTask
|TheLondonTimes
1786.TrialofWarrenHastings|
|1786.Burns'sfirstpoems(the
|KilmarnockBurns)
|Burke'sWarrenHastings
17891799.FrenchRevolution|
|1790.Burke'sFrenchRevolution
|1791.Boswell'sLifeofJohnson
1793.WarwithFrance|
============================================================================
*****

CHAPTERX
THEAGEOFROMANTICISM(18001850)
THESECONDCREATIVEPERIODOFENGLISHLITERATURE
ThefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyrecordsthetriumphofRomanticism
inliteratureandofdemocracyingovernment;andthetwomovementsareso
closelyassociated,insomanynationsandinsomanyperiodsofhistory,
thatonemustwonderiftherebenotsomerelationofcauseandeffect
betweenthem.Justasweunderstandthetremendousenergizinginfluenceof
PuritanisminthematterofEnglishlibertybyrememberingthatthecommon
peoplehadbeguntoread,andthattheirbookwastheBible,sowemay
understandthisageofpopulargovernmentbyrememberingthatthechief
subjectofromanticliteraturewastheessentialnoblenessofcommonmen
andthevalueoftheindividual.Aswereadnowthatbriefportionof
historywhichliesbetweentheDeclarationofIndependence(1776)andthe
EnglishReformBillof1832,weareinthepresenceofsuchmighty
politicalupheavalsthat"theageofrevolution"istheonlynamebywhich
wecanadequatelycharacterizeit.Itsgreathistoricmovementsbecome
intelligibleonlywhenwereadwhatwaswritteninthisperiod;forthe
FrenchRevolutionandtheAmericancommonwealth,aswellasthe
establishmentofatruedemocracyinEnglandbytheReformBill,werethe
inevitableresultsofideaswhichliteraturehadspreadrapidlythroughthe
civilizedworld.Libertyisfundamentallyanideal;andthat
idealbeautiful,inspiring,compelling,asalovedbannerinthewindwas
keptsteadilybeforemen'smindsbyamultitudeofbooksandpamphletsas

farapartasBurns's_Poems_andThomasPaine's_RightsofMan_,allread
eagerlybythecommonpeople,allproclaimingthedignityofcommonlife,
andallutteringthesamepassionatecryagainsteveryformofclassor
casteoppression.
Firstthedream,theidealinsomehumansoul;thenthewrittenwordwhich
proclaimsit,andimpressesothermindswithitstruthandbeauty;thenthe
unitedanddeterminedeffortofmentomakethedreamareality,that
seemstobeafairestimateofthepartthatliteratureplays,eveninour
politicalprogress.
HISTORICALSUMMARY.Theperiodweareconsideringbeginsinthelatterhalf
ofthereignofGeorgeIIIandendswiththeaccessionofVictoriain1837.
WhenonafoggymorninginNovember,1783,KingGeorgeenteredtheHouseof
LordsandinatremblingvoicerecognizedtheindependenceoftheUnited
StatesofAmerica,heunconsciouslyproclaimedthetriumphofthatfree
governmentbyfreemenwhichhadbeentheidealofEnglishliteraturefor
morethanathousandyears;thoughitwasnottill1832,whentheReform
Billbecamethelawoftheland,thatEnglandherselflearnedthelesson
taughtherbyAmerica,andbecamethedemocracyofwhichherwritershad
alwaysdreamed.
Thehalfcenturybetweenthesetwoeventsisoneofgreatturmoil,yetof
steadyadvanceineverydepartmentofEnglishlife.Thestormcenterofthe
politicalunrestwastheFrenchRevolution,thatfrightfuluprisingwhich
proclaimedthenaturalrightsofmanandtheabolitionofclass
distinctions.Itseffectonthewholecivilizedworldisbeyond
computation.PatrioticclubsandsocietiesmultipliedinEngland,all
assertingthedoctrineofLiberty,Equality,Fraternity,thewatchwordsof
theRevolution.YoungEngland,ledbyPitttheyounger,hailedthenew
Frenchrepublicandoffereditfriendship;oldEngland,whichpardonsno
revolutionsbutherown,lookedwithhorrorontheturmoilinFranceand,
misledbyBurkeandthenoblesoftherealm,forcedthetwonationsinto
war.EvenPittsawablessinginthisatfirst;becausethesuddenzealfor
fightingaforeignnationwhichbysomehorribleperversionisgenerally
calledpatriotismmightturnmen'sthoughtsfromtheirowntotheir
neighbors'affairs,andsopreventathreatenedrevolutionathome.
Thecausesofthisthreatenedrevolutionwerenotpoliticalbuteconomic.
Byherinventioninsteelandmachinery,andbyhermonopolyofthe
carryingtrade,Englandhadbecometheworkshopoftheworld.Herwealth
hadincreasedbeyondherwildestdreams;buttheunequaldistributionof
thatwealthwasaspectacletomakeangelsweep.Theinventionofmachinery
atfirstthrewthousandsofskilledhandworkersoutofemployment;in
ordertoprotectafewagriculturists,heavydutieswereimposedoncorn
andwheat,andbreadrosetofaminepricesjustwhenlaboringmenhadthe
leastmoneytopayforit.Therefollowedacuriousspectacle.While
Englandincreasedinwealth,andspentvastsumstosupportherarmyand
subsidizeheralliesinEurope,andwhilenobles,landowners,
manufacturers,andmerchantslivedinincreasingluxury,amultitudeof
skilledlaborerswereclamoringforwork.Fatherssenttheirwivesand
littlechildrenintotheminesandfactories,wheresixteenhours'labor
wouldhardlypayforthedailybread;andineverylargecitywereriotous
mobsmadeupchieflyofhungrymenandwomen.Itwasthisunbearable
economiccondition,andnotanypoliticaltheory,asBurkesupposed,which
occasionedthedangerofanotherEnglishrevolution.
Itisonlywhenweremembertheseconditionsthatwecanunderstandtwo
books,AdamSmith's_WealthofNations_andThomasPaine's_RightsofMan_,
whichcanhardlybeconsideredasliterature,butwhichexercisedan
enormousinfluenceinEngland.SmithwasaScottishthinker,whowroteto
upholdthedoctrinethatlaboristheonlysourceofanation'swealth,and
thatanyattempttoforcelaborintounnaturalchannels,ortopreventit
byprotectivedutiesfromfreelyobtainingtherawmaterialsforits
industry,isunjustanddestructive.Painewasacuriouscombinationof

JekyllandHyde,shallowanduntrustworthypersonally,butwitha
passionatedevotiontopopularliberty.His_RightsofMan_publishedin
Londonin1791,waslikeoneofBurns'slyricoutcriesagainstinstitutions
whichoppressedhumanity.Comingsosoonafterthedestructionofthe
Bastille,itaddedfueltotheflameskindledinEnglandbytheFrench
Revolution.Theauthorwasdrivenoutofthecountry,onthecuriousground
thatheendangeredtheEnglishconstitution,butnotuntilhisbookhad
gainedawidesaleandinfluence.
Allthesedangers,realandimaginary,passedawaywhenEnglandturnedfrom
theaffairsofFrancetoremedyherowneconomicconditions.Thelong
ContinentalwarcametoanendwithNapoleon'soverthrowatWaterloo,in
1815;andEngland,havinggainedenormouslyinprestigeabroad,nowturned
totheworkofreformathome.ThedestructionoftheAfricanslavetrade;
themitigationofhorriblyunjustlaws,whichincludedpoordebtorsand
pettycriminalsinthesameclass;thepreventionofchildlabor;the
freedomofthepress;theextensionofmanhoodsuffrage;theabolitionof
restrictionsagainstCatholicsinParliament;theestablishmentofhundreds
ofpopularschools,undertheleadershipofAndrewBellandJoseph
Lancaster,thesearebutafewofthereformswhichmarktheprogressof
civilizationinasinglehalfcentury.WhenEngland,in1833,proclaimed
theemancipationofallslavesinallhercolonies,sheunconsciously
proclaimedherfinalemancipationfrombarbarism.
LITERARYCHARACTERISTICSOFTHEAGE.Itisintenselyinterestingtonote
howliteratureatfirstreflectedthepoliticalturmoiloftheage;and
then,whentheturmoilwasoverandEnglandbeganhermightyworkof
reform,howliteraturesuddenlydevelopedanewcreativespirit,which
showsitselfinthepoetryofWordsworth,Coleridge,Byron,Shelley,Keats,
andintheproseofScott,JaneAusten,Lamb,andDeQuincey,awonderful
groupofwriters,whosepatrioticenthusiasmsuggeststheElizabethandays,
andwhosegeniushascausedtheiragetobeknownasthesecondcreative
periodofourliterature.Thusintheearlydays,whenoldinstitutions
seemedcrumblingwiththeBastille,ColeridgeandSoutheyformedtheir
youthfulschemeofa"PantisocracyonthebanksoftheSusquehanna,"an
idealcommonwealth,inwhichtheprinciplesofMore's_Utopia_shouldbe
putinpractice.EvenWordsworth,firedwithpoliticalenthusiasm,could
write,
Blisswasitinthatdawntobealive,
Buttobeyoungwasveryheaven.
TheessenceofRomanticismwas,itmustberemembered,thatliteraturemust
reflectallthatisspontaneousandunaffectedinnatureandinman,andbe
freetofollowitsownfancyinitsownway.Wehavealreadynotedthis
characteristicintheworkoftheElizabethandramatists,whofollowed
theirowngeniusinoppositiontoallthelawsofthecritics.InColeridge
weseethisindependenceexpressedin"KublaKhan"and"TheAncient
Mariner,"twodreampictures,oneofthepopulousOrient,theotherofthe
lonelysea.InWordsworththisliteraryindependenceledhiminwardtothe
heartofcommonthings.Followinghisowninstinct,asShakespearedoes,he
too
Findstonguesintrees,booksintherunningbrooks,
Sermonsinstones,andgoodineverything.
Andso,morethananyotherwriteroftheage,heinveststhecommonlife
ofnature,andthesoulsofcommonmenandwomen,withglorious
significance.Thesetwopoets,ColeridgeandWordsworth,bestrepresentthe
romanticgeniusoftheageinwhichtheylived,thoughScotthadagreater
literaryreputation,andByronandShelleyhadlargeraudiences.
Thesecondcharacteristicofthisageisthatitisemphaticallyanageof
poetry.Thepreviouscentury,withitspracticaloutlookonlife,was
largelyoneofprose;butnow,asintheElizabethanAge,theyoung

enthusiaststurnedasnaturallytopoetryasahappymantosinging.The
gloryoftheageisinthepoetryofScott,Wordsworth,Coleridge,Byron,
Shelley,Keats,Moore,andSouthey.Ofitsproseworks,thoseofScott
alonehaveattainedaverywidereading,thoughtheessaysofCharlesLamb
andthenovelsofJaneAustenhaveslowlywonfortheirauthorsasecure
placeinthehistoryofourliterature.ColeridgeandSouthey(whowith
WordsworthformthetrioofsocalledLakePoets)wrotefarmoreprosethan
poetry;andSouthey'sproseismuchbetterthanhisverse.Itwas
characteristicofthespiritofthisage,sodifferentfromourown,that
Southeycouldsaythat,inordertoearnmoney,hewroteinverse"what
wouldotherwisehavebeenbetterwritteninprose."
Itwasduringthisperiodthatwomanassumed,forthefirsttime,an
importantplaceinourliterature.Probablythechiefreasonforthis
interestingphenomenonliesinthefactthatwomanwasforthefirsttime
givensomeslightchanceofeducation,ofenteringintotheintellectual
lifeoftherace;andasisalwaysthecasewhenwomanisgivenanything
likeafairopportunitysherespondedmagnificently.Asecondaryreasonmay
befoundinthenatureoftheageitself,whichwasintenselyemotional.
TheFrenchRevolutionstirredallEuropetoitsdepths,andduringthe
followinghalfcenturyeverygreatmovementinliterature,asinpolitics
andreligion,wascharacterizedbystrongemotion;whichisallthemore
noticeablebycontrastwiththecold,formal,satiricspiritoftheearly
eighteenthcentury.Aswomanisnaturallymoreemotionalthanman,itmay
wellbethatthespiritofthisemotionalageattractedher,andgaveher
theopportunitytoexpressherselfinliterature.
Asallstrongemotionstendtoextremes,theageproducedanewtypeof
novelwhichseemsratherhystericalnow,butwhichinitsowndaydelighted
multitudesofreaderswhosenervesweresomewhatexcited,andwhoreveled
in"bogey"storiesofsupernaturalterror.Mrs.AnneRadcliffe(17641823)
wasoneofthemostsuccessfulwritersofthisschoolofexaggerated
romance.Hernovels,withtheirazureeyedheroines,hauntedcastles,
trapdoors,bandits,abductions,rescuesinthenickoftime,andageneral
medleyofoverwroughtjoysandhorrors,[219]wereimmenselypopular,not
onlywiththecrowdofnovelreaders,butalsowithmenofunquestioned
literarygenius,likeScottandByron.
Inmarkedcontrasttotheseextravagantstoriesistheenduringworkof
JaneAusten,withhercharmingdescriptionsofeverydaylife,andofMaria
Edgeworth,whosewonderfulpicturesofIrishlifesuggestedtoWalterScott
theideaofwritinghisScottishromances.Twootherwomenwhoattaineda
moreorlesslastingfamewereHannahMore,poet,dramatist,andnovelist,
andJanePorter,whose_ScottishChiefs_and_ThaddeusofWarsaw_arestill
indemandinourlibraries.BesidethesewereFannyBurney(Madame
D'Arblay)andseveralotherwriterswhoseworks,intheearlypartofthe
nineteenthcentury,raisedwomantothehighplaceinliteraturewhichshe
haseversincemaintained.
Inthisageliterarycriticismbecamefirmlyestablishedbytheappearance
ofsuchmagazinesasthe_EdinburghReview_(18O2),_TheQuarterlyReview_
(1808),_Blackwood'sMagazine_(1817),the_WestminsterReview_(1824),
_TheSpectator_(1828),_TheAthenum_(1828),and_Fraser'sMagazine_
(1830).Thesemagazines,editedbysuchmenasFrancisJeffrey,JohnWilson
(whoisknowntousasChristopherNorth),andJohnGibsonLockhart,who
gaveusthe_LifeofScott_,exercisedanimmenseinfluenceonall
subsequentliterature.Atfirsttheircriticismswerelargelydestructive,
aswhenJeffreyhammeredScott,Wordsworth,andByronmostunmercifully;
andLockhartcouldfindnogoodineitherKeatsorTennyson;butwithadded
wisdom,criticismassumeditstruefunctionofconstruction.Andwhenthese
magazinesbegantoseekandtopublishtheworksofunknownwriters,like
Hazlitt,Lamb,andLeighHunt,theydiscoveredthechiefmissionofthe
modernmagazine,whichistogiveeverywriterofabilitytheopportunity
tomakehisworkknowntotheworld.

I.THEPOETSOFROMANTICISM
WILLIAMWORDSWORTH(17701850)
Itwasin1797thatthenewromanticmovementinourliteratureassumed
definiteform.WordsworthandColeridgeretiredtotheQuantockHills,
Somerset,andthereformedthedeliberatepurposetomakeliterature
"adaptedtointerestmankindpermanently,"which,theydeclared,classic
poetrycouldneverdo.HelpingthetwopoetswasWordsworth'ssister
Dorothy,withawoman'sloveforflowersandallbeautifulthings;anda
woman'sdivinesympathyforhumanlifeeveninitslowliestforms.Thougha
silentpartner,shefurnishedperhapsthelargestshareoftheinspiration
whichresultedinthefamous_LyricalBallads_of1798.Intheir
partnershipColeridgewastotakeupthe"supernatural,oratleast
romantic";whileWordsworthwas"togivethecharmofnoveltytothingsof
everyday...byawakeningthemind'sattentionfromthelethargyofcustom
anddirectingittothelovelinessandthewondersoftheworldbeforeus."
Thewholespiritoftheirworkisreflectedintwopoemsofthisremarkable
littlevolume,"TheRimeoftheAncientMariner,"whichisColeridge's
masterpiece,and"LinesWrittenaFewMilesaboveTinternAbbey,"which
expressesWordsworth'spoeticalcreed,andwhichisoneofthenoblestand
mostsignificantofourpoems.Thatthe_LyricalBallads_attractedno
attention,[220]andwaspracticallyignoredbyapublicthatwouldsoongo
intorapturesoverByron's_ChildeHarold_and_DonJuan_,isofsmall
consequence.Manymenwillhurryamiletoseeskyrockets,whonevernotice
OrionandthePleiadesfromtheirowndoorstep.HadWordsworthand
Coleridgewrittenonlythisonelittlebook,theywouldstillbeamongthe
representativewritersofanagethatproclaimedthefinaltriumphof
Romanticism.
LIFEOFWORDSWORTH.Tounderstandthelifeofhimwho,inTennyson'swords,
"utterednothingbase,"itiswelltoreadfirst_ThePrelude_,which
recordstheimpressionsmadeuponWordsworth'smindfromhisearliest
recollectionuntilhisfullmanhood,in1805,whenthepoemwas
completed.[221]Outwardlyhislonganduneventfullifedividesitself
naturallyintofourperiods:(1)hischildhoodandyouth,intheCumberland
Hills,from1770to1787;(2)aperiodofuncertainty,ofstormandstress,
includinghisuniversitylifeatCambridge,histravelsabroad,andhis
revolutionaryexperience,from1787to1797;(3)ashortbutsignificant
periodoffindinghimselfandhiswork,from1797to1799;(4)along
periodofretirementinthenorthernlakeregion,wherehewasborn,and
whereforafullhalfcenturyhelivedsoclosetonaturethather
influenceisreflectedinallhispoetry.Whenonehasoutlinedthesefour
periodshehastoldalmostallthatcanbetoldofalifewhichismarked,
notbyevents,butlargelybyspiritualexperiences.
Wordsworthwasbornin1770atCockermouth,Cumberland,wheretheDerwent,
Fairestofallrivers,loved
Toblendhismurmurswithmynurse'ssong,
Andfromhisaldershadesandrockyfalls,
Andfromhisfordsandshallows,sentavoice
Thatflowedalongmydreams.
ItisalmostashocktoonewhoknowsWordsworthonlybyhiscalmandnoble
poetrytoreadthathewasofamoodyandviolenttemper,andthathis
motherdespairedofhimaloneamongherfivechildren.Shediedwhenhewas
buteightyearsold,butnottillshehadexertedaninfluencewhichlasted
allhislife,sothathecouldrememberheras"theheartofallour
learningsandourloves."Thefatherdiedsomesixyearslater,andthe
orphanwastakeninchargebyrelatives,whosenthimtoschoolat
Hawkshead,inthebeautifullakeregion.Here,apparently,theunroofed
schoolofnatureattractedhimmorethanthedisciplineoftheclassics,
andhelearnedmoreeagerlyfromtheflowersandhillsandstarsthanfrom

hisbooks;butonemustreadWordsworth'sownrecord,in_ThePrelude_,to
appreciatethis.Threethingsinthispoemmustimpresseventhecasual
reader:first,Wordsworthlovestobealone,andisneverlonely,with
nature;second,likeeveryotherchildwhospendsmuchtimealoneinthe
woodsandfields,hefeelsthepresenceofsomelivingspirit,realthough
unseen,andcompanionablethoughsilent;third,hisimpressionsareexactly
likeourown,anddelightfullyfamiliar.Whenhetellsofthelongsummer
dayspentinswimming,baskinginthesun,andquestingoverthehills;or
ofthewinternightwhen,onhisskates,hechasedthereflectionofastar
intheblackice;orofhisexploringthelakeinaboat,andgetting
suddenlyfrightenedwhentheworldgrewbigandstrange,inallthisheis
simplyrecallingamultitudeofourownvague,happymemoriesofchildhood.
Hegoesoutintothewoodsatnighttotendhiswoodcocksnares;heruns
acrossanotherboy'ssnares,followsthem,findsawoodcockcaught,takes
it,hurriesawaythroughthenight.Andthen,
Iheardamongthesolitaryhills
Lowbreathingscomingafterme,andsounds
Ofundistinguishablemotion.
Thatislikeamentalphotograph.Anyboywhohascomehomethroughthe
woodsatnightwillrecognizeitinstantly.Againhetellsasofgoing
bird'snestingonthecliffs:
Oh,whenIhavehung
Abovetheraven'snest,byknotsofgrass
Andhalfinchfissuresintheslipperyrock
Butillsustained,andalmost(soitseemed)
Suspendedbytheblastthatblewamain,
Shoulderingthenakedcrag,oh,atthattime,
WhileontheperilousridgeIhungalone,
Withwhatstrangeutterancedidthelouddrywind
Blowthroughmyear!Theskyseemednotasky
Ofearth,andwithwhatmotionmovedtheclouds!
Nomancanreadsuchrecordswithoutfindinghisownboyhoodagain,andhis
ownaboundingjoyoflife,inthepoet'searlyimpressions.
ThesecondperiodofWordsworth'slifebeginswithhisuniversitycourseat
Cambridge,in1787.Inthethirdbookof_ThePrelude_wefinda
dispassionateaccountofstudentlife,withitstrivialoccupations,its
pleasuresandgeneralaimlessness.Wordsworthprovedtobeaveryordinary
scholar,followinghisowngeniusratherthanthecurriculum,andlooking
forwardmoreeagerlytohisvacationamongthehillsthantohis
examinations.PerhapsthemostinterestingthinginhislifeatCambridge
washisfellowshipwiththeyoungpoliticalenthusiasts,whosespiritis
expressedinhisremarkablepoemontheFrenchRevolution,apoemwhichis
betterthanavolumeofhistorytoshowthehopesandambitionsthat
stirredallEuropeinthefirstdaysofthatmightyupheaval.Wordsworth
madetwotripstoFrance,in1790and1791,seeingthingschieflythrough
therosyspectaclesoftheyoungOxfordRepublicans.Onhissecondvisithe
joinedtheGirondists,orthemoderateRepublicans,andonlythedecision
ofhisrelatives,whocutoffhisallowanceandhurriedhimbackto
England,preventedhisgoingheadlongtotheguillotinewiththeleadersof
hisparty.TwothingsrapidlycooledWordsworth'srevolutionaryenthusiasm,
andendedtheonlydramaticinterestofhisplacidlife.Onewasthe
excessesoftheRevolutionitself,andespeciallytheexecutionofLouis
XVI;theotherwastheriseofNapoleon,andtheslavishadulationaccorded
byFrancetothismostvulgaranddangerousoftyrants.Hiscoolnesssoon
grewtodisgustandopposition,asshownbyhissubsequentpoems;andthis
broughtuponhimthecensureofShelley,Byron,andotherextremists,
thoughitgainedthefriendshipofScott,whofromthefirsthadno
sympathywiththeRevolutionorwiththeyoungEnglishenthusiasts.
OfthedecisiveperiodofWordsworth'slife,whenhewaslivingwithhis

sisterDorothyandwithColeridgeatAlfoxden,wehavealreadyspoken.The
importanceofthisdecisiontogivehimselftopoetryisevidentwhenwe
rememberthat,atthirtyyearsofage,hewaswithoutmoneyoranydefinite
aimoroccupationinlife.Heconsideredthelaw,butconfessedhehadno
sympathyforitscontradictorypreceptsandpractices;heconsideredthe
ministry,butthoughstronglyinclinedtotheChurch,hefelthimselfnot
goodenoughforthesacredoffice;oncehehadwantedtobeasoldierand
servehiscountry,buthadwaveredattheprospectofdyingofdiseaseina
foreignlandandthrowingawayhislifewithoutgloryorprofittoanybody.
Anapparentaccident,whichlooksmoretouslikeaspecialProvidence,
determinedhiscourse.Hehadtakencareofayoungfriend,Raisley
Calvert,whodiedofconsumptionandleftWordsworthheirtoafewhundred
pounds,andtotherequestthatheshouldgivehislifetopoetry.Itwas
thisunexpectedgiftwhichenabledWordsworthtoretirefromtheworldand
followhisgenius.Allhislifehewaspoor,andlivedinanatmosphereof
plainlivingandhighthinking.Hispoetrybroughthimalmostnothingin
thewayofmoneyrewards,anditwasonlybyaseriesofhappyaccidents
thathewasenabledtocontinuehiswork.Oneoftheseaccidentswasthat
hebecameaTory,andsoonacceptedtheofficeofadistributorofstamps,
andwaslaterappointedpoetlaureatebythegovernment,whichoccasioned
Browning'sfamousbutillconsideredpoemof"TheLostLeader":
Justforahandfulofsilverheleftus,
Justforaribandtostickinhiscoat.
ThelasthalfcenturyofWordsworth'slife,inwhichheretiredtohis
belovedlakedistrictandlivedsuccessivelyatGrasmereandRydalMount,
remindonestronglyofBrowning'slongstruggleforliteraryrecognition.
Itwasmarkedbythesamesteadfastpurpose,thesametrustedideal,the
samecontinuouswork,andthesametardyrecognitionbythepublic.His
poetrywasmercilesslyridiculedbynearlyallthemagazinecritics,who
seizedupontheworstofhisworkasastandardofjudgment;andbookafter
bookofpoemsappearedwithoutmeetinganysuccesssavetheapprovalofa
fewloyalfriends.Withoutdoubtorimpatiencehecontinuedhiswork,
trustingtothefuturetorecognizeandapproveit.Hisattitudehere
remindsonestronglyofthepooroldsoldierwhomhemetinthehills,[222]
whorefusedtobegortomentionhislongserviceortheneglectofhis
country,sayingwithnoblesimplicity,
MytrustisintheGodofHeaven
Andintheeyeofhimwhopassesme.
Suchworkandpatiencearecertainoftheirreward,andlongbefore
Wordsworth'sdeathhefeltthewarmsunshineofgeneralapproval.Thewave
ofpopularenthusiasmforScottandByronpassedby,astheirlimitations
wererecognized;andWordsworthwashailedbycriticsasthefirstliving
poet,andoneofthegreatestthatEnglandhadeverproduced.Onthedeath
ofSouthey(1843)hewasmadepoetlaureate,againsthisowninclination.
Thelateexcessivepraiselefthimquiteasunmovedasthefirstexcessive
neglect.Thesteadydeclineinthequalityofhisworkisduenot,asmight
beexpected,toselfsatisfactionatsuccess,butrathertohisintense
conservatism,tohislivingtoomuchaloneandfailingtotesthisworkby
thestandardsandjudgmentofotherliterarymen.Hediedtranquillyin
1850,attheageofeightyyears,andwasburiedinthechurchyardat
Grasmere.
Suchisthebriefoutwardrecordoftheworld'sgreatestinterpreterof
nature'smessage;andonlyonewhoisacquaintedwithbothnatureandthe
poetcanrealizehowinadequateisanybiography;forthebestthingabout
Wordsworthmustalwaysremainunsaid.Itisacomforttoknowthathis
life,noble,sincere,"heroicallyhappy,"nevercontradictedhismessage.
Poetrywashislife;hissoulwasinallhiswork;andonlybyreadingwhat
hehaswrittencanweunderstandtheman.
THEPOETRYOFWORDSWORTH.Thereisoftenasenseofdisappointmentwhenone

readsWordsworthforthefirsttime;andthisleadsustospeakfirstof
twodifficultieswhichmayeasilypreventajustappreciationofthepoet's
worth.Thefirstdifficultyisinthereader,whoisoftenpuzzledby
Wordsworth'sabsolutesimplicity.Wearesousedtostageeffectsin
poetry,thatbeautyunadornedisapttoescapeournotice,like
Wordsworth's"Lucy":
Avioletbyamossystone,
Halfhiddenfromtheeye;
Fairasastar,whenonlyone
Isshininginthesky.
Wordsworthsethimselftothetaskoffreeingpoetryfromallits
"conceits,"ofspeakingthelanguageofsimpletruth,andofportrayingman
andnatureastheyare;andinthisgoodworkweareapttomissthe
beauty,thepassion,theintensity,thathidethemselvesunderhissimplest
lines.Theseconddifficultyisinthepoet,notinthereader.Itmustbe
confessedthatWordsworthisnotalwaysmelodious;thatheisseldom
graceful,andonlyoccasionallyinspired.Whenheisinspired,fewpoets
canbecomparedwithhim;atothertimesthebulkofhisverseissowooden
andprosythatwewonderhowapoetcouldhavewrittenit.Moreoverheis
absolutelywithouthumor,andsoheoftenfailstoseethesmallstepthat
separatesthesublimefromtheridiculous.Innootherwaycanweexplain
"TheIdiotBoy,"orpardontheseriousabsurdityof"PeterBell"andhis
grievingjackass.
Onaccountofthesedifficultiesitiswelltoavoidatfirstthelonger
worksandbeginwithagoodbookofselections.[223]Whenwereadthese
exquisiteshorterpoems,withtheirnoblelinesthatliveforeverinour
memory,werealizethatWordsworthisthegreatestpoetofnaturethatour
literaturehasproduced.Ifwegofurther,andstudythepoemsthatimpress
us,weshallfindfourremarkablecharacteristics:(1)Wordsworthis
sensitiveasabarometertoeverysubtlechangeintheworldabouthim.In
_ThePrelude_hecompareshimselftoanolianharp,whichanswerswith
harmonytoeverytouchofthewind;andthefigureisstrikinglyaccurate,
aswellasinteresting,forthereishardlyasightorasound,froma
violettoamountainandfromabirdnotetothethunderofthecataract,
thatisnotreflectedinsomebeautifulwayinWordsworth'spoetry.
(2)Ofallthepoetswhohavewrittenofnaturethereisnonethatcompares
withhiminthetruthfulnessofhisrepresentation.Burns,likeGray,is
apttoreadhisownemotionsintonaturalobjects,sothatthereismoreof
thepoetthanofnatureeveninhismouseandmountaindaisy;but
Wordsworthgivesyouthebirdandtheflower,thewindandthetreeandthe
river,justastheyare,andiscontenttoletthemspeaktheirown
message.
(3)Nootherpoeteverfoundsuchabundantbeautyinthecommonworld.He
hadnotonlysight,butinsight,thatis,henotonlyseesclearlyand
describesaccurately,butpenetratestotheheartofthingsandalways
findssomeexquisitemeaningthatisnotwrittenonthesurface.Itisidle
tospecifyortoquotelinesonflowersorstars,onsnoworvapor.Nothing
isuglyorcommonplaceinhisworld;onthecontrary,thereishardlyone
naturalphenomenonwhichhehasnotglorifiedbypointingoutsomebeauty
thatwashiddenfromoureyes.
(4)Itisthe_life_ofnaturewhichiseverywhererecognized;notmere
growthandcellchanges,butsentient,personallife;andtherecognition
ofthispersonalityinnaturecharacterizesalltheworld'sgreatpoetry.
InhischildhoodWordsworthregardednaturalobjects,thestreams,the
hills,theflowers,eventhewinds,ashiscompanions;andwithhismature
beliefthatallnatureisthereflectionofthelivingGod,itwas
inevitablethathispoetryshouldthrillwiththesenseofaSpiritthat
"rollsthroughallthings."Cowper,Burns,Keats,Tennyson,allthese
poetsgiveyoutheoutwardaspectsofnatureinvaryingdegrees;but

Wordsworthgivesyouherverylife,andtheimpressionofsomepersonal
livingspiritthatmeetsandaccompaniesthemanwhogoesalonethroughthe
woodsandfields.Weshallhardlyfind,eveninthephilosophyofLeibnitz,
orinthenaturemythsofourIndians,anysuchimpressionoflivingnature
asthispoetawakensinus.Andthatsuggestsanotherdelightful
characteristicofWordsworth'spoetry,namely,thatheseemstoawaken
ratherthancreateanimpression;hestirsourmemorydeeply,sothatin
readinghimweliveoncemoreinthevague,beautifulwonderlandofourown
childhood.
SuchisthephilosophyofWordsworth'snaturepoetry.Ifwesearchnowfor
hisphilosophyofhumanlife,weshallfindfourmoredoctrines,whichrest
uponhisbasalconceptionthatmanisnotapartfromnature,butisthe
very"lifeofherlife."(1)Inchildhoodmanissensitiveasawindharp
toallnaturalinfluences;heisanepitomeofthegladnessandbeautyof
theworld.Wordsworthexplainsthisgladnessandthissensitivenessto
naturebythedoctrinethatthechildcomesstraightfromtheCreatorof
nature:
Ourbirthisbutasleepandaforgetting:
TheSoulthatriseswithus,ourlife'sStar,
Hathhadelsewhereitssetting,
Andcomethfromafar:
Notinentireforgetfulness
Andnotinutternakedness,
Buttrailingcloudsofglorydowecome
FromGod,whoisourhome.
Inthisexquisiteode,whichhecalls"IntimationsofImmortalityfrom
RecollectionsofEarlyChildhood"(1807),Wordsworthsumsuphisphilosophy
ofchildhood;andhemaypossiblybeindebtedheretothepoetVaughan,
who,morethanacenturybefore,hadproclaimedin"TheRetreat"thesame
doctrine.ThiskinshipwithnatureandwithGod,whichglorifieschildhood,
oughttoextendthroughaman'swholelifeandennobleit.Thisisthe
teachingof"TinternAbbey,"inwhichthebestpartofourlifeisshownto
betheresultofnaturalinfluences.AccordingtoWordsworth,societyand
thecrowdedunnaturallifeofcitiestendtoweakenandperverthumanity;
andareturntonaturalandsimplelivingistheonlyremedyforhuman
wretchedness.
(2)Thenaturalinstinctsandpleasuresofchildhoodarethetruestandards
ofaman'shappinessinthislife.Allartificialpleasuressoongrow
tiresome.Thenaturalpleasures,whichamansoeasilyneglectsinhis
work,arethechiefmeansbywhichwemayexpectpermanentandincreasing
joy.In"TinternAbbey,""TheRainbow,""OdetoDuty,"and"Intimationsof
Immortality"weseethisplainteaching;butwecanhardlyreadoneof
Wordsworth'spageswithoutfindingitslippedinunobtrusively,likethe
fragranceofawildflower.
(3)The_truth_ofhumanity,thatis,thecommonlifewhichlaborsandloves
andsharesthegeneralheritageofsmilesandtears,istheonlysubjectof
permanentliteraryinterest.BurnsandtheearlypoetsoftheRevivalbegan
thegoodworkofshowingtheromanticinterestofcommonlife;and
Wordsworthcontinueditin"Michael,""TheSolitaryReaper,""ToaHighland
Girl,""SteppingWestward,"_TheExcursion_,andascoreoflesserpoems.
Joyandsorrow,notofprincesorheroes,but"inwidestcommonalty
spread,"arehisthemes;andthehiddenpurposeofmanyofhispoemsisto
showthatthekeynoteofalllifeishappiness,notanoccasionalthing,
theresultofchanceorcircumstance,butaheroicthing,tobewon,asone
wouldwinanyothersuccess,byworkandpatience.
(4)TothisnaturalphilosophyofmanWordsworthaddsamysticelement,the
resultofhisownbeliefthatineverynaturalobjectthereisareflection
ofthelivingGod.NatureiseverywheretransfusedandilluminedbySpirit;
manalsoisareflectionofthedivineSpirit;andweshallnever

understandtheemotionsrousedbyaflowerorasunsetuntilwelearnthat
natureappealsthroughtheeyeofmantohisinnerspirit.Inaword,
naturemustbe"spirituallydiscerned."In"TinternAbbey"thespiritual
appealofnatureisexpressedinalmosteveryline;butthemystic
conceptionofmanisseenmoreclearlyin"IntimationsofImmortality,"
whichEmersoncalls"thehighwatermarkofpoetryinthenineteenth
century."InthislastsplendidodeWordsworthaddstohisspiritual
interpretationofnatureandmanthealluringdoctrineofprexistence,
whichhasappealedsopowerfullytoHindooandGreekinturn,andwhich
makesofhumanlifeacontinuous,immortalthing,withoutendorbeginning.
Wordsworth'slongerpoems,sincetheycontainmuchthatisprosyand
uninteresting,maywellbelefttillafterwehavereadtheodes,sonnets,
andshortdescriptivepoemsthathavemadehimfamous.Asshowingacertain
heroiccastofWordsworth'smind,itisinterestingtolearnthatthe
greaterpartofhiswork,including_ThePrelude_and_TheExcursion_,was
intendedforaplaceinasinglegreatpoem,tobecalled_TheRecluse_,
whichshouldtreatofnature,man,andsociety._ThePrelude_,treatingof
thegrowthofapoet'smind,wastointroducethework.The_Homeat
Grasmere_,whichisthefirstbookof_TheRecluse_,wasnotpublishedtill
1888,longafterthepoet'sdeath._TheExcursion_(1814)isthesecond
bookof_TheRecluse_;andthethirdwasnevercompleted,thoughWordsworth
intendedtoincludemostofhisshorterpoemsinthisthirdpart,andso
makeanimmensepersonalepicofapoet'slifeandwork.Itisperhapsjust
aswellthattheworkremainedunfinished.Thebestofhisworkappearedin
the_LyricalBallads_(1798)andinthesonnets,odes,andlyricsofthe
nexttenyears;though"TheDuddonSonnets"(1820),"ToaSkylark"(1825),
and"YarrowRevisited"(1831)showthatheretainedtillpastsixtymuchof
hisyouthfulenthusiasm.Inhislateryears,however,heperhapswrotetoo
much;hispoetry,likehisprose,becomesdullandunimaginative;andwe
misstheflashesofinsight,thetendermemoriesofchildhood,andthe
recurrenceofnoblelineseachoneapoemthatconstitutesthesurprise
andthedelightofreadingWordsworth.
Theoutwardshowsofskyandearth,
Ofhillandvalley,hehasviewed;
Andimpulsesofdeeperbirth
Havecometohiminsolitude.
Incommonthingsthatrounduslie
Somerandomtruthshecanimpart
Theharvestofaquieteye
Thatbroodsandsleepsonhisownheart.
SAMUELTAYLORCOLERIDGE(17721834)
Agriefwithoutapang,void,darkanddrear,
Astifled,drowsy,unimpassionedgrief,
Whichfindsnonaturaloutlet,norelief,
Inword,orsigh,ortear.
Inthewonderful"OdetoDejection,"fromwhichtheabovefragmentis
taken,wehaveasinglestrongimpressionofColeridge'swholelife,a
sad,broken,tragiclife,inmarkedcontrastwiththepeacefulexistenceof
hisfriendWordsworth.Forhimself,duringthegreaterpartofhislife,
thepoethadonlygriefandremorseashisportion;butforeverybodyelse,
fortheaudiencesthatwerecharmedbythebrilliancyofhisliterary
lectures,forthefriendswhogatheredabouthimtobeinspiredbyhis
idealsandconversation,andforallhisreaderswhofoundunendingdelight
inthelittlevolumewhichholdshispoetry,hehadandstillhasa
cheeringmessage,fullofbeautyandhopeandinspiration.Suchis
Coleridge,amanofgriefwhomakestheworldglad.
LIFE.In1772therelivedinOtterySt.Mary,Devonshire,aqueerlittle
man,theRev.JohnColeridge,vicaroftheparishchurchandmasterofthe

localgrammarschool.Intheformercapacityhepreachedprofoundsermons,
quotingtoopenmouthedrusticslongpassagesfromtheHebrew,whichhe
toldthemwastheverytongueoftheHolyGhost.Inthelattercapacityhe
wroteforhisboysanewLatingrammar,tomitigatesomeofthe
difficultiesoftraversingthatterriblejunglebymeansofingenious
bypathsandshortcuts.Forinstance,whenhisboysfoundtheablativea
somewhatdifficultcasetounderstand,hetoldthemtothinkofitasthe
_qualequarequidditive_case,whichofcoursemakesitsmeaningperfectly
clear.InboththesecapacitiestheelderColeridgewasasincereman,
gentleandkindly,whosememorywas"likeareligion"tohissonsand
daughters.InthatsameyearwasbornSamuelTaylorColeridge,theyoungest
ofthirteenchildren.Hewasanextraordinarilyprecociouschild,whocould
readatthreeyearsofage,andwho,beforehewasfive,hadreadtheBible
andtheArabianNights,andcouldrememberanastonishingamountfromboth
books.Fromthreetosixheattendeda"dame"school;andfromsixtill
nine(whenhisfatherdiedandleftthefamilydestitute)hewasinhis
father'sschool,learningtheclassics,readinganenormousquantityof
Englishbooks,avoidingnovels,anddelightingincumbroustheologicaland
metaphysicaltreatises.AttenhewassenttotheCharitySchoolof
Christ'sHospital,London,wherehemetCharlesLamb,whorecordshis
impressionoftheplaceandofColeridgeinoneofhisfamousessays.[224]
Coleridgeseemstohaveremainedinthisschoolforsevenoreightyears
withoutvisitinghishome,apoor,neglectedboy,whosecomfortsand
entertainmentswereallwithinhimself.Justas,whenalittlechild,he
usedtowanderoverthefieldswithastickinhishand,slashingthetops
fromweedsandthistles,andthinkinghimselftobethemightychampionof
Christendomagainsttheinfidels,sonowhewouldlieontheroofofthe
school,forgettingtheplayofhisfellowsandtheroaroftheLondon
streets,watchingthewhitecloudsdriftingoverandfollowingthemin
spiritintoallsortsofromanticadventures.
Atnineteenthishopelessdreamer,whohadreadmorebooksthananold
professor,enteredCambridgeasacharitystudent.Heremainedfornearly
threeyears,thenranawaybecauseofatriflingdebtandenlistedinthe
Dragoons,whereheservedseveralmonthsbeforehewasdiscoveredand
broughtbacktotheuniversity.Heleftin1794withouttakinghisdegree;
andpresentlywefindhimwiththeyouthfulSouthey,akindredspirit,who
hadbeenfiredtowildenthusiasmbytheFrenchRevolution,foundinghis
famousPantisocracyfortheregenerationofhumansociety."TheFallof
Robespierre,"apoemcomposedbythetwoenthusiasts,isfullofthenew
revolutionaryspirit.ThePantisocracy,onthebanksoftheSusquehanna,
wastobeanidealcommunity,inwhichthecitizenscombinedfarmingand
literature;andworkwastobelimitedtotwohourseachday.Moreover,
eachmemberofthecommunitywastomarryagoodwoman,andtakeherwith
him.Thetwopoetsobeyedthelatterinjunctionfirst,marryingtwo
sisters,andthenfoundthattheyhadnomoneytopayeventheirtraveling
expensestothenewUtopia.
Duringalltherestofhiscareeratragicweaknessofwilltakes
possessionofColeridge,makingitimpossibleforhim,withallhisgenius
andlearning,toholdhimselfsteadilytoanyoneworkorpurpose.He
studiedinGermany;workedasaprivatesecretary,tillthedrudgerywore
uponhisfreespirit;thenhewenttoRomeandremainedfortwoyears,lost
instudy.Laterhestarted_TheFriend_,apaperdevotedtotruthand
liberty;lecturedonpoetryandthefineartstoenrapturedaudiencesin
London,untilhisfrequentfailurestomeethisengagementsscatteredhis
hearers;wasofferedanexcellentpositionandahalfinterest(amounting
tosome2000)inthe_MorningPost_and_TheCourier_,butdeclinedit,
saying"thatIwouldnotgiveupthecountryandthelazyreadingofold
foliosfortwothousandtimestwothousandpounds,inshort,thatbeyond
350ayearIconsideredmoneyarealevil."Hisfamily,meanwhile,was
almostentirelyneglected;helivedapart,followinghisownway,andthe
wifeandchildrenwereleftinchargeofhisfriendSouthey.Needingmoney,
hewasonthepointofbecomingaUnitarianminister,whenasmallpension
fromtwofriendsenabledhimtoliveforafewyearswithoutregular

employment.
AterribleshadowinColeridge'slifewastheapparentcauseofmostofhis
dejection.Inearlylifehesufferedfromneuralgia,andtoeasethepain
begantouseopiates.Theresultonsuchatemperamentwasalmost
inevitable.Hebecameaslavetothedrughabit;hisnaturallyweakwill
lostallitsdirectingandsustainingforce,until,afterfifteenyearsof
painandstruggleanddespair,hegaveupandputhimselfinchargeofa
physician,oneMr.Gillman,ofHighgate.Carlyle,whovisitedhimatthis
time,callshim"akingofmen,"butrecordsthat"hegaveyoutheideaof
alifethathadbeenfullofsufferings,alifeheavyladen,
halfvanquished,stillswimmingpainfullyinseasofmanifoldphysicaland
otherbewilderment."
Theshadowisdarkindeed;buttherearegleamsofsunshinethat
occasionallybreakthroughtheclouds.Oneoftheseishisassociationwith
WordsworthandhissisterDorothy,intheQuantockhills,outofwhichcame
thefamous_LyricalBallads_of1798.Anotherwashisloyaldevotionto
poetryforitsownsake.Withtheexceptionofhistragedy_Remorse_,which
throughByron'sinfluencewasacceptedatDruryLaneTheater,andforwhich
hewaspaid400,hereceivedalmostnothingforhispoetry.Indeed,he
seemsnottohavedesiredit;forhesays:"Poetryhasbeentomeitsown
exceedinggreatreward;ithassoothedmyafflictions;ithasmultiplied
andrefinedmyenjoyments;ithasendearedsolitude,andithasgivenme
thehabitofwishingtodiscoverthegoodandthebeautifulinallthat
meetsandsurroundsme."Onecanbetterunderstandhisexquisiteverse
aftersuchadeclaration.Athirdrayofsunlightcamefromtheadmiration
ofhiscontemporaries;forthoughhewrotecomparativelylittle,hewasby
histalentsandlearningaleaderamongliterarymen,andhisconversations
wereaseagerlylistenedtoaswerethoseofDr.Johnson.Wordsworthsays
ofhimthat,thoughothermenoftheagehaddonesomewonderfulthings,
Coleridgewastheonlywonderfulmanhehadeverknown.Ofhislectureson
literatureacontemporarysays:"Hiswordsseemtoflowasfromaperson
repeatingwithgraceandenergysomedelightfulpoem."Andofhis
conversationitisrecorded:"Throughoutalongdrawnsummer'sdaywould
thismantalktoyouinlow,equablebutclearandmusicaltones,
concerningthingshumananddivine;marshallingallhistory,harmonizing
allexperiment,probingthedepthsofyourconsciousness,andrevealing
visionsofgloryandterrortotheimagination."
ThelastbrightrayofsunlightcomesfromColeridge'sownsoul,fromthe
gentle,kindlynaturewhichmademenloveandrespecthiminspiteofhis
weaknesses,andwhichcausedLambtospeakofhimhumorouslyas"an
archangelalittledamaged."Theuniversallawofsufferingseemstobe
thatitrefinesandsoftenshumanity;andColeridgewasnoexceptiontothe
law.Inhispoetrywefindanoteofhumansympathy,moretenderand
profoundthancanbefoundinWordsworthor,indeed,inanyotherofthe
greatEnglishpoets.Eveninhislaterpoems,whenhehaslosthisfirst
inspirationandsomethingofthesplendidimaginativepowerthatmakeshis
workequaltothebestofBlake's,wefindasoultender,triumphant,
quiet,"inthestillnessofagreatpeace."Hediedin1834,andwasburied
inHighgateChurch.Thelaststanzaoftheboatman'ssong,in_Remorse_,
servesbettertoexpresstheworld'sjudgmentthananyepitaph:
Hark!thecadencediesaway
Onthequietmoonlitsea;
Theboatmenresttheiroarsandsay,
_MiserereDomini!_
WORKSOFCOLERIDGE.TheworksofColeridgenaturallydividethemselvesinto
threeclasses,thepoetic,thecritical,andthephilosophical,
correspondingtotheearly,themiddle,andthelaterperiodsofhis
career.OfhispoetryStopfordBrookewellsays:"Allthathedid
excellentlymightbeboundupintwentypages,butitshouldbeboundin
puregold."HisearlypoemsshowtheinfluenceofGrayandBlake,

especiallyofthelatter.WhenColeridgebeginshis"DayDream"withthe
line,"Myeyesmakepictureswhenthey'reshut,"werecallinstantly
Blake'shaunting_SongsofInnocence_.Butthereisthisdifferencebetween
thetwopoets,inBlakewehaveonlyadreamer;inColeridgewehavethe
rarecombinationofthedreamerandtheprofoundscholar.Thequalityof
thisearlypoetry,withitsstrongsuggestionofBlake,maybeseeninsuch
poemsas"ADayDream,""TheDevil'sThoughts,""TheSuicide'sArgument,"
and"TheWanderingsofCain."Hislaterpoems,whereinweseehis
imaginationbridledbythoughtandstudy,butstillrunningveryfreely,
maybestbeappreciatedin"KublaKhan,""Christabel,"and"TheRimeofthe
AncientMariner."Itisdifficulttocriticisesuchpoems;onecanonly
readthemandwonderattheirmelody,andatthevaguesuggestionswhich
theyconjureupinthemind."KublaKhan"isafragment,paintinga
gorgeousOrientaldreampicture,suchasonemightseeinanOctober
sunset.ThewholepoemcametoColeridgeonemorningwhenhehadfallen
asleepoverPurchas,anduponawakeninghebegantowritehastily,
InXanadudidKublaKhan
Astatelypleasuredomedecree:
WhereAlph,thesacredriver,ran
Throughcavernsmeasurelesstoman
Downtoasunlesssea.
Hewasinterruptedafterfiftyfourlineswerewritten,andhenever
finishedthepoem.
"Christabel"isalsoafragment,whichseemstohavebeenplannedasthe
storyofapureyounggirlwhofellunderthespellofasorcerer,inthe
shapeofthewomanGeraldine.Itisfullofastrangemelody,andcontains
manypassagesofexquisitepoetry;butittrembleswithastrange,unknown
horror,andsosuggeststhesupernaturalterrorsofthepopularhysterical
novels,towhichwehavereferred.Onthisaccountitisnotwholesome
reading;thoughonefliesinthefaceofSwinburneandofothercriticsby
venturingtosuggestsuchathing.
"TheRimeoftheAncientMariner"isColeridge'schiefcontributiontothe
_LyricalBallads_of1798,andisoneoftheworld'smasterpieces.Though
itintroducesthereadertoasupernaturalrealm,withaphantomship,a
crewofdeadmen,theoverhangingcurseofthealbatross,thepolarspirit,
andthemagicbreeze,itneverthelessmanagestocreateasenseofabsolute
realityconcerningthesemanifestabsurdities.Allthemechanismsofthe
poem,itsmeter,rime,andmelodyareperfect;andsomeofitsdescriptions
ofthelonelyseahaveneverbeenequaled.Perhapsweshouldsay
suggestions,ratherthandescriptions;forColeridgeneverdescribes
things,butmakesasuggestion,alwaysbriefandalwaysexactlyright,and
ourownimaginationinstantlysuppliesthedetails.Itisuselesstoquote
fragments;onemustreadtheentirepoem,ifhereadsnothingelseofthe
romanticschoolofpoetry.
AmongColeridge'sshorterpoemsthereisawidevariety,andeachreader
mustbeleftlargelytofollowhisowntaste.Thebeginnerwilldowellto
readafewoftheearlypoems,towhichwehavereferred,andthentrythe
"OdetoFrance,""YouthandAge,""Dejection,""LovePoems,""Fearsin
Solitude,""ReligiousMusings,""WorkWithoutHope,"andtheglorious"Hymn
BeforeSunriseintheValeofChamouni."Oneexquisitelittlepoemfromthe
Latin,"TheVirgin'sCradleHymn,"andhisversionofSchiller's
_Wallenstein_,showColeridge'sremarkablepowerasatranslator.The
latterisoneofthebestpoeticaltranslationsinourliterature.
OfColeridge'sproseworks,the_Biographia,Literaria,orSketchesofMy
LiteraryLifeandOpinions_(1817),hiscollected_LecturesonShakespeare_
(1849),and_AidstoReflection_(1825)arethemostinterestingfroma
literaryviewpoint.Thefirstisanexplanationandcriticismof
Wordsworth'stheoryofpoetry,andcontainsmoresoundsenseand
illuminatingideasonthegeneralsubjectofpoetrythananyotherbookin

ourlanguage.The_Lectures_,asrefreshingasawestwindinmidsummer,
areremarkablefortheirattempttosweepawaythearbitraryruleswhich
fortwocenturieshadstoodinthewayofliterarycriticismof
Shakespeare,inordertostudytheworksthemselves.Nofineranalysisand
appreciationofthemaster'sgeniushaseverbeenwritten.Inhis
philosophicalworkColeridgeintroducedtheidealisticphilosophyof
GermanyintoEngland.HesethimselfinlinewithBerkeley,andsquarely
againstBentham,Malthus,Mill,andallthematerialistictendencieswhich
wereandstillarethebaneofEnglishphilosophy.The_AidstoReflection_
isColeridge'smostprofoundwork,butismoreinterestingtothestudent
ofreligionandphilosophythantothereadersofliterature.
ROBERTSOUTHEY(17741843)
CloselyassociatedwithWordsworthandColeridgeisRobertSouthey;andthe
three,onaccountoftheirresidenceinthenorthernlakedistrict,were
referredtocontemptuouslyasthe"Lakers"bytheScottishmagazine
reviewers.Southeyholdshisplaceinthisgroupmorebypersonal
associationthanbyhisliterarygifts.HewasbornatBristol,in1774;
studiedatWestminsterSchool,andatOxford,wherehefoundhimselfin
perpetualconflictwiththeauthoritiesonaccountofhisindependent
views.HefinallylefttheuniversityandjoinedColeridgeinhisschemeof
aPantisocracy.Formorethanfiftyyearshelaboredsteadilyat
literature,refusingtoconsideranyotheroccupation.Heconsidered
himselfseriouslyasoneofthegreatestwritersoftheday,andareading
ofhisballadswhichconnectedhimatoncewiththeromanticschoolleads
ustothinkthat,hadhewrittenless,hemightpossiblyhavejustifiedhis
ownopinionofhimself.Unfortunatelyhecouldnotwaitforinspiration,
beingobligedtosupportnotonlyhisownfamilybutalso,inlarge
measure,thatofhisfriendColeridge.
Southeygraduallysurroundedhimselfwithoneofthemostextensive
librariesinEngland,andsethimselftothetaskofofwritingsomething
everyworkingday.Theresultsofhisindustrywereonehundredandnine
volumes,besidessomehundredandfiftyarticlesforthemagazines,mostof
whicharenowutterlyforgotten.Hismostambitiouspoemsare_Thalaba_,a
taleofArabianenchantment;_TheCurseofKehama_,amedleyofHindoo
mythology;_Madoc_,alegendofaWelshprincewhodiscoveredthewestern
world;and_Roderick_,ataleofthelastoftheGoths.Allthese,andmany
more,althoughcontainingsomeexcellentpassages,areonthewhole
exaggeratedandunreal,bothinmannerandinmatter.Southeywrotefar
betterprosethanpoetry,andhisadmirable_LifeofNelson_isstilloften
read.Besidesthesearehis_LivesofBritishAdmirals_,hislivesof
CowperandWesley,andhishistoriesofBrazilandofthePeninsularWar.
SoutheywasmadePoetLaureatein1813,andwasthefirsttoraisethat
officefromthelowestateintowhichithadfallensincethedeathof
Dryden.TheopeninglinesofThalaba,beginning,
Howbeautifulisnight!
Adewyfreshnessfillsthesilentair,
arestillsometimesquoted;andafewofhisbestknownshortpoems,like
"TheScholar,""AuldCloots,""TheWellofSt.Keyne,""TheInchcapeRock,"
and"Lodore,"willrepaythecuriousreader.ThebeautyofSouthey's
character,hispatienceandhelpfulness,makehimaworthyassociateofthe
twogreaterpoetswithwhomheisgenerallynamed.
WALTERSCOTT(17711832)
Wehavealreadycalledattentiontotwosignificantmovementsofthe
eighteenthcentury,whichwemustforamomentrecallifweareto
appreciateScott,notsimplyasadelightfultelleroftales,butasa

tremendousforceinmodernliterature.Thefirstisthetriumphofromantic
poetryinWordsworthandColeridge;thesecondisthesuccessofourfirst
Englishnovelists,andthepopularizationofliteraturebytakingitfrom
thecontrolofafewpatronsandcriticsandputtingitintothehandsof
thepeopleasoneoftheforceswhichmoldourmodernlife.Scottisan
epitomeofboththesemovements.ThepoetryofWordsworthandColeridgewas
readbyaselectfew,butScott's_Marmion_and_LadyoftheLake_aroused
awholenationtoenthusiasm,andforthefirsttimeromanticpoetrybecame
reallypopular.Soalsothenovelhadbeencontenttopaintmenandwomen
ofthepresent,untilthewonderfulseriesofWaverleynovelsappeared,
whensuddenly,bythemagicofthis"WizardoftheNorth,"allhistory
seemedchanged.Thepast,whichhadhithertoappearedasadrearyregionof
deadheroes,becamealiveagain,andfilledwithamultitudeofmenand
womenwhohadthesurprisingcharmofreality.Itisofsmallconsequence
thatScott'spoetryandprosearebothfaulty;thathispoemsareread
chieflyforthestory,ratherthanfortheirpoeticexcellence;andthat
muchoftheevidentcrudityandbarbarismoftheMiddleAgesisignoredor
forgotteninScott'swritings.Bytheirvigor,theirfreshness,theirrapid
action,andtheirbreezy,outofdooratmosphere,Scott'snovelsattracted
thousandsofreaderswhoelsehadknownnothingofthedelightsof
literature.Heis,therefore,thegreatestknownfactorinestablishingand
inpopularizingthatromanticelementinproseandpoetrywhichhasbeen
forahundredyearsthechiefcharacteristicofourliterature.
LIFE.ScottwasborninEdinburgh,onAugust15,1771.Onbothhismother's
andfather'ssidehewasdescendedfromoldBorderfamilies,distinguished
morefortheirfeudsandfightingthanfortheirintellectualattainments.
Hisfatherwasabarrister,ajustman,whooftenlostclientsbyadvising
themtobe,firstofall,honestintheirlawsuits.Hismotherwasawoman
ofcharacterandeducation,stronglyimaginative,atelleroftaleswhich
stirredyoungWalter'senthusiasmbyrevealingthepastasaworldof
livingheroes.
Asachild,Scottwaslameanddelicate,andwasthereforesentawayfrom
thecitytobewithhisgrandmotherintheopencountryatSandyKnowe,in
Roxburghshire,neartheTweed.Thisgrandmotherwasaperfecttreasure
houseoflegendsconcerningtheoldBorderfeuds.Fromherwonderfultales
ScottdevelopedthatintenseloveofScottishhistoryandtraditionwhich
characterizesallhiswork.
Bythetimehewaseightyearsold,whenhereturnedtoEdinburgh,Scott's
tasteswerefixedforlife.Atthehighschoolhewasafairscholar,but
withoutenthusiasm,beingmoreinterestedinBorderstoriesthaninthe
textbooks.Heremainedatschoolonlysixorsevenyears,andthenentered
hisfather'sofficetostudylaw,atthesametimeattendinglecturesat
theuniversity.Hekeptthisupforsomesixyearswithoutdevelopingany
interestinhisprofession,notevenwhenhepassedhisexaminationsand
wasadmittedtotheBar,in1792.Afternineteenyearsofdesultorywork,
inwhichheshowedfarmorezealingatheringHighlandlegendsthanin
gainingclients,hehadwontwosmalllegalofficeswhichgavehimenough
incometosupporthimcomfortably.Hishome,meanwhile,wasatAshestielon
theTweed,whereallhisbestpoetrywaswritten.
Scott'sliteraryworkbeganwiththetranslationfromtheGermanof
Brger'sromanticballadof_Lenore_(1796)andofGoethe's_Gtzvon
Berlichingen_(1799);buttherewasromanceenoughinhisownloved
Highlands,andin18021803appearedthreevolumesofhis_Minstrelsyof
theScottishBorder_,whichhehadbeencollectingformanyyears.In1805,
whenScottwas34yearsold,appearedhisfirstoriginalwork,_TheLayof
theLastMinstrel_.Itssuccesswasimmediate,andwhen_Marmion_(1808)
and_TheLadyoftheLake_(1810)arousedScotlandandEnglandtointense
enthusiasm,andbroughtunexpectedfametotheauthor,withoutinthe
leastspoilinghishonestandlovablenature,Scottgladlyresolvedto
abandonthelaw,inwhichhehadwonscantsuccess,andgivehimselfwholly
toliterature.Unfortunately,however,inordertoincreasehisearnings,

heenteredsecretlyintopartnershipwiththefirmsofConstableandthe
brothersBallantyne,asprinterpublishers,asadmistake,indeed,andthe
causeofthattragedywhichclosedthelifeofScotland'sgreatestwriter.
Theyear1811isremarkablefortwothingsinScott'slife.Inthisyearhe
seemstohaverealizedthat,notwithstandingthesuccessofhispoems,he
hadnotyet"foundhimself";thathewasnotapoeticgenius,likeBurns;
thatinhisfirstthreepoemshehadpracticallyexhaustedhismaterial,
thoughhestillcontinuedtowriteverse;andthat,ifhewastokeephis
popularity,hemustfindsomeotherwork.Thefactthat,onlyayearlater,
Byronsuddenlybecamethepopularfavorite,showshowcorrectlyScotthad
judgedhimselfandthereadingpublic,whichwasevenmoreficklethan
usualinthisemotionalage.Inthatsameyear,1811,Scottboughtthe
estateofAbbotsford,ontheTweed,withwhichplacehisnameisforever
associated.Herehebegantospendlargesums,andtodispensethegenerous
hospitalityofaScotchlaird,ofwhichhehadbeendreamingforyears.In
1820hewasmadeabaronet;andhisnewtitleofSirWaltercamenearerto
turninghishonestheadthanhadallhisliterarysuccess.Hisbusiness
partnershipwaskeptsecret,andduringalltheyearswhentheWaverley
novelswerethemostpopularbooksintheworld,theirauthorshipremained
unknown;forScottdeemeditbeneaththedignityofhistitletoearnmoney
bybusinessorliterature,andsoughttogivetheimpressionthatthe
enormoussumsspentatAbbotsfordinimprovingtheestateandin
entertaininglavishlywerepartofthedignityofthepositionandcame
fromancestralsources.
ItwasthesuccessofByron's_ChildeHarold_,andthecomparativefailure
ofScott'slaterpoems,_Rokeby_,_TheBridalofTriermain_,and_TheLord
oftheIsles_,whichledourauthorintothenewfield,wherehewastobe
withoutarival.Rummagingthroughacabinetonedayinsearchofsome
fishingtackle,Scottfoundthemanuscriptofastorywhichhehadbegun
andlaidasidenineyearsbefore.Hereadthisoldstoryeagerly,asifit
hadbeenanother'swork;finisheditwithinthreeweeks,andpublishedit
withoutsigninghisname.Thesuccessofthisfirstnovel,_Waverley_
(1814),wasimmediateandunexpected.Itsgreatsalesandthegeneral
chorusofpraiseforitsunknownauthorwerewithoutprecedent;andwhen
_GuyMannering,TheAntiquary,BlackDwarf,OldMortality,RobRoy_,and
_TheHeartofMidlothian_appearedwithinthenextfouryears,England's
delightandwonderknewnobounds.Notonlyathome,butalsoonthe
Continent,largenumbersofthesefreshandfascinatingstoriesweresold
asfastastheycouldbeprinted.
Duringtheseventeenyearswhichfollowedtheappearanceof_Waverley_,
Scottwroteonanaveragenearlytwonovelsperyear,creatinganunusual
numberofcharactersandillustratingmanyperiodsofScotch,English,and
Frenchhistory,fromthetimeoftheCrusadestothefalloftheStuarts.
Inadditiontothesehistoricalnovels,hewrote_TalesofaGrandfather,
DemonologyandWitchcraft_,biographiesofDrydenandofSwift,the_Life
ofNapoleon_,inninevolumes,andalargenumberofarticlesforthe
reviewsandmagazines.Itwasanextraordinaryamountofliterarywork,but
itwasnotquitesorapidandspontaneousasitseemed.Hehadbeenvery
diligentinlookingupoldrecords,andwemustrememberthat,innearly
allhispoemsandnovels,Scottwasdrawinguponafundoflegend,
tradition,history,andpoetry,whichhehadbeengatheringforforty
years,andwhichhismemoryenabledhimtoproduceatwillwithalmostthe
accuracyofanencyclopedia.
ForthefirstsixyearsScottheldhimselftoScottishhistory,givingus
innineremarkablenovelsthewholeofScotland,itsheroism,itssuperb
faithandenthusiasm,andespeciallyitsclannishloyaltytoitshereditary
chiefs;givingusalsoallpartiesandcharacters,fromCovenantersto
Royalists,andfromkingstobeggars.Afterreadingtheseninevolumeswe
knowScotlandandScotchmenaswecanknowtheminnootherway.In1819he
turnedabruptlyfromScotland,andin_Ivanhoe_,themostpopularofhis
works,showedwhatamineofneglectedwealthlayjustbeneaththesurface

ofEnglishhistory.Itishardtorealizenow,aswereaditsrapid,
melodramaticaction,itsvividportrayalofSaxonandNormancharacter,and
allitspicturesquedetails,thatitwaswrittenrapidly,atatimewhen
theauthorwassufferingfromdiseaseandcouldhardlyrepressan
occasionalgroanfromfindingitswayintotherapiddictation.Itstands
todayasthebestexampleoftheauthor'sowntheorythatthewillofa
manisenoughtoholdhimsteadily,againstallobstacles,tothetaskof
"doingwhathehasamindtodo."_Kenilworth,Nigel,Peveril_,and
_Woodstock_,allwritteninthenextfewyears,showhisgraspofthe
romanticsideofEnglishannals;_CountRobert_and_TheTalisman_showhis
enthusiasmfortheheroicsideoftheCrusaders'nature;and_Quentin
Durward_and_AnneofGeierstein_suggestanothermineofromancewhichhe
discoveredinFrenchhistory.
FortwentyyearsScottlaboredsteadilyatliterature,withthedouble
objectofgivingwhatwasinhim,andofearninglargesumstosupportthe
lavishdisplaywhichhedeemedessentialtoalairdofScotland.In1826,
whilehewasblithelyatworkon_Woodstock_,thecrashcame.Noteventhe
vastearningsofallthesepopularnovelscouldlongerkeepthewretched
businessofBallantyneonitsfeet,andthefirmfailed,afteryearsof
mismanagement.Thoughasilentpartner,Scottassumedfullresponsibility,
andatfiftyfiveyearsofage,sick,suffering,andwithallhisbestwork
behindhim,hefoundhimselffacingadebtofoverhalfamilliondollars.
Thefirmcouldeasilyhavecompromisedwithitscreditors;butScott
refusedtohearofbankruptcylawsunderwhichhecouldhavetakenrefuge.
Heassumedtheentiredebtasapersonalone,andsetresolutelytoworkto
payeverypenny.TimeswereindeedchangedinEnglandwhen,insteadofa
literarygeniusstarvinguntilsomewealthypatrongavehimapension,this
man,aidedbyhispenalone,couldconfidentlybegintoearnthatenormous
amountofmoney.Andthisisoneoftheunnoticedresultsofthe
popularizationofliterature.WithoutadoubtScottwouldhaveaccomplished
thetask,hadhebeengrantedonlyafewyearsofhealth.Hestilllivedat
Abbotsford,whichhehadofferedtohiscreditors,butwhichthey
generouslyrefusedtoaccept;andintwoyears,bymiscellaneouswork,had
paidsometwohundredthousanddollarsofhisdebt,nearlyhalfofthissum
comingfromhis_LifeofNapoleon_.AneweditionoftheWaverleynovels
appeared,whichwasverysuccessfulfinancially,andScotthadeveryreason
tohopethathewouldsoonfacetheworldowingnomanapenny,whenhe
suddenlybrokeunderthestrain.In1830occurredastrokeofparalysis
fromwhichheneverfullyrecovered;thoughafteralittletimehewas
againatwork,dictatingwithsplendidpatienceandresolution.Hewrites
inhisdiaryatthistime:"Theblowisastunningone,Isuppose,forI
scarcelyfeelit.Itissingular,butitcomeswithaslittlesurpriseas
ifIhadaremedyready,yetGodknowsIamatseainthedark,andthe
vesselleaky."
Itisgoodtorememberthatgovernmentsarenotalwaysungrateful,andto
recordthat,whenitbecameknownthatavoyagetoItalymightimprove
Scott'shealth,theBritishgovernmentpromptlyplacedanavalvesselat
thedisposalofamanwhohadlednoarmiestotheslaughter,buthadonly
givenpleasuretomultitudesofpeaceablemenandwomenbyhisstories.He
visitedMalta,Naples,andRome;butinhishearthelongedforScotland,
andturnedhomewardafterafewmonthsofexile.TheriverTweed,the
Scotchhills,thetreesofAbbotsford,thejoyousclamorofhisdogs,
broughtforththefirstexclamationofdelightwhichhadpassedScott's
lipssincehesailedaway.HediedinSeptemberofthesameyear,1832,and
wasburiedwithhisancestorsintheoldDryburghAbbey.
WORKSOFSCOTT.Scott'sworkisofakindwhichthecriticgladlypasses
over,leavingeachreadertohisownjoyousanduninstructedopinion.From
aliteraryviewpointtheworksarefaultyenough,ifoneislookingfor
faults;butitiswelltorememberthattheywereintendedtogivedelight,
andthattheyrarelyfailoftheirobject.Whenonehasreadthestirring
_Marmion_orthemoreenduring_LadyoftheLake_,felttheheroismofthe
Crusadersin_TheTalisman_,thepicturesquenessofchivalryin_Ivanhoe_,

thenoblenessofsoulofaScotchpeasantgirlin_TheHeartof
Midlothian_,andthequalityofScotchfaithin_OldMortality_,thenhis
ownopinionofScott'sgeniuswillbeofmorevaluethanallthecriticisms
thathaveeverbeenwritten.
AttheoutsetwemustconfessfranklythatScott'spoetryisnotartistic,
inthehighestsense,andthatitlacksthedeeplyimaginativeand
suggestivequalitieswhichmakeapoemthenoblestandmostenduringwork
ofhumanity.Wereaditnow,notforitspoeticexcellence,butforits
absorbingstoryinterest.Evenso,itservesanadmirablepurpose.
_Marmion_and_TheLadyoftheLake_,whichareoftenthefirstlongpoems
readbythebeginnerinliterature,almostinvariablyleadtoadeeper
interestinthesubject;andmanyreadersowetothesepoemsan
introductiontothedelightsofpoetry.Theyareanexcellentbeginning,
therefore,foryoungreaders,sincetheyarealmostcertaintoholdthe
attention,andtoleadindirectlytoaninterestinotherandbetterpoems.
Asidefromthis,Scott'spoetryismarkedbyvigorandyouthfulabandon;
itsinterestliesinitsvividpictures,itsheroiccharacters,and
especiallyinitsrapidactionandsuccessionofadventures,whichholdand
delightusstill,astheyheldanddelightedthefirstwonderingreaders.
Andonefindshereandtheretersedescriptions,orsnatchesofsongand
ballad,likethe"BoatSong"and"Lochinvar,"whichareamongthebest
knowninourliterature.
InhisnovelsScottplainlywrotetoorapidlyandtoomuch.Whileagenius
ofthefirstmagnitude,thedefinitionofgeniusas"theinfinitecapacity
fortakingpains"hardlybelongstohim.Fordetailsoflifeandhistory,
forfinelydrawncharacters,andfortracingthelogicalconsequencesof
humanaction,hehasusuallynoinclination.Hesketchesacharacter
roughly,plungeshimintothemidstofstirringincidents,andtheaction
ofthestorycarriesusonbreathlesslytotheend.Sohisstoriesare
largelyadventurestories,atthebest;anditisthiselementofadventure
andgloriousaction,ratherthanthestudyofcharacter,whichmakesScott
aperennialfavoriteoftheyoung.Thesameelementofexcitementiswhat
causesmaturereaderstoturnfromScotttobetternovelists,whohavemore
powertodelineatehumancharacter,andtocreate,ordiscover,aromantic
interestintheincidentsofeverydayliferatherthaninstirring
adventure.[225]
Notwithstandingtheselimitations,itiswellespeciallyinthesedays,
whenwehearthatScottisoutgrowntoemphasizefournoteworthythings
thatheaccomplished.
(1)Hecreatedthehistoricalnovel[226];andallnovelistsofthelast
centurywhodrawuponhistoryfortheircharactersandeventsarefollowers
ofScottandacknowledgehismastery.
(2)Hisnovelsareonavastscale,coveringaverywiderangeofaction,
andareconcernedwithpublicratherthanwithprivateinterests.So,with
theexceptionof_TheBrideofLammermoor_,thelovestoryinhisnovelsis
generallypaleandfeeble;butthestrifeandpassionsofbigpartiesare
magnificentlyportrayed.Aglanceovereventhetitlesofhisnovelsshows
howtheheroicsideofhistoryforoversixhundredyearsfindsexpression
inhispages;andallthepartiesofthesesixcenturiesCrusaders,
Covenanters,Cavaliers,Roundheads,Papists,Jews,Gypsies,Rebelsstart
intolifeagain,andfightorgiveareasonforthefaiththatisinthem.
NoothernovelistinEngland,andonlyBalzacinFrance,approachesScott
inthescopeofhisnarratives.
(3)Scottwasthefirstnovelistinanylanguagetomakethescenean
essentialelementintheaction.HeknewScotland,andlovedit;andthere
ishardlyaneventinanyofhisScottishnovelsinwhichwedonotbreathe
theveryatmosphereoftheplace,andfeelthepresenceofitsmoorsand
mountains.Theplace,morever,isusuallysowellchosenanddescribedthat
theactionseemsalmosttobetheresultofnaturalenvironment.Perhaps

themoststrikingillustrationofthisharmonybetweensceneandincident
isfoundin_OldMortality_,whereMortonapproachesthecaveoftheold
Covenanter,andwherethespiritualterrorinspiredbythefanatic's
strugglewithimaginaryfiendsisparalleledbythephysicalterrorofa
gulfandaroaringfloodspannedbyaslipperytreetrunk.Asecond
illustrationofthesameharmonyofsceneandincidentisfoundinthe
meetingofthearmsandidealsoftheEastandWest,whenthetwochampions
fightintheburningdesert,andtheneatbreadtogetherinthecoolshade
oftheoasis,asdescribedintheopeningchapterof_TheTalisman_.A
thirdillustrationisfoundinthatfascinatinglovescene,whereIvanhoe
lieswounded,ragingathishelplessness,whilethegentleRebecca
alternatelyhidesandrevealsherloveasshedescribestheterrific
assaultonthecastle,whichgoesonbeneathherwindow.Histhoughtsare
allonthefight;hersonthemansheloves;andbotharenatural,andboth
areexactlywhatweexpectunderthecircumstances.Thesearebutstriking
examplesofthefactthat,inallhiswork,Scotttriestopreserveperfect
harmonybetweenthesceneandtheaction.
(4)Scott'schiefclaimtogreatnessliesinthefactthathewasthefirst
novelisttorecreatethepast;thathechangedourwholeconceptionof
historybymakingittobe,notarecordofdryfacts,butastageonwhich
livingmenandwomenplayedtheirparts.Carlyle'scriticismisheremost
pertinent:"Thesehistoricalnovelshavetaughtthistruth...unknownto
writersofhistory:thatthebygoneagesoftheworldwereactuallyfilled
bylivingmen,notbyprotocols,statepapers,controversies,and
abstractionsofmen."Notonlythepagesofhistory,butallthehillsand
valesofhisbelovedScotlandarefilledwithlivingcharacters,lordsand
ladies,soldiers,pirates,gypsies,preachers,schoolmasters,clansmen,
bailiffs,dependents,allScotlandisherebeforeoureyes,inthereality
oflifeitself.Itisastonishing,withhislargenumbersofcharacters,
thatScottneverrepeatshimself.NaturallyheismostathomeinScotland,
andwithhumblepeople.Scott'sownromanticinterestinfeudalismcaused
himtomakehislordsaltogethertoolordly;hisaristocraticmaidensare
usuallybloodless,conventional,exasperatingcreatures,whotalklike
booksandposelikefiguresinanoldtapestry.Butwhenhedescribes
characterslikeJeanieDeans,in_TheHeartofMidlothian_,andtheold
clansman,EvanDhu,in_Waverley_,weknowtheverysoulofScotch
womanhoodandmanhood.
Perhapsonethingmoreshouldbesaid,orratherrepeated,ofScott's
enduringwork.Heisalwayssane,wholesome,manly,inspiring.Weknowthe
essentialnobilityofhumanlifebetter,andwearebettermenandwomen
ourselves,becauseofwhathehaswritten.
GEORGEGORDON,LORDBYRON(17881824)
TherearetwodistinctsidestoByronandhispoetry,onegood,theother
bad;andthosewhowriteabouthimgenerallydescribeonesideortheother
insuperlatives.Thusonecriticspeaksofhis"splendidandimperishable
excellenceofsincerityandstrength";anotherofhis"gaudycharlatanry,
blareofbrass,andbigbowwowishness."Asbothcriticsarefundamentally
right,weshallnothereattempttoreconciletheirdifferences,which
arisefromviewingonesideoftheman'snatureandpoetrytotheexclusion
oftheother.BeforehisexilefromEngland,in1816,thegeneral
impressionmadebyByronisthatofamanwholeadsanirregularlife,
posesasaromantichero,makeshimselfoutmuchworsethanhereallyis,
andtakesdelightinshockingnotonlytheconventionsbuttheidealsof
Englishsociety.Hispoetryofthisfirstperiodisgenerally,thoughnot
always,shallowandinsincereinthought,anddeclamatoryorbombasticin
expression.Afterhisexile,andhismeetingwithShelleyinItaly,wenote
agradualimprovement,duepartlytoShelley'sinfluenceandpartlytohis
ownmaturethoughtandexperience.Wehavetheimpressionnowofa
disillusionedmanwhorecognizeshistruecharacter,andwho,though
cynicalandpessimistic,isatleasthonestinhisunhappyoutlookon

society.Hispoetryofthisperiodisgenerallylessshallowand
rhetorical,andthoughhestillparadeshisfeelingsinpublic,heoften
surprisesusbybeingmanlyandsincere.Thusinthethirdcantoof_Childe
Harold_,writtenjustafterhisexile,hesays:
Inmyyouth'ssummerIdidsingofone,
Thewanderingoutlawofhisowndarkmind;
andaswereadontotheendofthesplendidfourthcantowithitspoetic
feelingfornature,anditsstirringrhythmthatgripsandholdsthereader
likemartialmusicwelaydownthebookwithprofoundregretthatthis
giftedmanshouldhavedevotedsomuchofhistalenttodescribingtrivial
orunwholesomeintriguesandposingastheheroofhisownverses.Thereal
tragedyofByron'slifeisthathediedjustashewasbeginningtofind
himself.
LIFE.ByronwasborninLondonin1788,theyearprecedingtheFrench
Revolution.Weshallunderstandhimbetter,andjudgehimmorecharitably,
ifwerememberthetaintedstockfromwhichhesprang.Hisfatherwasa
dissipatedspendthriftofunspeakablemorals;hismotherwasaScotch
heiress,passionateandunbalanced.Thefatherdesertedhiswifeafter
squanderingherfortune;andtheboywasbroughtupbythemotherwho
"alternatelypettedandabused"him.Inhiseleventhyearthedeathofa
grandunclelefthimheirtoNewsteadAbbeyandtothebaronialtitleofone
oftheoldesthousesinEngland.Hewassingularlyhandsome;andalameness
resultingfromadeformedfootlentasuggestionofpathostohismakeup.
Allthis,withhissocialposition,hispseudoheroicpoetry,andhis
dissipatedlife,overwhichhecontrivedtothrowaveilofromantic
secrecy,madehimamagnetofattractiontomanythoughtlessyoungmenand
foolishwomen,whomadethedownhillpathbotheasyandrapidtoonewhose
inclinationsledhiminthatdirection.Naturallyhewasgenerous,and
easilyledbyaffection.Heis,therefore,largelyavictimofhisown
weaknessandofunfortunatesurroundings.
AtschoolatHarrow,andintheuniversityatCambridge,Byronledan
unbalancedlife,andwasmoregiventocertainsportsfromwhichhewasnot
debarredbylameness,thantobooksandstudy.Hisschoollife,likehis
infancy,issadlymarkedbyvanity,violence,andrebellionagainstevery
formofauthority;yetitwasnotwithoutitshoursofnobilityand
generosity.Scottdescribeshimas"amanofrealgoodnessofheart,and
thekindestandbestfeelings,miserablythrownawaybyhisfoolish
contemptofpublicopinion."WhileatCambridge,Byronpublishedhisfirst
volumeofpoems,_HoursofIdleness_,in1807.Aseverecriticismofthe
volumeinthe_EdinburghReview_woundedByron'svanity,andthrewhiminto
aviolentpassion,theresultofwhichwasthenowfamoussatirecalled
_EnglishBardsandScotchReviewers_,inwhichnotonlyhisenemies,but
alsoScott,Wordsworth,andnearlyalltheliterarymenofhisday,were
satirizedinheroiccoupletsafterthemannerofPope's_Dunciad_.Itis
onlyjusttosaythatheafterwardsmadefriendswithScottandwithothers
whomhehadabusedwithoutprovocation;anditisinterestingtonote,in
viewofhisownromanticpoetry,thathedenouncedallmastersofromance
andacceptedtheartificialstandardsofPopeandDryden.Histwofavorite
booksweretheOldTestamentandavolumeofPope'spoetry.Ofthelatter
hesays,"Hisisthegreatestnameinpoetry...alltherestare
barbarians."
In1809Byron,whenonlytwentyoneyearsofage,startedonatourof
EuropeandtheOrient.Thepoeticresultsofthistripwerethefirsttwo
cantosof_ChildeHarold'sPilgrimage_,withtheirfamousdescriptionsof
romanticscenery.Theworkmadehiminstantlypopular,andhisfame
overshadowedScott'scompletely.Ashesayshimself,"Iawokeonemorning
tofindmyselffamous,"andpresentlyhestyleshimself"thegrandNapoleon
oftherealmsofrhyme."TheworstelementinByronatthistimewashis
insincerity,hiscontinualposingastheheroofhispoetry.Hisbestworks
weretranslated,andhisfamespreadalmostasrapidlyontheContinentas

inEngland.EvenGoethewasdeceived,anddeclaredthatamansowonderful
incharacterhadneverbeforeappearedinliterature,andwouldnever
appearagain.Nowthatthetinselhaswornoff,andwecanjudgetheman
andhisworkdispassionately,weseehoweasilyeventhecriticsoftheage
weregovernedbyromanticimpulses.
TheadulationofByronlastedonlyafewyearsinEngland.In1815he
marriedMissMilbanke,anEnglishheiress,whoabruptlylefthimayear
later.Withwomanlyreserveshekeptsilence;butthepublicwasnotslow
toimagineplentyofreasonsfortheseparation.This,togetherwiththe
factthatmenhadbeguntopenetratetheveilofromanticsecrecywith
whichByronsurroundedhimselfandfoundaratherbrassyidolbeneath,
turnedthetideofpublicopinionagainsthim.HeleftEnglandundera
cloudofdistrustanddisappointment,in1816,andneverreturned.Eight
yearswerespentabroad,largelyinItaly,wherehewasassociatedwith
Shelleyuntilthelatter'stragicdeathin1822.Hishousewaseverthe
meetingplaceforRevolutionistsandmalcontentscallingthemselves
patriots,whomhetrustedtoogreatly,andwithwhomhesharedhismoney
mostgenerously.Curiouslyenough,whilehetrustedmentooeasily,hehad
nofaithinhumansocietyorgovernment,andwrotein1817:"Ihave
simplifiedmypoliticstoanutterdetestationofallexisting
governments."Duringhisexilehefinished_ChildeHarold,ThePrisonerof
Chillon_,hisdramas_Cain_and_Manfred_,andnumerousotherworks,in
someofwhich,asin_DonJuan_,hedelightedinrevenginghimselfuponhis
countrymenbyholdinguptoridiculeallthattheyheldmostsacred.
In1824ByronwenttoGreecetogivehimselfandalargepartofhis
fortunetohelpthatcountryinitsstruggleforlibertyagainsttheTurks.
Howfarhewasledbyhisdesireforposingasahero,andhowfarbya
certainvigorousVikingspiritthatwascertainlyinhim,willneverbe
known.TheGreekswelcomedhimandmadehimaleader,andforafewmonths
hefoundhimselfinthemidstofawretchedsquabbleoflies,selfishness,
insincerity,cowardice,andintrigue,insteadoftheheroicstrugglefor
libertywhichhehadanticipated.Hediedoffever,inMissolonghi,in
1824.Oneofhislastpoems,writtenthereonhisthirtysixthbirthday,a
fewmonthsbeforehedied,expresseshisownviewofhisdisappointing
life:
Mydaysareintheyellowleaf,
Theflowersandfruitsoflovearegone:
Theworm,thecanker,andthegrief
Areminealone.
WORKSOFBYRON.InreadingByronitiswelltorememberthathewasa
disappointedandembitteredman,notonlyinhispersonallife,butalsoin
hisexpectationofageneraltransformationofhumansociety.Ashepours
outhisownfeelings,chiefly,inhispoetry,heisthemostexpressive
writerofhisageinvoicingthediscontentofamultitudeofEuropeanswho
weredisappointedatthefailureoftheFrenchRevolutiontoproducean
entirelynewformofgovernmentandsociety.
OnewhowishestounderstandthewholescopeofByron'sgeniusandpoetry
willdowelltobeginwithhisfirstwork,_HoursofIdleness_,written
whenhewasayoungmanattheuniversity.Thereisverylittlepoetryin
thevolume,onlyastrikingfacilityinrime,brightenedbythedevilmay
carespiritoftheCavalierpoets;butasarevelationofthemanhimself
itisremarkable.Inavainandsophomoricprefacehedeclaresthatpoetry
istohimanidleexperiment,andthatthisishisfirstandlastattempt
toamusehimselfinthatline.Curiouslyenough,ashestartsforGreeceon
hislast,fataljourney,heagainridiculesliterature,andsaysthatthe
poetisa"merebabbler."Itisthisdespisingoftheartwhichalonemakes
himfamousthatoccasionsourdeepestdisappointment.Eveninhis
magnificentpassages,inaglowingdescriptionofnatureorofaHindoo
woman'sexquisitelove,hisworkisfrequentlymarredbyawretchedpun,or
bysomecheapbuffoonery,whichruinsourfirstsplendidimpressionofhis

poetry.
Byron'slatervolumes,_Manfred_and_Cain_,theoneacurious,andperhaps
unconscious,parodyof_Faust_,theotherof_ParadiseLost_,arehistwo
bestknowndramaticworks.Asidefromthequestionoftheirpoeticvalue,
theyareinterestingasvoicingByron'sexcessiveindividualismandhis
rebellionagainstsociety.ThebestknownandthemostreadableofByron's
works_Mazeppa,ThePrisonerofChillon_,and_ChildeHarold'sPilgrimage_.
Thefirsttwocantosof_ChildeHarold_(1812)areperhapsmorefrequently
readthananyotherworkofthesameauthor,partlybecauseoftheir
melodiousverse,partlybecauseoftheirdescriptionsofplacesalongthe
linesofEuropeantravel;butthelasttwocantos(18161818)writtenafter
hisexilefromEngland,havemoresincerity,andareineverywaybetter
expressionsofByron'smaturegenius.Scatteredthroughallhisworksone
findsmagnificentdescriptionsofnaturalscenery,andexquisitelyricsof
loveanddespair;buttheyaremixedwithsuchadealofbombastand
rhetoric,togetherwithmuchthatisunwholesome,thatthebeginnerwilldo
welltoconfinehimselftoasmallvolumeofwellchosenselections.[227]
ByronisoftencomparedwithScott,ashavinggiventousEuropeandthe
Orient,justasScottgaveusScotlandanditspeople;butwhilethereisa
certainresemblanceintheswinganddashoftheverses,theresemblanceis
allonthesurface,andtheunderlyingdifferencebetweenthetwopoetsis
asgreatasthatbetweenThackerayandBulwerLytton.Scottknewhis
countrywell,itshillsandvalleyswhichareinterestingastheabodeof
livingandlovablemenandwomen.Byronpretendedtoknowthesecret,
unwholesomesideofEurope,whichgenerallyhidesitselfinthedark;but
insteadofgivingusavarietyoflivingmen,henevergetsawayfromhis
ownunbalancedandegotisticalself.Allhischaracters,in_Cain,Manfred,
TheCorsair,TheGiaour,ChildeHarold,DonJuan_,aretiresomerepetitions
ofhimself,avain,disappointed,cynicalman,whofindsnogoodinlife
orloveoranything.Naturally,withsuchadisposition,heisentirely
incapableofportrayingatruewoman.Tonaturealone,especiallyinher
magnificentmoods,Byronremainsfaithful;andhisportrayalofthenight
andthestormandtheoceanin_ChildeHarold_areunsurpassedinour
language.
PERCYBYSSHESHELLEY(17921822)
Makemethylyre,evenastheforestis:
Whatifmyleavesarefallinglikeitsown!
Thetumultofthymightyharmonies
Willtakefrombothadeep,autumnaltone,
Sweetthoughinsadness.Bethou,spiritfierce,
Myspirit!Bethoume,impetuousone!
Inthisfragment,fromthe"OdetotheWestWind,"wehaveasuggestionof
Shelley'sownspirit,asreflectedinallhispoetry.Theveryspiritof
nature,whichappealstousinthewindandthecloud,thesunsetandthe
moonrise,seemstohavepossessedhim,attimes,andmadehimachosen
instrumentofmelody.Atsuchtimesheisatruepoet,andhisworkis
unrivaled.Atothertimes,unfortunately,ShelleyjoinswithByronin
voicingavainrebellionagainstsociety.Hispoetry,likehislife,
dividesitselfintotwodistinctmoods.Inoneheistheviolentreformer,
seekingtooverthrowourpresentinstitutionsandtohurrythemillennium
outofitsslowwalkintoagallop.Outofthismoodcomemostofhis
longerpoems,like_QueenMab,RevoltofIslam,Hellas_,and_TheWitchof
Atlas_,whicharesomewhatviolentdiatribesagainstgovernment,priests,
marriage,religion,evenGodasmensupposedhimtobe.Inadifferent
mood,whichfindsexpression_Alastor,Adonais_,andhiswonderfullyrics,
Shelleyislikeawandererfollowingavague,beautifulvision,foreversad
andforeverunsatisfied.Inthelattermoodheappealsprofoundlytoall
menwhohaveknownwhatitistofollowafteranunattainableideal.

SHELLEY'SLIFE.Therearethreeclassesofmenwhoseevisions,andall
threearerepresentedinourliterature.Thefirstisthemeredreamer,
likeBlake,whostumblesthroughaworldofrealitywithoutnoticingit,
andishappyinhisvisions.Thesecondistheseer,theprophet,like
Langland,orWyclif,whoseesavisionandquietlygoestowork,inways
thatmenunderstand,tomakethepresentworldalittlemoreliketheideal
onewhichheseesinhisvision.Thethird,whoappearsinmanyforms,as
visionary,enthusiast,radical,anarchist,revolutionary,callhimwhatyou
will,seesavisionandstraightwaybeginstoteardownallhuman
institutions,whichhavebeenbuiltupbytheslowtoilofcenturies,
simplybecausetheyseemtostandinthewayofhisdream.Tothelatter
classbelongsShelley,amanperpetuallyatwarwiththepresentworld,a
martyrandexile,simplybecauseofhisinabilitytosympathizewithmen
andsocietyastheyare,andbecauseofhisownmistakenjudgmentastothe
valueandpurposeofavision.
ShelleywasborninFieldPlace,nearHorsham,Sussex,in1792.Onbothhis
father'sandhismother'ssidehewasdescendedfromnobleoldfamilies,
famousinthepoliticalandliteraryhistoryofEngland.Fromchildhoodhe
lived,likeBlake,inaworldoffancy,sorealthatcertainimaginary
dragonsandheadlesscreaturesoftheneighboringwoodkepthimandhis
sistersinastateoffearfulexpectancy.Helearnedrapidly,absorbedthe
classicsasifbyintuition,and,dissatisfiedwithordinaryprocessesof
learning,seemstohavesought,likeFaustus,theacquaintanceofspirits,
asshowninhis"HymntoIntellectualBeauty":
Whileyetaboy,Isoughtforghosts,andsped
Throughmanyalisteningchamber,caveandruin,
Andstarlightwood,withfearfulstepspursuing
Hopesofhightalkwiththedeparteddead.
Shelley'sfirstpublicschool,keptbyahardheadedScotchmaster,with
itsfloggingsanditsgeneralbrutality,seemedtohimlikeacombination
ofhellandprison;andhisactiverebellionagainstexistinginstitutions
waswellunderwaywhen,attwelveyearsofage,heenteredthefamous
preparatoryschoolatEton.Hewasadelicate,nervous,marvelously
sensitiveboy,ofgreatphysicalbeauty;and,likeCowper,hesuffered
tormentsatthehandsofhisroughschoolfellows.UnlikeCowper,hewas
positive,resentful,andbravetothepointofrashness;soulandbodyrose
upagainsttyranny;andhepromptlyorganizedarebellionagainstthe
brutalfaggingsystem."MadShelley"theboyscalledhim,andtheychivied
himlikedogsaroundalittlecoonthatfightsandcriesdefiancetothe
end.Onefindswhatheseeksinthisworld,anditisnotstrangethat
Shelley,afterhisEtonexperiences,foundcausesforrebellioninall
existingformsofhumansociety,andthatheleftschool"towaramong
mankind,"ashesaysofhimselfinthe_RevoltofIslam_.Hisuniversity
daysarebutarepetitionofhisearlierexperiences.Whileastudentat
OxfordhereadsomescrapsofHume'sphilosophy,andimmediatelypublished
apamphletcalled"TheNecessityofAtheism."Itwasacrude,foolishpiece
ofwork,andShelleydistributeditbyposttoeveryonetowhomitmight
giveoffense.Naturallythisbroughtonaconflictwiththeauthorities,
butShelleywouldnotlistentoreasonormakeanyexplanation,andwas
expelledfromtheuniversityin1811.
Shelley'smarriagewasevenmoreunfortunate.WhilelivinginLondon,ona
generoussister'spocketmoney,acertainyoungschoolgirl,Harriet
Westbrook,wasattractedbyShelley'scruderevolutionarydoctrines.She
promptlyleftschool,asherownpersonalpartinthegeneralrebellion,
andrefusedtoreturnoreventolistentoherparentsuponthesubject.
HavingbeentaughtbyShelley,shethrewherselfuponhisprotection;and
thisunbalancedcouplewerepresentlymarried,astheysaid,"indeference
toanarchcustom."Thetwoinfantshadalreadyproclaimedarebellion
againsttheinstitutionofmarriage,forwhichtheyproposedtosubstitute
thedoctrineofelectiveaffinity.Fortwoyearstheywanderedabout
England,Ireland,andWales,livingonasmallallowancefromShelley's

father,whohaddisinheritedhissonbecauseofhisillconsidered
marriage.Thepairsoonseparated,andtwoyearslaterShelley,having
formedastrongfriendshipwithoneGodwin,aleaderofyoungenthusiasts
andapreacherofanarchy,presentlyshowedhisbeliefinGodwin's
theoriesbyelopingwithhisdaughterMary.Itisasadstory,andthe
detailswereperhapsbetterforgotten.WeshouldrememberthatinShelley
wearedealingwithatragicblendofhighmindednessandlightheadedness.
Byronwroteofhim,"Themostgentle,themostamiable,andtheleast
worldlymindedpersonIevermet!"
Ledpartlybythegeneralhostilityagainsthim,andpartlybyhisown
delicatehealth,ShelleywenttoItalyin1818,andneverreturnedto
England.AfterwanderingoverItalyhefinallysettledinPisa,belovedof
somanyEnglishpoets,beautiful,sleepyPisa,whereonelooksoutofhis
windowonthemainstreetatthebusiesthouroftheday,andtheonly
livingthinginsightisadonkey,dozinglazily,withhisheadinthe
shadeandhisbodyinthesunshine.Herehisbestpoetrywaswritten,and
herehefoundcomfortinthefriendshipofByron,Hunt,andTrelawney,who
areforeverassociatedwithShelley'sItalianlife.Hestillremained
hostiletoEnglishsocialinstitutions;butlifeisagoodteacher,and
thatShelleydimlyrecognizedtheerrorofhisrebellionisshowninthe
increasingsadnessofhislaterpoems:
Oworld,Olife,Otime!
OnwhoselaststepsIclimb,
TremblingatthatwhereIhadstoodbefore;
Whenwillreturnthegloryofyourprime?
Nomoreoh,nevermore!
Outofthedayandnight
Ajoyhastakenflight;
Freshspring,andsummer,andwinterhoar,
Movemyfaintheartwithgrief,butwithdelight
Nomoreoh,nevermore!
In1822,whenonlythirtyyearsofage,Shelleywasdrownedwhilesailing
inasmallboatofftheItaliancoast.Hisbodywaswashedashoreseveral
dayslater,andwascremated,nearViareggio,byhisfriends,Byron,Hunt,
andTrelawney.Hisashesmight,withallreverence,havebeengiventothe
windsthathelovedandthatwereasymbolofhisrestlessspirit;instead,
theyfoundarestingplacenearthegraveofKeats,intheEnglishcemetery
atRome.OnerarelyvisitsthespotnowwithoutfindingEnglishand
Americanvisitorsstandinginsilencebeforethesignificantinscription,
_CorCordium_.
WORKSOFSHELLEY.Asalyricpoet,Shelleyisoneofthesupremegeniuses
ofourliterature;andthereaderwilldowelltobeginwiththepoems
whichshowhimathisverybest."TheCloud,""ToaSkylark,""Odetothe
WestWind,""ToNight,"poemslikethesemustsurelysetthereaderto
searchingamongShelley'smiscellaneousworks,tofindforhimselfthe
things"worthytoberemembered."
InreadingShelley'slongerpoemsonemustrememberthatthereareinthis
poettwodistinctmen:one,thewanderer,seekingidealbeautyandforever
unsatisfied;theother,theunbalancedreformer,seekingtheoverthrowof
presentinstitutionsandtheestablishmentofuniversalhappiness.
_Alastor,ortheSpiritofSolitude_(1816)isbyfarthebestexpression
ofShelley'sgreatermood.Hereweseehimwanderingrestlesslythroughthe
vastsilencesofnature,insearchofaloveddreammaidenwhoshall
satisfyhisloveofbeauty.HereShelleyisthepoetofthemoonrise,and
ofthetenderexquisitefanciesthatcanneverbeexpressed.Thecharmof
thepoemliesinitssuccessionofdreamlikepictures;butitgives
absolutelynoimpressionsofreality.ItwaswrittenwhenShelley,after
hislongstruggle,hadbeguntorealizethattheworldwastoostrongfor
him._Alastor_isthereforethepoet'sconfession,notsimplyoffailure,
butofundyinghopeinsomebetterthingthatistocome.

_PrometheusUnbound_(18181820),alyricaldrama,isthebestworkof
Shelley'srevolutionaryenthusiasm,andthemostcharacteristicofallhis
poems.Shelley'sphilosophy(ifonemaydignifyahopelessdreambysucha
name)wasacuriousaftergrowthoftheFrenchRevolution,namely,thatit
isonlytheexistingtyrannyofState,Church,andsocietywhichkeepsman
fromgrowthintoperfecthappiness.NaturallyShelleyforgot,likemany
otherenthusiasts,thatChurchandStateandsociallawswerenotimposed
uponmanfromwithout,butwerecreatedbyhimselftoministertohis
necessities.InShelley'spoemthehero,Prometheus,representsmankind
itself,ajustandnoblehumanity,chainedandtorturedbyJove,whois
herethepersonificationofhumaninstitutions.[228]InduetimeDemogorgon
(whichisShelley'snameforNecessity)overthrowsthetyrantJoveand
releasesPrometheus(Mankind),whoispresentlyunitedtoAsia,thespirit
ofloveandgoodnessinnature,whiletheearthandthemoonjoinina
weddingsong,andeverythinggivespromisethattheyshalllivetogether
happyeverafterwards.
Shelleyherelooksforward,notback,totheGoldenAge,andistheprophet
ofscienceandevolution.IfwecomparehisTitanwithsimilarcharacters
in_Faust_and_Cain_,weshallfindthisinterestingdifference,that
whileGoethe'sTitanisculturedandselfreliant,andByron'sstoicand
hopeless,Shelley'sheroispatientundertorture,seeinghelpandhope
beyondhissuffering.AndhemarriesLovethattheearthmaybepeopled
withsuperiorbeingswhoshallsubstitutebrotherlyloveforthepresent
lawsandconventionsofsociety.Suchishisphilosophy;butthebeginner
willreadthispoem,notchieflyforitsthought,butforitsyouthful
enthusiasm,foritsmarvelousimagery,andespeciallyforitsethereal
music.Perhapsweshouldaddherethat_Prometheus_is,andprobablyalways
willbe,apoemforthechosenfewwhocanappreciateitspeculiar
spiritlikebeauty.Initspurelypaganconceptionoftheworld,it
suggests,bycontrast,Milton'sChristianphilosophyin_Paradise
Regained_.
Shelley'srevolutionaryworks,_QueenMab_(1813),_TheRevoltofIslam_
(1818),_Hellas_(1821),and_TheWitchofAtlas_(1820),aretobejudged
inmuchthesamewayasis_PrometheusUnbound_.Theyarelargely
invectivesagainstreligion,marriage,kingcraft,andpriestcraft,most
impracticalwhenconsideredasschemesforreform,butaboundingin
passagesofexquisitebeauty,forwhichalonetheyareworthreading.In
thedramacalled_TheCenci_(1819),whichisfoundeduponamorbidItalian
story,Shelleyforthefirstandonlytimedescendstoreality.The
heroine,Beatrice,driventodesperationbythemonstrouswickednessofher
father,killshimandsuffersthedeathpenaltyinconsequence.Sheisthe
onlyoneofShelley'scharacterswhoseemstousentirelyhuman.
Fardifferentincharacteris_Epipsychidion_(1821),arhapsody
celebratingPlatoniclove,themostimpalpable,andsooneofthemost
characteristic,ofallShelley'sworks.Itwasinspiredbyabeautiful
Italiangirl,EmiliaViviani,whowasputintoacloisteragainstherwill,
andinwhomShelleyimaginedhefoundhislongsoughtidealofwomanhood.
Withthisshouldberead_Adonais_(1821),thebestknownofallShelley's
longerpoems._Adonais_isawonderfulthrenody,orasongofgrief,over
thedeathofthepoetKeats.EveninhisgriefShelleystillpreservesa
senseofunreality,andcallsinmanyshadowyallegoricalfigures,Sad
Spring,WeepingHours,Glooms,Splendors,Destinies,allunitingin
bewailingthelossofalovedone.Thewholepoemisasuccessionofdream
pictures,exquisitelybeautiful,suchasonlyShelleycouldimagine;andit
holdsitsplacewithMilton's_Lycidas_andTennyson's_InMemoriam_asone
ofthethreegreatestelegiesinourlanguage.
InhisinterpretationofnatureShelleysuggestsWordsworth,bothby
resemblanceandbycontrast.Tobothpoetsallnaturalobjectsaresymbols
oftruth;bothregardnatureaspermeatedbythegreatspirituallifewhich
animatesallthings;butwhileWordsworthfindsaspiritofthought,andso

ofcommunionbetweennatureandthesoulofman,Shelleyfindsaspiritof
love,whichexistschieflyforitsowndelight;andso"TheCloud,""The
Skylark,"and"TheWestWind,"threeofthemostbeautifulpoemsinour
language,havenodefinitemessageforhumanity.Inhis"Hymnto
IntellectualBeauty"ShelleyismostlikeWordsworth;butinhis"Sensitive
Plant,"withitsfinesymbolismandimagery,heislikenobodyintheworld
buthimself.Comparisonissometimesanexcellentthing;andifwecompare
Shelley'sexquisite"Lament,"beginning"Oworld,Olife,Otime,"with
Wordsworth's"IntimationsofImmortality,"weshallperhapsunderstandboth
poetsbetter.Bothpoemsrecallmanyhappymemoriesofyouth;bothexpress
averyrealmoodofamoment;butwhilethebeautyofonemerelysaddens
anddisheartensus,thebeautyoftheotherinspiresuswithsomethingof
thepoet'sownfaithandhopefulness.Inaword,Wordsworthfoundand
Shelleylosthimselfinnature.
JOHNKEATS(17951821)
KeatswasnotonlythelastbutalsothemostperfectoftheRomanticists.
WhileScottwasmerelytellingstories,andWordsworthreformingpoetryor
upholdingthemorallaw,andShelleyadvocatingimpossiblereforms,and
Byronvoicinghisownegoismandthepoliticaldiscontentofthetimes,
Keatslivedapartfrommenandfromallpoliticalmeasures,worshiping
beautylikeadevotee,perfectlycontenttowritewhatwasinhisown
heart,ortoreflectsomesplendorofthenaturalworldashesawor
dreamedittobe.Hehad,moreover,thenovelideathatpoetryexistsfor
itsownsake,andsufferslossbybeingdevotedtophilosophyorpolitics
or,indeed,toanycause,howevergreatorsmall.Ashesaysin"Lamia":
...Donotallcharmsfly
Atthemeretouchofcoldphilosophy?
Therewasanawfulrainbowonceinheaven:
Weknowherwoof,hertexture;sheisgiven
Inthedullcatalogueofcommonthings.
PhilosophywillclipanAngel'swings,
Conquerallmysteriesbyruleandline,
Emptythehauntedair,andgnomedmine
Unweavearainbow,asiterewhilemade
Thetenderperson'dLamiameltintoashade.
Partlybecauseofthishighidealofpoetry,partlybecausehestudiedand
unconsciouslyimitatedtheGreekclassicsandthebestworksofthe
Elizabethans,Keats'slastlittlevolumeofpoetryisunequaledbythework
ofanyofhiscontemporaries.Whenwerememberthatallhisworkwas
publishedinthreeshortyears,from1817to1820,andthathediedwhen
onlytwentyfiveyearsold,wemustjudgehimtobethemostpromising
figureoftheearlynineteenthcentury,andoneofthemostremarkablein
thehistoryofliterature.
LIFE.Keats'slifeofdevotiontobeautyandtopoetryisallthemore
remarkableinviewofhislowlyorigin.Hewasthesonofahostlerand
stablekeeper,andwasborninthestableoftheSwanandHoopInn,London,
in1795.Onehasonlytoreadtheroughstablescenesfromourfirst
novelists,orevenfromDickens,tounderstandhowlittletherewasinsuch
anatmospheretodeveloppoeticgifts.BeforeKeatswasfifteenyearsold
bothparentsdied,andhewasplacedwithhisbrothersandsistersin
chargeofguardians.TheirfirstactseemstohavebeentotakeKeatsfrom
schoolatEnfield,andtobindhimasanapprenticetoasurgeonat
Edmonton.Forfiveyearsheservedhisapprenticeship,andfortwoyears
morehewassurgeon'shelperinthehospitals;butthoughskillfulenough
towinapproval,hedislikedhiswork,andhisthoughtswereonother
things."Theotherday,duringalecture,"hesaidtoafriend,"therecame
asunbeamintotheroom,andwithitawholetroopofcreaturesfloatingin
theray;andIwasoffwiththemtoOberonandfairyland."Acopyof
Spenser's_FaeryQueen_,whichhadbeengivenhimbyCharlesCowdenClark,

wastheprimecauseofhisabstraction.Heabandonedhisprofessionin
1817,andearlyinthesameyearpublishedhisfirstvolumeof_Poems_.It
wasmodestenoughinspirit,aswasalsohissecondvolume,_Endymion_
(1818);butthatdidnotpreventbrutalattacksupontheauthorandhis
workbytheselfconstitutedcriticsof_Blackwood'sMagazine_andthe
_Quarterly_.Itisoftenallegedthatthepoet'sspiritandambitionwere
brokenbytheseattacks;[229]butKeatswasamanofstrongcharacter,and
insteadofquarrelingwithhisreviewers,orbeingcrushedbytheir
criticism,hewentquietlytoworkwiththeideaofproducingpoetrythat
shouldliveforever.AsMatthewArnoldsays,Keats"hadflintandironin
him";andinhisnextvolumeheaccomplishedhisownpurposeandsilenced
unfriendlycriticism.
ForthethreeyearsduringwhichKeatswrotehispoetryhelivedchieflyin
LondonandinHampstead,butwanderedattimesoverEnglandandScotland,
livingforbriefspacesintheIsleofWight,inDevonshire,andinthe
Lakedistrict,seekingtorecoverhisownhealth,andespeciallytorestore
thatofhisbrother.Hisillnessbeganwithaseverecold,butsoon
developedintoconsumption;andaddedtothissorrowwasanother,hislove
forFannieBrawne,towhomhewasengaged,butwhomhecouldnotmarryon
accountofhispovertyandgrowingillness.Whenwerememberallthis
personalgriefandtheharshcriticismofliterarymen,thelastsmall
volume,_Lamia,Isabella,TheEveofSt.Agnes,andOtherPoems_(1820),is
mostsignificant,asshowingnotonlyKeats'swonderfulpoeticgifts,but
alsohisbeautifulandindomitablespirit.Shelley,struckbythebeauty
andpromiseof"Hyperion,"sentagenerousinvitationtotheauthortocome
toPisaandlivewithhim;butKeatsrefused,havinglittlesympathywith
Shelley'srevoltagainstsociety.Theinvitationhadthiseffect,however,
thatitturnedKeats'sthoughtstoItaly,whitherhesoonwentinthe
efforttosavehislife.HesettledinRomewithhisfriendSevern,the
artist,butdiedsoonafterhisarrival,inFebruary,1821.Hisgrave,in
theProtestantcemeteryatRome,isstillanobjectofpilgrimageto
thousandsoftourists;foramongallourpoetsthereishardlyanother
whoseheroiclifeandtragicdeathhavesoappealedtotheheartsofpoets
andyoungenthusiasts.
THEWORKOFKEATS."Nonebutthemastershallpraiseus;andnonebutthe
mastershallblame"mightwellbewrittenontheflyleafofeveryvolume
ofKeats'spoetry;forneverwasthereapoetmoredevotedtohisideal,
entirelyindependentofsuccessorfailure.Instrongcontrastwithhis
contemporary,Byron,whoprofessedtodespisetheartthatmadehimfamous,
Keatslivedforpoetryalone,and,asLowellpointedout,avirtuewentout
ofhimintoeverythinghewrote.Inallhisworkwehavetheimpressionof
thisintenseloyaltytohisart;wehavetheimpressionalsoofaprofound
dissatisfactionthatthedeedfallssofarshortofthesplendiddream.
ThusafterreadingChapman'stranslationofHomerhewrites:
MuchhaveItravelledintherealmsofgold,
Andmanygoodlystatesandkingdomsseen;
RoundmanywesternislandshaveIbeen
WhichbardsinfealtytoApollohold.
OftofonewideexpansehadIbeentold
ThatdeepbrowedHomerruledashisdemesne;
YetdidIneverbreatheitspureserene
TillIheardChapmanspeakoutloudandbold:
ThenfeltIlikesomewatcheroftheskies
Whenanewplanetswimsintohisken;
OrlikestoutCortezwhenwitheagleeyes
HestaredatthePacificandallhismen
Lookedateachotherwithawildsurmise
Silent,uponapeakinDarien.
InthisstrikingsonnetwehaveasuggestionofKeats'shighideal,andof
hissadnessbecauseofhisownignorance,whenhepublishedhisfirst
littlevolumeofpoemsin1817.HeknewnoGreek;yetGreekliterature

absorbedandfascinatedhim,ashesawitsbrokenandimperfectreflection
inanEnglishtranslation.LikeShakespeare,whoalsowasbutpoorly
educatedintheschools,hehadamarvelousfacultyofdiscerningthereal
spiritoftheclassics,afacultydeniedtomanygreatscholars,andto
mostofthe"classic"writersoftheprecedingcentury,andsoheset
himselftothetaskofreflectinginmodernEnglishthespiritoftheold
Greeks.
Theimperfectresultsofthisattemptareseeninhisnextvolume,
_Endymion_,whichisthestoryofayoungshepherdbelovedbyamoon
goddess.Thepoembeginswiththestrikinglines:
Athingofbeautyisajoyforever;
Itslovelinessincreases;itwillnever
Passintonothingness;butstillwillkeep
Abowerquietforus;andasleep
Fullofsweetdreams,andhealth,andquietbreathing,
whichwellillustratethespiritofKeats'slaterwork,withitsperfect
finishandmelody.Ithasmanyquotablelinesandpassages,andits"Hymn
toPan"shouldbereadinconnectionwithWordsworth'sfamoussonnet
beginning,"Theworldistoomuchwithus."Thepoemgivessplendid
promise,butasawholeitisratherchaotic,withtoomuchornamentand
toolittledesign,likeamodernhouse.ThatKeatsfeltthisdefect
stronglyisevidentfromhismodestpreface,whereinhespeaksof
_Endymion_,notasadeedaccomplished,butonlyasanunsuccessfulattempt
tosuggesttheunderlyingbeautyofGreekmythology.
Keats'sthirdandlastvolume,_Lamia,Isabella,TheEveofSt.Agnes,and
OtherPoems_(1820),istheonewithwhichthereadershouldbeginhis
acquaintancewiththismasterofEnglishverse.Ithasonlytwosubjects,
Greekmythologyandmedivalromance."Hyperion"isamagnificentfragment,
suggestingthefirstarchofacathedralthatwasneverfinished.Itstheme
istheoverthrowoftheTitansbytheyoungsungodApollo.Realizinghis
ownimmaturityandlackofknowledge,Keatslaidasidethiswork,andonly
thepleadingsofhispublisherinducedhimtoprintthefragmentwithhis
completedpoems.
Throughoutthislastvolume,andespeciallyin"Hyperion,"theinfluenceof
Miltonisapparent,whileSpenserismorefrequentlysuggestedinreading
_Endymion_.
Ofthelongerpoemsinthevolume,"Lamia"isthemostsuggestive.Itis
thestoryofabeautifulenchantress,whoturnsfromaserpentintoa
gloriouswomanandfillseveryhumansensewithdelight,until,asaresult
ofthefoolishphilosophyofoldApollonius,shevanishesforeverfromher
lover'ssight."TheEveofSt.Agnes,"themostperfectofKeats'smedival
poems,isnotastoryafterthemannerofthemetricalromances,butrather
avividpaintingofaromanticmood,suchascomestoallmen,attimes,to
glorifyaworkadayworld.LikealltheworkofKeatsandShelley,ithasan
elementofunreality;andwhenwereadattheend,
Andtheyaregone;aye,ageslongago
Theseloversfledawayintothestorm,
itisasifwewerewakingfromadream,whichistheonlypossibleending
toallofKeats'sGreekandmedivalfancies.Wearetoremember,however,
thatnobeautifulthing,thoughitbeintangibleasadream,canentera
man'slifeandleavehimquitethesameafterwards.Keats'sownwordis
heresuggestive."Theimagination,"hesaid,"maybelikenedtoAdam's
dream;heawokeandfoundittrue."
ItisbyhisshortpoemsthatKeatsisknowntothemajorityofpresentday
readers.Amongtheseexquisiteshorterpoemswementiononlythefourodes,
"OnaGrecianUrn,""ToaNightingale,""ToAutumn,"and"ToPsyche."These

arelikeaninvitationtoafeast;onewhoreadsthemwillhardlybe
satisfieduntilheknowsmoreofsuchdelightfulpoetry.Thosewhostudy
onlythe"OdetoaNightingale"mayfindfourthings,aloveofsensuous
beauty,atouchofpessimism,apurelypaganconceptionofnature,anda
strongindividualism,whicharecharacteristicofthislastofthe
romanticpoets.
AsWordsworth'sworkistoooftenmarredbythemoralizer,andByron'sby
thedemagogue,andShelley'sbythereformer,soKeats'sworksuffersby
theoppositeextremeofaloofnessfromeveryhumaninterest;somuchso,
thatheisoftenaccusedofbeingindifferenttohumanity.Hisworkisalso
criticisedasbeingtooeffeminateforordinaryreaders.Threethings
shouldberememberedinthisconnection.First,thatKeatssoughtto
expressbeautyforitsownsake;thatbeautyisasessentialtonormal
humanityasisgovernmentorlaw;andthatthehighermanclimbsin
civilizationthemoreimperativebecomeshisneedofbeautyasarewardfor
hislabors.Second,thatKeats'slettersareasmuchanindicationofthe
manasishispoetry;andinhisletters,withtheirhumansympathy,their
eagerinterestinsocialproblems,theirhumor,andtheirkeeninsightinto
life,thereisnotraceofeffeminacy,butrathereveryindicationofa
strongandnoblemanhood.ThethirdthingtorememberisthatallKeats's
workwasdoneinthreeorfouryears,withsmallpreparation,andthat,
dyingattwentyfive,heleftusabodyofpoetrywhichwillalwaysbeone
ofourmostcherishedpossessions.Heisoftencomparedwith"themarvelous
boy"Chatterton,whomhegreatlyadmired,andtowhosememoryhededicated
his_Endymion_;butthoughbothdiedyoung,Chattertonwasbutachild,
whileKeatswasinallrespectsaman.Itisidletoprophesywhathemight
havedone,hadhebeengrantedaTennyson'slonglifeandscholarly
training.AttwentyfivehisworkwasasmatureaswasTennyson'satfifty,
thoughthematuritysuggeststhetoorapidgrowthofatropicalplantwhich
underthewarmrainsandthefloodofsunlightleapsintolife,grows,
bloomsinaday,anddies.
Aswehavestated,Keats'sworkwasbitterlyandunjustlycondemnedbythe
criticsofhisday.Hebelongedtowhatwasderisivelycalledthecockney
schoolofpoetry,ofwhichLeighHuntwaschief,andProctorandBeddoes
werefellowworkmen.NotevenfromWordsworthandByron,whowereready
enoughtorecommendfarlessgiftedwriters,didKeatsreceivethe
slightestencouragement.LikeyoungLochinvar,"herodeallunarmedandhe
rodeallalone."Shelley,withhissincerityandgenerosity,wasthefirst
torecognizetheyounggenius,andinhisnoble_Adonais_written,alas,
likemostofourtributes,whenthesubjectofourpraiseisdeadhespoke
thefirsttruewordofappreciation,andplacedKeats,wherehe
unquestionablybelongs,amongourgreatestpoets.Thefamedeniedhimin
hissadlifewasgrantedfreelyafterhisdeath.Mostfitlydoesheclose
thelistofpoetsoftheromanticrevival,becauseinmanyrespectshewas
thebestworkmanofthemall.Heseemstohavestudiedwordsmorecarefully
thandidhiscontemporaries,andsohispoeticexpression,ortheharmony
ofwordandthought,isgenerallymoreperfectthantheirs.Morethanany
otherhelivedforpoetry,asthenoblestofthearts.Morethananyother
heemphasizedbeauty,becausetohim,asshownbyhis"GrecianUrn,"beauty
andtruthwereoneandinseparable.Andheenrichedthewholeromantic
movementbyaddingtoitsinterestincommonlifethespirit,ratherthan
theletter,oftheclassicsandofElizabethanpoetry.Forthesereasons
Keatsis,likeSpenser,apoet'spoet;hisworkprofoundlyinfluenced
Tennysonand,indeed,mostofthepoetsofthepresentera.
II.PROSEWRITERSOFTHEROMANTICPERIOD
AsidefromthesplendidworkofthenovelwritersWalterScott,whomwe
haveconsidered,andJaneAusten,towhomweshallpresentlyreturnthe
earlynineteenthcenturyisremarkableforthedevelopmentofanewand
valuabletypeofcriticalprosewriting.Ifweexcepttheisolatedworkof
DrydenandofAddison,itissafetosaythatliterarycriticism,inits

modernsense,washardlyknowninEnglanduntilabouttheyear1825.Such
criticismasexistedseemstousnowtohavebeenlargelytheresultof
personalopinionorprejudice.Indeedwecouldhardlyexpectanythingelse
beforesomesystematicstudyofourliteratureasawholehadbeen
attempted.Inoneageapoemwascalledgoodorbadaccordingasit
followedorrancountertosocalledclassicrules;inanotherwehavethe
dogmatismofDr.Johnson;inathirdthepersonaljudgmentofLockhartand
theeditorsofthe_EdinburghReview_andthe_Quarterly_,whosoviolently
abusedKeatsandtheLakepoetsinthenameofcriticism.Earlyinthe
nineteenthcenturytherearoseanewschoolofcriticismwhichwasguided
byknowledgeofliterature,ontheonehand,andbywhatonemightcallthe
fearofGodontheother.Thelatterelementshoweditselfinaprofound
humansympathy,theessenceoftheromanticmovement,anditsimportance
wassummedupbyDeQuinceywhenhesaid,"Nottosympathizeisnotto
understand."Thesenewcritics,withabundantreverenceforpastmasters,
couldstilllayasidethedogmatismandprejudicewhichmarkedJohnsonand
themagazineeditors,andreadsympatheticallytheworkofanewauthor,
withthesoleideaoffindingwhathehadcontributed,ortriedto
contribute,tothemagnificenttotalofourliterature.Coleridge,Hunt,
Hazlitt,Lamb,andDeQuinceyweretheleadersinthisnewandimmensely
importantdevelopment;andwemustnotforgettheimportanceofthenew
periodicals,likethe_LondenMagazine,_foundedin1820,inwhichLamb,De
Quincey,andCarlylefoundtheirfirstrealencouragement.
OfColeridge's_BiographicaLiteraria_andhis_LecturesonShakespeare_we
havealreadyspoken.LeighHunt(17841859)wrotecontinuouslyformore
thanthirtyyears,aseditorandessayist;andhischiefobjectseemsto
havebeentomakegoodliteratureknownandappreciated.WilliamHazlitt
(17781830),inalongseriesoflecturesandessays,treatedallreading
asakindofromanticjourneyintonewandpleasantcountries.Tohiswork
largely,withthatofLamb,wasduethenewinterestinElizabethan
literature,whichsostronglyinfluencedKeats'slastandbestvolumeof
poetry.Forthoseinterestedintheartofcriticism,andinthe
appreciationofliterature,bothHuntandHazlittwillwellrepaystudy;
butwemustpassovertheirworktoconsiderthelargerliteraryinterest
ofLambandDeQuincey,whowerenotsimplycriticsofothermen'slabor,
butwhoalsoproducedsomedelightfulworkoftheirown,whichtheworld
hascarefullyputawayamongthe"thingsworthytoberemembered."
CHARLESLAMB(17751834)
InLambandWordsworthwehavetwowidelydifferentviewsoftheromantic
movement;oneshowstheinfluenceofnatureandsolitude,theotherof
society.LambwasalifelongfriendofColeridge,andanadmirerand
defenderofthepoeticcreedofWordsworth;butwhilethelatterlived
apartfrommen,contentwithnatureandwithreadinganoccasionalmoral
lessontosociety,LambwasbornandlivedinthemidstoftheLondon
streets.Thecitycrowd,withitspleasuresandoccupations,itsendless
littlecomediesandtragedies,aloneinterestedhim.Accordingtohisown
account,whenhepausedinthecrowdedstreettearswouldspringtohis
eyes,tearsofpurepleasureattheabundanceofsomuchgoodlife;and
whenhewrote,hesimplyinterpretedthatcrowdedhumanlifeofjoyand
sorrow,asWordsworthinterpretedthewoodsandwaters,withoutanydesire
tochangeortoreformthem.Hehasgivenusthebestpictureswepossess
ofColeridge,Hazlitt,Landor,Hood,CowdenClarke,andmanymoreofthe
interestingmenandwomenofhisage;anditisduetohisinsightand
sympathythatthelifeofthosefaroffdaysseemsalmostasrealtousas
ifweourselvesrememberedit.OfallourEnglishessayistsheisthemost
lovable;partlybecauseofhisdelicate,oldfashionedstyleandhumor,but
morebecauseofthatcheeryandheroicstruggleagainstmisfortunewhich
shineslikeasubduedlightinallhiswritings.
LIFE.IntheveryheartofLondonthereisacurious,oldfashionedplace
knownastheTemple,anenormous,rambling,apparentlyforgotten

structure,dustyandstill,inthemidstoftheendlessroarofthecity
streets.OriginallyitwasachapterhouseoftheKnightsTemplars,andso
suggeststousthespiritoftheCrusadesandoftheMiddleAges;butnow
thebuildingisgivenoveralmostentirelytotheofficesandlodgingsof
Londonlawyers.Itisthisqueeroldplacewhich,morethanallothers,is
associatedwiththenameofCharlesLamb."Iwasborn,"hesays,"and
passedthefirstsevenyearsofmylifeintheTemple.Itsgardens,its
halls,itsfountain,itsriver...thesearemyoldestrecollections."He
wasthesonofapoorclerk,orratherservant,ofoneofthebarristers,
andwastheyoungestofsevenchildren,onlythreeofwhomsurvived
infancy.Ofthesethree,John,theelder,wasapparentlyaselfish
creature,whotooknopartintheheroicstruggleofhisbrotherand
sister.Atsevenyears,Charleswassenttothefamous"Bluecoat"charity
schoolofChrist'sHospital.Hereheremainedsevenyears;andherehe
formedhislifelongfriendshipforanotherpoor,neglectedboy,whomthe
worldremembersasColeridge.[230]
Whenonlyfourteenyearsold,Lambleftthecharityschoolandwassoonat
workasaclerkintheSouthSeaHouse.Twoyearslaterhebecameaclerk
inthefamousIndiaHouse,whereheworkedsteadilyforthirtythreeyears,
withtheexceptionofsixweeks,inthewinterof17951796,spentwithin
thewallsofanasylum.In1796Lamb'ssisterMary,whowasastalentedand
remarkableasLambhimself,wentviolentlyinsaneandkilledherown
mother.Foralongtimeafterthisappallingtragedyshewasinanasylum
atHoxton;thenLamb,in1797,broughthertohisownlittlehouse,andfor
theremainderofhislifecaredforherwithatendernessanddevotion
whichfurnishesoneofthemostbeautifulpagesinourliteraryhistory.At
timesthemaladywouldreturntoMary,givingsurewarningofitsterrible
approach;andthenbrotherandsistermightbeseenwalkingsilently,hand
inhand,tothegatesoftheasylum,theircheekswetwithtears.Onemust
rememberthis,aswellasLamb'shumblelodgingsandthedrudgeryofhis
dailyworkinthebigcommercialhouse,ifhewouldappreciatethepathos
of"TheOldFamiliarFaces,"ortheheroismwhichshinesthroughthemost
humanandthemostdelightfulessaysinourlanguage.
WhenLambwasfiftyyearsofagetheEastIndiaCompany,ledpartlybyhis
literaryfamefollowinghisfirst_EssaysofElia_,andpartlybyhis
thirtythreeyearsoffaithfulservice,grantedhimacomfortablepension;
andhappyasaboyturnedloosefromschoolheleftIndiaHouseforeverto
givehimselfuptoliterarywork.[231]HewrotetoWordsworth,inApril,
1825,"Icamehome_forever_onTuesdayoflastweekitwaslikepassing
fromlifeintoeternity."CuriouslyenoughLambseemstolosepowerafter
hisreleasefromdrudgery,andhislastessays,publishedin1833,lack
somethingofthegraceandcharmofhisearlierwork.HediedatEdmonton
in1834;andhisgiftedsisterMarysankrapidlyintothegulffromwhich
hisstrengthandgentlenesshadsolongheldherback.Noliterarymanwas
evermorelovedandhonoredbyararecircleoffriends;andallwhoknew
himbearwitnesstothesimplicityandgoodnesswhichanyreadermayfind
forhimselfbetweenthelinesofhisessays.
WORKS.TheworksofLambdividethemselvesnaturallyintothreeperiods.
First,therearehisearlyliteraryefforts,includingthepoemssigned"C.
L."inColeridge's_PoemsonVariousSubjects_(1796);hisromance
_RosamundGray_(1798);hispoeticaldrama_JohnWoodvil_(1802);and
variousotherimmatureworksinproseandpoetry.Thisperiodcomestoan
endin1803,whenhegaveuphisnewspaperwork,especiallythe
contributionofsixjokes,puns,andsquibsdailytothe_MorningPost_at
sixpenceapiece.Thesecondperiodwasgivenlargelytoliterarycriticism;
andthe_TalesfromShakespeare_(1807)writtenbyCharlesandMaryLamb,
theformerreproducingthetragedies,andthelatterthecomediesmaybe
regardedashisfirstsuccessfulliteraryventure.Thebookwaswritten
primarilyforchildren;butsothoroughlyhadbrotherandsistersteeped
themselvesintheliteratureoftheElizabethanperiodthatyoungandold
alikeweredelightedwiththisnewversionofShakespeare'sstories,and
the_Tales_arestillregardedasthebestoftheirkindinourliterature.

In1808appearedhis_SpecimensofEnglishDramaticPoetsContemporarywith
Shakespeare_.ThiscarriedoutthesplendidcriticalworkofColeridge,and
wasthemostnoticeableinfluenceindevelopingthepoeticqualitiesof
Keats,asshowninhislastvolume.
ThethirdperiodincludesLamb'scriticismsoflife,whicharegathered
togetherinhis_EssaysofElia_(1823),andhis_LastEssaysofElia_,
whichwerepublishedtenyearslater.Thesefamousessaysbeganin1820
withtheappearanceofthenew_LondonMagazine_[232]andwerecontinued
formanyyears,suchsubjectsasthe"DissertationonRoastPig,""Old
China,""PraiseofChimneySweepers,""ImperfectSympathies,""AChapteron
Ears,""Mrs.Battle'sOpinionsonWhist,""MackeryEnd,""GraceBefore
Meat,""DreamChildren,"andmanyothersbeingchosenapparentlyatrandom,
butallleadingtoadelightfulinterpretationofthelifeofLondon,asit
appearedtoaquietlittlemanwhowalkedunnoticedthroughitscrowded
streets.Inthefirstandlastessayswhichwehavementioned,
"DissertationonRoastPig"and"DreamChildren,"wehavetheextremesof
Lamb'shumorandpathos.
Thestyleofalltheseessaysisgentle,oldfashioned,irresistibly
attractive.Lambwasespeciallyfondofoldwritersandborrowed
unconsciouslyfromthestyleofBurton's_AnatomyofMelancholy_andfrom
Browne's_ReligioMedici_andfromtheearlyEnglishdramatists.Butthis
stylehadbecomeapartofLambbylongreading,andhewasapparently
unabletoexpresshisnewthoughtwithoutusingtheiroldquaint
expressions.Thoughtheseessaysareallcriticismsorappreciationsofthe
lifeofhisage,theyareallintenselypersonal.Inotherwords,theyare
anexcellentpictureofLambandofhumanity.Withoutatraceofvanityor
selfassertion,Lambbeginswithhimself,withsomepurelypersonalmoodor
experience,andfromthisheleadsthereadertoseelifeandliteratureas
hesawit.Itisthiswonderfulcombinationofpersonalanduniversal
interests,togetherwithLamb'srareoldstyleandquainthumor,whichmake
theessaysremarkable.TheycontinuethebesttraditionofAddisonand
Steele,ourfirstgreatessayists;buttheirsympathiesarebroaderand
deeper,andtheirhumormoredeliciousthananywhichprecededthem.
THOMASDEQUINCY(17851859)
InDeQuinceytheromanticelementisevenmorestronglydevelopedthanin
Lamb,notonlyinhiscriticalwork,butalsoinhiserraticand
imaginativelife.Hewasprofoundlyeducated,evenmoresothanColeridge,
andwasoneofthekeenestintellectsoftheage;yethiswonderful
intellectseemsalwayssubordinatetohispassionfordreaming.LikeLamb,
hewasafriendandassociateoftheLakepoets,makinghisheadquartersin
Wordsworth'soldcottageatGrasmerefornearlytwentyyears.Herethe
resemblanceceases,andamarkedcontrastbegins.Asaman,Lambisthe
mosthumanandlovableofallouressayists;whileDeQuinceyisthemost
uncannyandincomprehensible.Lamb'smodestworksbreathethetwoessential
qualitiesofsympathyandhumor;thegreaternumberofDeQuincey'sessays,
whilepossessingmoreorlessofboththesequalities,arecharacterized
chieflybytheirbrilliantstyle.Life,asseenthroughDeQuincey'seyes,
isnebulousandchaotic,andthereisasuspicionofthefabulousinall
thathewrote.Evenin_TheRevoltoftheTartars_theromanticelementis
uppermost,andinmuchofDeQuincey'sprosetheelementofunrealityis
morenoticeablethaninShelley'spoetry.Ofhissubjectmatter,hisfacts,
ideas,andcriticisms,wearegenerallysuspicious;butofhisstyle,
sometimesstatelyandsometimesheadlong,nowgorgeousasanOriental
dream,nowmusicalasKeats's_Endymion_,andalways,eveninthemost
violentcontrasts,showingaharmonybetweentheideaandtheexpression
suchasnootherEnglishwriter,withthepossibleexceptionofNewman,has
everrivaled,saywhatyouwillofthemarvelousbrilliancyofDe
Quincey'sstyle,youhavestillonlyhalfexpressedthetruth.Itisthe
stylealonewhichmakestheseessaysimmortal.

LIFE.DeQuinceywasborninManchesterin1785.Inneitherhisfather,who
wasaprosperousmerchant,norhismother,whowasaquiet,unsympathetic
woman,doweseeanysuggestionoftheson'salmostuncannygenius.Asa
childhewasgiventodreams,morevividandintensebutlessbeautiful
thanthoseoftheyoungBlaketowhomhebearsastrongresemblance.Inthe
grammarschoolatBathhedisplayedastonishingability,andacquiredGreek
andLatinwitharapiditythatfrightenedhisslowtutors.Atfifteenhe
notonlyreadGreek,butspokeitfluently;andoneofhisastounded
teachersremarked,"ThatboycouldharangueanAthenianmobbetterthanyou
orIcouldaddressanEnglishone."FromthegrammarschoolatManchester,
whitherhewassentin1800,hesoonranaway,findingtheinstructionfar
belowhisabilities,andtheroughlifeabsolutelyintolerabletohis
sensitivenature.Anuncle,justhomefromIndia,intercededfortheboy
lesthebesentbacktotheschool,whichhehated;andwithanallowance
ofaguineaaweekhestartedacareerofvagrancy,muchlikethatof
Goldsmith,livingontheopenhills,inthehutsofshepherdsandcharcoal
burners,inthetentsofgypsies,whereverfancyledhim.Hisfearofthe
ManchesterschoolfinallyledhimtorunawaytoLondon,where,without
moneyorfriends,hislifewasevenmoreextraordinarythanhisgypsy
wanderings.Thedetailsofthisvagrancyarebestlearnedinhis
_ConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater_,wherewemeetnotsimplythefacts
ofhislife,butalsotheconfusionofdreamsandfanciesinthemidstof
whichhewanderedlikeamanlostonthemountains,withstormcloudsunder
hisfeethidingthefamiliarearth.Afterayearofvagrancyandstarvation
hewasfoundbyhisfamilyandallowedtogotoOxford,wherehiscareer
wasmarkedbythemostbrilliantanderraticscholarship.Whenreadyfora
degree,in1807,hepassedhiswrittentestssuccessfully,butfelta
suddenterroratthethoughtoftheoralexaminationanddisappearedfrom
theuniversity,nevertoreturn.
ItwasinOxfordthatDeQuinceybegantheuseofopium;torelievethe
painsofneuralgia,andthehabitincreaseduntilhewasanalmosthopeless
slavetothedrug.Onlyhisextraordinarywillpowerenabledhimtobreak
awayfromthehabit,aftersomethirtyyearsofmisery.Somepeculiarityof
hisdelicateconstitutionenabledDeQuinceytotakeenormousquantitiesof
opium,enoughtokillseveralordinarymen;anditwaslargelyopium,
workinguponasensitiveimagination,whichproducedhisgorgeousdreams,
brokenbyintervalsofweaknessandprofounddepression.Fortwentyyears
heresidedatGrasmereinthecompanionshipoftheLakepoets;andhere,
ledbythelossofhissmallfortune,hebegantowrite,withtheideaof
supportinghisfamily.In1821hepublishedhisfirstfamouswork,the
_ConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater_,andfornearlyfortyyears
afterwardshewroteindustriously,contributingtovariousmagazinesan
astonishingnumberofessaysonagreatvarietyofsubjects.Without
thoughtofliteraryfame,hecontributedthesearticlesanonymously;but
fortunately,in1853,hebegantocollecthisownworks,andthelastof
fourteenvolumeswaspublishedjustafterhisdeath.
In1830,ledbyhisconnectionwith_Blackwood'sMagazine_,towhichhewas
thechiefcontributor,DeQuinceyremovedwithhisfamilytoEdinburgh,
wherehiserraticgeniusandhissingularlychildlikewaysproducedenough
amusinganecdotestofillavolume.Hewouldtakearoominsomeplace
unknowntohisfriendsandfamily;wouldliveinitforafewyears,until
hehadfilledit,eventothebathtub,withbooksandwithhisownchaotic
manuscripts,allowingnoonetoenterordisturbhisden;andthen,when
theplacebecametoocrowded,hewouldlockthedoorandgoawayandtake
anotherlodging,whereherepeatedthesameextraordinaryperformance.He
diedinEdinburghin1859.LikeLamb,hewasasmall,boyishfigure,
gentle,andelaboratelycourteous.Thoughexcessivelyshy,andescapingas
oftenaspossibletosolitude,hewasneverthelessfondofsociety,andhis
wideknowledgeandvividimaginationmadehisconversationsalmostas
prizedasthoseofhisfriendColeridge.
WORKS.DeQuincey'sworksmaybedividedintotwogeneralclasses.The
firstincludeshisnumerouscriticalarticles,andthesecondhis

autobiographicalsketches.Allhisworks,itmustberemembered,were
contributedtovariousmagazines,andwerehastilycollectedjustbefore
hisdeath.Hencethegeneralimpressionofchaoswhichwegetfromreading
them.
FromaliteraryviewpointthemostilluminatingofDeQuincey'scritical
worksishis._LiteraryReminiscences_.Thiscontainsbrilliant
appreciationsofWordsworth,Coleridge,Lamb,Shelley,Keats,Hazlitt,and
Landor,aswellassomeinterestingstudiesoftheliteraryfiguresofthe
agepreceding.Amongthebestofhisbrilliantcriticalessaysare_Onthe
KnockingattheGateinMacbeth_(1823),whichisadmirablysuitedtoshow
theman'scriticalgenius,and_MurderConsideredasOneoftheFineArts_
(1827),whichrevealshisgrotesquehumorOthersuggestivecriticalworks,
ifonemustchooseamongsuchamultitude,arehis_LetterstoaYoungMan_
(1823),_JoanofArc_(1847),_TheRevoltoftheTartars_(1840),and_The
EnglishMailCoach_(1849).Inthelastnamedessaythe"DreamFugue"is
oneofthemostimaginativeofallhiscuriousworks.
OfDeQuincey'sautobiographicalsketchesthebestknownishis
_ConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater_(1821).Thisisonlypartlya
recordofopiumdreams,anditschiefinterestliesinglimpsesitgivesus
ofDeQuincey'sownlifeandwanderings.Thisshouldbefollowedby
_SuspiriadeProfundis_(1845),whichischieflyarecordofgloomyand
terribledreamsproducedbyopiates.Themostinterestingpartsofhis
_Suspiria_,showingDeQuincey'smarvelousinsightintodreams,arethose
inwhichwearebroughtfacetofacewiththestrangefemininecreations
"Levana,""Madonna,""OurLadyofSighs,"and"OurLadyofDarkness."A
seriesofnearlythirtyarticleswhichhecollectedin1853,called
_AutobiographicSketches_,completestherevelationoftheauthor'sown
life.Amonghismiscellaneousworksmaybementioned,inordertoshowhis
widerangeofsubjects,_Klosterheim_,anovel,_LogicofPolitical
Economy_,the_EssaysonStyleandRhetoric,PhilosophyofHerodotus_,and
hisarticlesonGoethe,Pope,Schiller,andShakespearewhichhe
contributedtothe_EncyclopediaBritannica_.
DeQuincey'sstyleisarevelationofthebeautyoftheEnglishlanguage,
anditprofoundlyinfluencedRuskinandotherprosewritersofthe
VictorianAge.Ithastwochieffaults,diffuseness,whichcontinually
leadsDeQuinceyawayfromhisobject,andtriviality,whichoftenmakes
himhaltinthemidstofamarvelousparagraphtomakesomelightjestor
witticismthathassomehumorbutnomirthinit.Notwithstandingthese
faults,DeQuincey'sproseisstillamongthefewsupremeexamplesofstyle
inourlanguage.Thoughhewasprofoundlyinfluencedbytheseventeenth
centurywriters,heattempteddefinitelytocreateanewstylewhichshould
combinethebestelementsofproseandpoetry.Inconsequence,hisprose
worksareoften,likethoseofMilton,moreimaginativeandmelodiousthan
muchofourpoetry.Hehasbeenwellcalled"thepsychologistofstyle,"
andassuchhisworkswillneverbepopular;buttothefewwhocan
appreciatehimhewillalwaysbeaninspirationtobetterwriting.Onehas
adeeperrespectforourEnglishlanguageandliteratureafterreadinghim.
SECONDARYWRITERSOFROMANTICISM.Onehasonlytoglancebackoverthe
authorswehavebeenstudyingWordsworth,Coleridge,Southey,Byron,
Shelley,Keats,Scott,Lamb,DeQuinceytorealizethegreatchangewhich
sweptoverthelifeandliteratureofEnglandinasinglehalfcentury,
undertwoinfluenceswhichwenowknowastheFrenchRevolutioninhistory
andtheRomanticMovementinliterature.Inlifemenhadrebelledagainst
thetoostrictauthorityofstateandsociety;inliteraturetheyrebelled
evenmorevigorouslyagainstthebondsofclassicism,whichhadsternly
repressedawriter'sambitiontofollowhisownidealsandtoexpressthem
inhisownway.Naturallysuchanageofrevolutionwasessentially
poetic,onlytheElizabethanAgesurpassesitinthisrespect,andit
producedalargenumberofminorwriters,whofollowedmoreorlessclosely
theexampleofitsgreatleaders.AmongnovelistswehaveJaneAusten,
FrancesBurney,MariaEdgeworth,JanePorter,andSusanFerrier,all

women,beitnoted;amongthepoets,Campbell,Moore,Hogg("theEttrick
Shepherd"),Mrs.Hemans,Heber,Keble,Hood,and"Ingoldsby"(Richard
Barham);andamongmiscellaneouswriters,SidneySmith,"ChristopherNorth"
(JohnWilson),Chalmers,Lockhart,LeighHunt,Hazlitt,Hallam,andLandor.
Hereisanastonishingvarietyofwriters,andtoconsideralltheirclaims
toremembrancewouldofitselfrequireavolume.Thoughthesearegenerally
classedassecondarywriters,muchoftheirworkhasclaimstopopularity,
andsomeofittopermanence.Moore's_IrishMelodies_,Campbell'slyrics,
Keble's_ChristianYear_,andJanePorter's_ThaddeusofWarsaw_and
_ScottishChiefs_havestillamultitudeofreaders,whereKeats,Lamb,and
DeQuinceyareprizedonlybytheculturedfew;andHallam'shistoricaland
criticalworksareperhapsbetterknownthanthoseofGibbon,who
neverthelessoccupiesalargerplaceinourliterature.Amongallthese
writerswechooseonlytwo,JaneAustenandWalterSavageLandor,whose
worksindicateaperiodoftransitionfromtheRomantictotheVictorian
Age.
JANEAUSTEN(17751817)
Wehavesolatelyrediscoveredthecharmandgeniusofthisgiftedyoung
womanthatsheseemstobeanovelistofyesterday,ratherthanthe
contemporaryofWordsworthandColeridge;andfewevenofherreaders
realizethatshedidfortheEnglishnovelpreciselywhattheLakepoets
didforEnglishpoetry,sherefinedandsimplifiedit,makingitatrue
reflectionofEnglishlife.LiketheLakepoets,shemetwithscanty
encouragementinherowngeneration.Hergreatestnovel,_Prideand
Prejudice_,wasfinishedin1797,ayearbeforetheappearanceofthe
famous_LyricalBallads_ofWordsworthandColeridge;butwhilethelatter
bookwaspublishedandfoundafewappreciativereaders,themanuscriptof
thiswonderfulnovelwentbeggingforsixteenyearsbeforeitfounda
publisher.AsWordsworthbeganwiththedeliberatepurposeofmakingpoetry
naturalandtruthful,soMissAustenappearstohavebegunwritingwiththe
ideaofpresentingthelifeofEnglishcountrysocietyexactlyasitwas,
inoppositiontotheromanticextravaganceofMrs.Radcliffeandher
school.Buttherewasthisdifference,thatMissAustenhadinlarge
measurethesavinggiftofhumor,whichWordsworthsadlylacked.Maria
Edgeworth,atthesametime,setasaneandexcellentexampleinhertales
ofIrishlife,_TheAbsentee_and_CastleRackrent;_andMissAusten
followeduptheadvantagewithatleastsixworks,whichhavegrown
steadilyinvalueuntilweplacethemgladlyinthefirstrankofour
novelsofcommonlife.Itisnotsimplyforherexquisitecharm,therefore,
thatweadmireher,butalsoforherinfluenceinbringingournovelsback
totheirtrueplaceasanexpressionofhumanlife.Itisduepartly,at
least,toherinfluencethatamultitudeofreaderswerereadyto
appreciateMrs.Gaskell's_Cranford_,andthepowerfulandenduringworkof
GeorgeEliot.
LIFE.JaneAusten'slifegiveslittleopportunityforthebiographer,
unless,perchance,hehassomethingofherownpowertoshowthebeautyand
charmofcommonplacethings.ShewastheseventhchildofRev.George
Austen,rectorofSteventon,andwasbornintheparsonageofthevillage
in1775.Withhersistersshewaseducatedathome,andpassedherlife
veryquietly,cheerfully,inthedoingofsmalldomesticduties,towhich
lovelentthemagiclampthatmakesallthingsbeautiful.Shebeganto
writeatanearlyage,andseemstohavedoneherworkonalittletablein
thefamilysittingroom,inthemidstofthefamilylife.Whenavisitor
entered,shewouldthrowapaperorapieceofsewingoverherwork,and
shemodestlyrefusedtobeknownastheauthorofnovelswhichwenowcount
amongourtreasuredpossessions.Withthepublishersshehadlittle
success._PrideandPrejudice_wentbegging,aswehavesaid,forsixteen
years;and_NorthangerAbbey_(1798)wassoldforatrivialsumtoa
publisher,wholaiditasideandforgotit,untiltheappearanceand
moderatesuccessof_SenseandSensibility_in1811.Then,afterkeeping
themanuscriptsomefifteenyears,hesolditbacktothefamily,whofound

anotherpublisher.
Ananonymousarticleinthe_QuarterlyReview_,followingtheappearanceof
_Emma_in1815,fullofgenerousappreciationofthecharmofthenew
writer,wasthebeginningofJaneAusten'sfame;anditisonlywithina
fewyearsthatwehavelearnedthatthefriendlyanddiscerningcriticwas
WalterScott.Hecontinuedtobeheradmireruntilherearlydeath;but
thesetwo,thegreatestwritersoffictionintheirage,wereneverbrought
together.Bothwerehomelovingpeople,andMissAustenespeciallywas
aversetopublicityandpopularity.Shedied,quietlyasshehadlived,at
Winchester,in1817,andwasburiedinthecathedral.Shewasabright,
attractivelittlewoman,whosesunnyqualitiesareunconsciouslyreflected
inallherbooks.
WORKS.VeryfewEnglishwriterseverhadsonarrowafieldofworkasJane
Austen.LiketheFrenchnovelists,whosesuccessseemstolieinchoosing
thetinyfieldthattheyknowbest,herworkshaveanexquisiteperfection
thatislackinginmostofourwritersoffiction.Withtheexceptionofan
occasionalvisittothewateringplaceofBath,herwholelifewasspentin
smallcountryparishes,whosesimplecountrypeoplebecamethecharacters
ofhernovels.Herbrotherswereinthenavy,andsonavalofficersfurnish
theonlyexcitingelementsinherstories;buteventheseallegedheroes
layasidetheirimposingmartialwaysandactlikethemselvesandother
people.Suchwasherliteraryfield,inwhichthechiefdutieswereofthe
household,thechiefpleasuresincountrygatherings,andthechief
interestsinmatrimony.Life,withitsmightyinterests,itspassions,
ambitions,andtragicstruggles,sweptbylikeagreatriver;whilethe
secludedinterestsofacountryparishwentroundandroundquietly,like
aneddybehindashelteringrock.Wecaneasilyunderstand,therefore,the
limitationsofJaneAusten;butwithinherownfieldsheisunequaled.Her
charactersareabsolutelytruetolife,andallherworkhastheperfection
ofadelicateminiaturepainting.Themostwidelyreadofhernovelsis
_PrideandPrejudice;_butthreeothers,_SenseandSensibility,Emma_,and
_MansfieldPark_,haveslowlywontheirwaytothefrontrankoffiction.
Fromaliteraryviewpoint_NorthangerAbbey_isperhapsthebest;forin
itwefindthattouchofhumoranddelicatesatirewithwhichthisgentle
littlewomancombatedthegrotesquepopularnovelsofthe_Udolpho_type.
Readinganyoftheseworks,oneisinclinedtoacceptthehearty
indorsementofSirWalterScott:"Thatyoungladyhasatalentfor
describingtheinvolvementsandfeelingsandcharactersofordinarylife
whichistomethemostwonderfulIevermetwith.ThebigbowwowstrainI
candomyself,likeanynowgoing;buttheexquisitetouchwhichrenders
ordinarycommonplacethingsandcharactersinterestingfromthetruthof
thedescriptionandthesentiment,isdeniedtome.Whatapitysucha
giftedcreaturediedsoearly!"
WALTERSAVAGELANDOR(17751864)
WhileHazlitt,Lamb,DeQuincey,andotherromanticcriticswentbackto
earlyEnglishliteraturefortheirinspiration,Landorshowsareaction
fromtheprevailingRomanticismbyhisimitationoftheancientclassic
writers.Hislifewasanextraordinaryoneand,likehiswork,aboundedin
sharpcontrasts.Ontheonehand,therearehisegoism,hisunncontrollable
anger,hisperpetuallawsuits,andthelastsadtragedywithhischildren,
whichsuggests_KingLear_andhisdaughters;ontheotherhandthereis
hissteadydevotiontotheclassicsandtothecultivationofthedeep
wisdomoftheancients,whichsuggestsPindarandCicero.Inhisworkswe
findthewildextravaganceof_Gebir_,followedbythesuperbclassicstyle
andcharmof_PericlesandAspasia_.SuchwasLandor,amanofhighideals,
perpetuallyatwarwithhimselfandtheworld.
LIFE.Lander'sstormylifecoversthewholeperiodfromWordsworth's
childhoodtothemiddleoftheVictorianEra.Hewasthesonofa
physician,andwasbornatWarwick,in1775.Fromhismotherheinheriteda

fortune;butitwassoonscatteredbylargeexpendituresandlawquarrels;
andinhisoldage,refusedhelpbyhisownchildren,onlyBrowning's
generositykeptLandorfromactualwant.AtRugby,andatOxford,his
extremeRepublicanismbroughthimintoconstanttrouble;andhisfitting
outabandofvolunteerstoassisttheSpaniardsagainstNapoleon,in1808,
allieshimwithByronandhisQuixoticfollowers.TheresemblancetoByron
isevenmorestrikinglyshowninthepoem_Gebir_,publishedin1798,a
yearmadefamousbythe_LyricalBallads_ofWordsworthandColeridge.
AremarkablechangeinLander'slifeisnoticeablein1821,when,at
fortysixyearsofage,afterhavinglosthismagnificentestateof
LlanthonyAbbey,inGlamorganshire,andafterastormyexperienceinComo,
hesettleddownforatimeatFiesolenearFlorence.Tothisperiodofcalm
afterstormweowetheclassicalproseworksforwhichheisfamous.The
calm,likethatatthecenterofawhirlwind,lastedbutashorttime,and
Landor,leavinghisfamilyingreatanger,returnedtoBath,wherehelived
aloneformorethantwentyyears.Then,inordertoescapealibelsuit,
thecholericoldmanfledbacktoItaly.HediedatFlorence,in1864.The
spiritofhiswholelifemaybeinferredfromthedefiantfarewellwhichhe
flungtoit:
Istrovewithnone,fornonewasworthmystrife;
NatureIloved,andnexttoNatureArt;
Iwarmedbothhandsbeforethefireoflife;
Itsinks,andIamreadytodepart.
WORKS.Landor'sreactionfromRomanticismisallthemoreremarkablein
viewofhisearlyefforts,suchas_Gebir_,awildlyromanticpoem,which
rivalsanyworkofByronorShelleyinitsextravagance.Notwithstanding
itsoccasionalbeautifulandsuggestivelines,theworkwasnotandnever
hasbeensuccessful;andthesamemaybesaidofallhispoeticalworks.
Hisfirstcollectionofpoemswaspublishedin1795,hislastafullhalf
centurylater,in1846.Inthelattervolume,_TheHellenics_,which
includedsometranslationsofhisearlierLatinpoems,called_Idyllia
Heroica,_onehasonlytoread"TheHamadryad,"andcompareitwiththe
lyricsofthefirstvolume,inordertorealizetheastonishingliterary
vigorofamanwhopublishedtwovolumes,ahalfcenturyapart,withoutany
appreciablediminutionofpoeticalfeeling.Inallthesepoemsoneis
impressedbythestrikingandoriginalfiguresofspeechwhichLandoruses
toemphasizehismeaning.
Itisbyhisproseworks,largely,thatLandorhaswonaplaceinour
literature;partlybecauseoftheirintrinsicworth,theirpenetrating
thought,andsevereclassicstyle;andpartlybecauseoftheirprofound
influenceuponthewritersofthepresentage.Themostnotedofhisprose
worksarehissixvolumesof_ImaginaryConversations_(18241846).For
theseconversationsLandorbringstogether,sometimesingroups,sometimes
incouples,wellknowncharacters,orrathershadows,fromthefourcorners
oftheearthandfromtheremotestagesofrecordedhistory.ThusDiogenes
talkswithPlato,sopwithayoungslavegirlinEgypt,HenryVIIIwith
AnneBoleyninprison,DantewithBeatrice,LeofricwithLadyGodiva,all
theseandmanyothers,fromEpictetustoCromwell,arebroughttogetherand
speakoflifeandloveanddeath,eachfromhisownviewpoint.
Occasionally,asinthemeetingofHenryandAnneBoleyn,thesituationis
tenseanddramatic;butasarulethecharacterssimplymeetandconverse
inthesamequietstrain,whichbecomes,aftermuchreading,somewhat
monotonous.Ontheotherhand,onewhoreadsthe_ImaginaryConversations_
isliftedatonceintoacalmandnobleatmospherewhichbracesand
inspireshim,makinghimforgetpettythings,likeaviewfromahilltop.
Byitscombinationofloftythoughtandseverelyclassicstylethebookhas
won,anddeserves,averyhighplaceamongourliteraryrecords.
Thesamecriticismappliesto_PericlesandAspasia_,whichisaseriesof
imaginaryletters,tellingtheexperiencesofAspasia,ayoungladyfrom
AsiaMinor,whovisitsAthensatthesummitofitsfameandglory,inthe

greatageofPericles.Thisis,inourjudgment,thebestworthreadingof
allLandor'sworks.OnegetsfromitnotonlyLandor'sclassicstyle,
butwhatiswellworthwhileabetterpictureofGreeceinthedaysof
itsgreatnessthancanbeobtainedfrommanyhistoricalvolumes.
SUMMARYOFTHEAGEOFROMANTICISM.Thisperiodextendsfromthewarwith
thecolonies,followingtheDeclarationofIndependence,in1776,tothe
accessionofVictoriain1837,bothlimitsbeingveryindefinite,aswill
beseenbyaglanceattheChronologyfollowing.Duringthefirstpartof
theperiodespecially,Englandwasinacontinualturmoil,producedby
politicalandeconomicagitationathome,andbythelongwarsthatcovered
twocontinentsandthewideseabetweenthem.Themightychangesresulting
fromthesetwocauseshavegiventhisperiodthenameoftheAgeof
Revolution.Thestormcenterofalltheturmoilathomeandabroadwasthe
FrenchRevolution,whichhadaprofoundinfluenceonthelifeand
literatureofallEurope.OntheContinenttheoverthrowofNapoleonat
Waterloo(1815)apparentlycheckedtheprogressofliberty,whichhad
startedwiththeFrenchRevolution,[233]butinEnglandthecasewas
reversed.Theagitationforpopularliberty,whichatonetimethreateneda
revolution,wentsteadilyforwardtillitresultedinthefinaltriumphof
democracy,intheReformBillof1832,andinanumberofexceedingly
importantreforms,suchastheextensionofmanhoodsuffrage,theremoval
ofthelastunjustrestrictionsagainstCatholics,theestablishmentofa
nationalsystemofschools,followedbyarapidincreaseinpopular
education,andtheabolitionofslaveryinallEnglishcolonies(1833).To
thiswemustaddthechangesproducedbythediscoveryofsteamandthe
inventionofmachinery,whichrapidlychangedEnglandfromanagricultural
toamanufacturingnation,introducedthefactorysystem,andcausedthis
periodtobeknownastheAgeofIndustrialRevolution.
Theliteratureoftheageislargelypoeticalinform,andalmostentirely
romanticinspirit.For,aswehavenoted,thetriumphofdemocracyin
governmentisgenerallyaccompaniedbythetriumphofromanticismin
literature.Atfirsttheliterature,asshownespeciallyintheearlywork
ofWordsworth,Byron,andShelley,reflectedtheturmoiloftheageandthe
wildhopesofanidealdemocracyoccasionedbytheFrenchRevolution.Later
theextravagantenthusiasmsubsided,andEnglishwritersproducedsomuch
excellentliteraturethattheageisoftencalledtheSecondCreative
period,thefirstbeingtheAgeofElizabeth.Thesixchiefcharacteristics
oftheageare:theprevalenceofromanticpoetry;thecreationofthe
historicalnovelbyScott;thefirstappearanceofwomennovelists,suchas
Mrs.AnneRadcliffe,JanePorter,MariaEdgeworth,andJaneAusten;the
developmentofliterarycriticism,intheworkofLamb,DeQuincey,
Coleridge,andHazlitt;thepracticalandeconomicbentofphilosophy,as
shownintheworkofMalthus,JamesMill,andAdamSmith;andthe
establishmentofgreatliterarymagazines,likethe_EdinburghReview_,the
_Quarterly_,_Blackwood's_,andthe_Athenaeum_.
Inourstudywehavenoted(1)thePoetsofRomanticism:theimportanceof
the_LyricalBallads_of1798;thelifeandworkofWordsworth,Coleridge,
Scott,Byron,Shelley,andKeats;(2)theProseWriters:thenovelsof
Scott;thedevelopmentofliterarycriticism;thelifeandworkofthe
essayists,Lamb,DeQuincey,Landor,andofthenovelistJaneAusten.
SELECTIONSFORREADING.Manly'sEnglishPoetryandManly'sEnglishProse
(eachonevol.)containgoodselectionsfromallauthorsstudied.Ward's
EnglishPoets(4vols.),Craik'sEnglishProseSelections(5vols.),
Braithwaite'sTheBookofGeorgianVerse,Page'sBritishPoetsofthe
NineteenthCentury,andGarnett'sEnglishProsefromElizabethtoVictoria,
mayalsobeusedtoadvantage.Importantworks,however,shouldberead
entireinoneoftheinexpensiveschooleditionsgivenbelow.(Fulltitles
andpublishersmaybefoundintheGeneralBibliographyattheendofthis
book.)

_Wordsworth_.IntimationsofImmortality,TinternAbbey,bestlyricsand
sonnets,inSelections,editedbyDowden(AthenaeumPressSeries);
selectionsandshortpoems,editedbyM.Arnold,inGoldenTreasurySeries;
Selections,alsoinEveryman'sLibrary,RiversideLiteratureSeries,
Cassell'sNationalLibrary,etc.
_Coleridge_.AncientMariner,editedbyL.R.Gibbs,inStandardEnglish
Classics;samepoem,inPocketClassics,EclecticEnglishClassics,etc.;
Poems,editedbyJ.M.Hart,inAthenumPress(announced,1909);
Selections,GoldenBookofColeridge,inEveryman'sLibrary;Selections
fromColeridgeandCampbell,inRiversideLiterature;ProseSelections
(GinnandCompany,alsoHolt);LecturesonShakespeare,inEveryman's
Library,Bohn'sStandardLibrary,etc.
_Scott_.LadyoftheLake,Marmion,Ivanhoe,TheTalisman,GuyMannering,
QuentinDurward.NumerousinexpensiveeditionsofScott'sbestpoemsand
novelsinStandardEnglishClassics,PocketClassics,Cassell'sNational
Library,EclecticEnglishClassics,Everyman'sLibrary,etc.;thus,Ladyof
theLake,editedbyEdwinGinn,andIvanhoe,editedbyW.D.Lewis,bothin
StandardEnglishClassics;Marmion,editedbyG.B.Acton,andThe
Talisman,editedbyF.Treudly,inPocketClassics,etc.
_Byron_.MazeppaandThePrisonerofChillon,editedbyS.M.Tucker,in
StandardEnglishClassics;shortpoems,SelectionsfromChildeHarold,
etc.,inCanterburyPoets,RiversideLiterature,Holt'sEnglishReadings,
PocketClassics,etc.
_Shelley_.ToaCloud,ToaSkylark,WestWind,SensitivePlant,Adonais,
etc.,allinSelectionsfromShelley,editedbyAlexander,inAthenum
PressSeries;Selections,editedbyWoodberry,inBellesLettresSeries;
Selections,alsoinPocketClassics,Heath'sEnglishClassics,Golden
TreasurySeries,etc.
_Keats_.OdeonaGrecianUrn,EveofSt.Agnes,Hyperion,Lamia,Toa
Nightingale,etc.,inSelectionsfromKeats,inAthenumPress;Selections
alsoinMuses'Library,RiversideLiterature,GoldenTreasurySeries,etc.
_Lamb_.Essays:DreamChildren,OldChina,DissertationonRoastPig,etc.,
editedbyWauchope,inStandardEnglishClassics;variousessaysalsoin
CamelotSeries,TempleClassics,Everyman'sLibrary,etc.Talesfrom
Shakespeare,inHomeandSchoolLibrary(GinnandCompany);alsoin
RiversideLiterature,PocketClassics,GoldenTreasury,etc.
_DeQuincey_.TheEnglishMailCoachandJoanofArc,inStandardEnglish
Classics,etc.;ConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater,inTempleClassics,
Morley'sUniversalLibrary,Everyman'sLibrary,PocketClassics,etc.;
Selections,editedbyM.H.Turk,inAthenumPress;Selections,editedby
B.Perry(Holt).
_Landor_.Selections,editedbyW.Clymer,inAthenumPress;Periclesand
Aspasia,inCamelotSeries;ImaginaryConversations,selected(Ginnand
Company);thesame,2vols.,inDutton'sUniversalLibrary;selectedpoems,
inCanterburyPoets;selections,proseandverse,inGoldenTreasury
Series.
_JaneAusten_.PrideandPrejudice,inEveryman'sLibrary,PocketClassics,
etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.[234]
_HISTORY.Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.323357;Cheyney,576632._General
Works_.Green,X,24,Traill,Gardiner,Macaulay,etc._SpecialWorks_.
Cheyney'sIndustrialandSocialHistoryofEngland;Warner'sLandmarksof
EnglishIndustrialHistory;Hassall'sMakingoftheBritishEmpire;

Macaulay'sWilliamPitt;Trevelyan'sEarlyLifeofCharlesJamesFox;
Morley'sEdmundBurke;Morris'sAgeofQueenAnneandtheEarly
Hanoverians.
_LITERATURE.GeneralWorks._Mitchell,Courthope,GarnettandGosse,Taine
(seeGeneralBibliography)._SpecialWorks_.Beers'sEnglishRomanticismin
theNineteenthCentury;A.Symons'sTheRomanticMovementinEnglish
Poetry;Dowden'sTheFrenchRevolutionandEnglishLiterature,alsoStudies
inLiterature,17891877;Hancock'sTheFrenchRevolutionandtheEnglish
Poets;Herford'sTheAgeofWordsworth(HandbooksofEnglishLiterature);
Mrs.Oliphant'sLiteraryHistoryofEnglandintheEndoftheEighteenth
andBeginningoftheNineteenthCenturies;Saintsbury'sHistoryof
NineteenthCenturyLiterature;Masson'sWordsworth,Shelley,Keats,and
OtherEssays;PoetsandPoetryoftheNineteenthCentury,vols.13;
Gates'sStudiesandAppreciations;S.Brooke'sStudiesinPoetry;
Rawnsley'sLiteraryAssociationsoftheEnglishLakes(2vols.).
_Wordsworth_.Texts:Globe,Aldine,Cambridgeeditions,etc.;Poeticaland
ProseWorks,withDorothyWordsworth'sJournal,editedbyKnight,Eversley
Edition(LondonandNewYork,1896);LettersoftheWordsworthFamily,
editedbyKnight,3vols.(GinnandCompany);PoeticalSelections,edited
byDowden,inAthenaeumPress;variousotherselections,inGolden
Treasury,etc.;ProseSelections,editedbyGayley(GinnandCompany).
Life:Memoirs,2vols.,byChristopherWordsworth;byKnight,3vols.;by
Myers(EnglishMenofLetters);byElizabethWordsworth;EarlyLife(a
StudyofthePrelude)byE.Legouis,translatedbyJ.Matthews;Raleigh's
Wordsworth;N.C.Smith'sWordsworth'sLiteraryCriticism;Rannie's
WordsworthandHisCircle.Criticism:Herford'sTheAgeofWordsworth;
Masson'sWordsworth,Shelley,andKeats;Magnus'sPrimerofWordsworth;
Wilson'sHelpstotheStudyofArnold'sWordsworth;Essays,byLowell,in
AmongMyBooks;byM.Arnold,inEssaysinCriticism;byHutton,in
LiteraryEssays;byL.Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary,andinStudiesofa
Biographer;byBagehot,inLiteraryStudies;byHazlitt,inTheSpiritof
theAge;byPater,inAppreciations;byDeQuincey,inEssaysonthePoets;
byFields,inYesterdayswithAuthors;byShairp,inStudiesinPoetryand
Philosophy.SeealsoKnight'sThroughtheWordsworthCountry,and
Rawnsley'sLiteraryAssociationsoftheEnglishLakes.
_Coleridge_.Texts:CompleteWorks,editedbyShedd,7vols.(NewYork
1884);Poems,Globe,Aldine,andCambridgeeditions,inAthenaeumPress
(announced,1909),Muses'Library,CanterburyPoets,etc.;Biographia
Literaria,inEveryman'sLibrary;thesame,inClarendonPress;Prose
Selections,LecturesonShakespeare,etc.(seeSelectionsforReading,
above);Letters,editedbyE.H.Coleridge(London,1895).Life:byJ.D.
Campbell;byTraill(EnglishMenofLetters);byDykes;byHallCaine
(GreatWritersSeries);seealsoColeridge'sBiographiaLiteraria,and
Lamb'sessay,Christ'sHospital,inEssaysofElia.Criticism:Brandl's
ColeridgeandtheEnglishRomanticMovement.Essays,byShairp,inStudies
inPoetryandPhilosophy;byWoodberry,inMakersofLiterature;byJ.
Forster,inGreatTeachers;byDowden,inNewStudies;bySwinburne,in
EssaysandStudies;byBrooke,inTheologyintheEnglishPoets;by
Saintsbury,inEssaysinEnglishLiterature;byLowellinDemocracyand
OtherEssays;byHazlitt,andbyPater(seeWordsworth,above).Seealso
Beers'sEnglishRomanticism;Carlyle'schapteronColeridge,inLifeof
JohnSterling.
_Southey_.Texts:Poems,editedbyDowden(Macmillan);PoeticalWorks
(Crowell);SelectionsinCanterburyPoets;LifeofNelson,inEveryman's
Library,TempleClassics,Morley'sUniversalLibrary,etc.Life:byDowden
(EnglishMenofLetters).Essays,byL.Stephen,inStudiesofa
Biographer;byHazlittandSaintsbury(seeabove).
_Scott_.Texts:Numerousgoodeditionsofnovelsandpoems.Forsingle
works,seeSelectionsforReading,above.Life:byLockhart,5vols.
(severaleditions;bestbyPollard,1900);byHutton(EnglishMenof

Letters);byA.Lang,inLiteraryLives;byC.D.Yonge(GreatWriters);by
Hudson;bySaintsbury(FamousScotsSeries).Criticism:Essays,by
Stevenson,GossiponRomance,inMemoriesandPortraits;byShairp,in
AspectsofPoetry;bySwinburne,inStudiesinProseandPoetry;by
Carlyle,inMiscellaneousEssays;byHazlitt,Bagehot,L.Stephen,Brooke,
andSaintsbury(seeColeridgeandWordsworth,above).
_Byron_.Texts:CompleteWorks,Globe,CambridgePoets,andOxford
editions;Selections,editedbyM.Arnold,inGoldenTreasury(seealso
SelectionsforReading,above);LettersandJournalsofByron,editedby
Moore(unreliable).Life:byNoel(GreatWriters);byNichol(EnglishMen
ofLetters);TheRealLordByron,byJ.C.Jeaffreson;Trelawny's
RecollectionsofShelleyandByron.Criticism:Hunt'sLordByronandHis
Contemporaries;Essays,byMorley,Macaulay,Hazlitt,Swinburne,andM.
Arnold.
_Shelley_.Texts:CentenaryEdition,editedbyWoodberry,4vols.;Globe
andCambridgePoetseditions;EssaysandLetters,inCamelotSeries(see
SelectionsforReading,above).Life:bySymonds(EnglishMenofLetters);
byDowden,2vols.;bySharp(GreatWriters);byT.J.Hogg,2vols.;byW.
M.Rossetti.Criticism:Salt'sAShelleyPrimer;Essays,byDowden,in
TranscriptsandStudies;byM.Arnold,Woodberry,Bagehot,Forster,L.
Stephen,Brooke,DeQuincey,andHutton(seeColeridgeandWordsworth,
above).
_Keats_.Texts:CompleteWorks,editedbyForman,4vols.(London,1883);
CambridgePoetsEdition,withLetters,editedbyH.E.Scudder(Houghton,
Mifflin);AldineEdition,withLife,editedbyLordHoughton(Macmillan);
SelectedPoems,withintroductionandnotesbyArloBates(Ginnand
Company);Poems,alsoinEveryman'sLibrary,Muses'Library,Golden
Treasury,etc.;Letters,editedbyS.Colvin,inEversleyEdition.Life:by
Forman,inCompleteWorks;byColvin(EnglishMenofLetters);byW.M.
Rossetti(GreatWriters);byA.E.Hancock.Criticism:H.C.Shelley's
KeatsandHisCircle;Masson'sWordsworth,Shelley,Keats,andOther
Essays;Essays,byM.Arnold,inEssaysinCriticism,alsoinWard's
EnglishPoets,vol.4;byHudson,inStudiesinInterpretation;byLowell,
inAmongMyBooks,orLiteraryEssays,vol.2;byBrooke,DeQuincey,and
Swinburne(above).
_Lamb_.Texts:CompleteWorksandLetters,editedbyE.V.Lucas,7vols.
(Putnam);thesame,editedbyAinger,6vols.(London,18831888);Essays
ofElia,inStandardEnglishClassics,etc.(seeSelectionsforReading);
DramaticEssays,editedbyB.Matthews(Dodd,Mead);SpecimensofEnglish
DramaticPoets,inBohn'sLibrary.Life:byE.V.Lucas,2vols.;byAinger
(EnglishMenofLetters);byBarryCornwall;Talfourd'sMemoirsofCharles
Lamb.Criticism:Essays,byDeQuincey,inBiographicalEssays;byF.
Harrison,inTennyson,Ruskin,Mill,andOtherLiteraryEstimates;by
Pater,andWoodberry(seeWordsworthandColeridge,above).Seealso
Fitzgerald'sCharlesLamb,hisFriends,hisHaunts,andhisBooks.
_DeQuincey_.Texts:CollectedWritings,editedbyMasson,14vols.
(London,18891891);ConfessionsofanOpiumEater,etc.(seeSelections
forReading).Life:byMasson(EnglishMenofLetters);LifeandWritings,
byH.A.Page,2vols.;Hogg'sDeQuinceyandhisFriends;Findlay's
PersonalRecollectionsofDeQuincey;seealsoDeQuincey's
AutobiographicalSketches,andConfessions.Criticism:Essays,by
Saintsbury,inEssaysinEnglishLiterature;byMasson,inWordsworth,
Shelley,Keats,andOtherEssays;byL.Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary.See
alsoMinto'sManualofEnglishProseLiterature.
_Landor_.Texts:Works,withLifebyForster,8vols.(London,1876);
Works,editedbyCrump(London,1897);Letters,etc.,editedbyWheeler
(London,1897and1899);ImaginaryConversations,etc.(seeSelectionsfor
Reading).Life:byColvin(EnglishMenofLetters);byForster.Criticism:
Essays,byDeQuincey,Woodberry,L.Stephen,Saintsbury,Swinburne,

Dowden(seeabove).SeealsoStedman'sVictorianPoets.
_JaneAusten_.Texts:Works,editedbyR.B.Johnson(Dent);variousother
editionsofnovels;Letters,editedbyWoolsey(Roberts).Life:Austen
Leigh'sMemoirofJaneAusten;Hill'sJaneAusten,herHomeandher
Friends;Mitton'sJaneAustenandherTimes.Life,byGoldwinSmith;by
Maiden(FamousWomenSeries);byO.F.Adams.Criticism:Pollock'sJane
Austen;Pellew'sJaneAusten'sNovels;A.A.Jack'sEssayontheNovelas
IllustratedbyScottandMissAusten;H.H.Bonnell'sCharlotteBront,
GeorgeEliot,andJaneAusten;Essay,byHowells,inHeroinesofFiction.
_MariaEdgeworth_.Texts:TalesandNovels,NewLangfordEdition,10vols.
(London,1893)variouseditionsofnovels(Dent,etc.);TheAbsentee,and
CastleRackrent,inMorley'sUniversalLibrary.Life:byHelenZimmerman;
Memoir,byHare.
_Mrs.AnneRadclife_.Romances,withintroductionbyScott,inBallantynes'
NovelistsLibrary(London,1824);variouseditionsofUdolpho,etc.;
Saintsbury'sTalesofMystery,vol.i.SeeBeers'sEnglishRomanticism.
_Moore_.PoeticalWorks,inCanterburyPoets,ChandosClassics,etc.;
Selectedpoems,inGoldenTreasury;Gunning'sThomasMoore,Poetand
Patriot;Symington'sLifeandWorksofMoore.Essay,bySaintsbury.
_Campbell_.Poems,Aldineedition;Selections,inGoldenTreasury.Life,by
Hadden.
_Hazlitt_.Texts:Works,editedbyHenley,12vols.(London,1902);
SelectedEssays,inTempleClassics,CamelotSeries,etc.Life:byBirrell
(EnglishMenofLetters);Memoirs,byW.C.Hazlitt.Essays,bySaintsbury;
byL.Stephen.
_LeighHunt_.Texts:Selectedessays,inCamelotSeries,alsoinCavendish
Library(Warne);StoriesfromtheItalianPoets(Putnam).Life:by
Monkhouse(GreatWriters).Essays,byMacaulay;bySaintsbury;byHazlitt.
SeealsoMrs.Field'sAShelfofOldBooks.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.(NOTE.InaperiodliketheAgeofRomanticism,the
poemsandessayschosenforspecialstudyvarysowidelythatonlyafew
generalquestionsontheselectionsforreadingareattempted.)
1.WhyisthisperiodofRomanticism(17891837)calledtheAgeof
Revolution?GivesomereasonsfortheinfluenceoftheFrenchRevolutionon
Englishliterature,andillustratefrompoemsoressayswhichyouhave
read.ExplainthedifferencebetweenClassicismandRomanticism.Whichof
thesetwotypesofliteraturedoyouprefer?
2.Whatarethegeneralcharacteristicsoftheliteratureofthisperiod?
WhattwoopposingtendenciesareillustratedinthenovelsofScottand
JaneAusten?inthepoetryofByronandWordsworth?
3._Wordsworth_.TellbrieflythestoryofWordsworth'slife,andnamesome
ofhisbestpoems.Whydothe_LyricalBallads_(1798)markanimportant
literaryepoch?Readcarefully,andmakeananalysisofthe"Intimationsof
Immortality";of"TinternAbbey."Canyouexplainwhatpoliticalconditions
arereferredtoinWordsworth's"SonnetonMilton"?inhis"French
Revolution"?Doesheattempttopaintapictureinhissonneton
WestminsterBridge,orhashesomeotherobjectinview?Whatisthe
centralteachingofthe"OdetoDuty"?CompareWordsworth'stwoSkylark
poemswithShelley's.MakeabriefcomparisonbetweenWordsworth'ssonnets
andthoseofShakespeareandofMilton,havinginmindthethought,the
melody,theviewofnature,andtheimageryofthethreepoets.Quotefrom
Wordsworth'spoemstoshowhisbeliefthatnatureisconscious;toshowthe
influenceofnatureonman;toshowhisinterestinchildren;his

sensitivenesstosounds;toillustratethechasteninginfluenceofsorrow.
MakeabriefcomparisonbetweenthecharactersofWordsworth's"Michael"
andofBurns's"TheCotter'sSaturdayNight."CompareWordsworth'spointof
viewandmethod,inthethreepoems"ToaDaisy,"withBurns'sview,as
expressedinhisfamouslinesonthesamesubject.
4._Coleridge_.WhatarethegeneralcharacteristicsofColeridge'slife?
Whatexplainstheprofoundsympathyforhumanitythatisreflectedinhis
poems?Forwhat,besidehispoems,isheremarkable?Canyouquoteany
passagesfromhispoetrywhichshow,theinfluenceofWordsworth?Whatare
thecharactersin"TheAncientMariner"?Inwhatrespectisthispoem
romantic?Giveyourownreasonsforitspopularity.Doesthethoughtorthe
styleofthispoemimpressyou?Ifyouhavereadanyofthe_Lectureson
Shakespeare_,explainwhyColeridge'sworkiscalledromanticcriticism.
5._Scott_.TellthestoryofScott'slife,andnamehischiefpoemsand
novels.Doyourecallanypassagefromhispoetrywhichsuggestshisown
heroism?Whywashecalled"thewizardoftheNorth"?Whatisthegeneral
characterofhispoetry?Compare_Marmion_withoneoftheoldballads,
havinginmindthecharacters,thedramaticinterestofthestory,andthe
styleofwriting.Inwhatsenseishethecreatorofthehistoricalnovel?
Uponwhatdoeshedependtoholdthereader'sattention?Comparehim,in
thisrespect,withJaneAusten.Whichofhischaractersimpressyouas
beingthemostlifelike?Nameanynovelsofthepresentdaywhichcopy
Scottorshowhisinfluence.Read_Ivanhoe_andthe_LadyoftheLake_;
makeabriefanalysisofeachwork,havinginmindthestyle,theplot,the
dramaticinterest,theuseofadventure,andthetruthtonatureofthe
differentcharacters.
6._Byron_.WhyisByroncalledtherevolutionarypoet?(Illustrate,if
possible,fromhispoetry.)Whatisthegeneralcharacterofhiswork?In
whatkindofpoetrydoesheexcel?(Quotefrom_ChildeHarold_to
illustrateyouropinion.)DescribethetypicalByronichero.Canyou
explainhisgreatpopularityatfirst,andhissubsequentlossof
influence?WhyishestillpopularontheContinent?Doyoufindmoreof
thoughtorofemotioninhispoetry?Comparehim,inthisrespect,with
Shelley;withWordsworth.Whichisthemorebrilliantwriter,Byronor
Wordsworth?Whichhasthemorehumor?Whichhasthehealthiermind?Which
hasthehigheridealofpoetry?Whichisthemoreinspiringandhelpful?Is
itfairtosaythatByron'squalityispower,notcharm?
7._Shelley_.WhatarethechiefcharacteristicsofShelley'spoetry?Isit
mostremarkableforitsthought,form,orimagery?Whatpoemsshowthe
influenceoftheFrenchRevolution?Whatsubjectsareconsideredin"Lines
writtenamongtheEuganeanHills"?WhatdoesShelleytrytoteachin"The
SensitivePlant"?CompareShelley'sviewofnature,asreflectedin"The
Cloud"or"TheWestWind,"withWordsworth'sview,asreflectedin"The
Prelude,""TinternAbbey,""Daffodils,"etc.Towhatclassofpoemsdoes
"Adonais"belong?Whatisthesubjectofthepoem?Nameothersofthesame
class.HowdoesShelleydescribehimselfinthispoem?CompareShelley's
"Adonais"andMilton's"Lycidas"withregardtotheviewoflifeafter
deathasexpressedinthepoems.WhatkindsofscenesdoesShelleylike
besttodescribe?ComparehischaracterswiththoseofWordsworth;of
Byron.Doyourecallanypoemsinwhichhewritesofordinarypeopleorof
ordinaryexperiences?
8._Keats_.WhatistheessenceofKeats'spoeticalcreed,asexpressedin
the"OdeonaGrecianUrn"?Whataretheremarkableelementsinhislife
andwork?Whatstrikingdifferencedoyoufindbetweenhisearlypoemsand
thoseofShelleyandByron?Whatarethechiefsubjectsofhisverse?What
poemsshowtheinfluenceoftheclassics?ofElizabethanliterature?Can
youexplainwhyhisworkhasbeencalledliterarypoetry?KeatsandShelley
aregenerallyclassedtogether.Whatsimilaritiesdoyoufindintheir
poems?GivesomereasonswhyKeatsintroducestheoldBedesmanin"TheEve
ofSaintAgnes."NamesomeoftheliteraryfriendsmentionedinKeats's

poetry.
CompareKeats'scharacterswiththoseofWordsworth;ofByron.DoesKeats
everremindyouofSpenser?Inwhatrespects?Isyourpersonalpreference
forWordsworth,Byron,Shelley,orKeats?Why?
9._Lamb_.TellbrieflythestoryofLamb'slifeandnamehisprincipal
works.Whyishecalledthemosthumanofessayists?Hisfriendscalledhim
"thelastoftheElizabethans."Why?Whatisthegeneralcharacterofthe
_EssaysofElia_?HowisthepersonalityofLambshowninalltheseessays?
CiteanypassagesshowingLamb'sskillinportrayingpeople.Makeabrief
comparisonbetweenLambandAddison,havinginmindthesubjectstreated,
thestyle,thehumor,andtheinterestofbothessayists.Whichdoyou
prefer,andwhy?
10._DeQuincey_.WhatarethegeneralcharacteristicsofDeQuincey's
essays?Explainwhyheiscalledthepsychologistofstyle.Whataccounts
foracertainunrealelementinallhiswork.Readapassagefrom_The
EnglishMailCoach_,orfrom_JoanofArc_,orfrom_Levana,OurLadyof
Sorrows_,andcommentfreelyuponit,withregardtostyle,ideas,
interest,andtheimpressionofrealityorunrealitywhichitleaves.
11._Landor_.InwhatrespectdoesLandorshowareactionfromRomanticism?
WhatqualitiesmakeLandor'spoemsstandoutsoclearlyinthememory?Why,
forinstance,doyouthinkLambwassohauntedby"RoseAylmer"?Quotefrom
Landor'spoemstoillustratehistenderness,hissensitivenesstobeauty,
hispowerofawakeningemotion,hisdelicacyofcharacterization.Doyou
findthesamequalitiesinhisprose?Canyouexplainwhymuchofhisprose
seemslikeatranslationfromtheGreek?Compareapassagefromthe
_ImaginaryConversations_withapassagefromGibbonorJohnson,toshow
thedifferencebetweentheclassicandthepseudoclassicstyle.Compare
oneofLandor'scharacters,in_ImaginaryConversations_,withthesame
characterinhistory.
12._JaneAusten_.HowdoesJaneAustenshowareactionfromRomanticism?
Whatimportantworkdidshedoforthenovel?Towhatkindoffictionwas
herworkopposed?Inwhatdoesthecharmofhernovelsconsist?Makea
briefcomparisonbetweenJaneAustenandScott(asillustratedin_Pride
andPrejudice_and_Ivanhoe_),havinginmindthesubject,thecharacters,
themanneroftreatment,andtheinterestofbothnarratives.DoJane
Austen'scharactershavetobeexplainedbytheauthor,ordotheyexplain
themselves?Whichmethodcallsforthegreaterliteraryskill?Whatdoes
JaneAustensayaboutMrs.Radcliffe,in_NorthangerAbbey_?Doesshemake
anyotherobservationsoneighteenthcenturynovelists?

CHRONOLOGY
_EndoftheEighteenthandBeginningoftheNineteenthCentury_
============================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

17601820.GeorgeIII|
|17701850.Wordsworth
|17711832.Scott
17891799.FrenchRevolution|
|17961816.JaneAusten'snovels
|1798.LyricalBaladsofWordsworth
|andColeridge
1800.UnionofGreatBritainand|
Ireland|
1802.ColonizationofAustralia|1802.ScottsMinstrelsyoftheScottish
|Border
1805.BattleofTrafalgar|18051817.Scottspoems
|1807.Wordsworth'sIntimationsof

1807.Abolitionofslavetrade|Immortality.Lamb'sTales
|fromShakespeare
18081814.PeninsularWar|
|18091818.Byron'sChildeHarold
1812.SecondwarwithUnitedStates|18101813.Coleridge'sLectureson
|Shakespeare
1814.CongressofVienna|18141831.WaverleyNovels
1815.BattleofWaterloo|
|1816.Shelley'sAlastor
|1817.Coleridge'sBiographiaLiteraria
|18171820.Keats'spoems
|18181820.Shelley'sPrometheus
1819.FirstAtlanticsteamship|
1820.GeorgeIV(_d_.1830)|1820.Wordsworth'sDuddonSonnets
|18201833.Lamb'sEssaysofElia
|1821.DeQuincey'sConfessions
|18241846.Landor'sImaginary
|Conversations.
1826.FirstTemperanceSociety|
1829.CatholicEmancipationBill|
1830.WilliamIV(_d_.1837)|1830.Tennyson'sfirstpoems
Firstrailway|
|1831.Scott'slastnovel
1832.ReformBill|
1833.Emancipationofslaves|1833.Carlyle'sSartorResartus
|Browning'sPauline
1834.Systemofnationaleducation|
1837.Victoria(_d_.1901)|
|18531861.DeQuincey'sCollected
|Essays
============================================================================
*****

CHAPTERXI
THEVICTORIANAGE(18501900)
THEMODERNPERIODOFPROGRESSANDUNREST
WhenVictoriabecamequeen,in1837,Englishliteratureseemedtohave
entereduponaperiodofleanyears,inmarkedcontrastwiththepoetic
fruitfulnessoftheromanticagewhichwehavejuststudied.Coleridge,
Shelley,Keats,Byron,andScotthadpassedaway,anditseemedasifthere
werenowritersinEnglandtofilltheirplaces.Wordsworthhadwritten,in
1835,
Likecloudsthatrake,themountainsummits,
Orwavesthatownnocurbinghand,
Howfasthasbrotherfollowedbrother,
Fromsunshinetothesunlessland!
Intheselinesisreflectedthesorrowfulspiritofaliterarymanofthe
earlynineteenthcenturywhorememberedtheglorythathadpassedawayfrom
theearth.Buttheleannessofthesefirstyearsismoreapparentthan
real.KeatsandShelleyweredead,itistrue,butalreadytherehad
appearedthreedisciplesofthesepoetswhoweredestinedtobefarmore
widely,readthanweretheirmasters.Tennysonhadbeenpublishingpoetry
since1827,hisfirstpoemsappearingalmostsimultaneouslywiththelast
workofByron,Shelley,andKeats;butitwasnotuntil1842,withthe
publicationofhiscollectedpoems,intwovolumes,thatEnglandrecognized
inhimoneofhergreatliteraryleaders.SoalsoElizabethBarretthad

beenwritingsince1820,butnottilltwentyyearslaterdidherpoems
becomedeservedlypopular;andBrowninghadpublishedhis_Pauline_in
1833,butitwasnotuntil1846,whenhepublishedthelastoftheseries
called_BellsandPomegranates_,thatthereadingpublicbeganto
appreciatehispowerandoriginality.Moreover,evenasromanticismseemed
passingaway,agroupofgreatprosewritersDickens,Thackeray,Carlyle,
andRuskinhadalreadybeguntoproclaimtheliterarygloryofanewage,
whichnowseemstorankonlyjustbelowtheElizabethanandtheRomantic
periods.
HISTORICALSUMMARY.Amidthemultitudeofsocialandpoliticalforcesof
thisgreatage,fourthingsstandoutclearly.First,thelongstruggleof
theAngloSaxonsforpersonallibertyisdefinitelysettled,anddemocracy
becomestheestablishedorderoftheday.Theking,whoappearedinanage
ofpopularweaknessandignorance,andthepeers,whocamewiththeNormans
intriumph,arebothstrippedoftheirpowerandleftasfigureheadsofa
pastcivilization.Thelastvestigeofpersonalgovernmentandofthe
divinerightofrulersdisappears;theHouseofCommonsbecomestheruling
powerinEngland;andaseriesofnewreformbillsrapidlyextendthe
suffrage,untilthewholebodyofEnglishpeoplechooseforthemselvesthe
menwhoshallrepresentthem.
Second,becauseitisanageofdemocracy,itisanageofpopular
education,ofreligioustolerance,ofgrowingbrotherhood,andofprofound
socialunrest.Theslaveshadbeenfreedin1833;butinthemiddleofthe
centuryEnglandawoketothefactthatslavesarenotnecessarilynegroes,
stoleninAfricatobesoldlikecattleinthemarketplace,butthat
multitudesofmen,women,andlittlechildrenintheminesandfactories
werevictimsofamoreterribleindustrialandsocialslavery.Tofree
theseslavesalso,theunwillingvictimsofourunnaturalcompetitive
methods,hasbeenthegrowingpurposeoftheVictorianAgeuntilthe
presentday.
Third,becauseitisanageofdemocracyandeducation,itisanageof
comparativepeace.Englandbeginstothinklessofthepompandfalse
glitteroffighting,andmoreofitsmoralevils,asthenationrealizes
thatitisthecommonpeoplewhobeartheburdenandthesorrowandthe
povertyofwar,whiletheprivilegedclassesreapmostofthefinancialand
politicalrewards.Moreover,withthegrowthoftradeandoffriendly
foreignrelations,itbecomesevidentthatthesocialequalityforwhich
Englandwascontendingathomebelongstothewholeraceofmen;that
brotherhoodisuniversal,notinsular;thataquestionofjusticeisnever
settledbyfighting;andthatwarisgenerallyunmitigatedhorrorand
barbarism.Tennyson,whocameofagewhenthegreatReformBilloccupied
attention,expressestheidealsoftheLiberalsofhisdaywhoproposedto
spreadthegospelofpeace,
Tillthewardrumthrobb'dnolonger,andthebattleflagswerefurled
IntheParliamentofMan,theFederationoftheworld.
Fourth,theVictorianAgeisespeciallyremarkablebecauseofitsrapid
progressinalltheartsandsciencesandinmechanicalinventions.A
glanceatanyrecordoftheindustrialachievementsofthenineteenth
centurywillshowhowvasttheyare,anditisunnecessarytorepeathere
thelistoftheinventions,fromspinningloomstosteamboats,andfrom
matchestoelectriclights.Allthesematerialthings,aswellasthe
growthofeducation,havetheirinfluenceuponthelifeofapeople,andit
isinevitablethattheyshouldreactuponitsproseandpoetry;thoughas
yetwearetoomuchabsorbedinoursciencesandmechanicstodetermine
accuratelytheirinfluenceuponliterature.Whenthesenewthingsshallby
longusehavebecamefamiliarascountryroads,orhavebeenreplacedby
newerandbetterthings,thentheyalsowillhavetheirassociationsand
memories,andapoemontherailroadsmaybeassuggestiveasWordsworth's
sonnetonWestminsterBridge;andthebusy,practicalworkingmenwhotoday
throngourstreetsandfactoriesmayseem,toafutureandgreaterage,as

quaintandpoeticalastousseemtheslowtoilersoftheMiddleAges.
LITERARYCHARACTERISTICS.Whenoneisinterestedenoughtotracethe
genealogyofVictoriahefinds,tohissurprise,thatinherveinsflowed
thebloodbothofWilliamtheConquerorandofCerdic,thefirstSaxonking
ofEngland;andthisseemstobesymbolicoftheliteratureofherage,
whichembracesthewholerealmofSaxonandNormanlife,thestrengthand
idealsoftheone,andthecultureandrefinementoftheother.The
romanticrevivalhaddoneitswork,andEnglandentereduponanewfree
period,inwhicheveryformofliterature,frompureromancetogross
realism,struggledforexpression.Atthisdayitisobviouslyimpossible
tojudgetheageasawhole;butwearegettingfarenoughawayfromthe
earlyhalfofittonoticecertaindefinitecharacteristics.First,though
theageproducedmanypoets,andtwowhodeservetorankamongthe
greatest,neverthelessthisisemphaticallyanageofprose.Andsincethe
numberofreadershasincreasedathousandfoldwiththespreadofpopular
education,itistheageofthenewspaper,themagazine,andthemodern
novel,thefirsttwobeingthestoryoftheworld'sdailylife,andthe
lastourpleasantestformofliteraryentertainment,aswellasourmost
successfulmethodofpresentingmodernproblemsandmodernideals.The
novelinthisagefillsaplacewhichthedramaheldinthedaysof
Elizabeth;andneverbefore,inanyageorlanguage,hasthenovelappeared
insuchnumbersandinsuchperfection.
[MoralPurpose]Thesecondmarkedcharacteristicoftheageisthat
literature,bothinproseandinpoetry,seemstodepartfromthepurely
artisticstandard,ofartforart'ssake,andtobeactuatedbyadefinite
moralpurposeTennyson,Browning,Carlyle,Ruskin,whoandwhatwerethese
menifnottheteachersofEngland,notvaguelybutdefinitely,withsuperb
faithintheirmessage,andwiththeconsciousmoralpurposetoupliftand
toinstruct?EventhenovelbreaksawayfromScott'sromanticinfluence,
andfirststudieslifeasitis,andthenpointsoutwhatlifemayand
oughttobe.WhetherwereadthefunandsentimentofDickens,thesocial
miniaturesofThackeray,orthepsychologicalstudiesofGeorgeEliot,we
findinalmosteverycaseadefinitepurposetosweepawayerrorandto
revealtheunderlyingtruthofhumanlife.Sothenovelsoughttodofor
societyinthisagepreciselywhatLyellandDarwinsoughttodofor
science,thatis,tofindthetruth,andtoshowhowitmightbeusedto
uplifthumanity.PerhapsforthisreasontheVictorianAgeisemphatically
anageofrealismratherthanofromance,nottherealismofZolaand
Ibsen,butadeeperrealismwhichstrivestotellthewholetruth,showing
moralandphysicaldiseasesastheyare,butholdinguphealthandhopeas
thenormalconditionsofhumanity.
Itissomewhatcustomarytospeakofthisageasanageofdoubtand
pessimism,followingthenewconceptionofmanandoftheuniversewhich
wasformulatedbyscienceunderthenameofinvolution.Itisspokenof
alsoasaprosaicage,lackingingreatideals.Boththesecriticismsseem
tobetheresultofjudgingalargethingwhenwearetooclosetoitto
getitstrueproportions,justasCologneCathedral,oneoftheworld's
mostperfectstructures,seemstobeashapelesspileofstonewhenwe
standtooclosebeneathitsmightywallsandbuttresses.Tennyson's
immaturework,likethatoftheminorpoets,issometimesinadoubtfulor
despairingstrain;buthis_InMemoriam_isliketherainbowafterstorm;
andBrowningseemsbettertoexpressthespiritofhisageinthestrong,
manlyfaithof"RabbiBenEzra,"andinthecourageousoptimismofallhis
poetry.Stedman's_VictorianAnthology_is,onthewhole,amostinspiring
bookofpoetry.Itwouldbehardtocollectmorevariedcheerfromanyage.
Andthegreatessayists,likeMacaulay,Carlyle,Ruskin,andthegreat
novelists,likeDickens,Thackeray,GeorgeEliot,generallyleaveuswitha
largercharityandwithadeeperfaithinourhumanity.
Soalsothejudgmentthatthisageistoopracticalforgreatidealsmaybe
onlyadescriptionofthehuskthathidesaveryfullearofcorn.Itis
welltorememberthatSpenserandSidneyjudgedtheirownage(whichwenow

considertobethegreatestinourliteraryhistory)tobealtogethergiven
overtomaterialism,andtobeincapableofliterarygreatness.Justas
timehasmadeussmileattheirblindness,sothenextcenturymaycorrect
ourjudgmentofthisasamaterialage,andlookingupontheenormous
growthofcharityandbrotherhoodamongus,andattheliteraturewhich
expressesourfaithinmen,mayjudgetheVictorianAgetobe,onthe
whole,thenoblestandmostinspiringinthehistoryoftheworld.
I.THEPOETSOFTHEVICTORIANAGE
ALFREDTENNYSON(18091892)
OyoungMariner,
Youfromthehaven
Undertheseacliff,
Youthatarewatching
ThegrayMagician
Witheyesofwonder,
_I_amMerlin,
And_I_amdying,
_I_amMerlin
WhofollowTheGleam.
.......
OyoungMariner,
Downtothehaven
Callyourcompanions,
Launchyourvessel,
Andcrowdyourcanvas,
And,ereitvanishes
Overthemargin,
Afterit,followit,
FollowTheGleam.
Onewhoreadsthishauntingpoemof"MerlinandTheGleam"findsinita
suggestionofthespiritofthepoet'swholelife,hisdevotiontothe
idealasexpressedinpoetry,hisearlyromanticimpressions,his
struggles,doubts,triumphs,andhisthrillingmessagetohisrace.
ThroughouttheentireVictorianperiodTennysonstoodatthesummitof
poetryinEngland.Notinvainwasheappointedlaureateatthedeathof
Wordsworth,in1850;for,almostaloneamongthosewhohaveheldthe
office,hefelttheimportanceofhisplace,andfilledandhonoredit.For
nearlyhalfacenturyTennysonwasnotonlyamanandapoet;hewasa
voice,thevoiceofawholepeople,expressinginexquisitemelodytheir
doubtsandtheirfaith,theirgriefsandtheirtriumphs.Inthewonderful
varietyofhisversehesuggestsallthequalitiesofEngland'sgreatest
poets.ThedreaminessofSpenser,themajestyofMilton,thenatural
simplicityofWordsworth,thefantasyofBlakeandColeridge,themelodyof
KeatsandShelley,thenarrativevigorofScottandByron,allthese
strikingqualitiesareevidentonsuccessivepagesofTennyson'spoetry.
TheonlythinglackingisthedramaticpoweroftheElizabethans.In
reflectingtherestlessspiritofthisprogressiveageTennysonisas
remarkableasPopewasinvoicingtheartificialityoftheearlyeighteenth
century.Asapoet,therefore,whoexpressesnotsomuchapersonalasa
nationalspirit,heisprobablythemostrepresentativeliterarymanofthe
Victorianera.
LIFE.Tennyson'slifeisaremarkableoneinthisrespect,thatfrom
beginningtoendheseemstohavebeendominatedbyasingleimpulse,the
impulseofpoetry.Hehadnolargeorremarkableexperiences,nowildoats
tosow,nogreatsuccessesorreverses,nobusinesscaresorpublic
offices.Forsixtysixyears,fromtheappearanceofthe_PoemsbyTwo
Brothers_,in1827,untilhisdeathin1892,hestudiedandpracticedhis
artcontinuallyandexclusively.OnlyBrowning,hisfellowworker,
resembleshiminthis;butthedifferencesinthetwomenareworldwide.

Tennysonwasnaturallyshy,retiring,indifferenttomen,hatingnoiseand
publicity,lovingtobealonewithnature,likeWordsworth.Browningwas
sociable,delightinginapplause,insociety,intravel,inthenoiseand
bustleofthebigworld.
TennysonwasbornintherectoryofSomersby,Lincolnshire,in1809.The
sweetinfluencesofhisearlynaturalsurroundingscanbebetterunderstood
fromhisearlypoemsthanfromanybiography.Hewasoneofthetwelve
childrenoftheRev.GeorgeClaytonTennyson,ascholarlyclergyman,and
hiswifeElizabethFytche,agentle,lovablewoman,"notlearned,savein
gracioushouseholdways,"towhomthepoetpaysason'sloyaltributenear
thecloseof_ThePrincess_.Itisinterestingtonotethatmostofthese
childrenwerepoeticallyinclined,andthattwoofthebrothers,Charles
andFrederick,gavefargreaterpromisethandidAlfred.
Whensevenyearsoldtheboywenttohisgrandmother'shouseatLouth,in
ordertoattendafamousgrammarschoolatthatplace.Notevenaman's
memory,whichgenerallymakeslightofhardshipandglorifiesearly
experiences,couldeversoftenTennyson'shatredofschoollife.His
complaintwasnotsomuchattheroughnessoftheboys,whichhadso
frightenedCowper,asatthebrutalityoftheteachers,whoputoverthe
schooldoorawretchedLatininscriptiontranslatingSolomon'sbarbarous
adviceabouttherodandthechild.Inthesepsychologicdays,whenthe
childismoreimportantthanthecurriculum,andwhenweteachgirlsand
boysratherthanLatinandarithmetic,wereadwithwonderCarlyle's
descriptionofhisownschoolmaster,evidentlyatypeofhiskind,who
"knewofthehumansoulthusmuch,thatithadafacultycalledmemory,and
couldbeactedonthroughthemuscularintegumentbyapplianceofbirch
rods."Afterfouryearsofmostunsatisfactoryschoollife,Tennyson
returnedhome,andwasfittedfortheuniversitybyhisscholarlyfather.
Withhisbrothershewrotemanyverses,andhisfirsteffortsappearedina
littlevolumecalled_PoemsbyTwoBrothers_,in1827.Thenextyearhe
enteredTrinityCollege,Cambridge,wherehebecamethecenterofa
brilliantcircleoffriends,chiefofwhomwastheyoungpoetArthurHenry
Hallam.
AttheuniversityTennysonsoonbecameknownforhispoeticalability,and
twoyearsafterhisentrancehegainedtheprizeoftheChancellor'sMedal
forapoemcalled"Timbuctoo,"thesubject,needlesstosay,beingchosen
bythechancellor.SoonafterwinningthishonorTennysonpublishedhis
firstsignedwork,called_PoemsChieflyLyrical_(1830),which,thoughit
seemssomewhatcrudeanddisappointingtousnow,neverthelesscontained
thegermofallhislaterpoetry.Oneofthemostnoticeablethingsinthis
volumeistheinfluencewhichByronevidentlyexertedoverthepoetinhis
earlydays;anditwasperhapsduelargelytothesameromanticinfluence
thatTennysonandhisfriendHallampresentlysailedawaytoSpain,with
theideaofjoiningthearmyofinsurgentsagainstKingFerdinand.
Consideredpurelyasarevolutionaryventure,thiswassomethingofa
fiasco,suggestingthenobleDukeofYorkandhistenthousandmen,"he
marchedthemupahill,oneday;andhemarchedthemdownagain."Froma
literaryviewpoint,however,theexperiencewasnotwithoutitsvalue.The
deepimpressionwhichthewildbeautyofthePyreneesmadeupontheyoung
poet'smindisreflectedclearlyinthepoem"Oenone."
In1831Tennysonlefttheuniversitywithouttakinghisdegree.Thereasons
forthissteparenotclear;butthefamilywaspoor,andpovertymayhave
playedalargepartinhisdetermination.Hisfatherdiedafewmonths
later;but,byagenerousarrangementwiththenewrector,thefamily
retainedtherectoryatSomersby,andhere,fornearlysixyears,Tennyson
livedinaretirementwhichstronglysuggestsMiltonatHorton.Hereadand
studiedwidely,cultivatedanintimateacquaintancewithnature,thought
deeplyontheproblemssuggestedbytheReformBillwhichwasthen
agitatingEngland,andduringhisleisurehourswrotepoetry.Thefirst
fruitsofthisretirementappeared,latein1832,inawonderfullittle
volumebearingthesimplename_Poems_.Astheworkofayouthonly

twentythree,thisbookisremarkableforthevarietyandmelodyofits
verse.Amongitstreasureswestillreadwithdelight"TheLotosEaters,"
"PalaceofArt,""ADreamofFairWomen,""TheMiller'sDaughter,"
"Oenone,"and"TheLadyofShalott";butthecriticsofthe_Quarterly_,
whohadbrutallycondemnedhisearlierwork,wereagainunmercifully
severe.Theeffectofthisharshcriticismuponasensitivenaturewasmost
unfortunate;andwhenhisfriendHallamdied,in1833,Tennysonwasplunged
intoaperiodofgloomandsorrow.Thesorrowmaybereadintheexquisite
littlepoembeginning,"Break,break,break,Onthycoldgraystones,O
Sea!"whichwashisfirstpublishedelegyforhisfriend;andthe
depressinginfluenceoftheharshandunjustcriticismissuggestedin
"MerlinandTheGleam,"whichthereaderwillunderstandonlyafterhehas
readTennyson'sbiography.
FornearlytenyearsafterHallam'sdeathTennysonpublishednothing,and
hismovementsarehardtotraceasthefamilywenthereandthere,seeking
peaceandahomeinvariouspartsofEngland.Butthoughsilent,he
continuedtowritepoetry,anditwasinthesesadwanderingdaysthathe
beganhisimmortal_InMemoriam_andhis_IdyllsoftheKing_.In1842his
friendspersuadedhimtogivehisworktotheworld,andwithsome
hesitationhepublishedhis_Poems_.Thesuccessofthisworkwasalmost
instantaneous,andwecanappreciatethefavorwithwhichitwasreceived
whenwereadthenobleblankverseof"Ulysses"and"Morted'Arthur,"the
perfectlittlesongofgriefforHallamwhichwehavealreadymentioned,
andtheexquisiteidylslike"Dora"and"TheGardener'sDaughter,"which
arousedevenWordsworth'senthusiasmandbroughtfromhimalettersaying
thathehadbeentryingallhislifetowritesuchanEnglishpastoralas
"Dora"andhadfailed.FromthistimeforwardTennyson,withincreasing
confidenceinhimselfandhismessage,steadilymaintainedhisplaceasthe
bestknownandbestlovedpoetinEngland.
Theyear1850wasahappyoneforTennyson.Hewasappointedpoetlaureate,
tosucceedWordsworth;andhemarriedEmilySellwood,
Herwhosegentlewillhaschangedmyfate
Andmademylifeaperfumedaltarflame,
whomhehadlovedforthirteenyears,butwhomhispovertyhadprevented
himfrommarrying.Theyearismadefurtherremarkablebythepublication
of_InMemoriam_,probablythemostenduringofhispoems,uponwhichhe
hadworkedatintervalsforsixteenyears.Threeyearslater,withthe
moneythathisworknowbroughthim,heleasedthehouseFarringford,in
theIsleofWight,andsettledinthefirstpermanenthomehehadknown
sincehelefttherectoryatSomersby.
Fortheremainingfortyyearsofhislifehelived,likeWordsworth,"in
thestillnessofagreatpeace,"writingsteadily,andenjoyingthe
friendshipofalargenumberofpeople,somedistinguished,someobscure,
fromthekindlyandsympatheticVictoriatotheservantsonhisownfarm.
Allofthesehecalledwithequalsincerityhisfriends,andtoeachonehe
wasthesameman,simple,strong,kindly,andnoble.Carlyledescribeshim
as"afine,largefeatured,dimeyed,bronzecolored,shaggyheadedman,
...mostrestful,brotherly,solidhearted."Lovingsolitudeandhating
publicityashedid,thenumeroustouristsfrombothsidesoftheocean,
whosoughthimoutinhisretreatandinsisteduponseeinghim,madehis
lifeattimesintolerable.Influencedpartlybythedesiretoescapesuch
popularity,heboughtlandandbuiltforhimselfanewhouse,Aldworth,in
Surrey,thoughhemadehishomeinFarringfordforthegreaterpartofthe
year.
Hislaborduringtheseyearsandhismarvelousfreshnessandyouthfulness
offeelingarebestunderstoodbyaglanceatthecontentsofhiscomplete
works.Inferiorpoems,like_ThePrincess_,whichwaswritteninthefirst
flushofhissuccess,andhisdramas,whichwerewrittenagainsttheadvice
ofhisbestfriends,mayeasilybecriticised;butthebulkofhisverse

showsanastonishingoriginalityandvigortotheveryend.Hediedvery
quietlyatAldworth,withhisfamilyabouthiminthemoonlight,andbeside
himavolumeofShakespeare,openatthedirgein_Cymbeline:_
Fearnomoretheheato'thesun,
Northefuriouswinter'srages;
Thouthyworldlytaskhastdone,
Homeartgone,andta'enthywages.
Thestrongandnoblespiritofhislifeisreflectedinoneofhisbest
knownpoems,"CrossingtheBar,"whichwaswritteninhiseightyfirst
year,andwhichhedesiredshouldbeplacedattheendofhiscollected
works:
Sunsetandeveningstar,
Andoneclearcallforme!
Andmaytherebenomoaningofthebar,
WhenIputouttosea,
Butsuchatideas,moving,seemsasleep,
Toofullforsoundandfoam,
Whenthatwhichdrewfromouttheboundlessdeep
Turnsagainhome.
Twilightandeveningbell,
Andafterthatthedark!
Andmaytherebenosadnessoffarewell,
WhenIembark;
Fortho'fromoutourbourneofTimeandPlace
Thefloodmaybearmefar,
IhopetoseemyPilotfacetoface
WhenIhavecrostthebar.
WORKS.AttheoutsetofourstudyofTennyson'sworksitmaybewellto
recordtwothings,bywayofsuggestion.First,Tennyson'spoetryisnotso
muchtobestudiedastobereadandappreciated;heisapoettohaveopen
onone'stable,andtoenjoyasoneenjoyshisdailyexercise.Andsecond,
weshouldbyallmeansbegintogetacquaintedwithTennysoninthedaysof
ouryouth.UnlikeBrowning,whoisgenerallyappreciatedbymoremature
minds,Tennysonisforenjoyment,forinspiration,ratherthanfor
instruction.Onlyyouthcanfullyappreciatehim;andyouth,unfortunately,
exceptinafewrare,beautifulcases,issomethingwhichdoesnotdwell
withuslongafterourschooldays.Thesecretofpoetry,especiallyof
Tennyson'spoetry,istobeeternallyyoung,and,likeAdaminParadise,to
findeverymorninganewworld,fresh,wonderful,inspiring,asifjust
fromthehandsofGod.
Exceptbythestudent,eagertounderstandthewhojerangeofpoetryin
thisage,Tennyson'searlierpoemsandhislaterdramasmaywellbe
omitted.Opinionsvaryaboutboth;butthegeneraljudgmentseemstobe
thattheearlierpoemsshowtoomuchofByron'sinfluence,andtheir
crudenesssuffersbycomparisonwiththeexquisitelyfinishedworkof
Tennyson'smiddlelife.Ofdramaticworkshewroteseven,hisgreat
ambitionbeingtopresentalargepartofthehistoryofEnglandina
seriesofdramas._Becket_wasoneofthebestoftheseworksandmetwith
considerablefavoronthestage;but,likealltheothers,itindicates
thatTennysonlackedthedramaticpowerandthehumornecessaryfora
successfulplaywright.
Amongtheremainingpoemsthereissuchawidevarietythateveryreader
mustbeleftlargelytofollowhisowndelightfulchoice.[235]Ofthe
_Poems_of1842wehavealreadymentionedthosebestworthreading._The
Princess,aMedley_(1847),alongpoemofoverthreethousandlinesof
blankverse,isTennyson'sanswertothequestionofwoman'srightsand
woman'ssphere,whichwasthen,asinourownday,stronglyagitatingthe
publicmind.Inthispoemababyfinallysolvestheproblemwhich
philosophershaveponderedeversincemenbegantothinkconnectedlyabout

humansociety.Afewexquisitesongs,like"Tears,IdleTears,""Bugle
Song,"and"SweetandLow,"formthemostdelightfulpartofthispoem,
whichingeneralishardlyuptothestandardofthepoet'slaterwork.
_Maud_(1855)iswhatiscalledinliteratureamonodrama,tellingthe
storyofaloverwhopassesfrommorbidnesstoecstasy,thentoangerand
murder,followedbyinsanityandrecovery.ThiswasTennyson'sfavorite,
andamonghisfriendshereadaloudfromitmorethanfromanyotherpoem.
PerhapsifwecouldhearTennysonreadit,weshouldappreciateitbetter;
but,onthewhole,itseemsoverwroughtandmelodramatic.Evenitslyrics,
like"ComeintotheGarden,Maud,"whichmakethisworkafavoritewith
younglovers,arecharacterizedby"prettiness"ratherthanbybeautyor
strength.
PerhapsthemostlovedofallTennyson'sworksis_InMemoriam_,which,on
accountofbothitsthemeanditsexquisiteworkmanship,is"oneofthefew
immortalnamesthatwerenotborntodie."Theimmediateoccasionofthis
remarkablepoemwasTennyson'sprofoundpersonalgriefatthedeathofhis
friendHallam.Ashewrotelyricafterlyric,inspiredbythissadsubject,
thepoet'sgriefbecamelesspersonal,andthegreatergriefofhumanity
mourningforitsdeadandquestioningitsimmortalitytookpossessionof
him.Graduallythepoembecameanexpression,first,ofuniversaldoubt,
andthenofuniversalfaith,afaithwhichrestsultimatelynotonreason
orphilosophybutonthesoul'sinstinctforimmortality.Theimmortality
ofhumanloveisthethemeofthepoem,whichismadeupofoverone
hundreddifferentlyrics.Themovementtakesusthroughthreeyears,rising
slowlyfrompoignantsorrowanddoubttoacalmpeaceandhope,andending
withanoblehymnofcourageandfaith,amodestcourageandahumble
faith,loveinspired,whichwillbeafavoriteaslongassaddenedmen
turntoliteratureforconsolation.ThoughDarwin'sgreatestbookshadnot
yetbeenwritten,sciencehadalreadyoverturnedmanyoldconceptionsof
life;andTennyson,wholivedapartandthoughtdeeplyonalltheproblems
ofhisday,gavethispoemtotheworldashisownanswertothedoubtsand
questioningsofmen.Thisuniversalhumaninterest,togetherwithits
exquisiteformandmelody,makesthepoem,inpopularfavoratleast,the
supremethrenody,orelegiacpoem,ofourliterature;thoughMilton's
_Lycidas_is,fromthecriticalviewpoint,undoubtedlyamoreartistic
work.
_TheIdyllsoftheKing_ranksamongthegreatestofTennyson'slater
works.ItsgeneralsubjectistheCelticlegendsofKingArthurandhis
knightsoftheRoundTable,andthechiefsourceofitsmaterialis
Malory's_Morted'Arthur_.Here,inthismassofbeautifullegends,is
certainlythesubjectofagreatnationalepic;yetafterfourhundred
years,duringwhichmanypoetshaveusedthematerial,thegreatepicis
stillunwritten.MiltonandSpenser,aswehavealreadynoted,considered
thismaterialcarefully;andMiltonalone,ofallEnglishwriters,had
perhapsthepowertouseitinagreatepic.Tennysonbegantousethese
legendsinhis_Morted'Arthur_(1842);buttheepicideaprobablyoccurred
tohimlater,in1856,whenhebegan"GeraintandEnid,"andheaddedthe
storiesof"Vivien,""Elaine,""Guinevere,"andotherheroesandheroines
atintervals,until"Balin,"thelastofthe_Idylls_,appearedin1885.
Latertheseworksweregatheredtogetherandarrangedwithanattemptat
unity.Theresultisinnosenseanepicpoem,butratheraseriesof
singlepoemslooselyconnectedbyathreadofinterestinArthur,the
centralpersonage,andinhisunsuccessfulattempttofoundanideal
kingdom.
Entirelydifferentinspiritisanothercollectionofpoemscalled_English
Idyls,_[236]whichbeganinthe_Poems_of1842,andwhichTennyson
intendedshouldreflecttheidealsofwidelydifferenttypesofEnglish
life.Ofthesevariedpoems,"Dora,""TheGardener'sDaughter,""Ulysses,"
"LocksleyHall"and"SirGalahad"arethebest;butallareworthyof
study.Oneofthemostfamousofthisseriesis"EnochArden"(1864),in
whichTennysonturnsfrommedivalknights,fromlords,heroes,andfair
ladies,tofindthematerialfortruepoetryamongthelowlypeoplethat

makeupthebulkofEnglishlife.Itsraremelody,itssympathyforcommon
life,anditsrevelationofthebeautyandheroismwhichhideinhumblemen
andwomeneverywhere,madethisworkaninstantfavorite.Judgedbyits
salesalone,itwasthemostpopularofhisworksduringthepoet's
lifetime.
Tennyson'slatervolumes,likethe_Ballads_(1880)and_Demeter_(1889),
shouldnotbeoverlooked,sincetheycontainsomeofhisbestwork.The
formercontainsstirringwarsongs,like"TheDefenceofLucknow,"and
picturesofwildpassionategrief,like"Rizpah";thelatterisnotablefor
"Romney'sRemorse,"awonderfulpieceofwork;"MerlinandTheGleam,"
whichexpressesthepoet'slifelongideal;andseveralexquisitelittle
songs,like"TheThrostle,"and"TheOak,"whichshowhowmarvelouslythe
agedpoetretainedhisyouthfulfreshnessandinspiration.Herecertainly
isvarietyenoughtogiveuslongyearsofliteraryenjoyment;andweneed
hardlymentionmiscellaneouspoems,like"TheBrook"and"TheChargeofthe
LightBrigade,"whichareknowntoeveryschoolboy;and"Wages"and"The
HigherPantheism,"whichshouldbereadbyeverymanwhothinksaboutthe
old,oldproblemoflifeanddeath.
CHARACTERISTICSOFTENNYSON'SPOETRY.Ifweattempttosumupthequality
ofTennyson,asshowninalltheseworks,thetaskisadifficultone;but
threethingsstandoutmoreorlessplainly.First,Tennysonisessentially
theartist.Nootherinhisagestudiedtheartofpoetrysoconstantlyor
withsuchsinglenessofpurpose;andonlySwinburnerivalshiminmelody
andtheperfectfinishofhisverse.Second,likeallthegreatwritersof
hisage,heisemphaticallyateacher,oftenaleader.Inthepreceding
age,astheresultoftheturmoilproducedbytheFrenchRevolution,
lawlessnesswasmoreorlesscommon,andindividualitywastherulein
literature.Tennyson'stheme,socharacteristicofhisage,isthereignof
order,oflawinthephysicalworld,producingevolution,andoflawin
thespiritualworld,workingouttheperfectman._InMemoriam,Idyllsof
theKing,ThePrincess_,herearethreewidelydifferentpoems;yetthe
themeofeach,sofaraspoetryisakindofspiritualphilosophyand
weighsitswordsbeforeituttersthem,istheorderlydevelopmentoflaw
inthenaturalandinthespiritualworld.
Thiscertainlyisanewdoctrineinpoetry,butthemessagedoesnotend
here.Lawimpliesasource,amethod,anobject.Tennyson,afterfacinghis
doubtshonestlyandmanfully,findslaweveninthesorrowsandlossesof
humanity.Hegivesthislawaninfiniteandpersonalsource,andfindsthe
supremepurposeofalllawtobearevelationofdivinelove.Allearthly
love,therefore,becomesanimageoftheheavenly.Whatfirstperhaps
attractedreaderstoTennyson,astoShakespeare,wasthecharacterofhis
women,pure,gentle,refinedbeings,whomwemustrevereasourAnglo
Saxonforefathersreveredthewomentheyloved.LikeBrowning,thepoethad
lovedonegoodwomansupremely,andherlovemadeclearthemeaningofall
life.Themessagegoesonestepfarther.Becauselawandloveareinthe
world,faithistheonlyreasonableattitudetowardlifeanddeath,even
thoughweunderstandthemnot.Such,inafewwords,seemstobeTennyson's
wholemessageandphilosophy.
IfweattemptnowtofixTennyson'spermanentplaceinliterature,asthe
resultofhislifeandwork,wemustapplytohimthesametestthatwe
appliedtoMiltonandWordsworth,and,indeed,toallourgreatpoets,and
askwiththeGermancritics,"Whatnewthinghashesaidtotheworldor
eventohisowncountry?"Theansweris,frankly,thatwedonotyetknow
surely;thatwearestilltoonearTennysontojudgehimimpersonally.This
much,however,isclear.Inamarvelouslycomplexage,andamidahundred
greatmen,hewasregardedasaleader.Forafullhalfcenturyhewasthe
voiceofEngland,lovedandhonoredasamanandapoet,notsimplybya
fewdiscerningcritics,butbyawholepeoplethatdonoteasilygivetheir
allegiancetoanyoneman.Andthat,forthepresent,isTennyson's
sufficienteulogy.

ROBERTBROWNING(18121889)
Howgoodisman'slife,themereliving!howfittoemploy
Alltheheartandthesoulandthesensesforeverinjoy!
InthisnewsongofDavid,fromBrowning's_Saul_,wehaveasuggestionof
theastonishingvigorandhopethatcharacterizealltheworksofBrowning,
theonepoetoftheagewho,afterthirtyyearsofcontinuouswork,was
finallyrecognizedandplacedbesideTennyson,andwhomfutureagesmay
judgetobeagreaterpoet,perhaps,even,thegreatestinourliterature
sinceShakespeare.
ThechiefdifficultyinreadingBrowningistheobscurityofhisstyle,
whichthecriticsofhalfacenturyagohelduptoridicule.Theirattitude
towardsthepoet'searlyworkmaybeinferredfromTennyson'shumorous
criticismof_Sordello_.Itmayberememberedthatthefirstlineofthis
obscurepoemis,"WhowillmayhearSordello'sstorytold";andthatthe
lastlineis,"WhowouldhasheardSordello'sstorytold."Tennyson
remarkedthattheseweretheonlylinesinthewholepoemthathe
understood,andthattheywereevidentlybothlies.Ifweattemptto
explainthisobscurity,whichpuzzledTennysonandmanylessfriendly
critics,wefindthatithasmanysources.First,thepoet'sthoughtis
oftenobscure,orelsesoextremelysubtlethatlanguageexpressesit
imperfectly,
Thoughtshardlytobepacked
Intoanarrowact,
Fanciesthatbrokethroughlanguageandescaped.
Second,Browningisledfromonethingtoanotherbyhisownmental
associations,andforgetsthatthereader'sassociationsmaybeofan
entirelydifferentkind.Third,BrowningiscarelessinhisEnglish,and
frequentlyclipshisspeech,givingusaseriesofejaculations.Aswedo
notquiteunderstandhisprocessesofthought,wemuststopbetweenthe
ejaculationstotraceouttheconnections.Fourth,Browning's,allusions
areoftenfarfetched,referringtosomeoddscrapofinformationwhichhe
haspickedupinhiswidereading,andtheordinaryreaderfindsit
difficulttotraceandunderstandthem.Finally,Browningwrotetoomuch
andrevisedtooLittle.Thetimewhichheshouldhavegiventomakingone
thoughtclearwasusedinexpressingotherthoughtsthatflittedthrough
hisheadlikeaflockofswallows.Hisfieldwastheindividualsoul,never
exactlyalikeinanytwomen,andhesoughttoexpressthehiddenmotives
andprincipleswhichgovernindividualaction.Inthisfieldheislikea
minerdelvingunderground,sendingupmassesofmingledearthandore;and
thereadermustsiftallthismaterialtoseparatethegoldfromthedross.
Here,certainly,aresufficientreasonsforBrowning'sobscurity;andwe
mustaddthewordthatthefaultseemsunpardonable,forthesimplereason
thatBrowningshowshimselfcapable,attimes,ofwritingdirectly,
melodiously,andwithnoblesimplicity.
Somuchforthefaults,whichmustbefacedandoverlookedbeforeonefinds
thetreasurethatishiddeninBrowning'spoetry.Ofallthepoetsinour
literature,nootherissocompletely,soconsciously,somagnificentlya
teacherofmen.Hefeelshismissionoffaithandcourageinaworldof
doubtandtimidity.Forthirtyyearshefacedindifferenceorridicule,
workingbravelyandcheerfullythewhile,untilhemadetheworldrecognize
andfollowhim.Thespiritofhiswholelifeiswellexpressedinhis
_Paracelsus_,writtenwhenhewasonlytwentytwoyearsold:
Iseemywayasbirdstheirtracklessway.
Ishallarrive,whattime,whatcircuitfirst,
Iasknot;butunlessGodsendhishail
Orblindingfireballs,sleetorstiflingsnow,

Insometime,hisgoodtime,Ishallarrive;
Heguidesmeandthebird.Inhisgoodtime.
Heisnot,likesomanyothers,anentertainingpoet.Onecannotreadhim
afterdinner,orwhensettledinacomfortableeasychair.Onemustsitup,
andthink,andbealertwhenhereadsBrowning.Ifweacceptthese
conditions,weshallprobablyfindthatBrowningisthemoststimulating
poetinourlanguage.Hisinfluenceuponourlifeispositiveand
tremendous.Hisstrength,hisjoyoflife,hisrobustfaith,andhis
invincibleoptimismenterintous,makingusdifferentandbettermenafter
readinghim.AndperhapsthebestthinghecansayofBrowningisthathis
thoughtisslowlybutsurelytakingpossessionofallwelleducatedmenand
women.
LIFE.Browning'sfatherwasoutwardlyabusinessman,aclerkforfifty
yearsintheBankofEngland;inwardlyhewasaninterestingcombinationof
thescholarandtheartist,withthebesttastesofboth.Hismotherwasa
sensitive,musicalwoman,evidentlyverylovelyincharacter,thedaughter
ofaGermanshipownerandmerchantwhohadsettledinScotland.Shewasof
Celticdescent,andCarlyledescribesherasthetruetypeofaScottish
gentlewoman.Fromhisneckdown,BrowningwasthetypicalBriton,short,
stocky,largechested,robust;buteveninthelifelessportraithisface
changesasweviewitfromdifferentangles.NowitislikeanEnglish
businessman,nowlikeaGermanscientist,andnowithasacurious
suggestionofUncleRemus,thesebeing,nodoubt,somanydifferent
reflectionsofhismixedandunrememberedancestors.
HewasborninCamberwell,ontheoutskirtsofLondon,in1812.Fromhis
homeandfromhisfirstschool,atPeckham,hecouldseeLondon;andthe
citylightsbynightandthesmokychimneysbydayhadthesamepowerful
fascinationforthechildthatthewoodsandfieldsandthebeautiful
countryhadforhisfriendTennyson.Hisschoolingwasshortanddesultory,
hiseducationbeingattendedtobyprivatetutorsandbyhisfather,who
lefttheboylargelytofollowhisowninclination.LiketheyoungMilton,
Browningwasfondofmusic,andinmanyofhispoems,especiallyin"Abt
Vogler"and"AToccataofGaluppi's,"heinterpretsthemusicaltemperament
better,perhaps,thananyotherwriterinourliterature.Butunlike
Milton,throughwhosepoetrythererunsagreatmelody,musicseemstohave
hadnoconsistenteffectuponhisverse,whichisoftensojarringthatone
mustwonderhowamusicalearcouldhaveenduredit.
LikeTennyson,thisboyfoundhisworkveryearly,andforfiftyyears
hardlyaweekpassedthathedidnotwritepoetry.Hebeganatsixto
produceverses,inimitationofByron;butfortunatelythisearlyworkhas
beenlost.ThenhefellundertheinfluenceofShelley,andhisfirstknown
work,_Pauline_(1833),mustbeconsideredasatributetoShelleyandhis
poetry.Tennyson'searliestwork,_PoemsbyTwoBrothers_,hadbeen
publishedandwellpaidfor,fiveyearsbefore;butBrowningcouldfindno
publisherwhowouldevenconsider_Pauline_,andtheworkwaspublishedby
meansofmoneyfurnishedbyanindulgentrelative.Thispoemreceivedscant
noticefromthereviewers,whohadpouncedlikehawksonadovecoteupon
Tennyson'sfirsttwomodestvolumes.Twoyearslaterappeared_Paracelsus_,
andthenhistragedy_Strafford_wasputuponthestage;butnottill
_Sordello_waspublished,in1840,didheattractattentionenoughtobe
denouncedfortheobscurityandvagariesofhisstyle.Sixyearslater,in
1846,hesuddenlybecamefamous,notbecausehefinishedinthatyearhis
_BellsandPomegranates_(whichisBrowning'ssymbolicnamefor"poetryand
thought"or"singingandsermonizing"),butbecauseheelopedwiththebest
knownliterarywomaninEngland,ElizabethBarrett,whosefamewasformany
years,bothbeforeandafterhermarriage,muchgreaterthanBrowning's,
andwhowasatfirstconsideredsuperiortoTennyson.Thereafter,untilhis
ownworkcompelledattention,hewasknownchieflyasthemanwhomarried
ElizabethBarrett.Foryearsthisladyhadbeenanalmosthelplessinvalid,
anditseemedaquixoticthingwhenBrowning,havingfailedtogainher
family'sconsenttothemarriage,carriedheroffromantically.Loveand

Italyprovedbetterthanherphysicians,andforfifteenyearsBrowningand
hiswifelivedanideallyhappylifeinPisaandinFlorence.Theexquisite
romanceoftheirloveispreservedinMrs.Browning's_Sonnetsfromthe
Portuguese_,andinthevolumeof_Letters_recentlypublished,wonderful
letters,butsotenderandintimatethatitseemsalmostasacrilegefor
inquisitiveeyestoreadthem.
Mrs.BrowningdiedinFlorencein1861.Thelossseemedatfirsttoomuch
tobear,andBrowningfledwithhissontoEngland.Fortheremainderof
hislifehelivedalternatelyinLondonandinvariouspartsofItaly,
especiallyatthePalazzoRezzonico,inVenice,whichisnowanobjectof
pilgrimagetoalmosteverytouristwhovisitsthebeautifulcity.Wherever
hewenthemingledwithmenandwomen,sociable,welldressed,courteous,
lovingcrowdsandpopularapplause,theveryreverseofhisfriend
Tennyson.HisearlierworkhadbeenmuchbetterappreciatedinAmericathan
inEngland;butwiththepublicationof_TheRingandtheBook_,in1868,
hewasatlastrecognizedbyhiscountrymenasoneofthegreatestof
Englishpoets.HediedinVenice,onDecember12,1889,thesamedaythat
sawthepublicationofhislastwork,_Asolando_.ThoughItalyofferedhim
anhonoredrestingplace,Englandclaimedhimforherown,andhelies
buriedbesideTennysoninWestminsterAbbey.Thespiritofhiswholelife
ismagnificentlyexpressedinhisownlines,intheEpilogueofhislast
book:
Onewhoneverturnedhisback,butmarchedbreastforward,
Neverdoubtedcloudswouldbreak,
Neverdreamed,tho'rightwereworsted,wrongwouldtriumph,
Heldwefalltorise,arebaffledtofightbetter,
Sleeptowake.
WORKS.AglanceateventhetitleswhichBrowninggavetohisbestknown
volumes_DramaticLyrics_(1842),_DramaticRomancesandLyrics_(1845),
_MenandWomen_(1853),_DramatisPersona_(1864)willsuggesthowstrong
thedramaticelementisinallhiswork.Indeed,allhispoemsmaybe
dividedintothreeclasses,puredramas,like_Strafford_and_ABlotin
the'Scutcheon_;dramaticnarratives,like_PippaPasses_,whichare
dramaticinform,butwerenotmeanttobeacted;anddramaticlyrics,like
_TheLastRideTogether_,whichareshortpoemsexpressingsomestrong
personalemotion,ordescribingsomedramaticepisodeinhumanlife,andin
whichtheherohimselfgenerallytellsthestory.
ThoughBrowningisoftencomparedwithShakespeare,thereaderwill
understandthathehasverylittleofShakespeare'sdramatictalent.He
cannotbringagroupofpeopletogetherandlettheactionsandwordsof
hischaractersshowusthecomedyandtragedyofhumanlife.Neithercan
theauthorbedisinterested,satisfied,asShakespearewas,withlife
itself,withoutdrawinganymoralconclusions.Browninghasalwaysamoral
ready,andinsistsupongivingushisownviewsoflife,whichShakespeare
neverdoes.Hisdramaticpowerliesindepictingwhathehimselfcallsthe
historyofasoul.Sometimes,asin_Paracelsus_,heendeavorstotracethe
progressofthehumanspirit.Moreoftenhetakessomedramaticmomentin
life,somecrisisintheceaselessstrugglebetweengoodandevil,and
describeswithwonderfulinsightthehero'sownthoughtsandfeelings;but
healmostinvariablytellsushow,atsuchandsuchapoint,thegoodor
theevilinhisheromustinevitablyhavetriumphed.Andgenerally,asin
"MyLastDuchess,"thespeakeraddsawordhereandthere,asidefromthe
story,whichunconsciouslyshowsthekindofmanheis.Itisthispowerof
revealingthesoulfromwithinthatcausesBrowningtofascinatethosewho
studyhimlongenough.Hisrangeisenormous,andbringsallsortsand
conditionsofmenunderanalysis.Themusicianin"AbtVogler,"theartist
in"AndreadelSarto,"theearlyChristianin"ADeathintheDesert,"the
Arabhorsemanin"Muteykeh,"thesailorin"HerveKiel,"themedival
knightin"ChildeRoland,"theHebrewin"Saul,"theGreekin"Balaustion's
Adventure,"themonsterin"Caliban,"theimmortaldeadin"Karshish,"all
theseandahundredmorehistoriesofthesoulshowBrowning'smarvelous

versatility.Itisthisgreatrangeofsympathywithmanydifferenttypes
oflifethatconstitutesBrowning'schieflikenesstoShakespeare,though
otherwisethereisnocomparisonbetweenthetwomen.
Ifweseparateallthesedramaticpoemsintothreemainperiods,the
early,from1833to1841;themiddle,from1841to1868;andthelate,from
1868to1889,theworkofthebeginnerwillbemuchmoreeasily
designated.Ofhisearlysoulstudies,_Pauline_(1833),_Paracelsus_
(1835),and_Sordello_(1840),littleneedbesaidhere,exceptperhaps
this:thatifwebeginwiththeseworks,weshallprobablyneverread
anythingelsebyBrowning.Andthatwereapity.Itisbettertoleave
theseobscureworksuntilhisbetterpoemshavesoattractedustoBrowning
thatwewillcheerfullyendurehisworstfaultsforthesakeofhis
undoubtedvirtues.Thesamecriticismapplies,thoughinlessdegree,to
hisfirstdrama,_Strafford_(1837),whichbelongstotheearlyperiodof
hiswork.
Themercilesscriticismwhichgreeted_Sordello_hadawholesomeeffecton
Browning,asisshowninthebetterworkofhissecondperiod.Moreover,
hisnewpowerwasdevelopingrapidly,asmaybeseenbycomparingtheeight
numbersofhisfamous_BellsandPomegranates_series(18411846)withhis
earlierwork.Thus,thefirstnumberofthiswonderfulseries,publishedin
1841,contains_PippaPasses_,whichis,onthewhole,themostperfectof
hislongerpoems;andanothernumbercontains_ABlotinthe'Scutcheon_,
whichisthemostreadableofhisdramas.Evenabeginnermustbethrilled
bythebeautyandthepowerofthesetwoworks.Twoothernoteworthydramas
oftheperiodare_Colombe'sBirthday_(1844)and_InaBalcony_(1855),
which,however,metwithscantappreciationonthestage,havingtoomuch
subtleanalysisandtoolittleactiontosatisfythepublic.Nearlyallhis
bestlyrics,dramas,anddramaticpoemsbelongtothismiddleperiodof
labor;andwhen_TheRingandtheBook_appeared,in1868,hehadgivento
theworldthenoblestexpressionofhispoeticgenius.
Inthethirdperiod,beginningwhenBrowningwasnearlysixtyyearsold,he
wroteevenmoreindustriouslythanbefore,andpublishedonanaverage
nearlyavolumeofpoetryayear.Suchvolumesas_FifineattheFair,Red
CottonNightCapCountry,TheInnAlbum,Jocoseria_,andmanyothers,show
howBrowninggainssteadilyinthepowerofrevealingthehiddenspringsof
humanaction;butheoftenramblesmosttiresomely,andingeneralhiswork
losesinsustainedinterest.Itisperhapssignificantthatmostofhis
bestworkwasdoneunderMrs.Browning'sinfluence.
WHATTOREAD.Oftheshortmiscellaneouspoemsthereissuchanunusual
varietythatonemusthesitatealittleinsuggestingthisorthattothe
beginner'sattention."MyStar,""EvelynHope,""WantingisWhat?""Home
ThoughtsfromAbroad,""MeetingatNight,""OneWordMore"(anexquisite
tributetohisdeadwife),"Prospice"(LookForward);songsfrom_Pippa
Passes;_variouslovepoemslike"BytheFireside"and"TheLastRide
Together";theinimitable"PiedPiper,"andtheballadslike"HervRiel"
and"HowTheyBroughttheGoodNews,"theseareameresuggestion,
expressingonlythewriter'spersonalpreference;butaglanceatthe
contentsofBrowning'svolumeswillrevealscoresofotherpoems,which
anotherwritermightrecommendasbeingbetterinthemselvesormore
characteristicofBrowning.[237]
AmongBrowning'sdramaticsoulstudiesthereisalsoaverywidechoice.
"AndreadelSarto"isoneofthebest,revealingasitdoesthestrength
andtheweaknessof"theperfectpainter,"whoseloveforasoullesswoman
withaprettyfacesaddenshislifeandhampershisbestwork.Nextin
importanceto"Andrea"stands"AnEpistle,"recitingtheexperiencesof
Karshish,anArabphysician,whichisoneofthebestexamplesof
Browning'speculiarmethodofpresentingthetruth.Thehalfscoffing,
halfearnest,andwhollybewilderedstateofthisOrientalscientist'smind
isclearlyindicatedbetweenthelinesofhislettertohisoldmaster.His
descriptionofLazarus,whomhemeetsbychance,andofthestateofmind

ofonewho,havingseenthegloriesofimmortality,mustliveagaininthe
midstofthejumbleoftrivialandstupendousthingswhichconstituteour
life,formsoneofthemostoriginalandsuggestivepoemsinour
literature."MyLastDuchess"isashortbutverykeenanalysisofthesoul
ofaselfishman,whorevealshischaracterunconsciouslybyhiswordsof
praiseconcerninghisdeadwife'spicture.In"TheBishopOrdershisTomb"
wehaveanotherextraordinarilyinterestingrevelationofthemindofa
vainandworldlyman,thistimeachurchman,whosewordstellyoufarmore
thanhedreamsabouthisowncharacter."AbtVogler,"undoubtedlyoneof
Browning'sfinestpoems,isthestudyofamusician'ssoul."Mulykeh"
givesusthesoulofanArab,vainandproudofhisfasthorse,whichwas
neverbeateninarace.Arivalstealsthehorseandridesawayuponher
back;but,usedassheistohermaster'stouch,shewillnotshowherbest
pacetothestranger.Mulykehridesupfuriously;butinsteadofstriking
thethieffromhissaddle,heboastsabouthispeerlessmare,sayingthat
ifacertainspotonherneckweretouchedwiththerein,shecouldnever
beovertaken.Instantlytherobbertouchesthespot,andthemareanswers
withaburstofspeedthatmakespursuithopeless.Mulykehhaslosthis
mare;buthehaskepthisprideintheunbeatenone,andissatisfied.
"RabbiBenEzra,"whichrefusesanalysis,andwhichmustbereadentireto
beappreciated,isperhapsthemostquotedofallBrowning'sworks,and
containsthebestexpressionofhisownfaithinlife,bothhereand
hereafter.Allthesewonderfulpoemsare,again,merelyasuggestion.They
indicatesimplytheworkstowhichonereaderturnswhenhefeelsmentally
vigorousenoughtopickupBrowning.Anotherlistofsoulstudies,citing
"AToccataofGaluppi's,""AGrammarian'sFuneral,""FraLippoLippi,"
"Saul,""Cleon,""ADeathintheDesert,"and"SoliloquyoftheSpanish
Cloister,"might,inanother'sjudgment,bemoreinterestingand
suggestive.
[PippaPasses]AmongBrowning'slongerpoemstherearetwo,atleast,that
welldeserveourstudy._PippaPasses_,asidefromitsrarepoetical
qualities,isastudyofunconsciousinfluence.Theideaofthepoemwas
suggestedtoBrowningwhilelisteningtoagypsygirlsinginginthewoods
nearhishome;buthetransfersthesceneoftheactiontothelittle
mountaintownofAsolo,inItaly.Pippaisalittlesilkweaver,whogoes
outinthemorningtoenjoyheroneholidayofthewholeyear.Asshe
thinksofherownhappinesssheisvaguelywishingthatshemightshareit,
anddosomegood.Then,withherchildishimagination,shebeginstoweave
alittleromanceinwhichshesharesinthehappinessofthefourgreatest
andhappiestpeopleinAsolo.Itneveroccurstoherthatperhapsthereis
moreofmiserythanofhappinessinthefourgreatonesofwhomshedreams;
andsoshegoesonherwaysinging,
Theyear'satthespring
Andday'satthemorn;
Morning'satseven;
Thehillside'sdewpearled;
Thelark'sonthewing;
Thesnail'sonthethorn:
God'sinhisheaven
All'srightwiththeworld!
Fatewillsitthatthewordsandmusicofherlittlesongsshouldcometo
theearsoffourdifferentgroupsofpeopleatthemomentwhentheyare
facingthegreatestcrisesoftheirlives,andturnthescalefromevilto
good.ButPippaknowsnothingofthis.Sheenjoysherholiday,andgoesto
bedstillsinging,entirelyignorantofthegoodshehasdoneintheworld.
Withoneexception,itisthemostperfectofallBrowning'sworks.Atbest
itisnoteasy,normerelyentertainingreading;butitrichlyrepays
whateverhourswespendinstudyingit.
_TheRingandtheBook_isBrowning'smasterpiece.Itisanimmensepoem,
twiceaslongas_ParadiseLost_,andlongerbysometwothousandlines
thanthe_Iliad;_andbeforewebegintheundoubtedtaskofreadingit,we

mustunderstandthatthereisnointerestingstoryordramaticdevelopment
tocarryusalong.Inthebeginningwehaveanoutlineofthestory,such
asitisahorriblestoryofCountGuido'smurderofhisbeautifulyoung
wife;andBrowningtellsusindetailjustwhenandhowhefoundabook
containingtherecordofthecrimeandthetrial.Therethestoryelement
ends,andthesymbolismofthebookbegins.Thetitleofthepoemis
explainedbythehabitoftheoldEtruscangoldsmithswho,inmakingoneof
theirelaboratelychasedrings,wouldmixthepuregoldwithanalloy,in
ordertohardenit.Whentheringwasfinished,acidwaspoureduponit;
andtheacidateoutthealloy,leavingthebeautifuldesigninpuregold.
Browningpurposestofollowthesameplanwithhisliterarymaterial,which
consistssimplyoftheevidencegivenatthetrialofGuidoinRome,in
1698.Heintendstomixapoet'sfancywiththecrudefacts,andcreatea
beautifulandartisticwork.
TheresultofBrowning'spurposeisaseriesofmonologues,inwhichthe
samestoryisretoldninedifferenttimesbythedifferentactorsinthe
drama.Thecount,theyoungwife,thesuspectedpriest,thelawyers,the
Popewhopresidesatthetrial,eachtellsthestory,andeach
unconsciouslyrevealsthedepthsofhisownnatureintherecital.Themost
interestingofthecharactersareGuido,thehusband,whochangesfrombold
defiancetoabjectfear;Caponsacchi,theyoungpriest,whoaidsthewife
inherflightfromherbrutalhusband,andisunjustlyaccusedoffalse
motives;Pompilia,theyoungwife,oneofthenoblestcharactersin
literature,fitinallrespectstorankwithShakespeare'sgreatheroines;
andthePope,asplendidfigure,thestrongestofallBrowning'smasculine
characters.Whenwehavereadthestory,astoldbythesefourdifferent
actors,wehavethebestofthepoet'swork,andofthemostoriginalpoem
inourlanguage.
BROWNING'SPLACEANDMESSAGE.Browning'splaceinourliteraturewillbe
betterappreciatedbycomparisonwithhisfriendTennyson,whomwehave
juststudied.Inonerespect,atleast,thesepoetsareinperfectaccord.
Eachfindsinlovethesupremepurposeandmeaningoflife.Inother
respects,especiallyintheirmethodsofapproachingthetruth,thetwomen
aretheexactopposites.Tennysonisfirsttheartistandthentheteacher;
butwithBrowningthemessageisalwaystheimportantthing,andheis
careless,toocareless,oftheforminwhichitisexpressed.Again,
Tennysonisundertheinfluenceoftheromanticrevival,andchooseshis
subjectsdaintily;but"all'sfish"thatcomestoBrowning'snet.Hetakes
comelyanduglysubjectswithequalpleasure,andaimstoshowthattruth
lieshiddeninboththeevilandthegood.Thiscontrastisallthemore
strikingwhenwerememberthatBrowning'sessentiallyscientificattitude
wastakenbyamanwhorefusedtostudyscience.Tennyson,whoseworkis
alwaysartistic,neverstudiedart,butwasdevotedtothesciences;while
Browning,whoseworkisseldomartisticinform,thoughtthatartwasthe
mostsuitablesubjectforaman'sstudy.
Thetwopoetsdifferevenmorewidelyintheirrespectivemessages.
Tennyson'smessagereflectsthegrowingorderoftheage,andissummedup
intheword"law."inhisview,theindividualwillmustbesuppressed;the
selfmustalwaysbesubordinate.Hisresignationisattimesalmost
Orientalinitsfatalism,andoccasionallyitsuggestsSchopenhauerinits
mixtureoffateandpessimism.Browning'smessage,ontheotherhand,is
thetriumphoftheindividualwilloverallobstacles;theselfisnot
subordinatebutsupreme.ThereisnothingOriental,nothingdoubtful,
nothingpessimisticinthewholerangeofhispoetry.Hisisthevoiceof
theAngloSaxon,standingupinthefaceofallobstaclesandsaying,"I
canandIwill."Heis,therefore,farmoreradicallyEnglishthanis
Tennyson;anditmaybeforthisreasonthatheisthemorestudied,and
that,whileyouthdelightsinTennyson,manhoodisbettersatisfiedwith
Browning.Becauseofhisinvinciblewillandoptimism,Browningisat
presentregardedasthepoetwhohasspokenthestrongestwordoffaithto
anageofdoubt.Hisenergy,hischeerfulcourage,hisfaithinlifeandin
thedevelopmentthatawaitsusbeyondtheportalsofdeath,arelikea

buglecalltogoodliving.Thissumsuphispresentinfluenceuponthe
mindsofthosewhohavelearnedtoappreciatehim.Ofthefuturewecan
onlysaythat,bothathomeandabroad,heseemstobegainingsteadilyin
appreciationastheyearsgoby.
MINORPOETSOFTHEVISTORIANAGE
ELIZABETHBARRETT.AmongtheminorpoetsofthepastcenturyElizabeth
Barrett(Mrs.Browning)occupiesperhapsthehighestplaceinpopular
favor.ShewasbornatCoxhoeHall,nearDurham,in1806;butherchildhood
andearlyyouthwerespentinHerefordshire,amongtheMalvernHillsmade
famousby_PiersPlowman_.In1835theBarrettfamilymovedtoLondon,
whereElizabethgainedaliteraryreputationbythepublicationof_The
SeraphimandOtherPoems_(1838).Thenillnessandtheshockcausedbythe
tragicdeathofherbrother,in1840,placedherfraillifeindanger,and
forsixyearsshewasconfinedtoherownroom.Theinnatestrengthand
beautyofherspirithereshoweditselfstronglyinherdailystudy,her
poetry,andespeciallyinherinterestinthesocialproblemswhichsooner
orlateroccupiedalltheVictorianwriters."Mymindtomeakingdomis"
mightwellhavebeenwrittenoverthedooroftheroomwherethisdelicate
invalidworkedandsufferedinlonelinessandinsilence.
In1844MissBarrettpublishedher_Poems_,which,thoughsomewhat
impulsiveandoverwrought,metwithremarkablepublicfavor.Suchpoemsas
"TheCryoftheChildren,"whichvoicestheprotestofhumanityagainst
childlabor,appealedtremendouslytothereadersoftheage,andthis
youngwoman'sfameasapoettemporarilyovershadowedthatofTennysonand
Browning.Indeed,aslateas1850,whenWordsworthdied,shewasseriously
consideredforthepositionofpoetlaureate,whichwasfinallygivento
Tennyson.AreferencetoBrowning,in"LadyGeraldine'sCourtship,"is
supposedtohavefirstledthepoettowritetoMissBarrettin1845.Soon
afterwardshevisitedtheinvalid;theyfellinlovealmostatfirstsight,
andthefollowingyear,againstthewishesofherfather,whowas
evidentlyaselfisholdtyrant,Browningcarriedheroffandmarriedher.
TheexquisiteromanceoftheirloveisreflectedinMrs.Browning's
_SonnetsfromthePortuguese_(1850).Thisisanobleandinspiringbookof
lovepoems;andStedmanregardstheopeningsonnet,"Ithoughtoncehow
Theocritushadsung,"asequaltoanyinourlanguage.
ForfifteenyearstheBrowningslivedanideallyhappylifeatPisa,andat
CasaGuidi,Florence,sharingthesamepoeticalambitions.Andlovewasthe
greatestthingintheworld,
HowdoIlovethee?Letmecounttheways.
Ilovetheetothedepthandbreadthandheight
Mysoulcanreach,whenfeelingoutofsight
FortheendsofBeingandidealGrace.
Ilovetheetothelevelofeveryday's
Mostquietneed,bysunandcandlelight.
Ilovetheefreely,asmenstriveforRight;
Ilovetheepurely,astheyturnfromPraise;
Ilovetheewiththepassionputtouse
Inmyoldgriefs,andwithmychildhood'sfaith;
IlovetheewithaloveIseemedtolose
WithmylostsaintsIlovetheewiththebreath,
Smiles,tears,ofallmylife!and,ifGodchoose,
Ishallbutlovetheebetterafterdeath.
Mrs.Browningenteredwithwholesouledenthusiasmintotheaspirationsof
ItalyinitsstruggleagainstthetyrannyofAustria;andher_CasaGuidi
Windows_(1851)isacombinationofpoetryandpolitics,both,itmustbe
confessed,alittletooemotional.In1856shepublished_AuroraLeigh_,a
novelinverse,havingforitsheroayoungsocialreformer,andforits
heroineayoungwoman,poeticalandenthusiastic,whostronglysuggests

ElizabethBarrettherself.Itemphasizesinversepreciselythesamemoral
andsocialidealswhichDickensandGeorgeEliotwereproclaiminginall
theirnovels.Herlasttwovolumeswere_PoemsbeforeCongress_(1860),and
_LastPoems_,publishedafterherdeath.Shediedsuddenlyin1861andwas
buriedinFlorence.Browning'sfamousline,"Olyriclove,halfangeland
halfbird,"maywellapplytoherfraillifeandaerialspirit.
ROSSETTI.DanteGabrielRossetti(18281882),thesonofanexiledItalian
painterandscholar,wasdistinguishedbothasapainterandasapoet.He
wasaleaderinthePreRaphaelitemovement[238]andpublishedinthefirst
numbersof_TheGerm_his"HandandSoul,"adelicateprosestudy,andhis
famous"TheBlessedDamozel,"beginning,
Theblesseddamozelleanedout
FromthegoldbarofHeaven;
Hereyesweredeeperthanthedepth
Ofwatersstilledateven;
Shehadthreeliliesinherhand,
Andthestarsinherhairwereseven.
Thesetwoearlyworks,especially"TheBlessedDamozel,"withits
simplicityandexquisitespiritualquality,arecharacteristicofthe
idealsofthePreRaphaelites.
In1860,afteralongengagement,RossettimarriedElizabethSiddal,a
delicate,beautifulEnglishgirl,whomhehasimmortalizedbothinhis
picturesandinhispoetry.Shediedtwoyearslater,andRossettinever
entirelyrecoveredfromtheshock.Atherburialheplacedinhercoffin
themanuscriptsofallhisunpublishedpoems,andonlyatthepersistent
demandsofhisfriendsdidheallowthemtobeexhumedandprintedin1870.
Thepublicationofthisvolumeoflovepoemscreatedasensationin
literarycircles,andRossettiwashailedasoneofthegreatestofliving
poets.In1881hepublishedhis_BalladsandSonnets_,aremarkablevolume
containing,amongotherpoems,"TheConfession,"modeledafterBrowning;
"TheBalladofSisterHelen,"foundedonamedivalsuperstition;"The
King'sTragedy,"amasterpieceofdramaticnarrative;and"TheHouseof
Life,"acollectionofonehundredandonesonnetsreflectingthepoet's
loveandloss.ThislastcollectiondeservestorankwithMrs.Browning's
_SonnetsfromthePortuguese_andwithShakespeare's_Sonnets_,asoneof
thethreegreatcyclesoflovepoemsinourlanguage.Ithasbeenwellsaid
thatbothRossettiandMorrispaintpicturesaswellintheirpoemsason
theircanvases,andthispictorialqualityoftheirverseisitschief
characteristic.
MORRIS.WilliamMorris(18341896)isamostinterestingcombinationof
literarymanandartist.Inthelattercapacity,asarchitect,designer,
andmanufactureroffurniture,carpets,andwallpaper,andasfounderof
theKelmscottPressforartisticprintingandbookbinding,hehaslaidus
allunderanimmensedebtofgratitude.Fromboyhoodhehadsteepedhimself
inthelegendsandidealsoftheMiddleAges,andhisbestliteraryworkis
whollymedivalinspirit._TheEarthlyParadise_(18681870)isgenerally
regardedashismasterpiece.Thisdelightfulcollectionofstoriesinverse
tellsofarovingbandofVikings,whoarewreckedonthefabledislandof
Atlantis,andwhodiscoverthereasuperiorraceofmenhavingthe
characteristicsofidealGreeks.TheVikingsremainforayear,telling
storiesoftheirownNorthland,andlisteningtotheclassicandOriental
talesoftheirhosts.Morris'sinterestinIcelandicliteratureisfurther
shownbyhis_SigurdtheVolsung_,anepicfoundedupononeoftheold
sagas,andbyhisproseromances,_TheHouseoftheWolfings,TheStoryof
theGlitteringPlain_,and_TheRootsoftheMountains_.Laterinlifehe
becamedeeplyinterestedinsocialism,andtwootherromances,_TheDream
ofJohnBall_and_NewsfromNowhere_,areinterestingasmodernattempts
atdepictinganidealsocietygovernedbytheprinciplesofMore's
_Utopia_.

SWINBURNE.AlgernonCharlesSwinburne(18371909)is,chronologically,the
lastoftheVictorianpoets.Asanartistintechniquehavingperfect
commandofalloldEnglishverseformsandaremarkablefacultyfor
inventingnewheseemsatthepresenttimetorankamongthebestinour
literature.Indeed,asStedmansays,"beforehisadventwedidnotrealize
thefullscopeofEnglishverse."Thisreferstothemelodiousand
constantlychangingformratherthantothecontentofSwinburne'spoetry.
AtthedeathofTennyson,in1892,hewasundoubtedlythegreatestliving
poet,andonlyhisliberalopinions,hisscornofroyaltyandof
conventions,andtheprejudicearousedbythepaganspiritofhisearly
workpreventedhisappointmentaspoetlaureate.Hehaswrittenavery
largenumberofpoems,dramas,andessaysinliterarycriticism;butweare
stilltooneartojudgeofthepermanenceofhisworkorofhisplacein
literature.Thosewhowouldreadandestimatehisworkforthemselveswill
dowelltobeginwithavolumeofselectedpoems,especiallythosewhich
showhisloveoftheseaandhisexquisiteappreciationofchildlife.His
_AtalantainCalydon_(1864),abeautifullyricdramamodeledontheGreek
tragedy,isgenerallyregardedashismasterpiece.Inallhiswork
SwinburnecarriesTennyson'sloveofmelodytoanextreme,andoften
sacrificessensetosound.Hispoetryisalwaysmusical,and,likemusic,
appealsalmostexclusivelytotheemotions.
*****
Wehavechosen,somewhatarbitrarily,thesefourwritersMrs.Browning,D.
G.Rossetti,Morris,andSwinburneasrepresentativeoftheminorpoetsof
theage;buttherearemanyotherswhoareworthyofstudy,ArthurHugh
CloughandMatthewArnold,[239]whoareoftencalledthepoetsof
skepticism,butwhoinrealityrepresentareverentseekingfortruth
throughreasonandhumanexperience;FrederickWilliamFaber,theCatholic
mystic,authorofsomeexquisitehymns;andthescholarlyJohnKeble,
authorof_TheChristianYear_,ourbestknownbookofdevotionalverse;
andamongthewomenpoets,AdelaideProcter,JeanIngelow,andChristina
Rossetti,eachofwhomhadalarge,admiringcircleofreaders.Itwouldbe
ahopelesstaskatthepresenttimetoinquireintotherelativemeritsof
alltheseminorpoets.Wenoteonlytheircarefulworkmanshipandexquisite
melody,theirwiderangeofthoughtandfeeling,theireagersearchfor
truth,eachinhisownway,andespeciallythenoteoffreshnessand
vitalitywhichtheyhavegiventoEnglishpoetry.
II.THENOVELISTSOFTHEVICTORIANAGE
CHARLESDICKENS(18121870)
WhenweconsiderDickens'slifeandwork,incomparisonwiththatofthe
twogreatpoetswehavebeenstudying,thecontrastisstartling.While
TennysonandBrowningwerebeingeducatedforthelifeofliterature,and
shieldedmosttenderlyfromthehardshipsoftheworld,Dickens,apoor,
obscure,andsufferingchild,washelpingtosupportashiftlessfamilyby
pastinglabelsonblackingbottles,sleepingunderacounterlikea
homelesscat,andonceaweektimidlyapproachingthebigprisonwherehis
fatherwasconfinedfordebt.In1836his_Pickwick_waspublished,and
lifewaschangedasifamagicianhadwavedhiswandoverhim.Whilethe
twogreatpoetswereslowlystrugglingforrecognition,Dickens,with
plentyofmoneyandtoomuchfame,wastheacknowledgedliteraryheroof
England,theidolofimmenseaudienceswhichgatheredtoapplaudhim
whereverheappeared.Andthereisalsothisstrikingcontrastbetweenthe
novelistandthepoets,thatwhilethewholetendencyoftheagewas
towardrealism,awayfromtheextremesoftheromanticistsandfromthe
odditiesandabsurditiesoftheearlynovelwriters,itwaspreciselyby
emphasizingodditiesandabsurdities,bymakingcaricaturesratherthan
characters,thatDickensfirstachievedhispopularity.
LIFE.InDickens'searlylifeweseeasternbutunrecognizedpreparation

fortheworkthathewastodo.Neverwasthereabetterillustrationof
thefactthataboy'searlyhardshipandsufferingaresometimesonly
divinemessengersdisguised,andthatcircumstanceswhichseemonlyevil
areoftenthesourceofaman'sstrengthandoftheinfluencewhichheis
towieldintheworld.Hewasthesecondofeightpoorchildren,andwas
bornatLandportin1812.Hisfather,whoissupposedtobetheoriginalof
Mr.Micawber,wasaclerkinanavyoffice.Hecouldnevermakebothends
meet,andafterstrugglingwithdebtsinhisnativetownformanyyears,
movedtoLondonwhenDickenswasnineyearsold.Thedebtsstillpursued
him,andaftertwoyearsofgrandiloquentmisfortunehewasthrownintothe
poordebtors'prison.Hiswife,theoriginalofMrs.Micawber,thensetup
thefamousBoardingEstablishmentforYoungLadies;but,inDickens's
words,noyoungladiesevercame.Theonlyvisitorswerecreditors,and
theywerequiteferocious.InthepictureoftheMicawberfamily,withits
tearsandsmilesandgeneralshiftlessness,wehaveasuggestionof
Dickens'sownfamilylife.
Atelevenyearsofagetheboywastakenoutofschoolandwenttoworkin
thecellarofablackingfactory.Atthistimehewas,inhisownwords,a
"queersmallboy,"whosufferedasheworked;andwecanappreciatetheboy
andthesufferingmorewhenwefindbothreflectedinthecharacterof
DavidCopperfield.Itisaheartrendingpicture,thissensitivechild
workingfromdawntilldarkforafewpennies,andassociatingwithtoughs
andwaifsinhisbriefintervalsoflabor;butwecanseeinitthesources
ofthatintimateknowledgeoftheheartsofthepoorandoutcastwhichwas
soontobereflectedinliteratureandtostartleallEnglandbyitsappeal
forsympathy.Asmalllegacyendedthiswretchedness,bringingthefather
fromtheprisonandsendingtheboytoWellingtonHouseAcademy,a
worthlessandbrutalschool,evidently,whoseheadmasterwas,inDickens's
words,amostignorantfellowandatyrant.Helearnedlittleatthis
place,beinginterestedchieflyinstories,andinactingouttheheroic
partswhichappealedtohisimagination;butagainhispersonalexperience
wasofimmensevalue,andresultedinhisfamouspictureofDotheboysHall,
in_NicholasNickleby_,whichhelpedlargelytomitigatetheevilsof
privateschoolsinEngland.Whereverhewent,Dickenswasamarvelously
keenobserver,withanactiveimaginationwhichmadestoriesoutof
incidentsandcharactersthatordinarymenwouldhavehardlynoticed.
Moreoverhewasabornactor,andwasatonetimetheleadingspiritofa
bandofamateurswhogaveentertainmentsforcharityalloverEngland.
Thesethreethings,hiskeenobservation,hisactiveimagination,andthe
actor'sspiritwhichanimatedhim,furnishakeytohislifeandwritings.
Whenonlyfifteenyearsold,helefttheschoolandagainwenttowork,
thistimeasclerkinalawyer'soffice.Bynighthestudiedshorthand,in
ordertofithimselftobeareporter,thisinimitationofhisfather,
whowasnowengagedbyanewspapertoreportthespeechesinParliament.
EverythingthatDickensattemptedseemstohavebeendonewithvigorand
intensity,andwithintwoyearswefindhimreportingimportantspeeches,
andwritingouthisnotesastheheavycoachlurchedandrolledthroughthe
mudofcountryroadsonitsdarkwaytoLondontown.Itwaslargelyduring
thisperiodthathegainedhisextraordinaryknowledgeofinnsandstables
and"horsey"persons,whichisreflectedinhisnovels.Healsogrew
ambitious,andbegantowriteonhisownaccount.Attheageoftwentyone
hedroppedhisfirstlittlesketch"stealthily,withfearandtrembling,
intoadarkletterbox,inadarkofficeupadarkcourtinFleetStreet."
Thenameofthisfirstsketchwas"Mr.MinnsandhisCousin,"andit
appearedwithotherstoriesinhisfirstbook,_SketchesbyBoz_,in1835.
Onewhoreadsthesesketchesnow,withtheirintimateknowledgeofthe
hiddenlifeofLondon,canunderstandDickens'sfirstnewspapersuccess
perfectly.Hisbestknownwork,_Pickwick_,waspublishedseriallyin
18361837,andDickens'sfameandfortuneweremade.Neverbeforehada
novelappearedsofullofvitalityandmerriment.Thoughcrudeindesign,a
merejumbleofexaggeratedcharactersandincidents,itfairlybubbledover
withthekindofhumorinwhichtheBritishpublicdelights,anditstill
remains,afterthreequartersofacentury,oneofourmostcaredispelling

books.
TheremainderofDickens'slifeislargelyarecordofpersonaltriumphs.
_Pickwick_wasfollowedrapidlyby_OliverTwist,NicholasNickleby,Old
CuriosityShop_,andbymanyotherworkswhichseemedtoindicatethat
therewasnolimittothenewauthor'sinventionofodd,grotesque,
uproarious,andsentimentalcharacters.Intheintervalsofhisnovel
writingheattemptedseveraltimestoeditaweeklypaper;buthispower
layinotherdirections,andwiththeexceptionof_HouseholdWords_,his
journalisticventureswerenotamarkedsuccess.Againtheactorcameto
thesurface,andaftermanagingacompanyofamateuractorssuccessfully,
Dickensbegantogivedramaticreadingsfromhisownworks.Ashewas
alreadythemostpopularwriterintheEnglishlanguage,thesereadings
wereverysuccessful.Crowdsthrongedtohearhim,andhisjourneysbecame
acontinuousovation.Moneypouredintohispocketsfromhisnovelsand
fromhisreadings,andheboughtforhimselfahome,GadshillPlace,which
hehadalwaysdesired,andwhichisforeverassociatedwithhismemory.
Thoughhespentthegreaterpartofhistimeandstrengthintravelatthis
period,nothingismorecharacteristicofthemanthantheintenseenergy
withwhichheturnedfromhislecturingtohisnovels,andthen,for
relaxation,gavehimselfuptowhathecalledthemagiclanternofthe
Londonstreets.
In1842,whilestillayoungman,DickenswasinvitedtovisittheUnited
StatesandCanada,wherehisworkswereevenbetterknownthaninEngland,
andwherehewasreceivedastheguestofthenationandtreatedwithevery
markofhonorandappreciation.AtthistimeAmericawas,tomost
Europeans,akindofhugefairyland,wheremoneysprangoutoftheearth,
andlifewashappyasalongholiday.Dickensevidentlysharedthisrosy
view,andhisromanticexpectationswerenaturallydisappointed.Thecrude,
unfinishedlookofthebigcountryseemstohaverousedastrongprejudice
inhismind,whichwasnotovercomeatthetimeofhissecondvisit,
twentyfiveyearslater,andwhichbroughtforththeharshcriticismofhis
_AmericanNotes_(1842)andof_MartinChuzzlewit_(18431844).Thesetwo
unkindbooksstruckafalsenote,andDickensbegantolosesomethingof
hisgreatpopularity.Inadditionhehadspentmoneybeyondhisincome.His
domesticlife,whichhadbeenatfirstveryhappy,becamemoreandmore
irritating,untilheseparatedfromhiswifein1858.Togetinspiration,
whichseemedforatimetohavefailed,hejourneyedtoItaly,butwas
disappointed.ThenheturnedbacktotheLondonstreets,andinthefive
yearsfrom1848to1853appeared_DombeyandSon,DavidCopperfield_,and
_BleakHouse_,threeremarkablenovels,whichindicatethathehad
rediscoveredhisownpowerandgenius.Laterheresumedthepublic
readings,withtheirpublictriumphandapplause,whichsooncametobea
necessitytoonewhocravedpopularityasahungrymancravesbread.These
excitementsexhaustedDickens,physicallyandspiritually,anddeathwas
theinevitableresult.Hediedin1870,overhisunfinished_EdwinDrood_,
andwasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.
DICKENS'SWORKINVIEWOFHISLIFE.Aglancethrougheventhis
unsatisfactorybiographygivesuscertainilluminatingsuggestionsin
regardtoallofDickens'swork.First,asachild,poorandlonely,
longingforloveandforsociety,helaidthefoundationforthose
heartrendingpicturesofchildren,whichhavemovedsomanyreadersto
unaccustomedtears.Second,asclerkinalawyer'sofficeandinthe
courts,hegainedhisknowledgeofanentirelydifferentsideofhuman
life.Herehelearnedtounderstandboththeenemiesandthevictimsof
society,betweenwhomtheharshlawsofthatdayfrequentlymadeno
distinction.Third,asareporter,andafterwardsasmanagerofvarious
newspapers,helearnedthetrickofracywriting,andofknowingtoa
nicetywhatwouldsuitthepopulartaste.Fourth,asanactor,alwaysan
actorinspirit,heseizeduponeverydramaticpossibility,everytense
situation,everypeculiarityofvoiceandgestureinthepeoplewhomhe
met,andreproducedthesethingsinhisnovels,exaggeratingtheminthe
waythatmostpleasedhisaudience.

Whenweturnfromhisoutwardtrainingtohisinnerdispositionwefindtwo
stronglymarkedelements.Thefirstishisexcessiveimagination,which
madegoodstoriesoutofincidentsthatordinarilypassunnoticed,and
whichdescribedthecommonestthingsastreet,ashop,afog,alamppost,
astagecoachwithawealthofdetailandofromanticsuggestionthatmakes
manyofhisdescriptionslikelyricpoems.Thesecondelementishis
extremesensibility,whichfindsreliefonlyinlaughterandtears.Like
shadowandsunshinethesefollowoneanothercloselythroughoutallhis
books.
Rememberingthesetwothings,histraininganddisposition,wecaneasily
foreseethekindofnovelhemustproduce.Hewillbesentimental,
especiallyoverchildrenandoutcasts;hewillexcusetheindividualin
viewofthefaultsofsociety;hewillbedramaticormelodramatic;andhis
sensibilitywillkeephimalwaysclosetothepublic,studyingitstastes
andplayingwithitssmilesandtears.Ifpleasingthepublicbeinitself
anart,thenDickensisoneofourgreatestartists.Anditiswellto
rememberthatinpleasinghispublictherewasnothingofthehypocriteor
demagogueinhismakeup.Hewasessentiallyapartofthegreatdrifting
panoramiccrowdthatheloved.Hissympatheticsoulmadealltheirjoysand
griefshisown.Hefoughtagainstinjustice;hechampionedtheweakagainst
thestrong;hegavecouragetothefaint,andhopetothewearyinheart;
andinthelovewhichthepublicgavehiminreturnhefoundhisbest
reward.HereisthesecretofDickens'sunprecedentedpopularsuccess,and
wemaynotehereaverysignificantparallelwithShakespeare.Thegreat
differentinthegeniusandworkofthetwomendoesnotchangethefact
thateachwonsuccesslargelybecausehestudiedandpleasedhispublic.
GENERALPLANOFDICKENS'SNOVELS.Aninterestingsuggestioncomestous
fromastudyoftheconditionswhichledtoDickens'sfirstthreenovels.
_Pickwick_waswritten,atthesuggestionofaneditor,forserial
publication.EachchapterwastobeaccompaniedbyacartoonbySeymor(a
comicartistoftheday),andtheobjectwastoamusethepublic,and,
incidentally,tosellthepaper.Theresultwasaseriesofcharactersand
scenesandincidentswhichforvigorandboundlessfunhaveneverbeen
equaledinourlanguage.Thereafter,nomatterwhathewrote,Dickinswas
lbeledahumorist.LikeacertainAmericanwriterofourowngeneration,
everythinghesaid,whetherforafeastorafuneral,wasspposedto
containalaugh.Inaword,hewasthevictimofhisownbook.Dickenswas
keenenoughtounderstandhisdanger,andhisnextnovel,_OliverTwist_,
hadtheseriouspurposeofmitigatingtheevilsunderwhichthepoorwere
suffering.Itsherowasapoorchild,theunfortunatevictimofsociety;
and,inordertodrawattentiontotherealneed,Dickensexaggeratedthe
woefulconditionofthepoor,andfilledhispageswithsentimentwhich
easilyslippedoverintosentimentality.Thisalsowasapopularsuccess,
andinhisthirdnovel,_NicholasNickleby,_andindeedinmostofhis
remainingworks,Dickenscombinedtheprinciplesofhisfirsttwobooks,
givingusmirthontheonehand,injusticeandsufferingontheother;
minglinghumorandpathos,tearsandlaughter,aswefindtheminlife
itself.Andinordertoincreasethelightsandshadowsinhisscenes,and
togivegreaterdramaticeffecttohisnarrative,heintroducedodiousand
lothsomecharacters,andmadevicemorehatefulbycontrastingitwith
innocenceandvirtue.
Wefind,therefore,inmostofDickens'snovelsthreeorfourwidely
differenttypesofcharacter:first,theinnocentlittlechild,like
Oliver,Joe,Paul,TinyTim,andLittleNell,appealingpowerfullytothe
childloveineveryhumanheart;scond,thehorribleorgrotesquefoil,
likeSqeers,Fagin,Quilp,UriahHeep,andBillSykes;third,the
grandiloquentorbroadlyhumorousfellow,thefunmaker,likeMicawberand
SamWeller;andfourth,atenderlyorpowerfullydrawnfigure,likeLady
Deadlockof_BleakHouse,_andSydneyCartonof_ATaleofTwoCities,_
whichrisetothedignityoftruecharacters.Wenotealsothatmostof
Dickens'snovelsbelongdecidelytotheclassofpurposeorproblemnovels.

Thus_BleakHouse_attacks"thelaw'sdelays";_LittleDorrit,_the
injusticewhichpersecutespoordebtors;_NicholasNickleby,_theabusesof
charityschoolsandbrutalschoolmasters;and_OliverTwist,_the
unnecessarydegradationandsufferingofthepoorinEnglishworkhouses.
Dickens'sseriouspurposewastomakethenoveltheinstrumentofmorality
andjustice,andwhatverwemaythinkoftheexaggerationofhis
characters,itiscertainthathisstoriesdidmoretocorrectthegeneral
selfishnessandinjusticeofsocietytowardthepoorthanalltheworksof
otherliterarymenofhisagecombined.
THELIMITATIONSOFDICKENS.AnyseverecriticismofDickensasanovelist
mustseem,atfirstglance,unkindanunnecessary.Inalmosteveryhousehe
isawelcomeguest,apersonalfriendwhohasbeguiledmanyanhourwith
hisstories,andwhohasfurnishedusmuchgoodlaughterandafewgood
tears.Moreover,hehasalwaysacheerymessage.Heemphasizesthefact
thatthisisanexcellantworld;thatsomeerrorshavecreptintoit,due
largelytothoughtlessness,butthattheycanbeeasilyremediedbya
littlehumansympathy.Thatisamostwelcomecreedtoanageoverburdened
withsocialproblems;andtocriticiseourcheerycompanionseemsas
discourteousastospeakunkindlyofaguestwhohasjustleftourhome.
ButwemustconsiderDickensnotmerelyasafriend,butasanovelist,and
applytohisworkthesamestandardsofartwhichweapplytoother
writers;andwhenwedothiswearesometimesalittledisappointed.We
mustconfessthathisnovels,whiletheycontainmanyrealisticdetails,
seldomgivetheimpressionofreality.Hischaracters,thoughwelaughor
weeporshudderatthem,aresometimesonlycaricatures,eachonean
exaggerationofsomepeculiarity,whichsuggestBenJonson's_EveryManin
HisHumour_.ItisDickens'sarttogivehisheroessufficientrealityto
makethemsuggestcertaintypesofmenandwomenwhomweknow;butin
readinghimwefindourselvesofteninthementalstateofamanwhois
watchingthroughamicroscopetheswarminglifeofawaterdrop.Hereare
lively,bustling,extraordinarycreatures,somebeautiful,somegrotesque,
butallfarapartfromthelifethatweknowindailyexperience.Itis
certainlynottherealityofthesecharacters,butratherthegeniusofthe
authorinmanagingthem,whichinterestsusandholdsourattention.
Notwithstandingthiscriticism,whichwewouldgladlyhaveomitted,Dickens
isexcellentreading,andhisnovelswillcontinuetobepopularjustso
longasmenenjoyawholesomeandabsorbingstory.
WHATTOREAD.Asidefromthereformsinschoolsandprisonsandworkhouses
whichDickensaccomplished,hehaslaidusall,richandpooralike,under
adebtofgratitude.Aftertheyear1843theoneliteraryworkwhichhe
neverneglectedwastofurnishaChristmasstoryforhisreaders;anditis
dueinsomemeasuretothehelpofthesestories,brimmingoverwithgood
cheer,thatChristmashasbecomeinallEnglishspeakingcountriesaseason
ofgladness,ofgiftgivingathome,andofrememberingthoseless
fortunatethanourselves,whoarestillmembersofacommonbrotherhood.If
wereadnothingelseofDickens,onceayear,atChristmastime,weshould
rememberhimandrenewouryouthbyreadingoneofhisholidaystories,
_TheCricketontheHearth,TheChimes_,andabovealltheunrivaled
_ChristmasCarol_.Thelatterespeciallywillbereadandlovedaslongas
menaremovedbythespiritofChristmas.
Ofthenovels,_DavidCopperfield_isregardedbymanyasDickens's
masterpiece.Itiswelltobeginwiththisnovel,notsimplyforthe
unusualinterestofthestory,butalsofortheglimpseitgivesusofthe
author'sownboyhoodandfamily.Forpurefunandhilarity_Pickwick_will
alwaysbeafavorite;butforartisticfinish,andfortheportrayalofone
greatcharacter,SydneyCarton,nothingelsethatDickenswroteis
comparableto_ATaleofTwoCities_.Hereisanabsorbingstory,witha
carefullyconstructedplot,andtheactionmovesswiftlytoitsthrilling,
inevitableconclusion.UsuallyDickensintroducesseveralpatheticor
grotesqueorlaughablecharactersbesidesthemainactors,andrecords
variousunnecessarydramaticepisodesfortheirownsake;butin_ATaleof
TwoCities_everythinghasitsplaceinthedevelopmentofthemainstory.

Thereare,asusual,manycharacters,SydneyCarton,theoutcast,wholays
downhislifeforthehappinessofonewhomheloves;CharlesDarnay,an
exiledyoungFrenchnoble;Dr.Manette,whohasbeen"recalledtolife"
fromafrightfulimprisonment,andhisgentledaughterLucie,theheroine;
JarvisLorry,alovable,oldfashionedclerkinthebigbankinghouse;the
terribleMadameDefarge,knittingcalmlyatthedoorofherwineshopand
recording,withtheferocityofatigerlickingitschops,thenamesofall
thosewhoaremarkedforvengeance;andadozenothers,eachwelldrawn,
whoplayminorpartsinthetragedy.ThesceneislaidinLondonandParis,
atthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution;and,thoughcarelessofhistorical
details,DickensreproducesthespiritoftheReignofTerrorsowellthat
_ATaleofTwoCities_isanexcellentsupplementtothehistoryofthe
period.ItiswritteninDickens'susualpicturesquestyle,andrevealshis
usualimaginativeoutlookonlifeandhisfondnessforfinesentimentsand
dramaticepisodes.Indeed,allhisqualitiesarehereshown,not
brilliantlyorgarishly,asinothernovels,butsubduedandsoftened,like
ashadedlight,forartisticeffect.
ThosewhoareinterestedinDickens'sgrowthandmethodscanhardlydo
betterthantoreadinsuccessionhisfirstthreenovels,_Pickwick,Oliver
Twist_,and_NicholasNickleby_,which,aswehaveindicated,showclearly
howhepassedfromfuntoseriouspurpose,andwhichfurnishincombination
thegeneralplanofallhislaterworks.Fortherest,wecanonlyindicate
thosewhich,inourpersonaljudgment,seembestworthreading,_Bleak
House,DombeyandSon,OurMutualFriend_,and_OldCuriosityShop_,but
wearenotyetfarenoughawayfromthefirstpopularsuccessofthese
workstodeterminetheirpermanentvalueandinfluence.
WILLIAMMAKEPEACETHACKERAY(18111863)
Asthetwomostsuccessfulnovelistsoftheirday,itisnaturalforus,as
itwasfortheirpersonalfriendsandadmirers,tocompareDickensand
Thackeraywithrespecttotheirlifeandwork,andtheirattitudetoward
theworldinwhichtheylived.Dickens,afteradesperatelyhardstruggle
inhisboyhood,withoutfriendsorhighereducation,comesintomanhood
cheery,selfconfident,energetic,filledwiththejoyofhiswork;andin
theworld,whichhadatfirsttreatedhimsoharshly,hefindsgood
everywhere,eveninthejailsandintheslums,simplybecauseheis
lookingforit.Thackeray,afteraboyhoodspentinthebestofEnglish
schools,withmoney,friends,andcomfortsofeverykind,faceslife
timidly,distrustfully,anddislikestheliteraryworkwhichmakeshim
famous.Hehasagraciousandlovablepersonality,iskindofheart,and
reveresallthatispureandgoodinlife;yetheisalmostcynicaltoward
theworldwhichuseshimsowell,andfindsshams,deceptions,vanities
everywhere,becausehelooksforthem.Onefindswhatoneseeksinthis
world,butitisperhapssignificantthatDickenssoughthisgoldenfleece
amongplainpeople,andThackerayinhighsociety.Thechiefdifference
betweenthetwonovelists,however,isnotoneofenvironmentbutof
temperament.PutThackerayinaworkhouse,andhewillstillfindmaterial
foranother_BookofSnobs;_putDickensinsociety,andhecannothelp
findingundreamedofpossibilitiesamongbewiggedandbepowderedhighlords
andladies.ForDickensisromanticandemotional,andinterpretstheworld
largelythroughhisimagination;Thackerayistherealistandmoralist,who
judgessolelybyobservationandreflection.Heaimstogiveusatrue
pictureofthesocietyofhisday,andashefindsitpervadedbyintrigues
andsnobberyheproceedstosatirizeitandpointoutitsmoralevils.In
hisnovelsheisinfluencedbySwiftandFielding,butheisentirelyfree
fromthebitternessoftheoneandthecoarsenessoftheother,andhis
satireisgenerallysoftenedbyanobletenderness.Takentogether,the
novelsofDickensandThackeraygiveusaremarkablepictureofallclasses
ofEnglishsocietyinthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.
LIFE.Thackeraywasbornin1811,inCalcutta,wherehisfatherhelda
civilpositionundertheIndiangovernment.Whentheboywasfiveyearsold

hisfatherdied,andthemotherreturnedwithherchildtoEngland.
Presentlyshemarriedagain,andThackeraywassenttothefamous
Charterhouseschool,ofwhichhehasgivenusavividpicturein_The
Newcomes_.SuchaschoolwouldhavebeenaveritableheaventoDickens,who
atthistimewastossedaboutbetweenpovertyandambition;butThackeray
detesteditforitsrudemanners,andoccasionallyreferredtoitasthe
"Slaughterhouse."Writingtohismotherhesays:"Therearethreehundred
andseventyboysintheschool.Iwish,therewereonlythreehundredand
sixtynine."
In1829ThackerayenteredTrinityCollege,Cambridge,butleftafterless
thantwoyears,withouttakingadegree,andwenttoGermanyandFrance
wherehestudiedwiththeideaofbecominganartist.Whenhebecameof
age,in1832,hecameintopossessionofacomfortablefortune,returnedto
England,andsettleddownintheTempletostudylaw.Soonhebeganto
disliketheprofessionintensely,andwehavein_Pendennis_areflection
ofhismentalattitudetowardthelawandtheyoungmenwhostudiedit.He
soonlosthisfortune,partlybygamblingandspeculation,partlyby
unsuccessfulattemptsatrunninganewspaper,andattwentytwobeganfor
thefirsttimetoearnhisownliving,asanartistandillustrator.An
interestingmeetingbetweenThackerayandDickensatthistime(1836)
suggeststherelativeimportanceofthetwowriters.Seymour,whowas
illustratingthe_PickwickPapers_,hadjustdied,andThackeraycalled
uponDickenswithafewdrawingsandaskedtobeallowedtocontinuethe
illustrations.Dickenswasatthistimeatthebeginningofhisgreat
popularity.Thebetterliteraryartist,whosedrawingswererefused,was
almostunknown,andhadtoworkhardformorethantenyearsbeforehe
receivedrecognition.Disappointedbyhisfailureasanillustrator,he
beganhisliterarycareerbywritingsatiresonsocietyfor_Fraser's
Magazine_.Thiswasthebeginningofhissuccess;butthoughthe
_YellowplushPapers,TheGreatHoggartyDiamond,Catherine,TheFitz
Boodlers,TheBookofSnobs,BarryLyndon_,andvariousotherimmature
worksmadehimknowntoafewreadersof_Punch_andof_Fraser's
Magazine_,itwasnottillthepublicationof_VanityFair_(18471848)
thathebegantoberecognizedasoneofthegreatnovelistsofhisday.
Allhisearlierworksaresatires,someuponsociety,othersuponthe
popularnovelists,Bulwer,Disraeli,andespeciallyDickens,withwhose
sentimentalheroesandheroineshehadnopatiencewhatever.Hehad
married,meanwhile,in1836,andforafewyearswasveryhappyinhis
home.Thendiseaseandinsanityfasteneduponhisyoungwife,andshewas
placedinanasylum.Thewholeafterlifeofournovelistwasdarkenedby
thislossworsethandeath.Hebecameamanoftheclubs,ratherthanof
hisownhome,andthoughhiswitandkindnessmadehimthemostwelcomeof
clubmen,therewasanundercurrentofsadnessinallthathewrote.Long
afterwardshesaidthat,thoughhismarriageendedinshipwreck,he"would
doitoveragain;forbeholdLoveisthecrownandcompletionofall
earthlygood."
Afterthemoderatesuccessof_VanityFair_,Thackeraywrotethethree
novelsofhismiddlelifeuponwhichhisfamechieflyrests,_Pendennis_
in1850,_HenryEsmond_in1852,and_TheNewcomes_in1855.Dickens's
greatpopularsuccessasalectureranddramaticreaderhadledtoa
generaldesireonthepartofthepublictoseeandtohearliterarymen,
andThackeray,toincreasehisincome,gavetworemarkablecoursesof
lectures,thefirstbeing_EnglishHumoristsoftheEighteenthCentury_,
andthesecond_TheFourGeorges_,bothcoursesbeingdeliveredwith
gratifyingsuccessinEnglandandespeciallyinAmerica.Dickens,aswe
haveseen,wasdisappointedinAmericaandventedhisdispleasurein
outrageouscriticism;butThackeray,withhisusualgoodbreeding,sawonly
thebestsideofhisgenerousentertainers,andinbothhispublicand
privateutterancesemphasizedthevirtuesofthenewland,whoserestless
energyseemedtofascinatehim.UnlikeDickens,hehadnoconfidencein
himselfwhenhefacedanaudience,andlikemostliterarymenhedisliked
lecturing,andsoongaveitup.In1860hebecameeditorofthe_Cornhill
Magazine_,whichprosperedinhishands,andwithacomfortableincomehe

seemedjustreadytodohisbestworkfortheworld(whichhasalways
believedthathewascapableofevenbetterthingsthanheeverwrote)when
hediedsuddenlyin1863.HisbodyliesburiedinKensalGreen,andonlya
bustdoeshonortohismemoryinWestminsterAbbey.
WORKSOFTHACKERAY.Thebeginnerwilldowelltoomittheearliersatires
ofThackeray,writtenwhilehewasstrugglingtoearnalivingfromthe
magazines,andopen_HenryEsmond_(1852),hismostperfectnovel,though
notthemostwidelyknownandread.Thefinehistoricalandliterary,
flavorofthisstoryisoneofitsmostmarkedcharacteristics,andonly
onewhoknowssomethingofthehistoryandliteratureoftheeighteenth
centurycanappreciateitsvalue.Thehero,ColonelEsmond;relateshisown
story,carryingthereaderthroughthecourtsandcampsofQueenAnne's
reign,andgivingthemostcompleteandaccuratepictureofapastagethat
haseverappearedinanovel.Thackerayis,aswehavesaid,arealist,and
hebeginshisstorybyadoptingthestyleandmannerofascholarly
gentlemanoftheperiodheisdescribing.Hehasanextraordinaryknowledge
ofeighteenthcenturyliterature,andhereproducesitsstyleindetail,
goingsofarastoinsertinhisnarrativeanallegedessayfromthe
_Tatler_.Andsoperfectlyisitdonethatitisimpossibletosaywherein
itdiffersfromthestyleofAddisonandSteele.
InhismatteralsoThackerayisrealistic,reflectingnottheprideand
pompofwar,whicharelargelydelusions,butitsbrutalityandbarbarism,
whicharealltooreal;paintinggeneralsandleaders,notasthenewspaper
heroestowhomweareaccustomed,butasmovedbyintrigues,petty
jealousies,andselfishambitions;showingusthegreatDukeofMarlborough
notasthemilitaryhero,theidolofwarcrazedmultitudes,butaswithout
personalhonor,andgovernedbydespicableavarice.Inaword,Thackeray
givesusthe"backstairs"viewofwar,whichis,asarule,totally
neglectedinourhistories.Whenhedealswiththeliterarymenofthe
period,heusesthesamefrankrealism,showingusSteeleandAddisonand
otherleaders,notwithhalosabouttheirheads,aspopularauthors,butin
slippersanddressinggowns,smokingapipeintheirownrooms,orelse
growingtipsyandhilariousinthetaverns,justastheyappearedindaily
life.Bothinstyleandinmatter,therefore,_Esmond_deservestorankas
probablythebesthistoricalnovelinourlanguage.
Theplotofthestoryis,likemostofThackeray'splots,veryslight,but
perfectlysuitedtothenovelist'spurpose.Theplansofhischaracters
fail;theiridealsgrowdim;thereisageneraldisappearanceofyouthful
ambitions.Thereisalovestoryatthecenter;buttheelementofromance,
whichfurnishesthelightandmusicandfragranceoflove,is
inconspicuous.Thehero,aftertenyearsofdevotiontoayoungwoman,a
paragonofbeauty,finallymarrieshermother,andendswithafewpious
observationsconcerningHeaven'smercyandhisownhappylot.Suchan
endingseemsdisappointing,almostbizarre,inviewoftheromanticnovels
towhichweareaccustomed;butwemustrememberthatThackeray'spurpose
wastopaintlifeashesawit,andthatinlifemenandthingsoftentake
adifferentwayfromthatdescribedinromances.Aswegrowacquaintedwith
Thackeray'scharacters,werealizethatnootherendingwaspossibletohis
story,andconcludethathisplot,likehisstyle,isperhapsasnear
perfectionasarealisticnovelistcanevercome.
_VanityFair_(18471848)isthebestknownofThackeray'snovels.Itwas
hisfirstgreatwork,andwasintendedtoexpresshisownviewsofthe
sociallifeabouthim,andtoprotestagainsttheoverdrawnheroesof
popularnovels.HetakesforhissubjectthatVanityFairtowhich
ChristianandFaithfulwereconductedontheirwaytotheHeavenlyCity,as
recordedin_Pilgrim'sProgress_.Inthisfairtherearemanydifferent
booths,givenovertothesaleof"allsortsofvanities,"andaswego
fromonetoanotherwecomeincontactwith"juggling,cheats,games,
plays,fools,apes,knaves,rogues,andthatofeverykind."Evidentlythis
isapictureofonesideofsociallife;butthedifferencebetweenBunyan
andThackerayissimplythis,thatBunyanmadeVanityFairasmall

incidentinalongjourney,aplacethroughwhichmostofuspassonour
waytobetterthings;whileThackeray,describinghighsocietyinhisown
day,makesitaplaceoflongsojourn,whereinhischaractersspendthe
greaterpartoftheirlives.Thackeraystylesthiswork"anovelwithouta
hero."Thewholeactionofthestory,whichiswithoutplotordevelopment,
revolvesabouttwowomen,Amelia,ameekcreatureofthemilkandwater
type,andBeckySharp,akeen,unprincipledintriguer,wholetsnothing
standinthewayofherselfishdesiretogetthemostoutofthefoolswho
largelyconstitutesociety.Onthewhole,itisthemostpowerfulbutnot
themostwholesomeofThackeray'sworks.
Inhissecondimportantnovel,_Pendennis_(18491850),wehavea
continuationofthesatireonsocietybegunin_VanityFair_.Thisnovel,
whichthebeginnershouldreadafter_Esmond_,isinterestingtousfortwo
reasons,becauseitreflectsmoreofthedetailsofThackeray'slifethan
allhisotherwritings,andbecauseitcontainsonepowerfullydrawn
characterwhoisaperpetualreminderofthedangerofselfishness.The
herois"neitherangelnorimp,"inThackeray'swords,butthetypical
youngmanofsociety,whomheknowsthoroughly,andwhomhepaintsexactly
asheis,acareless,goodnaturedbutessentiallyselfishperson,who
goesthroughlifeintentonhisowninterests._Pendennis_isaprofound
moralstudy,andthemostpowerfularraignmentofwellmeaningselfishness
inourliterature,notevenexceptingGeorgeEliot's_Romola_,whichit
suggests.
Twoothernovels,_TheNewcomes_(1855)and_TheVirginians_(1859),
completethelistofThackeray'sgreatworksoffiction.Theformerisa
sequelto_Pendennis_,andthelatterto_HenryEsmond;_andbothsharethe
generalfateofsequelsinnotbeingquiteequalinpowerorinterestto
theirpredecessors._TheNewcomes_,however,deservesaveryhighplace,
somecritics,indeed,placingitattheheadoftheauthor'sworks.Like
allThackeray'snovels,itisastoryofhumanfrailty;butherethe
author'sinnategentlenessandkindnessareseenattheirbest,andthe
heroisperhapsthemostgenuineandlovableofallhischaracters.
ThackerayisknowninEnglishliteratureasanessayistaswellasa
novelist.His_EnglishHumorists_and_TheFourGeorges_areamongthe
finestessaysofthenineteenthcentury.Intheformerespecially,
Thackerayshowsnotonlyawideknowledgebutanextraordinary
understandingofhissubject.Apparentlythisnineteenthcenturywriter
knowsAddison,Fielding,Swift,Smollett,andothergreatwritersofthe
pastcenturyalmostasintimatelyasoneknowshisnearestfriend;andhe
givesusthefineflavoroftheirhumorinawaywhichnootherwriter,
saveperhapsLarnb,haseverrivaled.[240]_TheFourGeorges_isinavein
ofdelicatesatire,andpresentsaratherunflatteringpictureoffourof
England'srulersandofthecourtsinwhichtheymoved.Boththeseworks
areremarkablefortheirexquisitestyle,theirgentlehumor,theirkeen
literarycriticisms,andfortheintimateknowledgeandsympathywhich
makesthe'peopleofapastageliveoncemoreinthewrittenpages.
GENERALCHARACTERISTICS.IntreatingofThackeray'sviewoflife,as
reflectedinhisnovels,criticsvarygreatly,andthefollowingsummary
mustbetakennotasapositivejudgmentbutonlyasanattempttoexpress
thegeneralimpressionofhisworksonanuncriticalreader.Heisfirstof
arealist,whopaintslifeasheseesit.Ashesayshimself,"Ihaveno
brainsabovemyeyes;IdescribewhatIsee.".Hispicturesofcertain
types,notablytheweakandviciouselementsofsociety,areaccurateand
truetolife,buttheyseemtoplaytoolargeapartinhisbooks,andhave
perhapstoogreatlyinfluencedhisgeneraljudgmentofhumanity.An
excessivesensibility,orthecapacityforfinefeelingsandemotions,isa
markedcharacteristicofThackeray,asitisofDickensandCarlyle.Heis
easilyoffended,astheyare,bytheshamsofsociety;buthecannotfind
anoutlet,asDickensdoes,inlaughterandtears,andheistoogentleto
followCarlyleinviolentdenunciationsandprophecies.Heturnsto
satire,influenced,doubtless,byeighteenthcenturyliteraturewhichhe

knewsowell,andinwhichsatireplayedtoolargeapart.[241]Hissatire
isneverpersonal,likePope's,orbrutal,likeSwift's,andistemperedby
kindnessandhumor;butitisusedtoofreely,andgenerallylaystoomuch
emphasisonfaultsandfoiblestobeconsideredatruepictureofanylarge
classofEnglishsociety.
Besidesbeingarealistandsatirist,Thackerayisessentiallyamoralist,
likeAddison,aimingdefinitelyinallhisworkatproducingamoral
impression.Somuchdoeshereveregoodness,andsodeterminedishethat
hisPendennisorhisBeckySharpshallbejudgedattheirtruevalue,that
heisnotcontent,likeShakespeare,tobesimplyanartist,totellan
artistictaleandletitspeakitsownmessage;hemustexplainand
emphasizethemoralsignificanceofhiswork.Thereisnoneedtoconsult
ourownconscienceovertheactionsofThackeray'scharacters;thebeauty
ofvirtueandtheuglinessofviceareevidentoneverypage.
WhateverwemaythinkofThackeray'smatter,thereisonepointinwhich
criticsareagreed,thatheismasterofapureandsimpleEnglishstyle.
Whetherhisthoughtbesadorhumorous,commonplaceorprofound,he
expressesitperfectly,withouteffortoraffectation.Inallhiswork
thereisasubtlecharm,impossibletodescribe,whichgivestheimpression
thatwearelisteningtoagentleman.Anditistheease,therefinement,
theexquisitenaturalnessofThackeray'sstylethatfurnishesalargepart
ofourpleasureinreadinghim.
MARYANNEVANS,GEORGEELIOT(18191880)
InnearlyallthewritersoftheVictorianAgewenote,ontheonehand,a
strongintellectualtendencytoanalyzetheproblemsoflife,andonthe
otheratendencytoteach,thatis,toexplaintomenthemethodbywhich
theseproblemsmaybesolved.Thenovelsespeciallyseemtolosesightof
thepurelyartisticidealofwriting,andtoaimdefinitelyatmoral
instruction.InGeorgeEliotboththesetendenciesreachaclimax.Sheis
moreobviously,moreconsciouslyapreacherandmoralizerthananyofher
greatcontemporaries.Thoughprofoundlyreligiousatheart,shewaslargely
occupiedbythescientificspiritoftheage;andfindingnoreligious
creedorpoliticalsystemsatisfactory,shefellbackupondutyasthe
supremelawoflife.Allhernovelsaim,first,toshowinindividualsthe
playofuniversalmoralforces,andsecond,toestablishthemorallawas
thebasisofhumansociety.Asidefromthismoralteaching,welookto
GeorgeEliotforthereflectionofcountrylifeinEngland,justaswelook
toDickensforpicturesofthecitystreets,andtoThackerayforthe
vanitiesofsociety.Ofallthewomenwriter'swhohavehelpedandare
stillhelpingtoplaceourEnglishnovelsattheheadoftheworld's
fiction,sheholdsatpresentunquestionablythehighestrank.
LIFE.MaryAnn(orMarian)Evans,knowntousbyherpennameofGeorge
Eliot,begantowritelateinlife,whennearlyfortyyearsofage,and
attainedtheleadingpositionamonglivingEnglishnovelistsintheten
yearsbetween1870and1880,afterThackerayandDickenshadpassedaway.
ShewasbornatArburyFarm,Warwickshire,sometwentymilesfrom
StratfordonAvon,in1819.Herparentswereplain,honestfolk,ofthe
farmerclass,whobroughtherupinthesomewhatstrictreligiousmannerof
thosedays.Herfatherseemstohavebeenamanofsterlingintegrityand
ofpracticalEnglishsense,oneofthoseessentiallynoblecharacterswho
dotheworld'sworksilentlyandwell,andwhobytheirsolidworthobtain
apositionofinfluenceamongtheirfellowmen.
AfewmonthsafterGeorgeEliot'sbirththefamilymovedtoanotherhome,
intheparishofGriff,whereherchildhoodwaslargelypassed.Thescenery
oftheMidlandcountiesandmanydetailsofherownfamilylifeare
reflectedinherearliernovels.Thuswefindherandherbrother,as
MaggieandTomTulliver,in_TheMillontheFloss;_heraunt,asDinah
Morris,andhermother,asMrs.Poyser,in_AdamBede_.Wehavea

suggestionofherfatherintheheroofthelatternovel,butthepicture
ismorefullydrawnasCalebGarth,in_Middlemarch_.Forafewyearsshe
studiedattwoprivateschoolsforyoungladies,atNuneatonandCoventry;
butthedeathofhermothercalledher,atseventeenyearsofage,totake
entirechargeofthehousehold.Thereafterhereducationwasgainedwholly
bymiscellaneousreading.Wehaveasuggestionofhermethodinoneofher
earlyletters,inwhichshesays:"Mymindpresentsanassemblageof
disjointedspecimensofhistory,ancientandmodern;scrapsofpoetry
pickedupfromShakespeare,Cowper,Wordsworth,andMilton;newspaper
topics,morselsofAddisonandBacon,Latinverbs,geometry,entomology,
andchemistry;reviewsandmetaphysics,allarrestedandpetrifiedand
smotheredbythefastthickeningeverydayaccessionofactualevents,
relativeanxieties,andhouseholdcaresandvexations."
WhenMarywastwentyoneyearsoldthefamilyagainmoved,thistimeto
FoleshillRoad,nearCoventry.Hereshebecameacquaintedwiththefamily
ofCharlesBray,aprosperousribbonmanufacturer,whosehousewasa
gatheringplaceforthefreethinkersoftheneighborhood.Theeffectof
thisliberalatmosphereuponMissEvans,broughtupinanarrowway,with
noknowledgeoftheworld,wastounsettlemanyofheryouthful
convictions.Fromanarrow,intensedogmatism,shewenttotheother
extremeofradicalism;then(about1860)shelostallsympathywiththe
freethinkers,and,beinginstinctivelyreligious,seemedtobegroping
afteradefinitefaithwhilefollowingtheidealofduty.Thisspiritual
struggle,whichsuggeststhatofCarlyle,isundoubtedlythecauseofthat
gloomanddepressionwhichhang,likeanEnglishfog,overmuchofher
work;thoughherbiographer,Cross,tellsusthatshewasnotbyanymeans
asadorgloomywoman.
In1849MissEvans'sfatherdied,andtheBraystookherabroadforatour
ofthecontinent.OnherreturntoEnglandshewroteseveralliberal
articlesforthe_WestminsterReview_,andpresentlywasmadeassistant
editorofthatmagazine.HerresidenceinLondonatthistimemarksa
turningpointinhercareerandtherealbeginningofherliterarylife.
ShemadestrongfriendshipswithSpencer,Mill,andotherscientistsofthe
day,andthroughSpencermetGeorgeHenryLewes,amiscellaneouswriter,
whomsheafterwardsmarried.
Underhissympatheticinfluenceshebegantowritefictionforthe
magazines,herfirststorybeing"AmosBarton"(1857),whichwaslater
includedinthe_ScenesofClericalLife_(1858).Herfirstlongnovel,
_AdamBede_,appearedearlyin1859andmetwithsuchpopularfavorthatto
theendofherlifeshedespairedofeveragainrepeatinghertriumph.But
theunexpectedsuccessprovedtobeaninspiration,andshecompleted_The
MillontheFloss_andbegan_SilasMarner_duringthefollowingyear.Not
untilthegreatsuccessoftheseworksledtoaninsistentdemandtoknow
theauthordidtheEnglishpubliclearnthatitwasawoman,andnotan
Englishclergyman,astheysupposed,whohadsuddenlyjumpedtothefront
rankoflivingwriters.
UptothispointGeorgeEliothadconfinedherselftoEnglishcountrylife,
butnowshesuddenlyabandonedthescenesandthepeoplewithwhomshewas
mostfamiliarinordertowriteanhistoricalnovel.Itwasin1860,while
travelinginItaly,thatsheformed"thegreatproject"of_Romola_,a
minglingoffictionandmoralphilosophy,againstthebackgroundofthe
mightyRenaissancemovement.Inthisshewaswritingofthingsofwhichshe
hadnopersonalknowledge,andthebookcosthermanymonthsofhardand
depressinglabor.Shesaidherselfthatshewasayoungwomanwhenshe
beganthework,andanoldwomanwhenshefinishedit._Romola_(1862
1863)wasnotsuccessfulwiththepublic,andthesamemaybesaidof
_FelixHolttheRadical_(1866)and_TheSpanishGypsy_(1868).The
lastnamedworkwastheresultoftheauthor'sambitiontowriteadramatic
poemwhichshouldduplicatethelessonof_Romola_;andforthepurposeof
gatheringmaterialshevisitedSpain,whichshehaddecideduponasthe
sceneofherpoeticaleffort.Withthepublicationof_Middlemarch_

(18711872)GeorgeEliotcamebackagainintopopularfavor,thoughthis
workislessspontaneous,andmorelaboredandpedantic,thanherearlier
novels.Thefaultoftoomuchanalysisandmoralizingwasevenmore
conspicuousin_DanieiDeronda_(1876),whichsheregardedashergreatest
book.Herlifeduringallthistimewassingularlyuneventful,andthe
chiefmilestonesalongtheroadmarkthepublicationofhersuccessive
novels.
DuringalltheyearsofherliterarysuccessherhusbandLeweshadbeena
mostsympatheticfriendandcritic,andwhenhedied,in1878,theloss
seemedtobemorethanshecouldbear.Herlettersofthisperiodare
touchingintheirlonelinessandtheircravingforsympathy.Latershe
astonishedeverybodybymarryingJohnWalterCross,muchyoungerthan
herself,whoisknownasherbiographer."Deepdownbelowthereisariver
ofsadness,but...Iamabletoenjoymynewlyreopenedlife,"writes
thiswomanofsixty,who,eversinceshewasthegirlwhomweknowas
MaggieTulliver,mustalwayshavesomeonetoloveandtodependupon.Her
newinterestinlifelastedbutafewmonths,forshediedinDecemberof
thesameyear(1880).Oneofthebestindicationsofherstrengthandher
limitationsisherportrait,withitsstrongmasculinefeatures,suggesting
bothbyresemblanceandbycontrastthatwonderfulportraitofSavonarola
whichhangsoverhisolddeskinthemonasteryatFlorence.
WORKSOFGEORGEELIOT.Theseareconvenientlydividedintothreegroups,
correspondingtothethreeperiodsofherlife.Thefirstgroupincludes
allherearlyessaysandmiscellaneouswork,fromhertranslationof
Strauss's_LebenJesu_,in1846,toherunionwithLewesin1854.The
secondgroupincludes_ScenesofClericalLife,AdamBede,Millonthe
Floss_,and_SilasMarner_,allpublishedbetween1858and1861.Thesefour
novelsofthemiddleperiodarefoundedontheauthor'sownlifeand
experience;theirscenesarelaidinthecountry,andtheircharactersare
takenfromthestolidpeopleoftheMidlands,withwhomGeorgeEliothad
beenfamiliarsincechildhood.Theyareprobablytheauthor'smostenduring
works.Theyhaveanaturalness,aspontaneity,attimesaflashofreal
humor,whicharelackinginherlaternovels;andtheyshowarapid
developmentofliterarypowerwhichreachesaclimaxin_SilasMarner_.
ThenovelofItalianlife,_Romola_(18621863),marksatransitiontothe
thirdgroup,whichincludesthreemorenovels,_FelixHolt_(1866),
_Middlemarch_(18711872),_DanielDeronda_(1876),theambitiousdramatic
poem_TheSpanishGypsy_(1868),andacollectionofmiscellaneousessays
called_TheImpressionsofTheophrastusSuch_(1879).Thegeneral
impression,oftheseworksisnotsofavorableasthatproducedbythe
novelsofthemiddleperiod.Theyaremorelaboredandlessinteresting;
theycontainmuchdeepreflectionandanalysisofcharacter,butless
observation,lessdelightinpicturingcountrylifeasitis,andvery
littleofwhatwecallinspiration.Wemustadd,however,thatthisdoes
notexpressaunanimousliteraryjudgment,forcriticsarenotwantingwho
assertthat_DanielDeronda_isthehighestexpressionoftheauthor's
genius.
Thegeneralcharacterofallthesenovelsmaybedescribed,intheauthor's
ownterm,aspsychologicrealism.ThismeansthatGeorgeEliotsoughttodo
inhernovelswhatBrowningattemptedinhispoetry;thatis,torepresent
theinnerstruggleofasoul,andtorevealthemotives,impulses,and
hereditaryinfluenceswhichgovernhumanaction.Browninggenerallystops
whenhetellshisstory,andeitherletsyoudrawyourownconclusionor
elsegivesyouhisinafewstrikinglines.ButGeorgeEliotisnotcontent
untilshehasminutelyexplainedthemotivesofhercharactersandthe
morallessontobelearnedfromthem.Moreover,itisthedevelopmentofa
soul,theslowgrowthordeclineofmoralpower,whichchieflyinterests
her.HerheroesandheroinesdifferradicallyfromthoseofDickensand
Thackerayinthisrespect,thatwhenwemeetthemenandwomenofthe
latternovelists,theircharactersarealreadyformed,andweare
reasonablysurewhattheywilldoundergivencircumstances.InGeorge

Eliot'snovelsthecharactersdevelopgraduallyaswecometoknowthem.
Theygofromweaknesstostrength,orfromstrengthtoweakness,according
totheworksthattheydoandthethoughtsthattheycherish.In_Romola_,
forinstance,Tito,aswefirstmeethim,maybeeithergoodorbad,andwe
knownotwhetherhewillfinallyturntotherighthandortotheleft.As
timepasses,weseehimdegeneratesteadilybecausehefollowshisselfish
impulses,whileRomola,whosecharacterisatfirstonlyfaintlyindicated,
growsintobeautyandstrengthwitheveryactofselfrenunciation.
Inthesetwocharacters,TitoandRomola,wehaveanepitomeofour
author'smoralteaching.Theprincipleoflawwasintheairduringthe
Victorianera,andwehavealreadynotedhowdeeplyTennysonwasinfluenced
byit.WithGeorgeEliotlawislikefate;itoverwhelmspersonalfreedom
andinclination.Morallawwastoherasinevitable,asautomatic,as
gravitation.Tito'sdegeneration,andthesadfailureofDorotheaand
Lydgatein_Middlemarch_,maybeexplainedassimplyasthefallofan
apple,orasabruisedkneewhenamanloseshisbalance.Acertainact
producesadefinitemoraleffectontheindividual;andcharacteristhe
addedsumofall,theactsofaman's;life,justastheweightofabody
isthesumoftheweightsofmanydifferentatomswhichconstituteit.The
matterofrewardsandpunishments,therefore,needsnofinaljudgeor
judgment,sincethesethingstakecareofthemselvesautomaticallyina
worldofinviolablemorallaw.
Perhapsonethingmoreshouldbeaddedtothegeneralcharacteristicsof
GeorgeEliot'snovels,theyareallratherdepressing.Thegladsomenessof
life,thesunshineofsmilesandlaughter,isdeniedher.Itissaidthat
once,whenherhusbandremarkedthathernovelswereallessentiallysad,
shewept,andansweredthatshemustdescribelifeasshehadfoundit.
WHATTOREAD.GeorgeEliot'sfirststoriesareinsomerespectsherbest,
thoughherliterarypowerincreasesduringhersecondperiod,culminating
in_SilasMarner_,andherpsychologicalanalysisismoreevidentin
_DanielDeronda_.Onthewhole,itisanexcellentwaytobeginwiththe
freshnessandinspirationofthe_ScenesofClericalLife_andreadher
booksintheorderinwhichtheywerewritten.Inthefirstgroupofnovels
_AdamBede_isthemostnatural,andprobablyinterestsmorereadersthan
alltheotherscombined._TheMillontheFloss_hasalargerpersonal
interest,becauseitreflectsmuchofGeorgeEliot'shistoryandthescenes
andthefriendsofherearlylife.Thelackofproportioninthisstory,
whichgivesrathertoomuchspacetothegirlandboyexperiences,is
naturallyexplainedbythetendencyineverymanandwomantolingerover
earlymemories.
_SilasMarner_isartisticallythemostperfectofGeorgeEliot'snovels,
andweventuretoanalyzeitastypicalofheridealsandmethods.Wenote
firstthestyle,whichisheavyandalittleselfconscious,lackingthe
vigorandpicturesquenessofDickens,andthegraceandnaturalnessof
Thackeray.ThecharactersarethecommonpeopleoftheMidlands,thehero
beingalinenweaver,alonelyoutcastwhohoardsandgloatsoverhis
hardearnedmoney,isrobbed,thrownintoutterdespair,andbroughtback
tolifeandhappinessbythecomingofanabandonedchildtohisfire.In
thedevelopmentofherstorytheauthorshowsherself,first,arealist,by
thenaturalnessofhercharactersandtheminuteaccuracywithwhichshe
reproducestheirwaysandeventheaccentsoftheirspeech;second,a
psychologist,bythecontinualanalysisandexplanationofmotives;third,
amoralist,byshowingineachindividualtheactionandreactionof
universalmoralforces,andespeciallybymakingeveryevilactbring
inevitablepunishmenttothemanwhodoesit.Tragedy,therefore,playsa
largepartinthestory;for,accordingtoGeorgeEliot,tragedyand
sufferingwalkclosebehindus,orlurkateveryturnintheroadoflife.
Likeallhernovels,_SilasMarner_isdepressing.Weturnawayfromeven
theweddingofEppiewhichisjustasitshouldbewithasenseof
sadnessandincompleteness.Finally,asweclosethebook,weareconscious
ofapowerfulandenduringimpressionofreality.Silas,thepoorweaver;

GodfreyCass,thewellmeaning,selfishman;Mr.Macey,thegarrulous,and
observantparishclerk;DollyWinthrop,thekindheartedcountrywomanwho
cannotunderstandthemysteriesofreligionandsointerpretsGodinterms
ofhumanlove,thesearerealpeople,whomhavingoncemetwecannever
forget.
_Romola_hasthesamegeneralmoralthemeastheEnglishnovels;butthe
scenesareentirelydifferent,andopinionisdividedastothecomparative
meritofthework.Itisastudy,averyprofoundstudyofmoral
developmentinonecharacterandofmoraldegeneracyinanother.Its
charactersanditsscenesarebothItalian,andtheactiontakesplace
duringacriticalperiodoftheRenaissancemovement,whenSavonarolawas
attheheightofhispowerinFlorence.Hereisamagnificentthemeanda
superbbackgroundforagreatnovel,andGeorgeEliotreadandstudiedtill
shefeltsurethatsheunderstoodtheplace,thetime,andthepeopleof
herstory._Romola_isthereforeinterestingreading,inmanyrespectsthe
mostinterestingofherworks.Ithasbeencalledoneofourgreatest
historicalnovels;butassuchithasonegrievousfault.Itisnotquite
truetothepeopleoreventothelocalitywhichitendeavorstorepresent.
Onewhoreadsithere,inanewanddifferentland,thinksonlyofthe
storyandofthenovelist'spower;butonewhoreadsitonthespotwhich
itdescribes,andamidstthelifewhichitpictures,iscontinuallyhaunted
bythesuggestionthatGeorgeEliotunderstoodneitherItalynorthe
Italians.ItisthislackofharmonywithItalianlifeitselfwhichcaused
MorrisandRossettiandevenBrowning,withallhisadmirationforthe
author,tolayasidethebook,unabletoreaditwithpleasureorprofit.
Inaword,_Romola_isagreatmoralstudyandaveryinterestingbook;but
thecharactersarenotItalian,andthenovelasawholelacksthestrong
realitywhichmarksGeorgeEliot'sEnglishstudies.
MINORNOVELISTSOFTHEVICTORIANAGE
Inthethreegreatnovelistsjustconsideredwehaveanepitomeofthe
fictionoftheage,Dickensusingthenoveltosolvesocialproblems,
Thackeraytopaintthelifeofsocietyashesawit,andGeorgeEliotto
teachthefundamentalprinciplesofmorality.Theinfluenceofthesethree
writersisreflectedinalltheminornovelistsoftheVictorianAge.Thus,
DickensisreflectedinCharlesReade,ThackerayinAnthonyTrollopeand
theBrontsisters,andGeorgeEliot'spsychologyfindsartisticexpression
inGeorgeMeredith.Tothesesocialandmoralandrealisticstudieswe
shouldaddtheelementofromance,fromwhichfewofourmodernnovelist's
canlongescape.Thenineteenthcentury,whichbeganwiththeromanticism
ofWalterScott,returnstoitsfirstlove,likeamangladtobehome,in
itsdelightoverBlackmore's_LornaDoone_andtheromancesofRobertLouis
Stevenson.
CHARLESREADE.Inhisfondnessforstageeffects,forpicturingthe
romanticsideofcommonlife,andforusingthenovelastheinstrumentof
socialreform,thereisastrongsuggestionofDickensintheworkof
CharlesReade(18141884).Thushis_PegWoffington_isastudyofstage
lifefrombehindthescenes;_ATerribleTemptation_isastudyofsocial
reformsandreformers;and_PutyourselfinhisPlace_isthepictureofa
workingmanwhostrugglesagainsttheinjusticeofthetradesunions.His
masterpiece,_TheCloisterandtheHearth_(1861),oneofourbest
historicalnovels,isasomewhatlaboriousstudyofstudentandvagabond
lifeinEuropeinthedaysoftheGermanRenaissance.Ithassmall
resemblancetoGeorgeEliot's_Romola_,whosesceneislaidinItalyduring
thesameperiod;butthetwoworksmaywellbereadinsuccession,asthe
effortsoftwoverydifferentnovelistsofthesameperiodtorestorethe
lifeofanagelongpast.
ANTHONYTROLLOPE.Inhisrealism,andespeciallyinhisconceptionofthe
novelastheentertainmentofanidlehour,Trollope(18151882)isa
reflectionofThackeray.Itwouldbehardtofindabetterduplicateof

BeckySharp,theheroineof_VanityFair_,forinstance,thanisfoundin
LizzieEustace,theheroineof_TheEustaceDiamonds_.Trollopewasthe
mostindustriousandsystematicofmodernnovelists,writingadefinite
amounteachday,andthewiderangeofhischaracterssuggeststhe_Human
Comedy_ofBalzac.Hismasterpieceis_BarchesterTowers_(1857).Thisisa
studyoflifeinacathedraltown,andisremarkableforitsminute
picturesofbishopsandclergymen,withtheirfamiliesanddependents.It
wouldbewelltoreadthisnovelinconnectionwith_TheWarden_(1855),
_TheLastChronicleofBarset_(1867),andothernovelsofthesameseries,
sincethescenesandcharactersarethesameinallthesebooks,andthey
areundoubtedlythebestexpressionoftheauthor'sgenius.Hawthornesays
ofhisnovels:"Theypreciselysuitmytaste,solidandsubstantial,and
...justasrealasifsomegianthadhewnagreatlumpoutoftheearth
andputitunderaglasscase,withalltheinhabitantsgoingabouttheir
dailybusinessandnotsuspectingthattheywerebeingmadeashowof."
CHARLOTTEBRONT.WehaveanothersuggestionofThackerayintheworkof
CharlotteBront(18161855).Sheaimedtomakehernovelsarealistic
pictureofsociety,butsheaddedtoThackeray'srealismtheelementof
passionateandsomewhatunbalancedromanticism.Thelatterelementwas
partlytheexpressionofMissBront'sownnature,andpartlytheresultof
herlonelyandgriefstrickenlife,whichwasdarkenedbyasuccessionof
familytragedies.Itwillhelpustounderstandherworkifweremember
thatbothCharlotteBrontandhersisterEmily[242]turnedtoliterature
becausetheyfoundtheirworkasgovernessandteacherunendurable,and
soughttorelievethelonelinessandsadnessoftheirownlotbycreatinga
newworldoftheimagination.Inthisnewworld,however,thesadnessof
theoldremains,andalltheBrontnovelshavebehindthemanaching
heart.CharlotteBront'sbestknownworkis_JaneEyre_(1847),which,
withallitsfaults,isapowerfulandfascinatingstudyofelementallove
andhate,remindingusvaguelyofoneofMarlowe'stragedies.Thisworkwon
instantfavorwiththepublic,andtheauthorwasplacedinthefrontrank
oflivingnovelists.Asidefromitsvalueasanovel,itisinteresting,in
manyofitsearlypassages,asthereflectionoftheauthor'sownlifeand
experience._Shirley_(1849)and_Villette_(1853)makeupthetrioof
novelsbywhichthisgiftedwomanisgenerallyremembered.
BULWERLYTTON.EdwardBulwerLytton(18031873)wasanextremelyversatile
writer,whotriedalmosteverykindofnovelknowntothenineteenth
century.Inhisearlylifehewrotepoemsanddramas,undertheinfluence
ofByron;buthisfirstnotablework,_Pelham_(1828),oneofthebestof
hisnovels,wasakindofburlesqueontheByronictypeofgentleman.Asa
studyofcontemporarymannersinhighsociety,_Pelham_hasasuggestionof
Thackeray,andtheresemblanceismorenoticeableinothernovelsofthe
sametype,suchas_ErnestMaltravers_(1837),_TheCaxtons_(18481849),
_MyNovel_(1853),and_KenelmChillingly_(1873).Wehaveasuggestionof
DickensinatleasttwoofLytton'snovels,_PaulClifford_and_Eugene
Aram_,theheroesofwhicharecriminals,picturedasthevictimsrather
thanastheoppressorsofsociety.Lyttonessayedalso,withconsiderable
popularsuccess,theromanticnovelin_ThePilgrimsoftheRhine_and
_Zanoni_,andtriedtheghoststoryin_TheHauntedandtheHaunters_.His
fameatthepresentdayrestslargelyuponhishistoricalnovels,in
imitationofWalterScott,_TheLastDaysofPompeii_(1834),_Riettza_
(1835),and_Harold_(1848),thelastbeinghismostambitiousattemptto
makethenovelthesupplementofhistory.InallhisnovelsLyttonis
inclinedtosentimentalismandsensationalism,andhisworks,though
generallyinteresting,seemhardlyworthyofahighplaceinthehistoryof
fiction.
KINGSLEY.Entirelydifferentinspiritarethenovelsofthescholarly
clergyman,CharlesKingsley(18191875).Hisworksnaturallydivide
themselvesintothreeclasses.Inthefirstarehissocialstudiesand
problemnovels,suchas_AltonLocke_(1850),havingforitsheroaLondon
tailorandpoet,and_Yeast_(1848),whichdealswiththeproblemofthe
agriculturallaborer.Inthesecondclassarehishistoricalnovels,

_HerewardtheWake,Hypatia_,and_WestwardHo!Hypatia_isadramatic
storyofChristianityincontactwithpaganism,havingitsscenelaidin
Alexandriaatthebeginningofthefifthcentury._WestwardHo_!(1855),
hisbestknownwork,isastirringtaleofEnglishconquestbylandandsea
inthedaysofElizabeth.Inthethirdclassarehisvariousmiscellaneous
works,nottheleastofwhichis_WaterBabies_,afascinatingstoryofa
chimneysweep,whichmothersreadtotheirchildrenatbedtime,tothe
greatdelightoftheroundeyedlittlelistenersunderthecounterpane.
MRS.GASKELL.Mrs.ElizabethGaskell(18101865)began,likeKingsley,with
theideaofmakingthenoveltheinstrumentofsocialreform.Asthewife
ofaclergymaninManchester,shehadcomeinclosecontactwiththe
strugglesandidealsoftheindustrialpoorofagreatcity,andshe
reflectedhersympathyaswellasherobservationin_MaryBarton_(1848)
andin_NorthandSouth_(1855).Betweenthesetwoproblemnovelsshe
publishedhermasterpiece,_Cranford_,in1853.Theoriginalofthis
countryvillage,whichisgivenovertospinsters,isundoubtedly
Knutsford,inCheshire,whereMrs.Gaskellhadspentherchildhood.The
sympathy,thekeenobservation,andthegentlehumorwithwhichthesmall
affairsofacountryvillagearedescribedmake_Cranford_oneofthemost
delightfulstoriesintheEnglishlanguage.WeareindebtedtoMrs.Gaskell
alsoforthe_LifeofCharlotteBront_,whichisoneofourbest
biographies.
BLACKMORE.RichardDoddridgeBlackrhore(18251900)wasaprolificwriter,
butheoweshisfamealmostentirelytoonesplendidnovel,_LornaDoone_,
whichwaspublishedin1869.Thesceneofthisfascinatingromanceislaid
inExmoorintheseventeenthcentury.Thestoryaboundsinromanticscenes
andincidents;itsdescriptionsofnaturalsceneryareunsurpassed;the
rhythmiclanguageisattimesalmostequaltopoetry;andthewholetoneof
thebookiswholesomeandrefreshing.Altogetheritwouldbehardtofinda
moredelightfulromanceinanylanguage,anditwelldeservestheplaceit
haswonasoneoftheclassicsofourliterature.OtherworksofBlackmore
whichwillrepaythereaderare_ClaraVaughan_(1864),hisfirstnovel,
_TheMaidofSker_(1872),_Springhaven_(1887),_Perlycross_(1894),and
_TalesfromtheTellingHouse_(1896);butnoneofthese,thoughhecounted
themhisbestwork,hasmetwiththesamefavoras_LornaDoone_.
MEREDITH.SomuchdoesGeorgeMeredith(18281909)belongtoourownday
thatitisdifficulttothinkofhimasoneoftheVictoriannovelists.His
firstnotablework,_TheOrdealofRichardFeverel_,waspublishedin1859,
thesameyearasGeorgeEliot's_AdamBede;_butitwasnottillthe
publicationof_DianaoftheCrossways_in1885,thathispowerasa
novelistwaswidelyrecognized.HeresemblesBrowningnotonlyinhis
condensedstyle,packedwiththought,butalsointhisrespect,thathe
laboredforyearsinobscurity,andaftermuchofhisbestworkwas
publishedandapparentlyforgottenheslowlywontheleadingplacein
Englishfiction.Wearestilltoonearhimtospeakofthepermanenceof
hiswork,butacasualreadingofanyofhisnovelssuggestsacomparison
andacontrastwithGeorgeEliot.Likeher,heisarealistanda
psychologist;butwhileGeorgeEliotusestragedytoteachamorallesson,
Meredithdependsmoreuponcomedy,makingvicenotterriblebutridiculous.
FortheheroorheroineofhernovelGeorgeEliotinvariablytakesan
individual,andshowsineachonetheplayofuniversalmoralforces.
Meredithconstructsatypemanasahero,andmakesthistypeexpresshis
purposeandmeaning.Sohischaractersseldomspeaknaturally,asGeorge
Eliot'sdo;theyaremorelikeBrowning'scharactersinpackingawhole
paragraphintoasinglesentenceoranexclamation.Onaccountofhis
enigmaticstyleandhispsychology,Meredithwillneverbepopular;butby
thoughtfulmenandwomenhewillprobablyberankedamongourgreatest
writersoffiction.Thesimplestandeasiestofhisnovelsforabeginner
is_TheAdventuresofHenryRichmond_(1871).Amongthebestofhisworks,
besidesthetwomentionedabove,are_Beauchamp'sCareer_(1876)and_The
Egoist_(1879).Thelatteris,inourpersonaljudgment,oneofthe
strongestandmostconvincingnovelsoftheVictorianAge.

HARDY.ThomasHardy(1840)seems,likeMeredith,tobelongtothepresent
ratherthantoapastage,andaninterestingcomparisonmaybedrawn
betweenthesetwonovelists.Instyle,Meredithisobscureanddifficult,
whileHardyisdirectandsimple,aimingatrealisminallthings.Meredith
makesmanthemostimportantphenomenonintheuniverse;andthestruggles
ofmenarebrightenedbythehopeofvictory.Hardymakesmanan
insignificantpartoftheworld,strugglingagainstpowersgreaterthan
himself,sometimesagainstsystemswhichhecannotreachorinfluence,
sometimesagainstakindofgrimworldspiritwhodelightsinmakinghuman
affairsgowrong.Heis,therefore,hardlyarealist,butratheraman
blindedbypessimism;andhisnovels,thoughgenerallypowerfuland
sometimesfascinating,arenotpleasantorwholesomereading.Fromthe
reader'sviewpointsomeofhisearlierworks,liketheidylliclovestory
_UndertheGreenwoodTree_(1872)and_APairofBlueEyes_(1873),arethe
mostinteresting.Hardybecamenoted,however,whenhepublished_Farfrom
theMaddingCrowd_,abookwhich,whenitappearedanonymouslyinthe
_CornhillMagazine_(1874),wasgenerallyattributedtoGeorgeEliot,for
thesimplereasonthatnoothernovelistwassupposedtobecapableof
writingit._TheReturnoftheNative_(1878)and_TheWoodlanders_are
generallyregardedasHardy'smasterpieces;buttwonovelsofourownday,
_TessoftheD'Ubervilles_(1891)and_JudetheObscure_(1895),arebetter
expressionsofHardy'sliteraryartandofhisgloomyphilosophy.
STEVENSON.InpleasingcontrastwithHardyisRobertLouisStevenson
(18501894),abrave,cheery,wholesomespirit,whohasmadeusallbraver
andcheerierbywhathehaswritten.Asidefromtheirintrinsicvalue,
Stevenson'snovelsareinterestinginthisrespect,thattheymarka
returntothepureromanticismofWalterScott.Thenovelofthenineteenth
centuryhad,aswehaveshown,averydefinitepurpose.Itaimednotonly
torepresentlifebuttocorrectit,andtoofferasolutiontopressing
moralandsocialproblems.AttheendofthecenturyHardy'sgloominthe
faceofmodernsocialconditionsbecameoppressive,andStevensonbroke
awayfromitintothatlandofdelightfulromanceinwhichyouthfindsan
answertoallitsquestions.Problemsdiffer,butyouthiseverthesame,
andthereforeStevensonwillprobablyberegardedbyfuturegenerationsas
oneofourmostenduringwriters.Tohislife,withits"heroicallyhappy"
struggle,firstagainstpoverty,thenagainstphysicalillness,itis
impossibletodojusticeinashortarticle.Evenalongerbiographyis
inadequate,forStevenson'sspirit,nottheincidentsofhislife,isthe
importantthing;andthespirithasnobiographer.Thoughhehadwritten
muchbetterworkearlier,hefirstgainedfamebyhis_TreasureIsland_
(1883),anabsorbingstoryofpiratesandofahuntforburiedgold._Dr.
JekyllandMr.Hyde_(1886)isaprofoundethicalparable,inwhich,
however,Stevensonleavesthepsychologyandtheminuteanalysisof
charactertohisreaders,andmakesthestorythechiefthinginhisnovel.
_Kidnapped_(1886),_TheMasterofBallantrae_(1889),and_DavidBalfour_
(1893)arenovelsofadventure,givingusvividpicturesofScotchlife.
TworomancesleftunfinishedbyhisearlydeathinSamoaare_TheWeirof
Hermiston_and_St.Ives_.ThelatterwasfinishedbyQuillerCouchin
1897;theformerishappilyjustasStevensonleftit,andthough
unfinishedisgenerallyregardedashismasterpiece.Inadditiontothese
novels,Stevensonwrotealargenumberofessays,thebestofwhichare
collectedin_VirginibusPuerisque,FamiliarStudiesofMenandBooks_,and
_MemoriesandPortraits_.Delightfulsketchesofhistravelsarefoundin
_AnInlandVoyage_(1878),_TravelswithaDonkey_(1879),_Acrossthe
Plains_(1892),and_TheAmateurEmigrant_(1894)._Underwoods_(1887)is
anexquisitelittlevolumeofpoetry,and_AChild'sGardenofVerses_is
oneofthebooksthatmotherswillalwayskeeptoreadtotheirchildren.
InallhisbooksStevensongivestheimpressionofamanatplayrather
thanatwork,andthereadersoonsharesinthehappyspiritoftheauthor.
Becauseofhisbeautifulpersonality,andbecauseoftheloveand
admirationheawakenedforhimselfinmultitudesofreaders,weare
naturallyinclinedtoexaggeratehisimportanceasawriter.Howeverthat

maybe,astudyofhisworksshowshimtobeaconsummateliteraryartist.
Hisstyleisalwayssimple,oftenperfect,andbothinhismannerandin
hismatterheexercisesaprofoundinfluence,onthewritersofthepresent
generation.
III.ESSAYISTSOFTHEVICTORIANAGE
THOMASBABINGTONMACAULAY(18001859)
Macaulayisoneofthemosttypicalfiguresofthenineteenthcentury.
Thoughnotagreatwriter,ifwecomparehimwithBrowningorThackeray,he
wasmorecloselyassociatedthananyofhisliterarycontemporarieswith
thesocialandpoliticalstrugglesoftheage.WhileCarlylewas
proclaimingthegospeloflabor,andDickenswritingnovelstobetterthe
conditionofthepoor,Macaulaywentvigorouslytoworkonwhathethought
tobethemostimportanttaskofthehour,andbyhisbrilliantspeeches
didperhapsmorethananyothersinglemantoforcethepassageofthe
famousReformBill.LikemanyoftheElizabethans,hewasapracticalman
ofaffairsratherthanaliteraryman,andthoughwemissinhiswritings
theimaginationandthespiritualinsightwhichstamptheliterarygenius,
wehavetheimpressionalwaysofakeen,practical,honestmind,which
looksatpresentproblemsinthelightofpastexperience.Moreover,the
manhimself,withhismarvelousmind,hishappyspirit,andhisabsolute
integrityofcharacter,isaninspirationtobetterliving.
LIFE.MacaulaywasbornatRothleyTemple,Leicestershire,in1800.His
father,ofScotchdescent,wasatonetimegovernoroftheSierraLeone
colonyforliberatednegroes,anddevotedalargepartofhislifetothe
abolitionoftheslavetrade.Hismother,ofQuakerparentage,wasa
brilliant,sensitivewoman,whosecharacterisreflectedinthatofher
son.Theinfluenceofthesetwo,andtheson'sloyaldevotiontohis
family,canbestbereadinTrevelyan'sinterestingbiography.
Asachild,MacaulayisstronglysuggestiveofColeridge.Atthreeyearsof
agehebegantoreadeagerly;atfivehe"talkedlikeabook";attenhe
hadwrittenacompendiumofuniversalhistory,besidesvarioushymns,verse
romances,argumentsforChristianity,andoneambitiousepicpoem.The
habitofrapidreading,beguninchildhood,continuedthroughouthislife,
andthenumberandvarietyofbookswhichhereadisalmostincredible.
Hismemorywasphenomenal.Hecouldrepeatlongpoemsandessaysaftera
singlereading;hecouldquotenotonlypassagesbutthegreaterpartof
manybooks,including_Pilgrim'sProgress,ParadiseLost_,andvarious
novelslike_Clarissa_.Once,totesthismemory,herecitedtwonewspaper
poemswhichhehadreadinacoffeehousefortyyearsbefore,andwhichhe
hadneverthoughtofintheinterval.
Attwelveyearsofagethisremarkableboywassenttoaprivateschoolat
LittleShelford,andateighteenheeqgeredTrinityCollege,Cambridge.
Herehemadeareputationasaclassicalscholarandabrillianttalker,
butmadeafailureofhismathematics.Inalettertohismotherhewrote:
"Ohforwordstoexpressmyabominationofthatscience....Disciplineof
themind!Sayratherstarvation,confinement,torture,annihilation!"We
quotethisasacommentaryonMacaulay'slaterwritings,whichare
frequentlylackingintheexactnessandthelogicalsequenceofthescience
whichhedetested.
AfterhiscollegecourseMacaulaystudiedlaw,wasadmittedtothebar,
devotedhimselflargelytopolitics,enteredParliamentin1830,andalmost
immediatelywonareputationasthebestdebaterandthemosteloquent
speaker,oftheLiberalorWhigparty.Gladstonesaysofhim:"Wheneverhe
arosetospeakitwasasummonslikeatrumpetcalltofillthebenches."
Atthetimeofhiselectionhewaspoor,andthelossofhisfather's
propertythrewuponhimthesupportofhisbrothersandsisters;buthe
tookuptheburdenwithcheerfulcourage,andbyhisowneffortssoon

placedhimselfandhisfamilyincomfort.Hispoliticalprogresswasrapid,
andwasduenottofavoritismorintrigue,buttohisability,hishard
work,andhissterlingcharacter.Hewasseveraltimeselectedto
Parliament,waslegaladvisertotheSupremeCouncilofIndia,wasamember
ofthecabinet,anddeclinedmanyofficesforwhichothermenlabora
lifetime.In1857hisgreatabilityandservicestohiscountrywere
recognizedbyhisbeingraisedtothepeeragewiththetitleofBaron
MacaulayofRothley.
Macaulay'sliteraryworkbeganincollegewiththecontributionofvarious
balladsandessaystothemagazines.Inhislaterlifepracticalaffairs
claimedthegreaterpartofhistime,andhisbrilliantessayswerewritten
intheearlymorningorlateatnight.Hisfamous_EssayonMilton_
appearedinthe_EdinburghReview_in1825.Itcreatedasensation,and
Macaulay,havinggainedtheearofthepublic,neveroncelostitduring
thetwentyyearsinwhichhewasacontributortothemagazines.His_Lays
ofAncientRome_appearedin1842,andinthefollowingyearthreevolumes
ofhiscollected_Essays_.In1847helosthisseatinParliament,
temporarily,throughhiszealouseffortsinbehalfofreligioustoleration;
andthelosswasmostfortunate,sinceitgavehimopportunitytobeginhis
_HistoryofEngland_,amonumentalworkwhichhehadbeenplanningfor
manyyears.Thefirsttwovolumesappearedin1848,andtheirsuccesscan
becomparedonlytothatofthemostpopularnovels.Thethirdandfourth
volumesofthe_History_(1855)wereevenmoresuccessful,andMacaulaywas
hardatworkontheremainingvolumeswhenhedied,quitesuddenly,in
1859.Hewasburied,nearAddison,inthePoets'CornerofWestminster
Abbey.Aparagraphfromoneofhisletters,writtenattheheightofhis
fameandinfluence,maygiveusaninsightintohislifeandwork:
IcantrulysaythatIhavenot,formanyyears,beensohappyasIamat
present....Iamfree.Iamindependent.IaminParliament,ashonorably
seatedasmancanbe.Myfamilyiscomfortablyoff.Ihaveleisurefor
literature,yetIamnotreducedtothenecessityofwritingformoney.If
Ihadtochoosealotfromallthatthereareinhumanlife,Iamnotsure
thatIshouldpreferanytothatwhichhasfallentome.Iamsincerelyand
thoroughlycontented.
WORKSOFMACAULAY.Macaulayisfamousinliteratureforhisessays,forhis
martialballads,andforhis_HistoryofEngland_.Hisfirstimportant
work,the_EssayonMilton_(1825),isworthyofstudynotonlyforitself,
asacriticalestimateofthePuritanpoet,butasakeytoallMacaulay's
writings.Here,firstofall,isaninterestingwork,which,howevermuch
wedifferfromtheauthor'sopinion,holdsourattentionandgenerally
makesusregretthattheendcomessosoon.Thesecondthingtonoteisthe
historicalflavoroftheessay.WestudynotonlyMilton,butalsothe
timesinwhichhelived,andthegreatmovementsofwhichhewasapart.
Historyandliteratureproperlybelongtogether,andMacaulaywasoneof
thefirstwriterstoexplainthehistoricalconditionswhichpartlyaccount
forawriter'sworkandinfluence.ThethirdthingtonoteisMacaulay's
enthusiasmforhissubject,anenthusiasmwhichisoftenpartisan,but
whichwegladlyshareforthemomentaswefollowthebreathlessnarrative.
Macaulaygenerallymakesaheroofhisman,showshimbattlingagainst
odds,andtheheroicsideofourownnatureawakensandrespondstothe
author'splea.Thefourth,andperhapsmostcharacteristicthinginthe
essayisthestyle,whichisremarkablyclear,forceful,andconvincing.
Jeffrey,theeditorofthe_EdinburghReview_,wroteenthusiasticallywhen
hereceivedthemanuscript,"ThemoreIthink,thelessIcanconceive
whereyoupickedupthatstyle."Westillshareintheeditor'swonder;but
themorewethink,thelessweconceivethatsuchastylecouldbepicked
up.Itwaspartlytheresultofawellstoredmind,partlyofunconscious
imitationofotherwriters,andpartlyofthatnaturaltalentforclear
speakingandwritingwhichismanifestinallMacaulay'swork.
Intheremainingessayswefindthesamegeneralqualitieswhich
characterizeMacaulay'sfirstattempt.Theycoverawiderangeofsubjects,

buttheymaybedividedintotwogeneralclasses,theliteraryorcritical,
andthehistorical.OftheliteraryessaysthebestarethoseonMilton,
Addison,Goldsmith,Byron,Dryden,LeighHunt,Bunyan,Bacon,andJohnson.
AmongthebestknownofthehistoricalessaysarethoseonLordClive,
Chatham,WarrenHastings,Hallam'sConstitutionalHistory,VonRanke's
HistoryofthePapacy,FredericktheGreat,HoraceWalpole,WilliamPitt,
SirWilliamTemple,Machiavelli,andMirabeau.Mostofthesewereproduced
inthevigorofyoungmanhood,between1825and1845,whilethewriterwas
busywithpracticalaffairsofstate.Theyareoftenonesidedand
inaccurate,butalwaysinteresting,andfromthemalargenumberofbusy
peoplehavederivedtheirfirstknowledgeofhistoryandliterature.
ThebestofMacaulay'spoeticalworkisfoundinthe_LaysofAncientRome_
(1842),acollectionofballadsinthestyleofScott,whichsingofthe
oldheroicdaysoftheRomeRomanrepublic.Theballaddoesnotrequire
muchthoughtoremotion.Itdemandsclearness,vigor,enthusiasm,action;
anditsuitedMacaulay'sgeniusperfectly.Hewas,however,muchmore
carefulthanotherballadwritersinmakinghisnarrativetrueto
tradition.Thestirringmartialspiritoftheseballads,theirfine
workmanship,andtheirappealtocourageandpatriotismmadetheminstantly
popular.Eventoday,aftermorethanfiftyyears,suchballadsasthoseon
VirginiusandHoratiusattheBridgearefavoritepiecesinmanyschool
readers.
The_HistoryofEngland_,Macaulay'smasterpiece,isstilloneofthemost
popularhistoricalworksintheEnglishlanguage.Originallyitwas
intendedtocovertheperiodfromtheaccessionofJamesII,in1685,to
thedeathofGeorgeIV,in1830.Onlyfivevolumesoftheworkwere
finished,andsothoroughlydidMacaulaygointodetailsthatthesefive
volumescoveronlysixteenyears.Ithasbeenestimatedthattocomplete
theworkonthesamescalewouldrequiresomefiftyvolumesandthelabor
ofonemanforoveracentury.
InhishistoricalmethodMacaulaysuggestsGibbon.Hisownknowledgeof
historywasverygreat,butbeforewritinghereadnumberlesspages,
consultedoriginaldocuments,andvisitedthesceneswhichheintendedto
describe.Thackeray'sremark,that"Macaulayreadstwentybookstowritea
sentenceandtravelsonehundredmilestomakealineofdescription,"is,
inviewofhisindustry,awellwarrantedexaggeration.
Asinhisliteraryessays,heisfondofmakingheroes,andhethrows
himselfsoheartilyintothespiritofthesceneheisdescribingthathis
wordpicturesalmoststartleusbytheirvividreality.Thestoryof
Monmouth'srebellion,forinstance,orthetrialofthesevenbishops,is
asfascinatingasthebestchaptersofScott'shistoricalnovels.
WhileMacaulay'ssearchfororiginalsourcesofinformationsuggeststhe
scientifichistorian,hisuseofhismaterialismuchmorelikethatofa
novelistorplaywright.InhisessayonMachiavellihewrites:"Thebest
portraitsareperhapsthoseinwhichthereisaslightmixtureof
caricature,andwearenotcertainthatthebesthistoriesarenotthosein
whichalittleoftheexaggerationoffictitiousnarrativeisjudiciously
employed.Somethingislostinaccuracy,butmuchisgainedin
effect."[243]Whetherthisestimateofhistoricalwritingbetrueorfalse,
Macaulayemployeditinhisownworkandmadehisnarrativeasabsorbingas
anovel.Toallhischaractershegivestherealityoffleshandblood,and
inhisownwordshe"showsusovertheirhousesandseatsusattheir
tables."Allthatisexcellent,butithasitsdisadvantages.Inhis
admirationforheroism,Macaulaymakessomeofhischaracterstoogoodand
otherstoobad.Inhiszealfordetailshemissestheimportanceofgreat
movements,andofgreatleaderswhoareaccustomedtoignoredetails;and
inhisjoyofdescribingeventsheoftenlosessightofunderlyingcauses.
Inaword,heiswithouthistoricalinsight,andhiswork,though
fascinating,isseldomplacedamongthereliablehistoriesofEngland.

GENERALCHARACTERISTICS.TothereaderwhostudiesMacaulay'sbrilliant
essaysandafewchosenchaptersofhis_History_,threethingssoonbecome
manifest.First,Macaulay'sartisthatofapublicspeakerratherthan
thatofaliteraryman.Hehasawonderfulcommandoflanguage,andhe
makeshismeaningclearbystrikingphrases,vigorousantitheses,
anecdotes,andillustrations.Hisstyleissoclearthat"hewhorunsmay
read,"andfrombeginningtoendheneverlosestheattentionofhis
readers.Second,Macaulay'sgoodspiritsandenthusiasmarecontagious.As
hesaidhimself,hewrote"outofafullhead,"chieflyforhisown
pleasureorrecreation;andonewhowritesjoyouslygenerallyawakensa
senseofpleasureinhisreaders.Third,Macaulayhas"thedefectofhis
qualities."Hereadsandrememberssomuchthathehasnotimetothinkor
toformsettledopinions.AsGladstonesaid,Macaulayis"alwaysconversing
orrecollectingorreadingorcomposing,butreflectingnever."Sohewrote
hisbrilliant_EssayonMilton_,whichtookallEnglandbystorm,andsaid
ofitafterwardthatitcontained"scarcelyaparagraphwhichhismature
judgmentapproved."Whetherhespeaksorwrites,hehasalwaysbeforehim
aneageraudience,andhefeelswithinhimthebornorator'spowertohold
andfascinate.Sohegivesloosereintohisenthusiasm,quotesfroma
hundredbooks,andinhisdelightatentertainingusforgetsthatthefirst
qualityofacriticalorhistoricalworkistobeaccurate,andthesecond
tobeinteresting.
THOMASCARLYLE(17951881)
InmarkedcontrastwithMacaulay,thebrilliantandcheerfulessayist,is
ThomasCarlyle,theprophetandcensorofthenineteenthcentury.Macaulay
isthepracticalmanofaffairs,helpingandrejoicingintheprogressof
hisbelovedEngland.Carlylelivesapartfromallpracticalinterests,
lookswithdistrustontheprogressofhisage,andtellsmenthattruth,
justice,andimmortalityaretheonlyworthyobjectsofhumanendeavor.
Macaulayisdelightedwithmaterialcomforts;heismostathomein
brilliantandfashionablecompany;andhewrites,evenwhenilland
suffering,withunfailinghopefulnessandgoodnature.Carlyleislikea
Hebrewprophetjustinfromthedesert,andtheburdenofhismessageis,
"WoetothemthatareateaseinZion!"Bothmenare,indifferentways,
typicalofthecentury,andsomewherebetweenthetwoextremesthe
practical,helpfulactivityofMacaulayandthespiritualagonyand
conflictofCarlyleweshallfindthemeasureofanagewhichhasleftthe
deepestimpressuponourown.
LIFEOFCARLYLE.CarlylewasbornatEcclefechan,Dumfriesshire,in1795,a
fewmonthsbeforeBurns'sdeath,andbeforeScotthadpublishedhisfirst
work.LikeBurns,hecameofpeasantstock,strong,simple,Godfearing
folk,whoseinfluenceinCarlyle'slaterlifeisbeyondcalculation.Ofhis
motherhesays,"Shewastoomildandpeacefulfortheplanetshelived
in";andofhisfather,astonemason,hewrites,"CouldIwritemybooks
ashebuilthishouses,walkmywaysomanfullythroughthisshadowworld,
andleaveitwithsolittleblame,itweremorethanallmyhopes."
OfCarlyle'searlyschoollifewehavesomeinterestingglimpsesin_Sartor
Resartus_.AtnineyearsheenteredtheAnnangrammarschool,wherehewas
bulliedbytheolderboys,whonicknamedhimTomtheTearful.Forthe
teachersofthosedayshehasonlyridicule,callingthem"hidebound
pedants,"andhecallstheschoolbythesuggestiveGermannameof
_HinterschlagGymnasium_.Atthewishofhisparents,whointendedCarlyle
fortheministry,heenduredthishatefulschoollifetill1809,whenhe
enteredEdinburghUniversity.Therehespentfivemiserableyears,ofwhich
hisownrecordis:"Iwaswithoutfriends,experience,orconnectioninthe
sphereofhumanbusiness,wasofslyhumor,proudenoughandtospare,and
hadbegunmylongcurriculumofdyspepsia."Thisnaggingillnesswasthe
causeofmuchofthatirritabilityoftemperwhichfrequentlyledhimto
scoldthepublic,andforwhichhehasbeenharshlyhandledbyunfriendly
critics.

Theperiodfollowinghisuniversitycoursewasoneofstormandstressfor
Carlyle.Muchtothegriefofthefatherwhomheloved,hehadgivenupthe
ideaofenteringtheministry.Whereverheturned,doubtslikeathickfog
surroundedhim,doubtsofGod,ofhisfellowmen,ofhumanprogress,of
himself.Hewaspoor,andtoearnanhonestlivingwashisfirstproblem.
Hetriedsuccessivelyteachingschool,tutoring,thestudyoflaw,and
writingmiscellaneousarticlesforthe_EdinburghEncyclopedia_.Allthe
whilehewasfightinghisdoubts,living,ashesays,"inacontinual,
indefinite,piningfear."Aftersixorsevenyearsofmentalagony,which
hasattimesasuggestionofBunyan'sspiritualstruggle,thecrisiscame
in1821,whenCarlylesuddenlyshookoffhisdoubtsandfoundhimself."All
atonce,"hesaysin_Sartor_,"therearoseathoughtinme,andIasked
myself:'What_Art_thouafraidof?Whereforelikeacowarddostthou
foreverpipandwhimper,andgocoweringandtrembling?Despicablebiped!
Whatisthesumtotaloftheworstthatliesbeforethee?Death?Well,
Death;andsaythepangsofTophettoo,andallthattheDevilandManmay,
will,orcandoagainstthee!Hastthounotaheart;canstthounotsuffer
whatsoeveritbe;and,asaChildofFreedom,thoughoutcast,trample
Tophetitselfunderthyfeet,whileitconsumesthee?Letitcomethen;I
willmeetitanddefyit!'AndasIsothought,thererushedlikeastream
offireovermywholesoul;andIshookbaseFearawayfrommeforever."
Thisstrugglebetweenfearandfaith,andthetriumphofthelatter,is
recordedintworemarkablechapters,"TheEverlastingNo"and"The
EverlastingYea,"of_SartorResartus_.
Carlylenowdefinitelyresolvedonaliterarylife,andbeganwithanywork
thatofferedabarelivelihood.HetranslatedLegendre's_Geometry_from
theFrench,wrotenumerousessaysforthemagazines,andcontinuedhis
studyofGermanwhilemakingtranslationsfromthatlanguage.His
translationofGoethe's_WilhelmMeister_Appearedin1824,his_Lifeof
Schiller_in1825,andhis_SpecimensofGermanRomance_in1827.Hebegan
atthistimeacorrespondencewithGoethe,hisliteraryhero,whichlasted
tilltheGermanpoet'sdeathin1832.Whilestillbusywith"hackwork,"
Carlyle,in1826,marriedJaneWelsh,abrilliantandbeautifulwoman,
whoseliterarygeniusalmostequaledthatofherhusband.Soonafterwards,
influencedchieflybypoverty,theCarlylesretiredtoafarm,atCraigen
puttoch(Hawks'Hill),adrearyandlonelyspot,farfromfriendsandeven
neighbors.Theyremainedheresixyears,duringwhichtimeCarlylewrote
manyofhisbestessays,and_SartorResartus_,hismostoriginalwork.The
latterwentbeggingamongpublishersfortwoyears,andwasfinally
publishedseriallyin_Fraser'sMagazine_,in18331834.Bythistime
Carlylehadbeguntoattractattentionasawriter,and,thinkingthatone
whomadehislivingbythemagazinesshouldbeinclosetouchwiththe
editors,tookhiswife'sadviceandmovedtoLondon"toseekworkand
bread."HesettledinCheyneRow,Chelsea,aplacemadefamousbyMore,
Erasmus,Bolingbroke,Smollett,LeighHunt,andmanylesserlightsof
literature,andbegantoenjoythefirstrealpeacehehadknownsince
childhood.In1837appeared_TheFrenchRevolution_,whichfirstmade
Carlylefamous;andinthesameyear,ledbythenecessityofearning
money,hebegantheseriesoflectures_German.Literature_(1837),
_PeriodsofEuropeanCulture_(1838),_RevolutionsofModernEurope_
(1839),_HeroesandHeroWorship_(1841)whichcreatedasensationin
London."Itwas,"saysLeighHunt,"asifsomePuritanhadcometolife
again,liberalizedbyGermanphilosophyandhisownintensereflectionand
experience."
ThoughCarlylesethimselfagainstthespiritofhisage,callingthe
famousReformBilla"progressintodarkness,"anddemocracy"theruleof
theworstratherthanthebest,"hisroughsinceritywasunquestioned,and
hisremarksweremorequotedthanthoseofanyotherlivingman.Hewas
supported,moreover,byararecircleoffriends,EdwardIrving,Southey,
Sterling,Landor,LeighHunt,Dickens,Mill,Tennyson,Browning,and,most
helpfulofall,Emerson,whohadvisitedCarlyleatCraigenputtochin1833.
ItwasduelargelytoEmerson'sinfluencethatCarlyle'sworkswerebetter

appreciated,andbroughtbetterfinancialrewards,inAmericathanin
England.
Carlyle'sfamereacheditsclimaxinthemonumental_HistoryofFrederick
theGreat_(18581865),publishedafterthirteenyearsofsolitarytoil,
which,inhisownwords,"madeentiredevastationofhomelifeand
happiness."Theproudestmomentofhislifewaswhenhewaselectedto
succeedGladstoneaslordrectorofEdinburghUniversity,in1865,theyear
inwhich_FredericktheGreat_wasfinished.Inthemidstofhistriumph,
andwhilehewasinScotlandtodeliverhisinauguraladdress,his
happinesswassuddenlydestroyedbythedeathofhiswife,aterrible
blow,fromwhichheneverrecovered.Helivedonforfifteenyears,shorn
ofhisstrengthandinterestinlife;andhisclosinghourswerelikethe
dullsunsetofaNovemberday.Onlyaswerememberhisgriefandremorseat
thedeathofthecompanionwhohadsharedhistoilbutnothistriumph,can
weunderstandthesorrowthatpervadesthepagesofhis_Reminiscences_.He
diedin1881,andathisownwishwasburied,notinWestminsterAbbey,but
amonghishumblekinsfolkinEcclefechan.Howevermuchwemaydifferfrom
hisphilosophyorregrettheharshnessofhisminorworks,weshall
probablyallagreeinthissentimentfromoneofhisownletters,thatthe
objectofallhisstruggleandwritingwas"thatmenshouldfindoutand
believethetruth,andmatchtheirlivestoit."
WORKSOFCARLYLE.TherearetwowidelydifferentjudgmentsofCarlyleasa
manandawriter.Thefirst,whichisfoundedlargelyonhisminor
writings,like_Chartism,LatterDayPamphlets_,and_ShootingNiagara_,
declaresthatheisamisanthropeanddyspepticwithabarbarousstyleof
writing;thathedenouncesprogress,democracy,science,America,Darwin,
everybodyandeverythingthathedoesnotunderstand;thathisliterary
opinionsarelargelyprejudices;thathebeganasaprophetandendedasa
scold;andthatindenouncingshamsofeverysorthewassomethingofa
shamhimself,sincehispracticewasnotinaccordwithhisownpreaching.
Thesecondjudgment,whichisfoundedupon_HeroesandHeroWorship,
Cromwell_,and_SartorResartus_,declaresthattheseworksarethesupreme
manifestationofgenius;thattheirrugged,picturesquestylemakesothers
lookfeebleorcolorlessbycomparison;andthattheauthoristhegreatest
teacher,leader,andprophetofthenineteenthcentury.
SomewherebetweenthesetwoextremeswillbefoundthetruthaboutCarlyle.
Weonlynoteherethat,whiletherearesomegroundsforthefirst
unfavorablecriticism,wearetojudgeanauthorbyhisbestratherthanby
hisworstwork;andthataman'saimsaswellashisaccomplishmentsmust
betakenintoconsideration.Asitiswritten,"Whereasitwasinthine
hearttobuildanhouseuntomyname,thoudidstwellthatitwasinthine
heart."WhateverthedefectsofCarlyleandhiswork,inhishearthewas
alwaysplanningahouseortempletotheGodoftruthandjustice.
Carlyle'simportantworksmaybedividedintothreegeneralclasses,
criticalandliteraryessays,historicalworks,and_SartorResartus_,the
lastbeinginaclassbyitself,sincethereisnothinglikeitin
literature.Totheseshouldbeaddedabiography,theadmirable_Lifeof
JohnSterling_,andCarlyle's_Letters_and_Reminiscences_,whicharemore
interestingandsuggestivethansomeofhisbetterknownworks.Weomit
hereallconsiderationoftranslations,andhisintemperatedenunciations
ofmenandinstitutionsin_Chartism,LatterDayPamphlets_,andother
essays,whichaddnothingtotheauthor'sfameorinfluence.
Oftheessays,whichareallcharacterizedbyCarlyle'szealtogetatthe
heartofthings,andtorevealthesoulratherthantheworksofawriter,
thebestarethoseon"Burns,""Scott,""Novalis,""Goethe,"
"Characteristics,""SignsoftheTimes,"and"Boswell'sLifeof
Johnson."[244]Inthefamous_EssayonBurns_,whichisgenerallyselected
forspecialstudy,wenotefoursignificantthings:(1)Carlyleis
peculiarlywellfittedforhistask,havingmanypointsincommonwithhis
hero.(2)InmostofhisworkCarlyle,byhisstyleandmannerismsand

positiveopinions,generallyattractsourattentionawayfromhissubject;
butinthisessayheshowshimselfcapableofforgettinghimselffora
moment.Toanunusualextenthestickstohissubject,andmakesusthink
ofBurnsratherthanofCarlyle.Thestyle,thoughunpolished,isfairly
simpleandreadable,andisfreefromthebreaks,crudities,ejaculations,
andgeneral"nodulosities"whichdisfiguremuchofhiswork.(3)Carlyle
hasanoriginalandinterestingtheoryofbiographyandcriticism.The
objectofcriticismistoshowthemanhimself,hisaims,ideals,and
outlookontheuniverse;theobjectofbiographyis"toshowwhatandhow
producedwastheeffectofsocietyuponhim;whatandhowproducedwashis
effectonsociety."(4)Carlyleisoftensevere,evenharsh,inhis
estimatesofothermen,butinthiscasethetragedyofBurns's"lifeof
fragments"attractsandsoftenshim.Hegrowsenthusiasticandarare
thingforCarlyleapologizesforhisenthusiasminthestrikingsentence,
"WeloveBurns,andwepityhim;andloveandpityarepronetomagnify."
Sohegivesusthemosttenderandappreciativeofhisessays,andoneof
themostilluminatingcriticismsofBurnsthathasappearedinour
language.
ThecentralideaofCarlyle'shistoricalworksisfoundinhis_Heroesand
HeroWorship_(1841),hismostwidelyreadbook."Universalhistory,"he
says,"isatbottomthehistoryofthegreatmenwhohaveworkedhere."To
getatthetruthofhistorywemuststudynotmovementsbutmen,andread
notstatepapersbutthebiographiesofheroes.Hissummaryofhistoryas
presentedinthisworkhassixdivisions:(1)TheHeroasDivinity,having
foritsgeneralsubjectOdin,the"typeNorseman,"who,Carlylethinks,was
someoldheroicchief,afterwardsdeifiedbyhiscountrymen;(2)TheHero
asProphet,treatingofMahometandtheriseofIslam;(3)TheHeroas
Poet,inwhichDanteandShakespearearetakenastypes;(4)TheHeroas
Priest,orreligiousleader,inwhichLutherappearsastheheroofthe
Reformation,andKnoxastheheroofPuritanism;(5)TheHeroasManof
Letters,inwhichwehavethecuriouschoiceofJohnson,Rousseau,and
Burns;(6)TheHeroasKing,inwhichCromwellandNapoleonappearasthe
heroesofreformbyrevolution.
Itisneedlesstosaythat_Heroes_isnotabookofhistory;neitherisit
scientificallywritteninthemannerofGibbon.Withscienceinanyform
Carlylehadnopatience;andhemiscalculatedthevalueofthatpatient
searchforfactsandevidencewhichscienceundertakesbeforebuildingany
theories,eitherofkingsorcabbages.Thebook,therefore,aboundsin
errors;buttheyaretheerrorsofcarelessnessandareperhapsofsmall
consequence.Hismisconceptionofhistory,however,ismoreserious.With
themodernideaofhistory,asthegrowthoffreedomamongallclasses,he
hasnosympathy.Theprogressofdemocracywastohimanevilthing,a
"turningofthefacetowardsdarknessandanarchy."Atcertainperiods,
accordingtoCarlyle,Godsendsusgeniuses,sometimesaspriestsorpoets,
sometimesassoldiersorstatesmen;butinwhateverguisetheyappear,
theseareourrealrulers.Heshows,moreover,thatwheneversuchmen
appear,multitudesfollowthem,andthataman'sfollowingisasureindex
ofhisheroismandkingship.
WhetherweagreewithCarlyleornot,wemustacceptforthemomenthis
peculiarviewofhistory,else_Heroes_canneveropenitstreasurestous.
Thebookaboundsinstartlingideas,expressedwithoriginalityandpower,
andispervadedthroughoutbyanatmosphereofintensemoralearnestness.
Themorewereadit,themorewefindtoadmireandtoremember.
Carlyle's_FrenchRevolution_(1837)istobetakenmoreseriouslyasa
historicalwork;buthereagainhisheroworshipcomestothefront,and
hisbookisaseriesofflashlightsthrownuponmenindramaticsituations,
ratherthanatracingofcausestotheirconsequences.Theverytitlesof
hischapters"AstraeaRedux,""Windbags,""BroglietheWarGod"do
violencetoourconceptionofhistory,andaremoresuggestiveofCarlyle's
individualismthanofFrenchhistory.Heisherethepreacherratherthan
thehistorian;histextistheeternaljustice;andhismessageisthatall

wrongdoingisinevitablyfollowedbyvengeance.Hismethodisintensely
dramatic.Fromamassofhistoricaldetailsheselectsafewpicturesque
incidentsandstrikingfigures,andhisvividpicturesofthestormingof
theBastille,therushofthemobtoVersailles,thedeathofLouisXVI,
andtheReignofTerror,seemliketheworkofaneyewitnessdescribing
someterriblecatastrophe.Attimes,asitportraysDanton,Robespierre,
andthegreatcharactersofthetragedy,Carlyle'sworkissuggestiveofan
historicalplayofShakespeare;andagain,asitdescribestherushand
riotofmenledbyelementalpassion,itismorelikeagreatproseepic.
Thoughnotareliablehistoryinanysense,itisoneofthemostdramatic
andstirringnarrativesinourlanguage.
Twootherhistoricalworksdeserveatleastapassingnotice.The_History
ofFredericktheGreat_(18581865),insixvolumes,isacolossalpicture
ofthelifeandtimesoftheheroofthePrussianEmpire._Oliver
Cromwell'sLettersandSpeeches_is,inourpersonaljudgment,Carlyle's
besthistoricalwork.Hisideaistopresenttheverysoulofthegreat
Puritanleader.Hegivesus,asoffirstimportance,Cromwell'sownwords,
andconnectsthembyacommentaryinwhichothermenandeventsare
describedwithvigorandvividness.CromwellwasoneofCarlyle'sgreatest
heroes,andinthiscaseheismostcarefultopresentthefactswhich
occasionhisownenthusiasm.Theresultis,onthewhole,themostlifelike
pictureofagreathistoricalcharacterthatwepossess.Otherhistorians
hadheapedcalumnyuponCromwelltilltheEnglishpublicregardedhimwith
prejudiceandhorror;anditisanindicationofCarlyle'spowerthatbya
singlebookherevolutionizedEngland'sopinionofoneofhergreatestmen.
Carlyle's_SartorResartus_(1834),hisonlycreativework,isamixtureof
philosophyandromance,ofwisdomandnonsense,achaoticjumbleofthe
author'sthoughts,feelings,andexperiencesduringthefirstthirtyfive
yearsofhislife.Thetitle,whichmeans"TheTailorPatchedup,"istaken
fromanoldScotchsong.TheheroisDiogenesTeufelsdroeckh,aGerman
professorattheUniversityofWeissnichtwo(don'tknowwhere);the
narrativeconcernsthisqueerprofessor'slifeandopinions;andthe
centralthoughtofthebookisthephilosophyofclothes,whichare
consideredsymbolicallyastheoutwardexpressionofspirit.Thus,man's
bodyistheoutwardgarmentofhissoul,andtheuniverseisthevisible
garmentoftheinvisibleGod.Thearrangementof_Sartor_isclumsyand
hardtofollow.Inordertoleavehimselffreetobringineverythinghe
thoughtabout,Carlyleassumedthepositionofonewhowastranslatingand
editingtheoldprofessor'smanuscripts,whicharesupposedtoconsistof
numeroussheetsstuffedintotwelvepaperbags,eachlabeledwithasignof
thezodiac.Theeditorpretendstomakeorderoutofthischaos;butheis
freetojumpfromonesubjecttoanotherandtostatethemoststartling
opinionbysimplyusingquotationmarksandaddinganotethatheisnot
responsibleforTeufelsdroeckh'scrazynotions,whichareinreality
Carlyle'sowndreamsandideals.Partlybecauseofthematter,whichis
sometimesincoherent,partlybecauseofthestyle,which,though
picturesque,issometimesconfusedandungrammatical,_Sartor_isnoteasy
reading;butitamplyrepayswhatevertimeandstudywegivetoit.Manyof
itspassagesaremorelikepoetrythanprose;andonecannotreadsuch
chaptersas"TheEverlastingNo,""TheEverlastingYea,""Reminiscences,"
and"NaturalSupernaturalism,"andbequitethesamemanafterwards;for
Carlyle'sthoughthasenteredintohim,andhewalkshenceforthmore
gently,morereverentlythroughtheworld,asinthepresenceofthe
Eternal.
GENERALCHARACTERISTICS.ConcerningCarlyle'sstyletherearealmostas
manyopinionsastherearereaders.Thisispartlybecauseheimpresses
differentpeopleinwidelydifferentways,andpartlybecausehis
expressionvariesgreatly.Attimesheiscalm,persuasive,grimly
humorous,asifconversing;atothertimes,wildlyexclamatory,asifhe
wereshoutingandwavinghisarmsatthereader.Wehavespokenof
Macaulay'sstyleasthatofthefinishedorator,andwemightreasonably
speakofCarlyle'sasthatoftheexhorter,whocareslittleformethodsso

longashemakesastrongimpressiononhishearers."Everysentenceis
alivetoitsfingertips,"writesamoderncritic;andthoughCarlyleoften
violatestherulesofgrammarandrhetoric,wecanwellaffordtoletan
originalgeniusexpresshisownintenseconvictioninhisownvividand
picturesqueway.
Carlyle'smessagemaybesummedupintwoimperatives,labor,andbe
sincere.Helecturedandwrotechieflyfortheupperclasseswhohadbegun
tothink,somewhatsentimentally,oftheconditionsofthelaboringmenof
theworld;andhedemandedforthelatter,notcharityorpity,butjustice
andhonor.Alllabor,whetherofheadorhand,isdivine;andlaboralone
justifiesamanasasonofearthandheaven.Tosociety,whichCarlyle
thoughttobeoccupiedwhollywithconventionalaffairs,hecamewiththe
stampofsincerity,callinguponmentolayasidehypocrisyandtothink
andspeakandlivethetruth.HehadnoneofAddison'sdelicatesatireand
humor,andinhisfuryatwhathethoughtwasfalsehewasgenerally
unsympatheticandoftenharsh;butwemustnotforgetthatThackeraywho
knewsocietymuchbetterthandidCarlylegaveaveryunflatteringpicture
ofitin_VanityFair_and_TheBookofSnobs_.Apparentlytheageneeded
plainspeaking,andCarlylefurnisheditinscripturemeasure.Harriet
Martineau,whoknewtheworldforwhichCarlylewrote,summeduphis
influencewhenshesaidthathehad"infusedintothemindoftheEnglish
nation...sincerity,earnestness,healthfulness,andcourage."Ifweadd
totheabovemessageCarlyle'sconceptionsoftheworldasgovernedbya
Godofjusticewhoneverforgets,andofhumanhistoryas"aninarticulate
Bible,"slowlyrevealingthedivinepurpose,weshallunderstandbetterthe
forceofhisethicalappealandtheprofoundinfluenceheexercisedonthe
moralandintellectuallifeofthepastcentury.
JOHNRUSKIN(18191900)
InapproachingthestudyofRuskinwearetoremember,firstofall,that
wearedealingwithagreatandgoodman,whoishimselfmoreinspiring
thananyofhisbooks.InsomerespectsheislikehisfriendCarlyle,
whosediscipleheacknowledgedhimselftobe;butheisbroaderinhis
sympathies,andineverywaymorehopeful,helpful,andhumane.Thus,in
thefaceofthedrudgeryandpovertyofthecompetitivesystem,Carlyle
proposed,withthegrimsatireofSwift's"ModestProposal,"toorganizean
annualhuntinwhichsuccessfulpeopleshouldshoottheunfortunate,andto
usethegameforthesupportofthearmyandnavy.Ruskin,facingthesame
problem,wrote:"Iwillendureitnolongerquietly;buthenceforward,with
anyfewormanywhowillhelp,domybesttoabatethismisery."Then,
leavingthefieldofartcriticism,wherehewastheacknowledgedleader,
hebeginstowriteoflaborandjustice;giveshisfortuneincharity,in
establishingschoolsandlibraries;andfoundshisSt.George'sGuildof
workingmen,toputinpracticetheprinciplesofbrotherhoodand
cooperationforwhichheandCarlylecontended.Thoughhisstylemarkshim
asoneofthemastersofEnglishprose,heisgenerallystudiednotasa
literarymanbutasanethicalteacher,andweshallhardlyappreciatehis
worksunlessweseebehindeverybookthefigureoftheheroicallysincere
manwhowroteit.
LIFE.RuskinwasborninLondon,in1819.Hisfatherwasaprosperouswine
merchantwhogainedafortuneintrade,andwhospenthisleisurehoursin
thecompanyofgoodbooksandpictures.Onhistombstoneonemaystillread
thisinscriptionwrittenbyRuskin:"Hewasanentirelyhonestmerchantand
hismemoryistoallwhokeepitdearandhelpful.Hisson,whomheloved
totheuttermostandtaughttospeaktruth,saysthisofhim."Ruskin's
mother,adevoutandsomewhatausterewoman,broughthersonupwith
Puritanicalstrictness,notforgettingSolomon'sinjunctionthat"therod
andreproofgivewisdom."
OfRuskin'searlyyearsatHerneHill,ontheoutskirtsofLondon,itis
bettertoreadhisowninterestingrecordin_Praeterita_.Itwasinsome

respectsacrampedandlonelychildhood,butcertainthingswhichstrongly
moldedhischaracterareworthyofmention.First,hewastaughtbyword
andexampleinallthingstospeakthetruth,andheneverforgotthe
lesson.Second,hehadfewtoys,andspentmuchtimeinstudyingthe
leaves,theflowers,thegrass,theclouds,eventhefiguresandcolorsof
thecarpet,andsolaidthefoundationforthatminuteandaccurate
observationwhichismanifestinallhiswritings.Third,hewaseducated
firstbyhismother,thenbyprivatetutors,andsomissedthediscipline
ofthepublicschools.Theinfluenceofthislonelytrainingisevidentin
allhiswork.LikeCarlyle,heisoftentoopositiveanddogmatic,the
resultoffailingtotesthisworkbythestandardsofothermenofhis
age.Fourth,hewasobligedtoreadtheBibleeverydayandtolearnlong
passagesverbatim.Theresultofthistrainingwas,hesays,"tomakeevery
wordoftheScripturesfamiliartomyearinhabitualmusic."Wecanhardly
readapageofhislaterworkwithoutfindingsomereflectionofthenoble
simplicityorvividimageryofthesacredrecords.Fifth,hetraveledmuch
withhisfatherandmother,andhisinnateloveofnaturewasintensified
bywhathesawonhisleisurelyjourneysthroughthemostbeautifulparts
ofEnglandandtheContinent.
RuskinenteredChristChurchCollege,Oxford,in1836,whenonlyseventeen
yearsold.Hewasatthistimeashy,sensitiveboy,aloverofnatureand
ofeveryartwhichreflectsnature,butalmostentirelyignorantofthe
waysofboysandmen.Anattackofconsumption,withwhichhehadlongbeen
threatened,causedhimtoleaveOxfordin1840,andfornearlytwoyearshe
wanderedoverItalysearchingforhealthandcheerfulness,andgathering
materialsforthefirstvolumeof_ModernPainters_,thebookthatmadehim
famous.
Ruskin'sliteraryworkbeganinchildhood,whenhewasencouragedtowrite
freelyinproseandpoetry.Avolumeofpoemsillustratedbyhisown
drawingswaspublishedin1859,afterhehadwonfameasaprosewriter,
but,saveforthedrawings,itisofsmallimportance.Thefirstvolumeof
_ModernPainters_(1843)wasbegunasaheateddefenseoftheartist
Turner,butitdevelopedintoanessayonartasatruepictureofnature,
"notonlyinheroutwardaspectbutinherinwardspirit."Thework,which
wassignedsimply"OxfordGraduate,"arousedastormofmingledapproval
andprotest;buthowevermuchcriticswarredoveritstheoriesofart,all
wereagreedthattheunknownauthorwasamasterofdescriptiveprose.
RuskinnowmadefrequenttripstotheartgalleriesoftheContinent,and
producedfourmorevolumesof_ModernPainters_duringthenextseventeen
years.Meanwhilehewroteotherbooks,_SevenLampsofArchitecture_
(1849),_StonesofVenice_(18511853),_PreRaphaelitism_,andnumerous
lecturesandessays,whichgavehimaplaceintheworldofartsimilarto
thatheldbyMatthewArnoldintheworldofletters.In1869hewas
appointedprofessorofartatOxford,apositionwhichgreatlyincreased
hisprestigeandinfluence,notonlyamongstudentsbutamongagreat
varietyofpeoplewhoheardhislecturesandreadhispublishedworks.
_LecturesonArt,AratraPentelici_(lecturesonsculpture),_Ariadne
Florentina_(lecturesonengraving),_MichaelAngelaandTintoret,TheArt
ofEngland,Vald'Arno_(lecturesonTuscanart),_St.Mark'sRest_(a
historyofVenice),_MorningsinFlorence_(studiesinChristianart,now
muchusedasaguidebooktothepicturegalleriesofFlorence),_TheLaws
ofFiesole_(atreatiseondrawingandpaintingforschools),_Academyof
FineArtsinVenice,PleasuresofEngland_,alltheseworksonartshow
Ruskin'sliteraryindustry.Andwemustalsorecord_Love'sMeinie_(a
studyofbirds),_Proserpina_(astudyofflowers),_Deucalion_(astudyof
wavesandstones),besidesvariousessaysonpoliticaleconomywhich
indicatethatRuskin,likeArnold,hadbeguntoconsiderthepractical
problemsofhisage.
Attheheightofhisfame,in1860,Ruskinturnedforatimefromart,to
considerquestionsofwealthandlabor,termswhichwereusedgliblyby
theeconomistsoftheagewithoutmuchthoughtfortheirfundamental
meaning."Thereisnowealthbutlife,"announcedRuskin,"life,including

allitspowersoflove,ofjoy,andofadmiration.Thatcountryisthe
richestwhichnourishesthegreatestnumberofnobleandhappyhuman
beings."Suchadoctrine,proclaimedbyGoldsmithinhis_Deserted
Village_,wasregardedasaprettysentiment,butcomingfromoneofthe
greatestleadersandteachersofEnglanditwaslikeabombshell.Ruskin
wrotefouressaysestablishingthisdoctrineandpleadingforamore
socialisticformofgovernmentinwhichreformmightbepossible.The
essayswerepublishedinthe_CornhillMagazine_,ofwhichThackeraywas
editor,andtheyarousedsuchastormthatthepublicationwas
discontinued.Ruskinthenpublishedtheessaysinbookform,withthetitle
_UntoThisLast_,in1862._MuneraPulveris_(1862)wasanotherworkin
whichtheprinciplesofcapitalandlaborandtheevilsofthecompetitive
systemwerediscussedinsuchawaythattheauthorwasdenouncedasa
visionaryoramadman.Otherworksofthispracticalperiodare_Timeand
Tide,ForsClavigera,SesameandLilies_,andthe_CrownofWildOlive_.
ThelatterpartofRuskin'slifewasatimeofincreasingsadness,due
partlytothefailureofhisplans,andpartlytopublicattacksuponhis
motivesoruponhissanity.Hegrewbitteratfirst,ashiscritics
ridiculedordenouncedhisprinciples,andattimeshisvoiceisas
querulousasthatofCarlyle.Wearetoremember,however,theconditions
underwhichhestruggled.Hishealthhadbeenshatteredbysuccessive
attacksofdisease;hehadbeendisappointedinlove;hismarriagewas
unhappy;andhisworkseemedafailure.Hehadgivennearlyallhisfortune
incharity,andthepoorweremorenumerousthaneverbefore.Hisfamous
St.George'sGuildwasnotsuccessful,andthetyrannyofthecompetitive
systemseemedtoodeeplyrootedtobeoverthrown.Onthedeathofhis
motherheleftLondonand,in1879,retiredtoBrantwood,onConistonLake,
inthebeautifulregionbelovedofWordsworth.Herehepassedthelast
quietyearsofhislifeunderthecareofhiscousin,Mrs.Severn,the
"angelofthehouse,"andwrote,atProfessorNorton'ssuggestion,
_Praeterita_,oneofhismostinterestingbooks,inwhichhedescribesthe
eventsofhisyouthfromhisownviewpoint.Hediedquietlyin1900,and
wasburied,ashewished,withoutfuneralpomporpublicceremony,inthe
littlechurchyardatConiston.
WORKSOFRUSKIN.Therearethreelittlebookswhich,inpopularfavor,
standfirstonthelistofRuskin'snumerousworks,_EthicsoftheDust_,
aseriesofLecturestoLittleHousewives,whichappealsmosttowomen;
_CrownofWildOlive_,threelecturesonWork,Traffic,andWar,which
appealstothoughtfulmenfacingtheproblemsofworkandduty;and_Sesame
andLilies_,whichappealstomenandwomenalike.Thelastisthemost
widelyknownofRuskin'sworksandthebestwithwhichtobeginour
reading.
Thefirstthingwenoticein_SesameandLilies_isthesymbolicaltitle.
"Sesame,"takenfromthestoryoftherobbers'caveinthe_Arabian
Nights_,meansasecretwordortalismanwhichunlocksatreasurehouse.It
wasintended,nodoubt,tointroducethefirstpartofthework,called"Of
Kings'Treasuries,"whichtreatsofbooksandreading."Lilies,"takenfrom
Isaiahasasymbolofbeauty,purity,andpeace,introducesthesecond
lecture,"OfQueens'Gardens,"whichisanexquisitestudyofwoman'slife
andeducation.Thesetwolecturesproperlyconstitutethebook,butathird
isadded,on"TheMysteryofLife."Thelastbeginsinamonologueuponhis
ownfailuresinlife,andispervadedbyanatmosphereofsadness,
sometimesofpessimism,quitedifferentfromthespiritoftheothertwo
lectures.
Thoughthethemeofthefirstlectureisbooks,Ruskinmanagestopresent
tohisaudiencehiswholephilosophyoflife.Hegivesus,withawealthof
detail,adescriptionofwhatconstitutesarealbook;helooksintothe
meaningofwords,andteachesushowtoread,usingaselectionfrom
Milton's_Lycidas_asanillustration.Thisstudyofwordsgivesusthekey
withwhichwearetounlock"Kings'Treasuries,"thatis,thebookswhich
containthepreciousthoughtsofthekinglymindsofallages.Heshowsthe

realmeaningandendofeducation,thevalueoflaborandofapurposein
life;hetreatsofnature,science,art,literature,religion;hedefines
thepurposeofgovernment,showingthatsoullife,notmoneyortrade,is
themeasureofnationalgreatness;andhecriticisesthegeneralinjustice
ofhisage,quotingaheartrendingstoryoftoilandsufferingfromthe
newspaperstoshowhowclosehistheoryistodailyneeds.Hereisan
astonishingvarietyinasmallcompass;butthereisnoconfusion.Ruskin's
mindwaswonderfullyanalytical,andonesubjectdevelopsnaturallyfrom
theother.
Inthesecondlecture,"OfQueens'Gardens,"heconsidersthequestionof
woman'splaceandeducation,whichTennysonhadattemptedtoanswerin_The
Princess_.Ruskin'stheoryisthatthepurposeofalleducationisto
acquirepowertoblessandtoredeemhumansociety;andthatinthisnoble
workwomanmustalwaysplaytheleadingpart.Hesearchesallliterature
forillustrations,andhisdescriptionofliteraryheroines,especiallyof
Shakespeare'sperfectwomen,isunrivaled.Ruskinisalwaysathisbestin
writingofwomenorforwomen,andtheloftyidealismofthisessay,
togetherwithitsrarebeautyofexpression,makesit,onthewhole,the
mostdelightfulandinspiringofhisworks.
AmongRuskin'spracticalworksthereaderwillfindin_ForsClavigera_,a
seriesofletterstoworkingmen,and_UntoThisLast_,fouressaysonthe
principlesofpoliticaleconomy,thesubstanceofhiseconomicteachings.
Inthelatterwork,startingwiththepropositionthatourpresent
competitivesystemcentersabouttheideaofwealth,Ruskintriestofind
outwhatwealthis;andthepithofhisteachingisthis,thatmenareof
moreaccountthanmoney;thataman'srealwealthisfoundinhissoul;not
inhispocket;andthattheprimeobjectoflifeandlaboris"the
producingofasmanyaspossiblefullbreathed,brighteyed,andhappy
heartedhumancreatures."Tomakethisidealpractical,Ruskinmakesfour
suggestions:(1)thattrainingschoolsbeestablishedtoteachyoungmen
andwomenthreethings,thelawsandpracticeofhealth,habitsof
gentlenessandjustice,andthetradeorcallingbywhichtheyaretolive;
(2)thatthegovernmentestablishfarmsandworkshopsfortheproductionof
allthenecessariesoflife,whereonlygoodandhonestworkshallbe
toleratedandwhereastandardofworkandwagesshallbemaintained;(3)
thatanypersonoutofemploymentshallbereceivedatthenearest
governmentschool:ifignorantheshallbeeducated,andifcompetenttodo
anyworkheshallhavetheopportunitytodoit;(4)thatcomfortablehomes
beprovidedforthesickandfortheaged,andthatthisbedonein
justice,notincharity.Alaborerserveshiscountryastrulyasdoesa
soldierorastatesman,andapensionshouldbenomoredisgracefulinone
casethanintheother.
AmongRuskin'snumerousbookstreatingofart,werecommendthe_Seven
LampsofArchitecture_(1849),_StonesofVenice_(18511853),andthe
firsttwovolumesof_ModernPainters_(18431846).WithRuskin'sart
theories,which,asSydneySmithprophesied,"workedacompleterevolution
intheworldoftaste,"weneednotconcernourselveshere.Wesimplypoint
outfourprinciplesthataremanifestinallhiswork:(1)thattheobject
ofart,asofeveryotherhumanendeavor,istofindandtoexpressthe
truth;(2)thatart,inordertobetrue,mustbreakawayfrom
conventionalitiesandcopynature;(3)thatmoralityiscloselyalliedwith
art,andthatacarefulstudyofanyartrevealsthemoralstrengthor
weaknessofthepeoplethatproducedit;(4)thatthemainpurposeofart
isnottodelightafewculturedpeoplebuttoservethedailyusesof
commonlife."Thegivingbrightnesstopicturesismuch,"hesays,"butthe
givingbrightnesstolifeismore."Inthisattempttomakeartservethe
practicalendsoflife,Ruskinisalliedwithallthegreatwritersofthe
period,whouseliteratureastheinstrumentofhumanprogress.
GENERALCHARACTERISTICS.OnewhoreadsRuskinisinastateofmind
analogoustothatofamanwhogoesthroughapicturegallery,pausingnow
toadmireafaceoralandscapeforitsownsake,andagaintomarvelat

thetechnicalskilloftheartist,withoutregardtohissubject.For
Ruskinisagreatliteraryartistandagreatethicalteacher,andwe
admireonepageforitsstyle,andthenextforitsmessagetohumanity.
Thebestofhisprose,whichonemayfindinthedescriptivepassagesof
_Prterita_and_ModernPainters_,iswritteninarichlyornatestyle,
withawealthoffiguresandallusions,andattimesarhythmic,melodious
qualitywhichmakesitalmostequaltopoetry.Ruskinhadarare
sensitivenesstobeautyineveryform,andmore,perhaps,thananyother
writerinourlanguage,hehashelpedustoseeandappreciatethebeauty
oftheworldaroundus.
AsforRuskin'sethicalteaching,itappearsinsomanyformsandinso
manydifferentworksthatanysummarymustappearinadequate.Forafull
halfcenturyhewas"theapostleofbeauty"inEngland,andthebeautyfor
whichhepleadedwasneversensuousorpagan,asintheRenaissance,but
alwaysspiritual,appealingtothesoulofmanratherthantohiseyes,
leadingtobetterworkandbetterliving.InhiseconomicessaysRuskinis
evenmoredirectlyandpositivelyethical.Tomitigatetheevilsofthe
unreasonablecompetitivesystemunderwhichwelaborandsorrow;tobring
masterandmantogetherinmutualtrustandhelpfulness;toseekbeauty,
truth,goodnessasthechiefendsoflife,and,havingfoundthem,tomake
ourcharacterscorrespond;tosharethebesttreasuresofartand
literaturewithrichandpooralike;tolaboralways,and,whetherwework
withhandorhead,todoourworkinpraiseofsomethingthatwelove,
thissumsupRuskin'spurposeandmessage.Andthebestofitisthat,like
Chaucer'scountryparson,hepracticedhisdoctrinebeforehepreachedit.
MATTHEWARNOLD(18221888)
IntheworldofliteratureArnoldhasoccupiedformanyyearsan
authoritativepositionascriticandteacher,similartothatheldby
Ruskinintheworldofart.Inhisliteraryworktwoverydifferentmoods
aremanifest.Inhispoetryhereflectsthedoubtofanagewhichwitnessed
theconflictbetweenscienceandrevealedreligion.Apparentlyhenever
passedthroughanysuchdecisivepersonalstruggleasisrecordedin
_SartorResartus_,andhehasnopositiveconvictionsuchasisvoicedin
"TheEverlastingYea."Heisbesetbydoubtswhichheneversettles,and
hispoemsgenerallyexpresssorroworregretorresignation.Inhisprose
heshowsthecavalierspirit,aggressive,lighthearted,selfconfident.
LikeCarlyle,hedislikesshams,andprotestsagainstwhathecallsthe
barbarismsofsociety;buthewriteswithalighttouch,usingsatireand
banterasthebetterpartofhisargument.Carlyledenounceswiththezeal
ofaHebrewprophet,andletsyouknowthatyouarehopelesslylostifyou
rejecthismessage.ArnoldismorelikethecultivatedGreek;hisvoiceis
soft,hisspeechsuave,butheleavestheimpression,ifyouhappento
differwithhim,thatyoumustbedeficientinculture.Boththesemen,so
differentinspiritandmethods,confrontedthesameproblems,soughtthe
sameends,andweredominatedbythesamemoralsincerity.
LIFE.ArnoldwasborninLaleham,inthevalleyoftheThames,in1822.His
fatherwasDr.ThomasArnold,headmasterofRugby,withwhommanyofus
havegrownfamiliarbyreading_TomBrown'sSchoolDays_.Afterfittingfor
theuniversityatWinchesterandatRugby,ArnoldenteredBalliolCollege,
Oxford,wherehewasdistinguishedbywinningprizesinpoetryandby
generalexcellenceintheclassics.MorethananyotherpoetArnold
reflectsthespiritofhisuniversity."TheScholarGipsy"and"Thyrsis"
containmanyreferencestoOxfordandthesurroundingcountry,buttheyare
morenoticeablefortheirspiritofaloofness,asifOxfordmenweretoo
muchoccupiedwithclassicdreamsandidealstoconcernthemselveswiththe
practicalaffairsoflife.
AfterleavingtheuniversityArnoldfirsttaughttheclassicsatRugby;
then,in1847,hebecameprivatesecretarytoLordLansdowne,whoappointed
theyoungpoettothepositionofinspectorofschoolsunderthe

government.InthispositionArnoldworkedpatientlyforthenextthirty
fiveyears,travelingaboutthecountry,examiningteachers,andcorrecting
endlessexaminationpapers.Fortenyears(18571867)hewasprofessorof
poetryatOxford,wherehisfamouslectures_OnTranslatingHomer_were
given.HemadenumerousreportsonEnglishandforeignschools,andwas
threetimessentabroadtostudyeducationalmethodsontheContinent.From
thisitwillbeseenthatArnoldledabusy,oftenalaboriouslife,andwe
canappreciatehisstatementthatallhisbestliteraryworkwasdonelate
atnight,afteradayofdrudgery.Itiswelltorememberthat,while
Carlylewaspreachingaboutlabor,Arnoldlaboreddaily;thathisworkwas
cheerfullyandpatientlydone;andthataftertheday'sworkhehurried
away,likeLamb,totheElysianfieldsofliterature.Hewashappily
married,lovedhishome,andespeciallylovedchildren,wasfreefromall
bitternessandenvy,and,notwithstandinghiscoldmanner,wasatheart
sincere,generous,andtrue.Weshallappreciatehisworkbetterifwecan
seethemanhimselfbehindallthathehaswritten.
Arnold'sliteraryworkdividesitselfintothreeperiods,whichwemaycall
thepoetical,thecritical,andthepractical.Hehadwrittenpoetrysince
hisschooldays,andhisfirstvolume,_TheStrayedRevellerandOther
Poems_,appearedanonymouslyin1849.Threeyearslaterhepublished
_EmpedoclesonEtnaandotherPoems;_butonlyafewcopiesofthese
volumesweresold,andpresentlybothwerewithdrawnfromcirculation.In
18531855hepublishedhissigned_Poems_,andtwelveyearslaterappeared
hislastvolumeofpoetry.ComparedwiththeearlyworkofTennyson,these
worksmetwithlittlefavor,andArnoldpracticallyabandonedpoetryin
favorofcriticalwriting.
Thechiefworksofhiscriticalperiodarethelectures_OnTranslating
Homer_(1861)andthetwovolumesof_EssaysinCriticism_(18651888),
whichmadeArnoldoneofthebestknownliterarymeninEngland.Then,like
Ruskin,heturnedtopracticalquestions,andhis_Friendship'sGarland_
(1871)wasintendedtosatirizeandperhapsreformthegreatmiddleclass
ofEngland,whomhecalledthePhilistines._CultureandAnarchy_,themost
characteristicworkofhispracticalperiod,appearedin1869.Thesewere
followedbyfourbooksonreligioussubjects,_St.PaulandProtestantism_
(1870),_LiteratureandDogma_(1873),_GodandtheBible_(1875),and
_LastEssaysonChurchandReligion_(1877).The_DiscoursesinAmerica_
(1885)completesthelistofhisimportantworks.Attheheightofhisfame
andinfluencehediedsuddenly,in1888,andwasburiedinthechurchyard
atLaleham.Thespiritofhiswholelifeiswellexpressedinafewlines
ofoneofhisownearlysonnets:
Onelesson,Nature,letmelearnofthee,
Onelessonwhichineverywindisblown,
Onelessonoftwodutieskeptatone
Thoughtheloudworldproclaimtheirenmity
Oftoilunsever'dfromtranquillity;
Oflabour,thatinlastingfruitoutgrows
Farnoisierschemes,accomplish'dinrepose,
Toogreatforhaste,toohighforrivalry.
WORKSOFMATTHEWARNOLD.WeshallbetterappreciateArnold'spoetryifwe
remembertwothings:First,hehadbeentaughtinhishomeasimpleand
devoutfaithinrevealedreligion,andincollegehewasthrownintoa
worldofdoubtandquestioning.Hefacedthesedoubtshonestly,
reverently,inhisheartlongingtoacceptthefaithofhisfathers,but
inhisheaddemandingproofandscientificexactness.Thesamestruggle
betweenheadandheart,betweenreasonandintuition,goesontoday,and
thatisonereasonwhyArnold'spoetry,whichwaversontheborderland
betweendoubtandfaith,isafavoritewithmanyreaders.Second,Arnold,
asshowninhisessayon_TheStudyofPoetry_,regardedpoetryas"a
criticismoflifeundertheconditionsfixedforsuchcriticismbythelaws
ofpoetictruthandpoeticbeauty."Naturally,onewhoregardspoetryasa
"criticism"willwriteverydifferentlyfromonewhoregardspoetryasthe

naturallanguageofthesoul.Hewillwritefortheheadratherthanfor
theheart,andwillbecoldandcriticalratherthanenthusiastic.
AccordingtoArnold,eachpoemshouldbeaunit,andheprotestedagainst
thetendencyofEnglishpoetstousebrilliantphrasesandfiguresof
speechwhichonlydetractattentionfromthepoemasawhole.Forhis
modelshewenttoGreekpoetry,whichheregardedas"theonlysure
guidancetowhatissoundandtrueinpoeticalart."Arnoldis,however,
moreindebtedthanhethinkstoEnglishmasters,especiallytoWordsworth
andMilton,whoseinfluenceisnoticeableinalargepartofhispoetry.
OfArnold'snarrativepoemsthetwobestknownare_BalderDead_(1855),an
incursionintothefieldofNorsemythologywhichissuggestiveofGray,
and_SohrabandRustum_(1853),whichtakesusintothefieldoflegendary
Persianhistory.Thethemeofthelatterpoemistakenfromthe_Shah
Namah_(BookofKings)ofthePersianpoetFirdausi,wholivedandwrotein
theeleventhcentury.
Briefly,thestoryisofoneRustemorRustum,aPersianAchilles,whofell
asleeponedaywhenhehadgrownwearyofhunting.Whilehesleptabandof
robbersstolehisfavoritehorse,Ruksh.IntrailingtherobbersRustum
cametothepalaceofthekingofSamengan,wherehewasroyallywelcomed,
andwherehefellinlovewiththeking'sdaughter,Temineh,andmarried
her.Buthewasofaroving,adventurousdisposition,andsoonwentbackto
fightamonghisownpeople,thePersians.WhilehewasgonehissonSohrab
wasborn,grewtomanhood,andbecametheherooftheTuranarmy.Wararose
betweenthetwopeoples,andtwohostilearmieswereencampedbytheOxus.
Eacharmychoseachampion,andRustumandSohrabfoundthemselvesmatched
inmortalcombatbetweenthelines.AtthispointSohrab,whosechief
interestinlifewastofindhisfather,demandedtoknowifhisenemywere
notRustum;butthelatterwasdisguisedanddeniedhisidentity.Onthe
firstdayofthefightRustumwasovercome,buthislifewassparedbya
trickandbythegenerosityofSohrab.OntheseconddayRustumprevailed,
andmortallywoundedhisantagonist.Thenherecognizedhisownsonbya
goldbraceletwhichhehadlongagogiventohiswifeTemineh.Thetwo
armies,rushingintobattle,werestoppedbythesightoffatherandson
weepingineachother'sarms.Sohrabdied,thewarceased,andRustumwent
hometoalifeofsorrowandremorse.
Usingthisinterestingmaterial,Arnoldproducedapoemwhichhastherare
anddifficultcombinationofclassicreserveandromanticfeeling.Itis
writteninblankverse,andonehasonlytoreadthefirstfewlinestosee
thatthepoetisnotamasterofhisinstrument.Thelinesareseldom
harmonious,andwemustfrequentlychangetheaccentofcommonwords,or
laystressonunimportantparticles,toshowtherhythm.Arnoldfrequently
copiesMilton,especiallyinhisrepetitionofideasandphrases;butthe
poemasawholeislackinginMilton'swonderfulmelody.
Theclassicinfluenceon_SohrabandRustum_isespeciallynoticeablein
Arnold'suseofmaterials.Fightsareshort;griefislong;thereforethe
poetgivesfewlinestothecombat,butlingersovertheson'sjoyat
findinghisfather,andthefather'squenchlesssorrowatthedeathofhis
son.Thelastlinesespecially,withtheir"passionategriefsettosolemn
music,"makethispoemoneofthebest,onthewhole,thatArnoldhas
written.Andtheexquisiteending,wheretheOxus,unmindfulofthetrivial
strifesofmen,flowsonsedatelytojoin"hisluminoushomeofwaters"is
mostsuggestiveofthepoet'sconceptionoftheorderlylifeofnature,in
contrastwiththedoubtandrestlessnessofhumanlife.
Nextinimportancetothenarrativepoemsaretheelegies,"Thyrsis,""The
ScholarGipsy,""MemorialVerses,""ASouthernNight,""Obermann,""Stanzas
fromtheGrandeChartreuse,"and"RugbyChapel."Alltheseareworthyof
carefulreading,butthebestis"Thyrsis,"alamentforthepoetClough,
whichissometimesclassedwithMilton's_Lycidas_andShelley's_Adonais_.
AmongtheminorpoemsthereaderwillfindthebestexpressionofArnold's
idealsandmethodsin"DoverBeach,"thelovelyricsentitled

"Switzerland,""Requiescat,""Shakespeare,""TheFuture,""Kensington
Gardens,""Philomela,""HumanLife,""Callicles'sSong,""Morality,"and
"Geist'sGrave."thelastbeinganexquisitetributetoalittledog
which,likeallhiskind,hadrepaidourscantcrumbsofaffectionwitha
wholelife'sdevotion.
ThefirstplaceamongArnold'sproseworksmustbegiventothe_Essaysin
Criticism_,whichraisedtheauthortothefrontrankoflivingcritics.
Hisfundamentalideaofcriticismappealstousstrongly.Thebusinessof
criticism,hesays,isneithertofindfaultnortodisplaythecritic's
ownlearningorinfluence;itistoknow"thebestwhichhasbeenthought
andsaidintheworld,"andbyusingthisknowledgetocreateacurrentof
freshandfreethought.Ifachoicemustbemadeamongtheseessays,which
areallworthyofstudy,wewouldsuggest"TheStudyofPoetry,"
"Wordsworth,""Byron,"and"Emerson."Thelastnamedessay,whichisfound
inthe_DiscoursesinAmerica_,ishardlyasatisfactoryestimateof
Emerson,butitssingularcharmofmanneranditsatmosphereof
intellectualculturemakeitperhapsthemostcharacteristicofArnold's
prosewritings.
AmongtheworksofArnold'spracticalperiodtherearetwowhichmaybe
takenastypicalofalltherest._LiteratureandDogma_(1873)is,in
general,apleaforliberalityinreligion.Arnoldwouldhaveusreadthe
Bible,forinstance,aswewouldreadanyothergreatwork,andapplytoit
theordinarystandardsofliterarycriticism.
_CultureandAnarchy_(1869)containsmostofthetermsculture,sweetness
andlight,Barbarian,Philistine,Hebraism,andmanyotherswhicharenow
associatedwithArnold'sworkandinfluence.Theterm"Barbarian"refersto
thearistocraticclasses,whomArnoldthoughttobeessentiallycrudein
soul,notwithstandingtheirgoodclothesandsuperficialgraces.
"Philistine"referstothemiddleclasses,narrowmindedand
selfsatisfiedpeople,accordingtoArnold,whomhesatirizeswiththeidea
ofopeningtheirmindstonewideas."Hebraism"isArnold'stermformoral
education.CarlylehademphasizedtheHebraicormoralelementinlife,and
ArnoldundertooktopreachtheHellenicorintellectualelement,which
welcomesnewideas,anddelightsintheartsthatreflectthebeautyofthe
world."Theuppermostideawith.Hellenism,"hesays,"istoseethingsas
theyare;theuppermostideawithHebraismisconductandobedience."With
greatclearness,sometimeswithgreatforce,andalwayswithaplayof
humorandrailleryaimedatthe"Philistines,"Arnoldpleadsforboththese
elementsinlifewhichtogetheraimat"Culture,"thatis,atmoraland
intellectualperfection.
GENERALCHARACTERISTICS.Arnold'sinfluenceinourliteraturemaybesummed
up,inaword,asintellectualratherthaninspirational.Onecannotbe
enthusiasticoverhispoetry,forthesimplereasonthathehimselflacked
enthusiasm.Heis,however,atruereflectionofaveryrealmoodofthe
pastcentury,themoodofdoubtandsorrow;andafuturegenerationmay
givehimahigherplacethanhenowholdsasapoet.Thoughmarkedby"the
elementalnoteofsadness,"allArnold'spoemsaredistinguishedby
clearness,simplicity,andtherestrainedemotionofhisclassicmodels.
Asaprosewriterthecoldintellectualquality,whichmarshispoetryby
restrainingromanticfeeling,isoffirstimportance,sinceitleadshimto
approachliteraturewithanopenmindandwiththesingledesiretofind
"thebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandsaidintheworld."Wecannotyet
speakwithconfidenceofhisrankinliterature;butbyhiscrystalclear
style,hisscientificspiritofinquiryandcomparison,illuminedhereand
therebytheplayofhumor,andespeciallybyhisbroadsympathyand
intellectualculture,heseemsdestinedtooccupyaveryhighplaceamong
themastersofliterarycriticism.
JOHNHENRYNEWMAN(18011890)

AnyrecordoftheproseliteratureoftheVictorianera,whichincludesthe
historicalessaysofMacaulayandtheartcriticismofRuskin,should
containalsosomenoticeofitsspiritualleaders.Fortherewasnevera
timewhenthereligiousidealsthatinspiretheracewerekeptmore
constantlybeforemen'smindsthroughthemediumofliterature.
Amongthereligiouswritersoftheagethefirstplacebelongs
unquestionablytoCardinalNewman.Whetherweconsiderhimasaman,with
hispowerfulyetgraciouspersonality,orasareligiousreformer,whodid
muchtobreakdownoldreligiousprejudicesbyshowingtheunderlying
beautyandconsistencyoftheRomanchurch,orasaprosewriterwhose
styleisasnearperfectionaswehaveeverreached,Newmanisoneofthe
mostinterestingfiguresofthewholenineteenthcentury.
LIFE.ThreethingsstandoutclearlyinNewman'slife:first,hisunshaken
faithinthedivinecompanionshipandguidance;second,hisdesiretofind
andtoteachthetruthofrevealedreligion;third,hisquestofan
authoritativestandardoffaith,whichshouldremainsteadfastthroughthe
changingcenturiesandamidallsortsandconditionsofmen.Thefirstled
tothatrareandbeautifulspiritualqualitywhichshinesinallhiswork;
thesecondtohisfrequentdoctrinalandcontroversialessays;thethirdto
hisconversiontotheCatholicchurch,whichheservedaspriestand
teacherforthelastfortyfiveyearsofhislife.Perhapsweshouldadd
onemorecharacteristic,thepracticalbentofhisreligion;forhewas
neversobusywithstudyorcontroversythatheneglectedtogivealarge
partofhistimetogentleministrationamongthepoorandneedy.
HewasborninLondon,in1801.HisfatherwasanEnglishbanker;his
mother,amemberofaFrenchHuguenotfamily,wasathoughtful,devout
woman,whobroughtuphersoninawaywhichsuggeststhemotherofRuskin.
Ofhisearlytraining,hisreadingofdoctrinalandargumentativeworks,
andofhisisolationfrommaterialthingsinthethoughtthattherewere
"twoandonlytwoabsoluteandluminouslyselfevidentbeingsinthe
world,"himselfandhisCreator,itisbettertoreadhisownrecordinthe
_Apologia_,whichisakindofspiritualbiography.
AttheageoffifteenNewmanhadbegunhisprofoundstudyoftheological
subjects.Forscience,literature,art,nature,allthebroadinterests
whichattractedotherliterarymenofhisage,hecaredlittle,hismind
beingwhollyoccupiedwiththehistoryanddoctrinesoftheChristian
church,towhichhehadalreadydevotedhislife.Hewaseducatedfirstat
theschoolinEaling,thenatOxford,takinghisdegreeinthelatterplace
in1820.Thoughhiscollegecareerwasnotmorebrilliantthanthatofmany
unknownmen,hisunusualabilitywasrecognizedandhewasmadeafellowof
OrielCollege,retainingthefellowship,andleadingascholarlylifefor
overtwentyyears.In1824hewasordainedintheAnglicanchurch,andfour
yearslaterwaschosenvicarofSt.Mary's,atOxford,wherehissermons
madeadeepimpressiononthecultivatedaudiencesthatgatheredfromfar
andneartohearhim.
AchangeisnoticeableinNewman'slifeafterhistriptotheMediterranean
in1832.HehadbegunhislifeasaCalvinist,butwhileinOxford,then
thecenterofreligiousunrest,hedescribedhimselfas"driftinginthe
directionofLiberalism."Thenstudyandbereavementandaninnate
mysticismledhimtoaprofoundsympathywiththemedivalChurch.Hehad
fromthebeginningopposedCatholicism;butduringhisvisittoItaly,
wherehesawtheRomanchurchatthecenterofItspowerandsplendor,many
ofhisprejudiceswereovercome.Inthisenlargementofhisspiritual
horizonNewmanwasgreatlyinfluencedbyhisfriendHurrellFroude,with
whomhemadethefirstpartofthejourney.Hispoemsofthisperiod
(afterwardscollectedinthe_LyraApostolica_),amongwhichisthefamous
"Lead,KindlyLight,"arenoticeablefortheirradiantspirituality;but
onewhoreadsthemcarefullyseesthebeginningofthatmentalstruggle
whichendedinhisleavingthechurchinwhichhewasborn.Thushewrites

oftheCatholicchurch,whoseserviceshehadattendedas"onewhoina
foreignlandreceivesthegiftsofagoodSamaritan":
Othatthycreedweresound!
Forthoudostsoothetheheart,thouchurchofRome,
Bythyunweariedwatchandvariedround
Ofservice,inthySaviour'sholyhome.
Icannotwalkthecity'ssultrystreets,
Butthewideporchinvitestostillretreats,
Wherepassion'sthirstiscalmed,andcare'sunthankfulgloom.
OnhisreturntoEngland,in1833,heenteredintothereligiousstruggle
knownastheOxfordorTractarianMovement,[245]andspeedilybecameits
acknowledgedleader.Thosewhowishtofollowthisattemptatreligious
reform,whichprofoundlyaffectedthelifeofthewholeEnglishchurch,
willfinditrecordedinthe_TractsfortheTimes_,twentynineofwhich
werewrittenbyNewman,andinhis_ParochialandPlainSermons_(1837
1843).AfternineyearsofspiritualconflictNewmanretiredtoLittlemore,
where,withafewfollowers,heledalifeofalmostmonasticseclusion,
stillstrivingtoreconcilehischangingbeliefwiththedoctrinesofhis
ownchurch.TwoyearslaterheresignedhischargeatSt.Mary'sandleft
theAnglicancommunion,notbitterly,butwithadeepandtenderregret.
HislastsermonatLittlemoreon"ThePartingofFriends"stillmovesus
profoundly,likethecryofaprophettornbypersonalanguishintheface
ofduty.In1845hewasreceivedintotheCatholicchurch,andthe
followingyear,atRome,hejoinedthecommunityofSt.PhilipNeri,"the
saintofgentlenessandkindness,"asNewmandescribeshim,andwas
ordainedtotheRomanpriesthood.
ByhispreachingandwritingNewmanhadexercisedastronginfluenceover
hiscultivatedEnglishhearers,andtheeffectofhisconversionwas
tremendous.Intothetheologicalcontroversyofthenexttwentyyearswe
havenomindtoenter.ThroughitallNewmanretainedhisserenity,and,
thoughamasterofironyandsatire,kepthisliterarypoweralways
subordinatetohischiefaim,whichwastoestablishthetruthashesaw
it.Whetherornotweagreewithhisconclusions,wemustalladmirethe
spiritoftheman,whichisabovepraiseorcriticism.Hismostwidelyread
work,_ApologiaProVitaSua_(1864),waswritteninanswertoan
unfortunateattackbyCharlesKingsley,whichwouldlongsincehavebeen
forgottenhaditnotledtothisremarkablebook.In1854Newmanwas
appointedrectoroftheCatholicUniversityinDublin,butafterfouryears
returnedtoEnglandandfoundedaCatholicschoolatEdgbaston.In1879he
wasmadecardinalbyPopeLeoXIII.Thegraceanddignityofhislife,
quiteasmuchasthesincerityofhis_Apologia_,hadlongsincedisarmed
criticism,andathisdeath,in1890,thethoughtofallEnglandmightwell
beexpressedbyhisownlinesin"TheDreamofGerontius":
Ihadadream.Yes,someonesoftlysaid,
"He'sgone,"andthenasighwentroundtheroom;
AndthenIsurelyheardapriestlyvoice
Cry_Subvenite_;andtheykneltinprayer.
WORKSOFNEWMAN.ReadersapproachNewmanfromsomanydifferentmotives,
somefordoctrine,someforargument,someforapureprosestyle,thatit
isdifficulttorecommendthebestworksforthebeginner'suse.Asan
expressionofNewman'sspiritualstrugglethe_ApologiaProVitaSua_is
perhapsthemostsignificant.Thisbookisnotlightreadingandonewho
opensitshouldunderstandclearlythereasonsforwhichitwaswritten.
Newmanhadbeenaccusedofinsincerity,notonlybyKingsleybutbymany
othermen,inthepublicpress.Hisretirementtosolitudeandmeditation
atLittlemorehadbeenoutrageouslymisunderstood,anditwasopenly
chargedthathisconversionwasacunninglydevisedplottowinalarge
numberofhisfollowerstotheCatholicchurch.Thischargeinvolved
others,anditwastodefendthem,aswellastovindicatehimself,that
Newmanwrotethe_Apologia_.Theperfectsinceritywithwhichhetracedhis

religioushistory,showingthathisconversionwasonlythefinalstepina
coursehehadbeenfollowingsinceboyhood,silencedhiscriticsand
revolutionizedpublicopinionconcerninghimselfandthechurchwhichhe
hadjoined.Astherevelationofasoul'shistory,andasamodelofpure,
simple,unaffectedEnglish,thisbook,entirelyapartfromitsdoctrinal
teaching,deservesahighplaceinourproseliterature.
InNewman'sdoctrinalworks,the_ViaMedia_,the_GrammarofAssent_,and
innumerouscontroversialessaysthestudentofliteraturewillhavelittle
interest.Muchmoresignificantarehissermons,theunconsciousreflection
ofararespiritualnature,ofwhichProfessorShairpsaid:"Hispower
showsitselfclearlyinthenewandunlookedforwayinwhichhetouched
intolifeoldtruths,moralorspiritual....Andashespoke,howtheold
truthbecamenew!andhowitcamehomewithameaningneverfeltbefore!He
laidhisfingerhowgentlyyethowpowerfullyonsomeinnerplaceinthe
hearer'sheart,andtoldhimthingsabouthimselfhehadneverknowntill
then.Subtlesttruths,whichwouldhavetakenphilosopherspagesof
circumlocutionandbigwordstostate,weredroppedoutbythewayina
sentenceortwoofthemosttransparentSaxon."Ofgreaterinteresttothe
generalreaderare_TheIdeaofaUniversity_,discoursesdeliveredat
Dublin,andhistwoworksoffiction,_LossandGain_,treatingofaman's
conversiontoCatholicism,and_Callista_,whichis,inhisownwords,"an
attempttoexpressthefeelingsandmutualrelationsofChristiansand
heathensinthemiddleofthethirdcentury."Thelatteris,inour
judgment,themostreadableandinterestingofNewman'sworks.The
characterofCallista,abeautifulGreeksculptorofidols,ispowerfully
delineated;thestyleisclearandtransparentasair,andthestoryofthe
heroine'sconversionanddeathmakesoneofthemostfascinatingchapters
infiction,thoughitisnotthestorysomuchastheauthor'sunconscious
revelationofhimselfthatcharmsus.Itwouldbewelltoreadthisnovel
inconnectionwithKingsley's_Hypatia_,whichattemptstoreconstructthe
lifeandidealsofthesameperiod.
Newman'spoemsarenotsowellknownashisprose,butthereaderwho
examinesthe_LyraApostolica_and_VersesonVariousOccasions_willfind
manyshortpoemsthatstirareligiousnatureprofoundlybytheirpureand
loftyimagination;andfuturegenerationsmaypronounceoneofthesepoems,
"TheDreamofGerontius,"tobeNewman'smostenduringwork.Thispoemaims
toreproducethethoughtsandfeelingsofamanwhosesoulisjustquitting
thebody,andwhoisjustbeginninganewandgreaterlife.Bothinstyle
andinthought"TheDream"isapowerfulandoriginalpoemandisworthyof
attentionnotonlyforitselfbut,asamoderncriticsuggests,"asa
revelationofthathighspiritualpurposewhichanimatedNewman'slifefrom
beginningtoend."
OfNewman'sstyleitisasdifficulttowriteasitwouldbetodescribe
thedressofagentlemanwehadmet,whowassoperfectlydressedthatwe
paidnoattentiontohisclothes.Hisstyleiscalledtransparent,because
atfirstwearenotconsciousofhismanner;andunobtrusive,becausewe
neverthinkofNewmanhimself,butonlyofthesubjectheisdiscussing.He
islikethebestFrenchprosewritersinexpressinghisthoughtwithsuch
naturalnessandapparenteasethat,withoutthinkingofstyle,wereceive
exactlytheimpressionwhichhemeanstoconvey.Inhissermonsandessays
heiswonderfullysimpleanddirect;inhiscontroversialwritings,gently
ironicalandsatiric,andthesatireispervadedbyadelicatehumor;but
whenhisfeelingsarearousedhespeakswithpoeticimagesandsymbols,and
hiseloquenceislikethatoftheOldTestamentprophets.LikeRuskin's,
hisstyleismodeledlargelyonthatoftheBible,butnotevenRuskin
equalshiminthepoeticbeautyandmelodyofhissentences.Onthewhole
hecomesnearerthananyotherofhisagetoouridealofaperfectprose
writer.
OTHERESSAYISTSOFTHEVICTORIANAGE.Wehaveselectedtheabovefive
essayists,Macaulay,Carlyle,Arnold,Newman,andRuskin,asrepresentative
writersoftheVictorianAge;buttherearemanyotherswhowellrepayour

study.NotableamongtheseareJohnAddingtonSymonds,authorof_The
RenaissanceinItaly_,undoubtedlyhisgreatestwork,andofmanycritical
essays;WalterPater,whose_Appreciations_andnumerousotherworksmark
himasoneofourbestliterarycritics;andLeslieStephen,famousforhis
workonthemonumental_DictionaryofNationalBiography_,andforhis
_HoursinaLibrary_,aseriesofimpartialandexcellentcriticisms,
brightenedbytheplayofanoriginalanddelightfulhumor.
Amongthemostfamouswritersoftheagearethescientists,Lyell,Darwin,
Huxley,Spencer,Tyndall,andWallace,awonderfulgroupofmenwhose
works,thoughtheyhardlybelongtoourpresentstudy,haveexercisedan
incalculableinfluenceonourlifeandliterature.Darwin's_Originof
Species_(1859),whichapparentlyestablishedthetheoryofevolution,was
anepochmakingbook.Itrevolutionizednotonlyourconceptionsofnatural
history,butalsoourmethodsofthinkingonalltheproblemsofhuman
society.Thosewhowouldreadasummaryofthegreatestscientific
discoveryoftheagewillfinditinWallace's_Darwinism_,amost
interestingbook,writtenbythemanwhoclaims,withDarwin,thehonorof
firstannouncingtheprincipleofevolution.And,fromamultitudeof
scientificworks,werecommendalsotothegeneralreaderHuxley's
_Autobiography_andhis_LaySermons,Addresses,andReviews_,partly
becausetheyareexcellentexpressionsofthespiritandmethodsof
science,andpartlybecauseHuxleyasawriterisperhapstheclearestand
themostreadableofthescientists.
THESPIRITOFMODERNLITERATURE.Aswereflectonthevariedworkofthe
Victorianwriters,threemarkedcharacteristicsinviteourattention.
First,ourgreatliterarymen,nolessthanourgreatscientists,havemade
truththesupremeobjectofhumanendeavor.Alltheseeagerpoets,
novelists,andessayists,questingoversomanydifferentways,areequally
intentondiscoveringthetruthoflife.MenasfarapartasDarwinand
Newmanarestrangelyalikeinspirit,oneseekingtruthinthenatural,the
otherinthespiritualhistoryoftherace.Second,literaturehasbecome
themirroroftruth;andthefirstrequirementofeveryseriousnovelor
essayistobetruetothelifeorthefactswhichitrepresents.Third,
literaturehasbecomeanimatedbyadefinitemoralpurpose.Itisnot
enoughfortheVictorianwriterstocreateorattemptanartisticworkfor
itsownsake;theworkmusthaveadefinitelessonforhumanity.Thepoets
arenotonlysingers,butleaders;theyholdupanideal,andtheycompel
mentorecognizeandfollowit.Thenoveliststellastorywhichpictures
humanlife,andatthesametimecallustotheworkOfsocialreform,or
drivehomeamorallesson.Theessayistsarenearlyallprophetsor
teachers,anduseliteratureasthechiefinstrumentofprogressand
education.Amongthemallwefindcomparativelylittleoftheexuberant
fancy,theromanticardor,andtheboyishgladnessoftheElizabethans.
Theywritebooksnotprimarilytodelighttheartisticsense,buttogive
breadtothehungryandwatertothethirstyinsoul.Milton'sfamous
sentence,"Agoodbookisthepreciouslifebloodofamasterspirit,"
mightbewrittenacrossthewholeVictorianera.Wearestilltoonear
thesewriterstojudgehowfartheirworksuffersartisticallyfromtheir
practicalpurpose;butthismuchiscertain,thatwhetherornotthey
createdimmortalworks,theirbookshavemadethepresentworldabetter
andahappierplacetolivein.Andthatisperhapsthebestthatcanbe
saidoftheworkofanyartistorartisan.
SUMMARYOFTHEVICTORIANAGE.Theyear1830isgenerallyplacedatthe
beginningofthisperiod,butitslimitsareveryindefinite.Ingeneralwe
maythinkofitascoveringthereignofVictoria(18371901).Historically
theageisremarkableforthegrowthofdemocracyfollowingtheReformBill
of1832;forthespreadofeducationamongallclasses;fortherapid
developmentoftheartsandsciences;forimportantmechanicalinventions;
andfortheenormousextensionoftheboundsofhumanknowledgebythe
discoveriesofscience.
AttheaccessionofVictoriatheromanticmovementhadspentitsforce;

Wordsworthhadwrittenhisbestwork;theotherromanticpoets,Coleridge,
Shelley,Keats,andByron,hadpassedaway;andforatimenonew
developmentwasapparentinEnglishpoetry.ThoughtheVictorianAge
producedtwogreatpoets,TennysonandBrowning,theage,asawhole,is
remarkableforthevarietyandexcellenceofitsprose.Astudyofallthe
greatwritersoftheperiodrevealsfourgeneralcharacteristics:(1)
LiteratureinthisAgehascomeveryclosetodailylife,reflectingits
practicalproblemsandinterests,andisapowerfulinstrumentofhuman
progress.(2)Thetendencyofliteratureisstronglyethical;allthegreat
poets,novelists,andessayistsoftheagearemoralteachers.(3)Science
inthisageexercisesanincalculableinfluence.Ontheonehandit
emphasizestruthasthesoleobjectofhumanendeavor;ithasestablished
theprincipleoflawthroughouttheuniverse;andithasgivenusan
entirelynewviewoflife,assummedupintheword"evolution,"thatis,
theprincipleofgrowthordevelopmentfromsimpletocomplexforms.Onthe
otherhand,itsfirsteffectseemstobetodiscourageworksofthe
imagination.Thoughtheageproducedanincrediblenumberofbooks,very
fewofthembelongamongthegreatcreativeworksofliterature.(4)Though
theageisgenerallycharacterizedaspracticalandmaterialistic,itis
significantthatnearlyallthewriterswhomthenationdelightstohonor
vigorouslyattackmaterialism,andexaltapurelyidealconceptionoflife.
Onthewhole,weareinclinedtocallthisanidealisticagefundamentally,
sincelove,truth,justice,brotherhoodallgreatidealsareemphasized
asthechiefendsoflife,notonlybyitspoetsbutalsobyitsnovelists
andessayists.
Inourstudywehaveconsidered:(1)ThePoets;thelifeandworksof
TennysonandBrowning;andthechiefcharacteristicsoftheminorpoets,
ElizabethBarrett(Mrs.Browning),Rossetti,Morris,andSwinburne.(2)The
Novelists;thelifeandworksofDickens,Thackeray,andGeorgeEliot;and
thechiefworksofCharlesReade,AnthonyTrollope,CharlotteBront,
BulwerLytton,Kingsley,Mrs.Gaskell,Blackmore,GeorgeMeredith,Hardy,
andStevenson.(3)TheEssayists;thelifeandworksofMacaulay,Matthew
Arnold,Carlyle,Newman,andRuskin.Thesewereselected,fromamongmany
essayistsandmiscellaneouswriters,asmosttypicaloftheVictorianAge.
Thegreatscientists,likeLyell,Darwin,Huxley,Wallace,Tyndall,and
Spencer,hardlybelongtoourstudyofliterature,thoughtheirworksare
ofvastimportance;andweomittheworksoflivingwriterswhobelongto
thepresentratherthantothepastcentury.
SELECTIONSFORREADING.Manly'sEnglishPoetryandManly'sEnglishProse
(GinnandCompany)containexcellentselectionsfromallauthorsofthis
period.Manyothercollections,likeWard'sEnglishPoets,Garnett's
EnglishProsefromElizabethtoVictoria,Page'sBritishPoetsofthe
NineteenthCentury,andStedman'sAVictorianAnthology,maybeusedto
advantage.Allimportantworksmaybefoundintheconvenientand
inexpensiveschooleditionsgivenbelow.(Forfulltitlesandpublishers
seetheGeneralBibliography.)
_Tennyson_.Shortpoems,andselectionsfromIdyllsoftheKing,In
Memoriam,EnochArden,andThePrincess.Thesearefoundinvariousschool
editions,StandardEnglishClassics,PocketClassics,RiversideLiterature
Series,etc.PoemsbyTennyson,selectedandeditedwithnotesbyHenryVan
Dyke(AthenaeumPressSeries),isanexcellentlittlevolumeforbeginners.
_Browning_.Selections,editedbyR.M.Lovett,inStandardEnglish
Classics.OtherschooleditionsinEveryman'sLibrary,BellesLettres
Series,etc.
_ElizabethBarrettBrowning_.Selections,editedbyElizabethLee,in
StandardEnglishClassics.SelectionsalsoinPocketClassics,etc.
_MatthewArnold_.SohrabandRustum,editedbyTrentandBrewster,in
StandardEnglishClassics.ThesamepoeminRiversideLiteratureSeries,

etc.SelectionsinGoldenTreasurySeries,etc.Poems,students'edition
(Crowell).EssaysinEveryman'sLibrary,etc.Proseselections(Holt,Allyn
&Bacon,etc.).
_Dickens_.TaleofTwoCities,editedbyJ.W.Linn,inStandardEnglish
Classics.AChristmasCarol,DavidCopperfield,andPickwickPapers.
VariousgoodschooleditionsofthesenovelsinEveryman'sLibrary,etc.
_Thackeray_.HenryEsmond,editedbyH.B.Moore,inStandardEnglish
Classics.Thesamenovel,inEveryman'sLibrary,PocketClassics,etc.
_GeorgeEliot_.SilasMarner,editedbyR.AdelaideWitham,inStandard
EnglishClassics.Thesamenovel,inPocketClassics,etc.
_Carlyle_.EssayonBurns,editedbyC.L.Hanson,inStandardEnglish
Classics,andHeroesandHeroWorship,editedbyA.MacMechan,inAthenaeum
PressSeries.Selections,editedbyH.W.Boynton(Allyn&Bacon).Various
otherinexpensiveeditions,inPocketClassics,EclecticEnglishClassics,
etc.
_Ruskin_.SesameandLilies,editedbyLoisG.Hufford,inStandardEnglish
Classics.OthereditionsinRiversideLiterature,Everyman'sLibrary,etc.
SelectedEssaysandLetters,editedbyHufford,inStandardEnglish
Classics.Selections,editedbyVidaD.Scudder(Sibley);editedbyC.B.
Tinker,inRiversideLiterature.
_Macaulay_.EssaysonAddisonandMilton,editedbyH.A.Smith,inStandard
EnglishClassics.Sameessays,inCassell'sNationalLibrary,Riverside
Literature,etc.LaysofAncientRome,inStandardEnglishClassics,Pocket
Classics,etc.
_Newman_.Selections,withintroductionbyL.E.Gates(Holt);Selections
fromproseandpoetry,inRiversideLiterature.TheIdeaofaUniversity,
inManly'sEnglishProse.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.(note.Forfulltitlesandpublishersofgeneralreference
books,seeGeneralBibliography.)_HISTORY.Textbook_,Montgomery,pp.
357383;Cheyney,pp.632643._GeneralWorks_.Gardiner,andTraill.
_SpecialWorks_.McCarthy'sHistoryofOurOwnTimes;Bright'sHistoryof
England,vols.45;Lee'sQueenVictoria;Bryce'sStudiesinContemporary
Biography.
_LITERATURE.GeneralWorks_.GarnettandGosse,Taine._SpecialWorks_.
Harrison'sEarlyVictorianLiterature;Saintsbury'sAHistoryofNineteenth
CenturyLiterature;Walker'sTheAgeofTennyson;sameauthor'sTheGreater
VictorianPoets;Morley'sLiteratureoftheAgeofVictoria;Stedman's
VictorianPoets;Mrs.Oliphant'sLiteraryHistoryofEnglandinthe
NineteenthCentury;Beers'sEnglishRomanticismintheNineteenthCentury;
Dowden'sVictorianLiterature,inTranscriptsandStudies;Brownell's
VictorianProseMasters.
_Tennyson_.Texts:Cabinetedition(London,1897)isthestandard.Various
goodeditions,Globe,CambridgePoets,etc.SelectionsinAthenaeumPress
(GinnandCompany).
Life:AlfredLordTennyson,aMemoirbyhisson,isthestandard;byLyall
(inEnglishMenofLetters);byHorton;byWaugh.SeealsoAnneT.
Ritchie'sTennysonandHisFriends;Napier'sTheHomesandHauntsof
Tennyson;Rawnsley'sMemoriesoftheTennysons.
Criticism:Brooke'sTennyson,hisArtandhisRelationtoModernLife;A.
Lang'sAlfredTennyson;VanDyke'sThePoetryofTennyson;Sneath'sThe
MindofTennyson;Gwynn'sACriticalStudyofTennyson'sWorks;Luce's
HandbooktoTennyson'sWorks;Dixon'sATennysonPrimer;Masterman's

TennysonasaReligiousTeacher;Collins'sTheEarlyPoemsofTennyson;
Macallum'sTennyson'sIdyllsoftheKingandtheArthurianStory;Bradley's
CommentaryonInMemoriam;Bagehot'sLiteraryStudies,vol.2;Brightwell's
Concordance;Shepherd'sBibliography.
Essays:ByF.Harrison,inTennyson,Ruskin,Mill,andOtherLiterary
Estimates;byStedman,inVictorianPoets;byHutton,inLiteraryEssays;
byDowden,inStudiesinLiterature;byGates,inStudiesand
Appreciations;byForster,inGreatTeachers;byForman,inOurLiving
Poets.SeealsoMyers'sScienceandaFutureLife.
_Browning_.Texts:CambridgeandGlobeeditions,etc.Variouseditionsof
selections.(SeeSelectionsforReading,above.)
Life:byW.Sharp(GreatWriters);byChesterton(EnglishMenofLetters);
LifeandLetters,byMrs.SutherlandOrr;byWaugh,inWestminster
Biographies(Small&Maynard).
Criticism:Symons'sAnIntroductiontotheStudyofBrowning;sametitle,
byCorson;Mrs.Orr'sHandbooktotheWorksofBrowning;Nettleship's
RobertBrowning;Brooke'sThePoetryofRobertBrowning;Cooke'sBrowning
GuideBook;Revell'sBrowning'sCriticismofLife;Berdoe'sBrowning's
MessagetohisTimes;Berdoe'sBrowningCyclopedia.
Essays:byHutton,Stedman,Dowden,Forster(fortitles,seeTennyson,
above);byJacobs,inLiteraryStudies;byChapman,inEmersonandOther
Essays;byCooke,inPoetsandProblems;byBirrell,inObiterDicta.
_ElizabethBarrettBrowning_.Texts:GlobeandCambridgeeditions,etc.;
variouseditionsofselections.Life:byJ.H.Ingram;seealsoBayne'sTwo
GreatEnglishmen.Kenyon'sLettersofE.B.Browning.
Criticism:Essays,byStedman,inVictorianPoets;byBenson,inEssays.
_MatthewArnold_.Texts:Poems,Globeedition,etc.SeeSelectionsfor
Reading,above.Life:byRussell;bySaintsbury;byPaul(EnglishMenof
Letters);Letters,byRussell.
Criticism:EssaysbyWoodberry,inMakersofLiterature;byGates,inThree
StudiesinLiterature;byHutton,inModernGuidesofEnglishThought;by
Brownell,inVictorianProseMasters;byF.Harrison(seeTennyson,above).
_Dickens_.Texts:numerousgoodeditionsofnovels.Life:byJ.Forster;by
Marzials(GreatWriters);byWard(EnglishMenofLetters);Langton'sThe
ChildhoodandYouthofDickens.
Criticism:Gissing'sCharlesDickens;Chesterton'sCharlesDickens;
Kitten'sTheNovelsofCharlesDickens;Fitzgerald'sTheHistoryof
Pickwick.Essays:byF.Harrison(seeabove);byBagehot,inLiterary
Studies;byLilly,inFourEnglishHumorists;byA.Lang,inGadshill
editionofDickens'sworks.
_Thackeray_.Texts:numerousgoodeditionsofnovelsandessays.Life:by
Melville;byMerivaleandMarzials(GreatWriters);byA.Trollope(English
MenofLetters);byL.Stephen,inDictionaryofNationalBiography.See
alsoCrowe'sHomesandHauntsofThackeray;Wilson'sThackerayinthe
UnitedStates.
Criticism:Essays,byLilly,inFourEnglishHumorists;byHarrison,in
StudiesinEarlyVictorianLiterature;byScudder,inSocialIdealsin
EnglishLetters;byBrownell,inVictorianProseMasters.
_GeorgeEliot_.Texts:numerouseditions.Life:byL.Stephen(EnglishMen
ofLetters);byO.Browning(GreatWriters);byherhusband,J.W.Cross.

Criticism:Cooke'sGeorgeEliot,aCriticalStudyofherLifeandWritings.
Essays:byJ.Jacobs,inLiteraryStudies;byH.James,inPartial
Portraits;byDowden,inStudiesinLiterature;byHutton,Harrison,
Brownell,Lilly(seeabove).SeealsoParkinson'sScenesfromtheGeorge
EliotCountry.
_Carlyle_.Texts:variouseditionsofworks.Heroes,andSartorResartus,
inAthenaeumPress(GinnandCompany);Sartor,andPastandPresent,1vol.
(Harper);CriticalandMiscellaneousEssays,1vol.(Appleton);Lettersand
Reminiscences,editedbyC.E.Norton,6vols.(Macmillan).
Life:byGarnett(GreatWriters);byNichol(EnglishMenofLetters);by
Froude,2vols.(veryfull,butnottrustworthy).SeealsoCarlyle's
ReminiscencesandCorrespondence,andCraig'sTheMakingofCarlyle.
Criticism:Masson'sCarlylePersonallyandinhisWritings.Essays:by
Lowell,inMyStudyWindows;byHarrison,Brownell,Hutton,Lilly(see
above).
_Ruskin_.Texts:Brantwoodedition,editedbyC.E.Norton;variouseditions
ofseparateworks.Life:byHarrison(EnglishMenofLetters);by
Collingwood,2vols.;seealsoRuskin'sPraeterita.
Criticism:Mather'sRuskin,hisLifeandTeaching;Cooke'sStudiesin
Ruskin;Waldstein'sTheWorkofJohnRuskin;Hobson'sJohnRuskin,Social
Reformer;Mrs.Meynell'sJohnRuskin;Sizeranne'sRuskinandtheReligion
ofBeauty,translatedfromtheFrench;White'sPrinciplesofArt;W.M.
Rossetti'sRuskin,Rossetti,andPreRaphaelitism.
Essays:byRobertson,inModernHumanists;bySaintsbury,inCorrected
Impressions;byBrownell,Harrison,Forster(seeabove).
_Macaulay_.Texts:Completeworks,editedbyhissister,LadyTrevelyan
(London,1866);variouseditionsofseparateworks(seeSelectionsfor
Reading,above).Life:LifeandLetters,byTrevelyan,2vols.;byMorrison
(EnglishMenofLetters).
Criticism:Essays,byBagehot,inLiteraryStudies;byL.Stephen,inHours
inaLibrary;bySaintsbury,inCorrectedImpressions;byHarrison,in
StudiesinEarlyVictorianLiterature;byMatthewArnold.
_Newman_.Texts:Uniformeditionofimportantworks(London,18681881);
Apologia(Longmans);Selections(Holt,RiversideLiterature,etc.).Life:
Jennings'sCardinalNewman;Button'sCardinalNewman;EarlyLife,byF.
Newman;byWallerandBarrow,inWestminsterBiographies.SeealsoChurch's
TheOxfordMovement;Fitzgerald'sFiftyYearsofCatholicLifeand
Progress.
Criticism:Essays,byDonaldson,inFiveGreatOxfordLeaders;byChurch,
inOccasionalPapers,vol.2;byGates,inThreeStudiesinLiterature;by
Jacobs,inLiteraryStudies;byHutton,inModernGuidesofEnglish
Thought;byLilly,inEssaysandSpeeches;byShairp,inStudiesinPoetry
andPhilosophy.SeealsoButton'sCardinalNewman.
_Rossetti_.Works,2vols.(London,1901).Selections,inGoldenTreasury
Series.Life:byKnight(GreatWriters);bySharp;HallCaine's
RecollectionsofDanteGabrielRossetti;Gary'sTheRossettis;Marillier's
Rossetti;Wood'sRossettiandthePreRaphaeliteMovement;W.M.Hunt's
PreRaphaelitismandthePreRaphaeliteBrotherhood.
Criticism:Tirebuck'sRossetti,hisWorkandInfluence.Essays:by
Swinburne,inEssaysandStudies;byForman,inOurLivingPoets;byPater,
inWard'sEnglishPoets;byF.W.H.Myers,inEssaysModern.
_Morris_.Texts:StoryoftheGlitteringPlain,HouseoftheWolfings,etc.

(Reeves&Turner);EarlyRomances,inEveryman'sLibrary;Sigurdthe
Volsung,inCamelotSeries;Socialisticwritings(HumboldtPublishingCo.).
Life:byMackail;byCary;byVallance.
Criticism:Essays,bySymons,inStudiesinTwoLiteratures;byDawson,in
MakersofModernEnglish;bySaintsbury,inCorrectedImpressions.Seealso
Nordby'sInfluenceofOldNorseLiterature.
_Swinburne_.Texts:Completeworks(ChattoandWindus);PoemsandBallads
(Lovell);Selections(Rivington,BellesLettresSeries,etc.).Life:
Wratislaw'sAlgernonCharlesSwinburne,aStudy.
Criticism:Essays,byForman,Saintsbury(seeabove);byLowell,inMy
StudyWindows;seealsoStedman'sVictorianPoets.
_CharlesKeade_.Texts:CloisterandtheHearth,inEveryman'sLibrary;
variouseditionsofseparatenovels.Life:byC.Reade.
Criticism:Essay,bySwinburne,inMiscellanies.
_AnthonyTrollope_.Texts:Royaleditionofprincipalnovels(Philadelphia,
1900);BarchesterTowers,etc.,inEveryman'sLibrary.Life:Autobiography
(Harper,1883).
Criticism:H.T.Peck'sIntroductiontoRoyaledition,vol.1.Essays:byH.
James,inPartialPortraits;byHarrison,inEarlyVictorianLiterature.
SeealsoCross,TheDevelopmentoftheEnglishNovel.
_CharlotteandEmilyBront_.Texts:Works,Haworthedition,editedbyMrs.
H.Ward(Harper);Completeworks(Dent,1893);JaneEyre,Shirley,and
WutheringHeights,inEveryman'sLibrary.LifeofCharlotteBront:byMrs.
Gaskell;byShorter;byBirrell(GreatWriters).LifeofEmilyBront:by
Robinson.SeealsoLeyland'sTheBrontFamily.
Criticism:Essays,byL.Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary;byGates,in
StudiesandAppreciations;byHarrison,inEarlyVictorianLiterature;by
G.B.Smith,inPoetsandNovelists.SeealsoSwinburne'sANoteon
CharlotteBront.
_BulwerLytton_.Texts:Works,Knebsworthedition(Routledge);various
editionsofseparateworks;LastDaysofPompeii,etc.,inEveryman's
Library.Life:byhisson,theEarlofLytton;byCooper;byTenBrink.
Criticism:Essay,byW.Senior,inEssaysinFiction.
_Mrs.Gaskell_.Variouseditionsofseparateworks;Cranford,inStandard
EnglishClassics,etc.Life:seeDictionaryofNationalBiography.
Criticism:seeSaintsbury'sNineteenthCenturyLiterature.
_Kingsley_.Texts:Works,Chesteredition;Hypatia,WestwardHo!etc.,in
Everyman'sLibrary.Life:LettersandMemories,byhiswife;byKaufmann.
Criticism:Essays,byHarrison,inEarlyVictorianLiterature;byL.
Stephen,inHoursinaLibrary.
_Stevenson_.Texts:Works(Scribner);TreasureIsland,inEveryman's
Library;MasterofBallantrae,inPocketClassics;Letters,editedby
Colvin(Scribner).Life:byBalfour;byBaildon;byBlack;byCornford.See
alsoSimpson'sEdinburghDays;Eraser'sInStevenson'sSamoa;Osborneand
Strong'sMemoriesofVailima.
Criticism:Raleigh'sStevenson;AliceBrown'sStevenson.Essays:byH.
James,inPartialPortraits;byChapman,inEmersonandOtherEssays.
_Hardy_.Texts:Works(Harper).Criticism:Macdonnell'sThomasHardy;

Johnson'sTheArtofThomasHardy.SeealsoWindle'sTheWessexofThomas
Hardy;andDawson'sMakersofEnglishFiction.
_GeorgeMeredith_.Texts:NovelsandSelectedPoems(Scribner).
Criticism:LeGallienne'sGeorgeMeredith;HannahLynch'sGeorgeMeredith.
Essays:byHenley,inViewsandReviews;byBrownell,inVictorianProse
Masters;byMonkhouse,inBooksandPlays.SeealsoBailey'sTheNovelsof
GeorgeMeredith;Curie'sAspectsofGeorgeMeredith;andCross'sThe
DevelopmentoftheEnglishNovel.
SUGGESTIVEQUESTIONS.(NOTE.Thebestquestionsarethosewhicharebased
uponthebooks,essays,andpoemsreadbythepupil.Astheworkschosen
forspecialstudyvarygreatlywithdifferentteachersandclasses,we
inserthereonlyafewquestionsofgeneralinterest.)1.Whatarethe
chiefcharacteristicsofVictorianliterature?Namethechiefwritersof
theperiodinproseandpoetry.Whatbooksofthisperiodare,inyour
judgment,worthytobeplacedamongthegreatworksofliterature?What
effectdidthediscoveriesofsciencehaveupontheliteratureoftheage?
Whatpoetreflectsthenewconceptionoflawandevolution?Whathistorical
conditionsaccountforthefactthatmostoftheVictorianwritersare
ethicalteachers?
2._Tennyson_.GiveabriefsketchofTennyson'slife,andnamehischief
works.Whyishe,likeChaucer,anationalpoet?Isyourpleasurein
readingTennysonduechieflytothethoughtorthemelodyofexpression?
Notethisfigurein"TheLotosEaters":
Musicthatgentlieronthespiritlies
Thantiredeyelidsupontiredeyes.
WhatdoesthissuggestconcerningTennyson'sfiguresofspeechingeneral?
Compare"LocksleyHall"with"LocksleyHallSixtyYearsAfter."What
differencesdoyoufindinthought,inworkmanship,andinpoetic
enthusiasm?WhatisTennyson'sideaoffaithandimmortalityasexpressed
in_InMemoriam_?
3._Browning_.InwhatrespectsisBrowninglikeShakespeare?Whatismeant
bytheoptimismofhispoetry?Canyouexplainwhymanythoughtfulpersons
preferhimtoTennyson?WhatisBrowning'screedasexpressedin"RabbiBen
Ezra"?Read"FraLippoLippi"or"AndreadelSarto,"andtellwhatismeant
byadramaticmonologue.In"Andrea"whatismeantbythelines,
Ah,butaman'sreachshouldexceedhisgrasp,
Orwhat'saheavenfor?
4._Dickens_.WhatexperiencesinDickens'slifearereflectedinhis
novels?Whatarehisfavoritetypesofcharacter?Whatismeantbythe
exaggerationofDickens?Whatwastheseriouspurposeofhisnovels?Makea
briefanalysisofthe_TaleofTwoCities_,havinginmindtheplot,the
characters,andthestyle,ascomparedwithDickens'sothernovels.
5._Thackeray_.Read_HenryEsmond_andexplainThackeray'srealism.What
isthereremarkableinthestyleofthisnovel?Compareitwith_Ivanhoe_
asahistoricalnovel.WhatisthegeneralcharacterofThackeray'ssatire?
Whatarethechiefcharacteristicsofhisnovels?Describebrieflythe
workswhichshowhisgreatskillasacriticalwriter.
6._GeorgeEliot_.Read_SilasMarner_andmakeabriefanalysis,havingin
mindtheplot,thecharacters,thestyle,andtheethicalteachingofthe
novel.IsthemoralteachingofGeorgeEliotconvincing;thatis,doesit
suggestitselffromthestory,orisitaddedforeffect?Whatisthe
generalimpressionleftbyherbooks?Howdohercharacterscomparewith
thoseofDickensandThackeray?

7._Carlyle_.WhyisCarlylecalledaprophet,andwhyacensor?Readthe
_EssayonBurns_andmakeananalysis,havinginmindthestyle,theidea
ofcriticism,andthepicturewhichthisessaypresentsoftheScotchpoet.
IsCarlylechieflyinterestedinBurnsorinhispoetry?Doesheshowany
markedappreciationofBurns'spowerasalyricpoet?WhatisCarlyle's
ideaofhistoryasshownin_HeroesandHeroWorship_?Whatexperiencesof
hisownlifearereflectedin_SartorResartus_?WhatwasCarlyle'smessage
tohisage?Whatismeantbya"Carlylese"style?
8._Macaulay_.InwhatrespectsisMacaulaytypicalofhisage?Comparehis
viewoflifewiththatofCarlyle.Readoneoftheessays,onMiltonor
Addison,andmakeananalysis,havinginmindthestyle,theinterest,and
theaccuracyoftheessay.WhatusefulpurposedoesMacaulay'shistorical
knowledgeserveinwritinghisliteraryessays?Whatisthegeneral
characterofMacaulay's_HistoryofEngland_?Rqadachapterfrom
Macaulay's_History_,anotherfromCarlyle's_FrenchRevolution_,and
comparethetwo.Howdoeseachwriterregardhistoryandhistorical
writing?Whatdifferencesdoyounoteintheirmethods?Whatarethebest
qualitiesofeachwork?Whyarebothunreliable?
9._Arnold_.WhatelementsofVictorianlifearereflectedinArnold's
poetry?Howdoyouaccountforthecoldnessandsadnessofhisverses?Read
_SohrabandRustum_andwriteanaccountofit,havinginmindthestory,
Arnold'suseofhismaterial,thestyle,andtheclassicelementsinthe
poem.HowdoesitcompareinmelodywiththeblankverseofMiltonor
Tennyson?Whatmarkedcontrastsdoyoufindbetweenthepoetryandthe
proseofArnold?
10._Ruskin_.InwhatrespectsisRuskin"theprophetofmodernsociety"?
Readthefirsttwolecturesin_SesameandLilies_andthengiveRuskin's
viewsoflabor,wealth,books,education,woman'ssphere,andhuman
society.Howdoesheregardthecommercialismofhisage?Whatelementsof
styledoyoufindintheselectures?Givethechiefresemblancesand
differencesbetweenCarlyleandRuskin.
11.ReadMrs.Gaskell's_Cranford_anddescribeit,havinginmindthe
style,theinterest,andthecharactersofthestory.Howdoesitcompare,
asapictureofcountrylife,withGeorgeEliot'snovels?
12.ReadBlackmore's_LornaDoone_anddescribeit(asinthequestion
above).Whataretheromanticelementsinthestory?Howdoesitcompare
withScott'sromancesinstyle,inplot,ininterest,andintruthfulness
tolife?

CHRONOLOGY
_NineteenthCentury_
============================================================================
HISTORY|LITERATURE

|1825.Macaulay'sEssayonMilton
|1826.Mrs.Browning'searlypoems
1830.WilliamIV|1830.Tennyson'sPoems,ChieflyLyrical
1832.ReformBill|
|1833.Browning'sPauline
|18331834.Carlyle'sSartorResartus
|18361865.Dickens'snovels
1837.Victoria(_d_.1901)|1837.Carlyle'sFrenchRevolution
|1843.Macaulay'sessays
1844.Morse'sTelegraph|18431860.Ruskin'sModernPainters
1846.RepealofCornLaws|
|18471859.Thackeray'simportantnovels
|18471857.CharlotteBront'snovels

|18481861.Macaulay'sHistory
|1853.Kingsley'sHypatia
|Mrs.Gaskell'sCranford
1854.CrimeanWar|
|18531855.MatthewArnold'spoems
|1856.Mrs.Browning'sAuroraLeigh
1857.IndianMutiny|
|18581876.GeorgeEliot'snovels
|18591888.Tennyson'sIdyllsoftheKing
|1859.Darwin'sOriginofSpecies
|1864.Newman'sApologia
|Tennyson'sEnochArden
|18651888.Arnold'sEssaysinCriticism
1867.DominionofCanada|
established|1868.Browning'sRingandtheBook
|1869.Blackmore'sLornaDoone
1870.Governmentschools|
established|
|1879.Meredith'sTheEgoist
1880.Gladstoneprimeminister|
|1883.Stevenson'sTreasureIsland
|1885.Ruskin'sPraeteritabegun
1887.Queen'sjubilee|
|1889.Browning'slastwork,Asolando
|1892.DeathofTennyson
1901.EdwardVII|
============================================================================
*****

GENERALBIBLIOGRAPHY
Everychapterinthisbookincludestwolists,oneofselectedreadings,
theotherofspecialworkstreatingofthehistoryandliteratureofthe
periodunderconsideration.Thefollowinglistsincludethebooksmost
usefulforgeneralreferenceworkandforsupplementaryreading.
Aknowledgeofhistoryisofgreatadvantageinthestudyofliterature.In
eachoftheprecedingchapterswehavegivenabriefsummaryofhistorical
eventsandsocialconditions,butthestudentshoulddomorethansimply
readthesesummaries.Heshouldreviewrapidlythewholehistoryofeach
periodbymeansofagoodtextbook.Montgomery's_EnglishHistory_and
Cheyney's_ShortHistoryofEngland_arerecommended,butanyother
reliabletextbookwillservethepurpose.
Forliterarytextsandselectionsforreadingafewgeneralcollections,
suchasaregivenbelow,areuseful;buttheimportantworksofeachauthor
maynowbeobtainedinexcellentandinexpensiveschooleditions.Atthe
beginningofthecoursetheteacher,orthehomestudent,shouldwritefor
thelatestcatalogueofsuchpublicationsastheStandardEnglishClassics,
Everyman'sLibrary,etc.,whichofferaverywiderangeofreadingatsmall
cost.NearlyeverypublishinghouseissuesaseriesofgoodEnglishbooks
forschooluse,andthelistisconstantlyincreasing.
_HISTORY_
_Textbooks:_Montgomery'sEnglishHistory;Cheyney'sShortHistoryof
England(GinnandCompany).
_GeneralWorks:_Green'sShortHistoryoftheEnglishPeople,1vol.,orA
HistoryoftheEnglishPeople,4vols.(AmericanBookCo.).

Traill'sSocialEngland,6vols.(Putnam).
Bright'sHistory,ofEngland,5vols.,andGardiner'sStudents'Historyof
England(Longmans).
Gibbins'sIndustrialHistoryofEngland,andMitchell'sEnglishLands,
Letters,andKings,5vols.(Scribner).
OxfordManualsofEnglishHistory,HandbooksofEnglishHistory,and
Kendall'sSourceBookofEnglishHistory(Macmillan).
Lingard'sHistoryofEnglanduntil1688(revised,10vols.,1855)isthe
standardCatholichistory.
OtherhistoriesofEnglandarebyKnight,Froude,Macaulay,etc.Special
worksonthehistoryofeachperiodarerecommendedinthepreceding
chapters.
_HISTORYOFLITERATURE_
Jusserand'sLiteraryHistoryoftheEnglishPeople,2vols.(Putnam).
TenBrink'sEarlyEnglishLiterature,3vols.(Holt).
Courthope'sHistoryofEnglishPoetry(Macmillan).
TheCambridgeHistoryofEnglishLiterature,manyvols.,incomplete
(Putnam).
HandbooksofEnglishLiterature,9vols.(Macmillan).
GarnettandGosse'sIllustratedHistoryofEnglishLiterature,4vols.
(Macmillan).
Morley'sEnglishWriters,11vols.(Cassell),extendsthroughElizabethan
literature.Itisrathercomplexandnotuptodate,buthasmany
quotationsfromauthorsstudied.
Taine'sEnglishLiterature(manyeditions),isbrilliantandinteresting,
butunreliable.
_LITERARYCRITICISM_
Lowell'sLiteraryEssays.
Hazlitt'sLecturesontheEnglishPoets.
Mackail'sTheSpringsofHelicon(astudyofEnglishpoetryfromChaucerto
Milton).
Dowden'sStudiesinLiterature,andDowden'sTranscriptsandStudies.
Minto'sCharacteristicsofEnglishPoets.
MatthewArnold'sEssaysinCriticism.
Stevenson'sFamiliarStudiesinMenandBooks.
LeslieStephen'sHoursinaLibrary.
Birrell'sObiterDicta.
Hales'sFoliaLitteraria.

Pater'sAppreciations.
NOTE.Specialworksoncriticism,thedrama,thenovel,etc.,willbefound
intheBibliographiesonpp.9,181,etc.
_TEXTSANDHELPS_(inexpensiveschooleditions).
StandardEnglishClassics,andAthenaeumPressSeries(GinnandCompany).
Everyman'sLibrary(Dutton).
PocketClassics,GoldenTreasurySeries,etc.(Macmillan).
BellesLettresSeries(Heath).
EnglishReadingsSeries(Holt).
RiversideLiteratureSeries(Houghton,Mifflin).
CanterburyClassics(Rand,McNally).
AcademyClassics(Allyn&Bacon).
CambridgeLiteratureSeries(Sanborn).
SilverSeries(Silver,Burdett).
Student'sSeries(Sibley).
LakesideClassics(Ainsworth).
LakeEnglishClassics(Scott,Foresman).
Maynard'sEnglishClassics(Merrill).
EclecticEnglishClassics(AmericanBookCo.).
CaxtonClassics(Scribner).
TheKing'sClassics(Luce).
TheWorld'sClassics(ClarendonPress).
LittleMasterpiecesSeries(Doubleday,Page).
Arber'sEnglishReprints(Macmillan).
NewMediaevalLibrary(Duffield).
ArthurianRomancesSeries(Nutt).
Morley'sUniversalLibrary(Routledge).
Cassell'sNationalLibrary(Cassell).
BohnLibraries(Macmillan).
TempleDramatists(Macmillan).
MermaidSeriesofEnglishDramatists(Scribner).
NOTE.Wehaveincludedintheabovelistalltheeditionsofwhichwehave
anypersonalknowledge,buttherearedoubtlessothersthathaveescaped
attention.

*****
Biography
DictionaryofNationalBiography,63vols.(Macmillan),isthestandard.
EnglishMenofLettersSeries(Macmillan).
GreatWritersSeries(Scribner).
BeaconBiographies(Houghton,Mifflin).
WestminsterBiographies(Small,Maynard).
HinchmanandGummere'sLivesofGreatEnglishWriters(Houghton,Mifflin)
isagoodsinglevolume,containingthirtyeightbiographies.
NOTE.Forthebestbiographiesofindividualwriters,seethe
Bibliographiesattheendsoftheprecedingchapters.
_SELECTIONS_
Manly'sEnglishPoetryandManly'sEnglishProse(GinnandCompany)arethe
bestsinglevolumecollections,coveringthewholefieldofEnglish
literature.
Pancoast'sStandardEnglishPoetry,andPancoast'sStandardEnglishProse
(Holt).
OxfordBookofEnglishVerse,andOxfordTreasuryofEnglishLiterature,3
vols.(ClarendonPress).
Page'sBritishPoetsoftheNineteenthCentury(Sanborn).
Stedman'sVictorianAnthology(Houghton,Mifflin).
Ward'sEnglishPoets,4vols.;Craik'sEnglishProseSelections,5vols.;
Chambers'sEncyclopediaofEnglishLiterature,etc.
_MISCELLANEOUS_
TheClassicMythsinEnglishLiterature(GinnandCompany).
Adams'sDictionaryofEnglishLiterature.
Ryland'sChronologicalOutlinesofEnglishLiterature.
Brewer'sReader'sHandbook.
Botta'sHandbookofUniversalLiterature.
Ploetz'sEpitomeofUniversalHistory.
Hutton'sLiteraryLandmarksofLondon.
Heydrick'sHowtoStudyLiterature.
ForworksontheEnglishlanguageseeBibliographyoftheNormanperiod,p.
65.
*****

INDEX
KEYTOPRONUNCIATION
[=a],asinfate;[)a],asinfat;,asinarm;[a:],asinall;[a.],as
inwhat;,asincare
[=e],asinmete;[)e],asinmet;,asinthere
[=i],asinice;[)i],asinit;,asinmachine
[=o],asinold;[)o],asinnot;[o:],asinmove;[.o],asinson;,as
inhorse;[=oo]asinfood;[)oo],asinfoot
[=u],asinuse;[)u],asinup;,asinfur;[:u],asinrule;[.u],as
inpull
[=y],asinfly;[)y],asinbaby
c,asincall;,asinmice;ch,asinchild;[c]h,asinschool
g,asingo;[.g],asincage
s,asinsaw;[s=],asinis
th,asinthin;th,asinthen
x,asinvex;[x=],asinexact.
NOTE.Titlesofbooks,poems,essays,etc.,arein_italics_.
_AbsalomandAchitophel_([=a]chit'ofel)
_AbtVogler_(ptv[=o]g'ler)
Actors,inearlyplays;
Elizabethan
Addison;
life;
works;
hymns;
influence;
style
_Adonais_(ad[=o]n[=a]'is)
Aesc(esk)
Aidan,St.([=i]'dan)
_AidstoReflection_
_Alastor_([)a]l[)a]str)
_Alchemist,The_
_Alexander'sFeast_
Alfred,King;
lifeandtimes;
works
_AllforLove_
_Alysoun_,orAlisoun(l'[)y]sownorl'[)y]zoon),oldformofAlice
_Amelia_
_AmericanTaxation_,Burke'sspeechon
_AnEpistle_
_AnatomyofMelancholy_
_AncrenRiwle_(angk'renrol)
_AndreadelSarto_(ndr[=a]'ydelsr't[=o])
_Andreas_
Angeln
Angles,the
AngloNormanPeriod;

literature;
ballads;
lyrics;
summary;
selectionsforreading;
bibliography;
questionson;
chronology
_AngloSaxonChronicle_
AngloSaxonPeriod;
earlypoetry;
springsofpoetry;
language;
Christianwriters;
sourcebooks;
summary;
selectionsforreading;
bibliography;
questionson;
chronology
AngloSaxons;
thename;
life;
language;
literature,
_see_AngloSaxonPeriod.
_AnnusMirabilis_
Anselm
_Apologia_,Newman's
_ApologieforPoetrie_
_Arcadia_
_Areopagitica_([)a]r'=[=e][)o]p[)a]j[)i]t'[)i]c)
Arnold,Matthew;
life;
poetry;
proseworks;
characteristics
Art,definitionof
Arthurianromances
Artisticperiodofdrama
Artisticqualityofliterature
Ascham,Roger
Assonance
_AstraeaRedux_([)a]str[=e]'r[=e]'duks)
_AstrophelandStella_([)a]s'tr[=o]fel)
_AtalantainCalydon_([)a]t[)a]l[)a]n't,k[)a]l'[)i]d[)o]n)
AugustanAge,meaning._See_
Eighteenthcenturyliterature
_AuroraLeigh_([a:]r[=o]'rl[=e])
Austen,Jane;life;
novels;Scott'scriticismof
Bacon,Francis;life;works;
placeandinfluence
Bacon,Roger
Ballad,the
_BalladsandSonnets_
_BarchesterTowers_
_Bard,The_
_BardoftheDimbovitza_(dimbovitz'),
Roumanianfolksongs
_BattleofAgincourt_(English,[)a]j'ink[=o]rt)
_BattleofBrunanburh_
_BattleoftheBooks_
Baxter,Richard

Beaumont,Francis(b[=o]'mont)
_Becket_
Bede;hishistory;hisaccount
ofCdmon
_BellsandPomegranates_
Benefitofclergy
_Beowulf_(b[=a]'[=o]wulf),thepoem;
history;poeticalform;
manuscriptof
Beowulf'sMount
Bibliographies,studyofliterature;
AngloSaxonPeriod;Norman;
Chaucer;RevivalofLearning;
Elizabethan;Puritan;
Restoration;Eighteenth
century;Romanticism;
Victorian;general
_BickerstaffAlmanac_
_BiographiaLiteraria_
Blackmore,Richard
Blake,William;life;works
Blankverse
_BlessedDamozel_
_Blotinthe'Scutcheon,A_
Boethius(b[=o][=e]'thius)
Boileau(bwal[=o]'),Frenchcritic
_BokeoftheDuchesse_
_BookofMartyrs_
_Borough,The_
Boswell,James._Seealso_Johnson
Boyactors
Breton,Nicholas
Bront,CharlotteandEmily
Browne,Thomas;works
Browning,Mrs.ElizabethBarrett
Browning,Robert;life;
works;obscurityof;as
ateacher;comparedwith
Shakespeare;withTennyson;
periodsofwork;soul
studies;placeandmessage
_Brut_,Layamon's;quotationfrom
Brutus,allegedfounderofBritain
BulwerLytton
Bunyan,John;life;works;
hisstyle
Burke,Edmund;life;works;
analysisofhisorations
Burney,Fanny(MadameD'Arblay)
Burns,Robert;life;poetry;
Carlyle'sessayon
Burton,Robert
Butler,Samuel
Byron;life;works;
comparedwithScott
Cdmon(k[)a]d'mon),life;works;
his_Paraphrase_;schoolof
_Cain_
_Callista_
Calvert,Raisley
Camden,William
_Campaign,The_
Campion,Thomas
_CanterburyTales_;planof;

prologue;Dryden'scriticism
of
Canynge'scoffer
Carew,Thomas
Carlyle;life;works;
styleandmessage
Carols,inearlyplays
_CasaGuidiWindows_(k'sgw[=e]'d[=e])
_CastellofPerseverance_
_CastleofIndolence_
_Cata_
Cavalierpoets
Caxton;specimenofprinting
Celticlegends
_ChansondeGestes_
_ChansondeRoland_
Chapman,George;his_Homer_;
Keats'ssonneton
Chatterton,Thomas
Chaucer,howtoread;life;
works;formofhispoetry;
melody;comparedwithSpenser
Chaucer,Ageof:history;writers;
summary;selectionsforreading;
bibliography;questionson;chronology
Chesterplays
CheyneRow
_ChildeHarold_
_Child'sGardenofVerses_
Chocilaicus(k[=o]kil[=a]'[=i]cus)
_Christ,The_,ofCynewulf
_Christabel_
_ChristianYear_
_ChristmasCarol,A_
Christ'sHospital,London
_Chronicle,TheAngloSaxon_
Chronicleplays
Chronicles,riming
Chronology:AngloSaxonPeriod;
NormanFrench;AgeofChaucer;
RevivalofLearning;Elizabethan;
Puritan;Restoration;EighteenthCentury;
Romanticism;Victorian
_CitizenoftheWorld_
_Clarissa_
Classicandclassicism
Classicinfluenceonthedrama
_CloisterandtheHearth_
Clough,ArthurHugh
_Cockaygne,Landof_(k[=o]k[=a]n')
Coleridge;life;works;critiqalwritings
Collier,Jeremy
Collins,William
Comedy,definition;firstEnglish;ofthecourt
_CompleteAngler,The_
_Comus,Masqueof_
_ConciliationwithAmerica_,Burke'sspeech
_ConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater_
_ConsolationsofPhilosophy_
_Cotter'sSaturdayNight_
Couplet,the
Courtcomedies
Covenantof1643
Coventryplays
Cowley,Abraham

Cowper,William;life;works
Crabbe,George
_Cranford_
Crashaw,Richard
Critic,meaningof
Criticalwriting,Dryden;Coleridge;
inAgeofRomanticism;
inVictorianAge
Criticism,Arnold'sdefinition
Cross,JohnWalter
_CrownofWildOlive_
_CultureandAnarchy_
_CurseofJfehama_(k[=e]h'm)
_CursorMundi_
Cycles,ofplays;ofromances
Cynewulf(kin'[)e]wulf),3638
_Cynthia'sRevels_(sin'thi)
Daniel,Samuel
_DanielDeronda_
D'Arblay,Madame(FannyBurney)
Darwinand_Darwinism_
Death,Raleigh'sapostropheto
_DeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire_
_DefenseofPoesie_
_DefensioproPopuloAnglicano_
Defoe;life;works
Dekker,Thomas
_Delia_
DemocracyandRomanticism;
inVictorianAge
_Dear'sLament_
DeQuincey;life;works;style
_DeSapientiaVeterum_
_DesertedVillage,The_
_DetheofBlanchetheDuchesse_
_Diary_,Evelyn's;Pepys's;selectionsfrom
Dickens;
life;
works;
generalplanofnovels;
hischaracters;
hispublic;
limitations
_Dictionary_,Johnson's
_DiscoverieofGuiana_(g[=e]'n)
_DivinaCommedia_(d[=e]v[=e]'nkomm[=a]'d[=e])
_Dr.JekyllandMr.Hyde_
Domesticdrama
Donne,John
hispoetry
DotheboysHall(dotheboys)
Drama,inElizabethanAge
origin,
periodsof,
miracleandmysteryplays,
interludes,
classicalinfluenceon,
unities,
theEnglish,
typesof,
declineof.
_Seealso_ElizabethanAge,Shakespeare,
Jonson,Marlowe,etc.
Dramaticunities

Dramatists,methodsof_See_
Shakespeare,Marlowe,etc.
_Drapier'sLetters_
Drayton,Michael
_DreamofGerontius,The_(j[)e]r[)o]n'sh[)i]us)
Dryden
life,
works,
influence,
criticismof_CanterburyTales_
_DuchessofMalfi_(ml'f[=e])
_Dunciad,The_(dun's[)i]ad)
Ealhild,queen([=e]l'hild)
_EarthlyParadise_
_EastwardHo_!
Economicconditions,inAgeofRomanticism
Edgeworth,Maria
_EdwardII_
_Egoist,The_
EighteenthCenturyLiterature:
historyoftheperiod,
literarycharacteristics,
theClassicAge,
Augustanwriters,
romanticrevival,
thefirstnovelists,
summary,
selectionsforreading,
bibliography,
questions,
chronology,
_EikonBasilike_([=i]'konb[)a]sil'[)i]k[=e])
Eikonoklastes([=i]kon[=o]klas't[=e]z)
_Elegy_,Gray's
_Elene_
ElizabethanAge
history,
nondramaticpoets,
firstdramatists,
Shakespeare'spredecessors,
Shakespeare,
Shakespeare'scontemporariesandsuccessors,
prosewriters,
summary,
selections,
bibliography,
questions,
chronology
_Endymion_
_EnglishBardsandScotchReviewers_
_EnglishHumorists_
_EnglishIdyls_
Eormanric([=e]or'manric)
_Epicaene_([)e]p'[=i]sen),or_TheSilentWoman_
_Epithalamium_([)e]p[)i]th[=a]l[=a]'m[)i]um)
Erasmus
_EssayconcerningHumanUnderstanding_
_EssayofDramaticPoesy_
_EssayonBurns_
_EssayonCriticism_
_EssayonMan_
_EssayonMilton_
_Essays_,
Addison's,

Bacon's
_EssaysinCriticism_
_EssaysofElia_([=e]'l[)i])
_EthicsoftheDust_
_Euphues_andeuphuism([=u]'f[=u][=e]z)
Evans,MaryAnn._See_GeorgeEliot
Evelyn,John
_EverlastingNo_,and_Yea,The_
_EveryManinHisHumour_
_Everyman_
_Excursion,The_
_ExeterBook_
Faber,Frederick
_Fables_,Dryden's
_FaeryQueen_
_FallofPrinces_
_Faust_(foust),_Faustus_(fas'tus)
_FerrexandPorrex_
Fielding,
novels,
characteristics
_FightatFinnsburgh_
_Fingal_(fing'gal)
FirstfolioShakespeare
Fletcher,Giles
Fletcher,John
Ford,John
Formalism
_FourGeorges,The_
Foxe,John
_FragmentsofAncientPoetry_
FrenchinfluenceinRestorationliterature
FrenchlanguageinEngland
FrenchRevolution,influenceof
_FrenchRevolution_,Carlyle's
Fuller,Thomas
_GammerGurton'sNeedle_
Gaskell,Mrs.Elizabeth
_GawainandtheGreenKnight_(g'w[=a]n)
Gawaincycleofromances,57
_Gebir_(g[=a]b[=e]r')
GeoffreyofMonmouth(jef'r[)i])
GeorgeEliot;
life;
works;
characteristics;
asamoralist
Gest(_or_jest)books
_GesteofRobinHood_
Gibbon,
hishistory
_GiftsofGod,The_
Girondists(j[)i]ron'dists)
Gleemen,_or_minstrels
Goldsmith;
life;
works
_GoodCounsel_
_Gorboduc_(gr'b[=o]duk)
_GorgeousGallery_
Gower
_GraceAbounding_
Gray,Thomas;

life;
works
_GreatestEnglishPoets_
Greene,Robert
Gregory,Pope
Grendel;storyof;
motherof
GrubbStreet
_Gulliver'sTravels_
_Gull'sHornbook_
Hakluyt,Richard(h[)a]k'loot)
Hallam,
hiscriticismofBacon
Hardy,Thomas
Hastings,battleof
Hathaway,Anne
Hazlitt,William
Hengist(h[)e]ng'gist)
_HenryEsmond_
Herbert,George;
life;
poetryof
_HeroandLeander_
_HeroesandHeroWorship_
Heroiccouplet
_HeroicStanzas_
Herrick,Robert
_HesperidesandNobleNumbers_(h[)e]sp[)e]r'[)i]d[=e]z)
Heywood,John
Heywood,Thomas
Hilda,abbess
Hildgund(hild'gund)
Historicalnovel
_History,ofEngland_,Macaulay's;
_ofFredericktheGreat_,Carlyle's;
_ofHenryVIII_,Bacon's;
_oftheReformationinScotland_,Knox's;
_oftheWortd_,Raleigh's
Hnf(n[e=]f)
Hobbes,Thomas
Holofernes(hol[=o]fer'n[=e]z)in_Judith_
_HolyandProfaneState_
_HolyLiving_
_HolyWar_
_Homer_,Chapman's;
Dryden's;
Pope's;
Cowper's
Hooker,Richard
Hooker,Thomas
_HoursinaLibrary_
_HoursofIdleness_
_HouseofFame_
_HouseofLife_
Hrothgar(r[)o]th'gar)
_Hudibras_(h[=u]'d[)i]bras)
Humanism
_HumphreyClinker_
Hunt,Leigh
_Husband'sMessage_
Huxley,
Hygelac(h[=i]j[=e]'lak)
Hymnbook,firstEnglish
_HymntoIntellectualBeauty_

_Hymns_,Addison's;
Cowper's
_Hypatia_(h[=i]p[=a]'shia)
_Hyperion_(h[=i]p[=e]'r[)i]on)
IdealismofVictorianAge
Ideals
Idols,ofBacon
_IdyllsoftheKing_
_IlPenseroso_(ilpens[)e]r[=o]'s[=o])
_Iliad_,Pope'stranslation;
Chapman's;
Dryden's
_ImaginaryConversations_
_ImpeachmentofWarrenHastings_
_InMemoriam_
_InstauratioMagna_(instar[=a]'shio)
Interludes
_IntimationsofImmortality_
Jacobeanpoets
_JaneEyre_(r)
Jeffrey,Francis
Jest(_or_gest)books
_JewofMalta_
_JohnGilpin_
Johnson,Samuel;life;
works;hisconversations;
Boswell's_LifeofJohnson_
_JonathanWild_
Jonson,Ben;life;works
_JosephAndrews_
_JournalofthePlagueYear_
_JournaltoStella_
_Judith_
_Juliana_
Keats;life;works;
placeinliterature
KilmarnockBurns,the
_Kings'Treasuries_
Kingsley,Charles
_Knight'sTale,The_
Knox,John
_KublaKhan_(kob'lkn)
Kyd,Thomas
_L'Allegro_(ll[=a]'gr[=o])
_LadyoftheLake_
Lakepoets,the
Lamb,Charles;life;works;
style
Lamb,Mary
_Lamia_(l[=a]'mi)
_LandofCockaygne_(k[)o]kn')
_LandofDreams_
Landor,WalterSavage;life;
works
Langland,William
Language,ourfirstspeech;dual
characterof;Teutonicorigin
_LastDaysofPompeii_(pomp[=a]'y[=e])
Law,Hooker'sideaof
_LawsofEcclesiasticalPolity,_
_LaySermons_

Layamon
_LaysofAncientRome_
_Lead,KindlyLight_
_LecturesonShakespeare_
_LegendsofGoodeWimmen_
_Leviathan_
Lewes,GeorgeHenry
_LibertyofProphesying_
Life,comparedtoaseavoyage
_LifeofJohnson_
_LifeofSavage_
Lindsay,David
LiteraryClub,the
Literarycriticism._Seealso_
Criticalwriting.
_LiteraryReminiscences_
Literature,definition;qualities;
tests;objectinstudying;importance;
Goethe'sdefinition;
spiritofmodern
_LiteratureandDogma_
_Lives_,Plutarch's;Walton's
_LivesofthePoets_
Locke,John
Lockhart,John
_LornaDoone_
_LostLeader,The_
Lovelace,Richard
_Lycidas_(lis'[)i]das)
Lydgate,John
Lyly,John(lil'[)i])
_LyraApostolica_
_LyricalBallads_
Lytton,EdwardBulwer
Macaulay;life;works;
characteristics
Macpherson,James(makfer'son)
Magazines,themodern
_Maldon,TheBattleof_
Malory
_Mandeville'sTravels_
_Manfred_
Marlowe;life;works;
andMilton;andShakespeare
_Marmion_
Marvell,Andrew
Massinger,Philip
MatterofFrance,Rome,andBritain
Melodrama
_MemoirsofaCavalier_
Meredith,George
_MerlinandtheGleam_
Metaphysicalpoets
Metricalromances
Middleton,Thomas
_MilesGloriosus_(m[=e]'lesgl[=o]r[)i][=o]'s[u:]s)
_MillontheFloss_
Milton;life;earlyorHorton
poems;proseworks;
laterpoetry;andShakespeare;
Wordsworth'ssonneton
_MinstrelsyoftheScottishBorder_
Miracleplays
_MirrorforMagistrates_

_Mr.Badman,LifeandDeathof_
Modernliterature,spiritof
_ModernPainters_
_ModestProposal,A_
_MoralEpistles_
Moralperiodofthedrama
MoralpurposeinVictorianliterature
Moralityplays
More,Hannah
More,Thomas
Morris,William
_Morted'Arthur_(mortdr'ther)
_MotherHubbard'sTale_
_Mulykeh_(m[=u]l[=a]'k[)a])
_MyLastDuchess_
_MysteriesofUdolpho,The_([=u]dol'f[=o])
Mysteryplays
_NewAtalantis_
_Newcomes,The_
Newman,Cardinal;life;
proseworks;poems;
style
Newspapers,thefirst
_Nibelungenlied_(n[=e]'b[)e]lungenl[=e]d)
_Noah,Playof_
NormanConquest
Normanpageantry
Normanperiod._See_AngloNorman
Normans;
unionwithSaxons;
literatureof
North,Christopher(JohnWilson)
North,Thomas
NorthangerAbbey(north'[=a]njer)
_NorthernAntiquities_
Northumbrianliterature;decline
of;howsaved
Novel,meaningandhistory;
precursorsof;discoveryof
modern
Novelists,thefirstEnglish.
_See_Scott,Dickens,etc.
_NovumOrganum_(or'g[)a]num)
_OdeontheMorningofChrist'sNativity_
_OdetoDejection_
_OdetotheWestWind_
Odes,Pindaric
_Odyssey_,Pope's;Chapman's;
Dryden's
_OldFortunatus_(fort[=u]n[=a]'tus)
_OliverCromwell_,Carlyle's
_OliverTwist_
_OriginofSpecies_
_OrlandoFurioso_(orlan'd[=o]foor[=e][=o]'s[=o])
Orm,_or_Orme;his_Ormulum_
Orosius([=o]r[=o]'sius),hishistory
Ossian(osh'ian)andOssianicpoems
_OwlandNightingale,The_
Oxfordmovement
_P's,TheFour_
_PalamonandArcite_(pal'amon,r's[=i]te)
_Pamela_(pam'el)

Pantisocracy(pant[=i]sok'r[=a]se),ofColeridge,
Southey,etc.
_ParadiseLost_
_ParadiseRegained_
_ParadyseofDayntyDevises_
_Paraphrase_,ofCdmon
_ParishRegister,The_
_Pauline_
_Pearl,The_
_Pelham_
_Pendennis_
Pepys,Samuel(pep'is,peeps,pips)
Percy,Thomas
_PeregrinePickle_(per'egrin)
_PericlesandAspasia_(per'ikl[=e]z,asp[=a]'shi)
Philistines,the
_Phoenix_(f[=e]'nix)
_PickwickPapers_
_PiersPlowman_(peers)
_Pilgrim'sProgress_
Pindaricodes(pindr'ic)
_PippaPasses_
_PlainMan'sPathwaytoHeaven_
Plutarch's_Lives_
_PoemsbyTwoBrothers_
_Poetaster,The_
_Polyolbion_(pol[)i]ol'b[)i]on)
Pope,Alexander;life;
works
Porter,Jane
_PracticeofPiety_
_Praeterita_(pr[=e]ter'[)i]t)
_PraiseofFolly_
_Prelude,The_
_PreRaphaelites_(r'f[=a]elites)
_PrideandPrejudice_
_Princess,The_
_PrometheusUnbound_(pr[=o]m[=e]'th[=u]s)
Prosedevelopmentineighteenthcentury
Pseudoclassicism(s[=u]'d[=o])
Purchas,Samuel;_PurchasHis
Pilgrimes_
PuritanAge:history;literary
characteristics;poets;
prosewriters;comparedwith
Elizabethan;summary;
selectionsforreading;bibliography,
questions;
chronology
Puritanmovement
Puritans,wrongideasof
QueenMab,in_RomeoandJuliet_
_Queen'sGardens_
_RabbiBenEzra_
Radcliffe,Mrs.Anne
Raleigh,Walter
_RalphRoysterDoyster_
_Rambler_essays
_RapeoftheLock_
Reade,Charles
Realism
_Recluse,The_
_ReflectionsontheFrenchRevolution_

_ReligioLaici_
_ReligioMedici_
Religiousperiodofthedrama
_ReliquesofAncientEnglishPoetry_
_Reminiscences_,Carlyle's
_Remorse_
Renaissance,the(ren[=a]'sns,r[=e]'n[=a]ssans,etc.)
RestorationPeriod:history;literary
characteristics;writers;
summary;selectionsfor
reading;bibliography;
questions;chronology
RevivalofLearningPeriod:history;
literature;summary;
selectionsforreading;bibliography;
questions;chronology
_RevoltofIslam_
Revolution,French;of
1688;ageof
Richardson,Samuel;novelsof
_RightsofMan_
_RimeoftheAncientAlariner_
RimeRoyal
_RingandtheBook,The_
_RobinHood_
_RobinsonCrusoe_
_Roderick_
_RoderickRandom_
Romance;GreekRomances
Romancelanguages
_RomanceoftheRose_
Romanticcomedyandtragedy
Romanticenthusiasm
Romanticpoetry
Romanticism,Ageof;history;
literarycharacteristics;
poets;prosewriters;summary;
selectionsforreading;
bibliography;questions;
chronology
Romanticism,meaning
_Romola_
_Rosalynde_
Rossetti,Christina(rosset't[=e])
Rossetti,DanteGabriel
_RowleyPapers_
RoyalSociety
Runes
Ruskin;life;works;
characteristics;message
Sackville,Thomas
_St.Catherine,Playof_
St.George'sGuild
_Saints'EverlastingRest_
_SamsonAgonistes_(agonis't[=e]z)
_SartorResartus_(sar'torresar'tus)
Satire;ofSwift;ofThackeray
Saxon._See_AngloSaxon
_SchoolofShooting_
Science,inVictorianAge
Scop,_or_poet(skop)
Scott,Walter;life;poetry;
novels;criticismofJane
Austen

_ScottishChiefs_
Scyld(skild),storyof
Sea,namesof,inAngloSaxon,25
_Seafarer,The_
_Seasons,The_
Selectionsforreading:
AngloSaxonperiod;
Norman;
Chaucer;
RevivalofLearning;
Elizabethan;
Puritan;
Restoration;
EighteenthCentury;
Romanticism;
Victorian
_SentimentalJourney_
_SesameandLilies_(ses'am[=e])
Shakespeare;
life;
works;
fourperiods;
sourcesofplays;
classificationofplays;
doubtfulplays;
poems;
placeandinfluence
_SheStoopstoConquer_
Shelley;
life;
works;
comparedwithWordsworth
_Shepherds'Book_
_Shepherd'sCalendar_
Shirley,James
_Shoemaker'sHoliday,The_
_ShortViewoftheEnglishStage_
Sidney,Philip
_SigurdtheVolsung_
_SilasMarner_
_SilentWoman,The_
_SirCharlesGrandison_
Skelton,John
_SketchesbyBoz_
Smollett,Tobias
Socialdevelopmentineighteenthcentury
_SohrabandRustum_(soo'rhab,_or_s[=o]'hrab)
_SongsofInnocence_,and_SongsofExperience_
Sonnet,introductionof
_Sonnets_,
ofShakespeare;
ofMilton
_SonnetsfromthePortuguese_
Southey;
works
_SpanishGypsy_
_SpanishTragedy_
_SpecimensofEnglishDramaticPoets_
_Spectator,The_
Spenser;
life;
works;
characteristics;
comparedwithChaucer
Spenserianpoets

Spenserianstanza
Stage,inearlyplays;
Elizabethan
Steele,Richard
Stephen,Leslie
Sterne,Lawrence
Stevenson,RobertLouis
Style,atestofliterature
Suckling,John
Surrey,HenryHoward,Earlof
_Swan,The_
Swift;
life;
works;
satire;
characteristics
Swinburne
_Sylva_
Symonds,JohnAddington
TabardInn
_TaleofaTub_
_TaleofTwoCities_
_TalesfromShakespeare_
_TalesinVerse_
_TalesoftheHall_
_Tamo'Shanter_
_Tamburlaine_(tam'burlane)
_Task,The_
_Tatler,The_
Taylor,Jeremy
_Temora_(tem[=o]'r)
_Tempest,The_
_Temple,The_
Tennyson;
life;
works;
characteristics;
message
_TenureofKingsandMagistrates_
_Terra_
Testsofliterature
Teufelsdroeckh(toy'felzdroek)
Thackeray;
life;
works;
characteristics;
style;
andDickens
_ThaddeusofWarsaw_
_Thalaba_(tl'b)
Theater,thefirst
Thomson,James
_Thyrsis_(ther'sis)
_Timber_
_TinternAbbey_
_Tirocinium_(t[=i]r[=o]sin'[)i]um),_orAReviewofSchools_
_TomJones_
ToriesandWhigs
_Tottel'sMiscellany_
Townleyplays
_Toxophilus_(toksof'[)i]lus)
Tractarianmovement
_TractsfortheTimes_
Tragedy,definition,

ofblood
Transitionpoets
_Traveler,The_
_TreasureIsland_
_TreatisesonGovernment_
_TristramShandy_
_TroilusandCressida_(tr[=o]'[)i]lus,kres'[)i]d)
Trollope,Anthony
Troyes,Treatyof
_Truth_,or_GoodCounsel_
Tyndale,William(tin'dal)
Udall,Nicholas([=u]'dal)
_Udolpho_([=u]dol'f[=o])
_UnfortunateTraveller,The_
Universality,atestofliterature
Universitywits
_UntoThisLast_
_Utopia_
_VanityFair_
_VanityofHumanWishes_
Vaughan,Henry
_VercelliBook_
_VicarofWakefield_
Vice,the,inoldplays
VictorianAge,
history,
literarycharacteristics,
poets,
novelists,
essayists,etc.,
spiritof,
summary,
selectionsforreading,
bibliography,
questions,
chronology
_ViewoftheStateofIreland_
_Village,The_
_VisionoftheRood_
_Volpone_(volp[=o]'ne)
_Voyages_,Hakluyt's
Wakefieldplays
_Waldere_(vld[=a]'re,_or_vl'dare)
Waller,Edmund
Walton,Izaak
_Waverley_
_WealthofNations_
_Weather,The_,playof
Webster,John
Wedmore,Treatyof
_WestwardHo_
WhigsandTories
Whitby(hwit'b[)i])
_Widsith_(vid'sith)
Wiglaf(vig'lf)
Wilson,John(ChristopherNorth),
Wither,George
Women,inliterature
Wordsworth,
life,
poetry,
poemsofnature,

poemsoflife,
lastworks
Wordsworth,Dorothy
_WorthiesofEngland_
_WutheringHeights_(wuth'ering)
Wyatt(w[=i]'at),Thomas
Wyclif(wik'lif)
Wyrd(vird),orfate
Yorkplays
Footnote1:From_TheBardoftheDimbovitza_,FirstSeries,p.73.
Footnote2:Thereisamysteryaboutthisoldherowhichstirsour
imagination,butwhichisneverexplained.Itrefers,probably,tosome
legendoftheAngloSaxonswhichwehavesuppliedfromothersources,aided
bysomevaguesuggestionsandglimpsesofthepastinthepoemitself.
Footnote3:ThisisnottheBeowulfwhoisheroofthepoem.
Footnote4:_Beowulf_,ll.2650,afreerenderingtosuggestthe
alliterationoftheoriginal.
Footnote5:Grendel,oftheEoten(giant)race,thedeathshadow,the
markstalker,theshadowganger,isalsovariouslycalledgod'sfoe,fiend
ofhell,Cain'sbrood,etc.Itneedhardlybeexplainedthatthelatter
termsareadditionstotheoriginalpoem,made,probably,bymonkswho
copiedthemanuscript.AbeliefinWyrd,themightypowercontrollingthe
destiniesofmen,isthechiefreligiousmotiveoftheepic.Inline1056
wefindacuriousblendingofpaganandChristianbelief,whereWyrdis
withstoodbythe"wiseGod."
Footnote6:Summaryofll.710727.Wehavenotindicatedinour
translation(orinquotationsfromGarnett,Morley,Brooke,etc.)where
partsofthetextareomitted.
Footnote7:Grendel'smotherbelongsalsototheEoten(giant)race.She
iscalled_brimwylf_(seawolf),_merewif_(seawoman),_grundwyrgen_
(bottommaster),etc.
Footnote8:FromGarnett's_Beowulf_,ll.13841394.
Footnote9:FromMorley'sversion,ll.13571376.
Footnote10:_Beowulf_,ll.24172423,afreerendering.
Footnote11:Lines27292740,afreerendering.
Footnote12:Morley'sversion,ll.27992816.
Footnote13:Lines31563182(Morley'sversion).
Footnote14:Probablytothefourthcentury,thoughsomepartsofthe
poemmusthavebeenaddedlater.Thusthepoetsays(II.88102)thathe
visitedEormanric,whodied_cir_.375,andQueenEalhhildwhosefather,
Eadwin,died_cir_.561.Thedifficultyoffixingadatetothepoemis
apparent.Itcontainsseveralreferencestoscenesandcharactersin
_Beowulf_.
Footnote15:Lines135143(Morley'sversion).
Footnote16:Alyricisashortpoemreflectingsomepersonalemotion,
likeloveorgrief.TwootherAngloSaxonpoems,"TheWife'sComplaint"and
"TheHusband'sMessage,"belongtothisclass.

Footnote17:FirststropheofBrooke'sversion,_HistoryofEarlyEnglish
Literature_
Footnote18:_Seafarer_,PartI,Iddings'version,in_Translationsfrom
OldEnglishPoetry._
Footnote19:Itisanopenquestionwhetherthispoemcelebratesthe
fightatwhichHnf,theDanishleader,fell,oralaterfightledby
Hengist,toavengeHnf'sdeath.
Footnote20:Brooke'stranslation,_HistoryofEarlyEnglishLiterature_,
ForanotherearlybattlesongseeTennyson's"BattleofBrunanburh."
Footnote21:WilliamCamden(15511623),oneofEngland'searliestand
greatestantiquarians.Hisfirstwork,_Britannia_,aLatinhistoryof
England,hasbeencalled"thecommonsunwhereatourmodernwritershave
allkindledtheirlittletorches."
Footnote22:FromIddings'versionof_TheSeafarer_.
Footnote23:From_Andreas_,ll.511ff.,afreetranslation.Thewhole
poemthrillswiththeOldSaxonloveoftheseaandofships.
Footnote24:From_Beowulf_,ll.1063ff.,afreetranslation.
Footnote25:Translatedfrom_TheHusband'sMessage_,writtenonapiece
ofbark.Withwonderfulpoeticinsightthebarkitselfisrepresentedas
tellingitsstorytothewife,fromthetimewhenthebirchtreegrew
besidetheseauntiltheexiledmanfounditandstrippedthebarkand
carvedonitssurfaceamessagetothewomanheloved.Thisfirstofall
EnglishlovesongsdeservestorankwithValentine'sdescriptionofSilvia:
Why,man,sheismineown,
AndIasrichinhavingsuchajewel
Astwentyseas,ifalltheirsandwerepearl,
Thewaternectarandtherockspuregold.
_TwoGentlemenofVerona_,II,4.
Footnote26:Fromthe_AngloSaxonChronicle_,recordoftheyear457.
Footnote27:AccordingtoSweettheoriginalhomeoftheAryansisplaced
incentralornorthernEurope,ratherthaninAsia,aswasonceassumed.
See_TheHistoryofLanguage_,p.103.
Footnote28:"Cdmon'sHymn,"Cook'sversion,in_TranslationsfromOld
EnglishPoetry_.
Footnote29:_EcclesiasticalHistory_,IV,xxiv.
Footnote30:Genesis,112131(Morley).
Footnote31:Exodus,155ff.(Brooke).
Footnote32:Runeswereprimitivelettersoftheoldnorthernalphabet.
InafewpassagesCynewulfuseseachrunetorepresentnotonlyaletter
butawordbeginningwiththatletter.ThustheruneequivalentofCstands
for_cene_(keen,courageous),Yfor_yfel_(evil,inthesenseof
wretched),Nfor_nyd_(need),Wfor_ivyn_(joy),Ufor_ur_(our),Lfor
_lagu_(lake),Ffor_feoh_(fee,wealth).Usingtherunesequivalentto
thesesevenletters,Cynewulfhidesandatthesametimerevealshisname
incertainversesof_TheChrist_,forinstance:
Thenthe_Couragehearted_quakes,whentheKing(Lord)hehears
SpeaktothosewhoonceonearthbutobeyedHimweakly,

Whileasyettheir_Yearningfain_andtheir_Need_
mosteasilyComfortmightdiscover....Goneisthenthe_Winsomeness_
Oftheearth'sadornments!Whatto_Us_asmenbelonged
Ofthejoysoflifewaslocked,longago,in_Lakeflood_.
Allthe_Fee_onearth.
SeeBrooke's_HistoryofEarlyEnglishLiterature_,pp.377379,or_The
ChristofCynewulf_,ed.byCook,alsobyGollancz.
Footnote33:
MyrobeisnoiselesswhileItreadtheearth,
Ortarry'neaththebanks,orstirtheshallows;
Butwhentheseshiningwings,thisdepthofair,
Bearmealoftabovethebendingshores
Wheremenabide,andfarthewelkin'sstrength
Overthemultitudesconveysme,then
Withrushingwhirandclearmelodioussound
Myraimentsings.Andlikeawanderingspirit
Ifloatunweariedlyo'erfloodandfield.
(Brougham'sversion,in_Transl.fromOldEng.Poetry_.)
Footnote34:Thesourceof_Andreas_isanearlyGreeklegendofSt.
AndrewthatfounditswaytoEnglandandwasprobablyknowntoCynewulfin
somebriefLatinform,nowlost.
Footnote35:OurtwochiefsourcesarethefamousExeterBook,inExeter
Cathedral,acollectionofAngloSaxonpoemspresentedbyBishopLeofric
(_c_.1050),andtheVercelliBook,discoveredinthemonasteryof
Vercelli,Italy,in1822.Theonlyknownmanuscriptof_Beowulf_was
discovered_c_.1600,andisnowintheCottonLibraryoftheBritish
Museum.Allthesearefragmentarycopies,andshowthemarksoffireandof
hardusage.TheExeterBookcontains_theChrist,Guthlac,thePhoenix,
Juliana,Widsith,TheSeafarer,Deor'sLament,TheWife'sComplaint,The
Lover'sMessage_,ninetyfiveRiddles,andmanyshorthymnsand
fragments,anastonishingvarietyforasinglemanuscript.
Footnote36:FromAlfred's_Boethius_.
Footnote37:ItisnotcertainthatthetranslationofBedeisthework
ofAlfred.
Footnote38:See_TranslationsfromOldEnglishPoetry_.Onlyabrief
accountofthefightisgiveninthe_Chronicle_.Thesongknownas"The
BattleofMaldon,"or"Byrhtnoth'sDeath,"isrecordedinanother
manuscript.
Footnote39:Thisisanadmirablelittlebook,containingthecreamof
AngloSaxonpoetry,infreetranslations,withnotes.Translationsfrom
_OldEnglishProse_isacompanionvolume.
Footnote40:Forfulltitlesandpublishersofgeneralreferencebooks,
andforalistofinexpensivetextsandhelps,seeGeneralBibliographyat
theendofthisbook.
Footnote41:Thechiefobjectofthesequestionsisnottoserveasa
review,ortoprepareforexamination,butrathertosetthestudent
thinkingforhimselfaboutwhathehasread.Afewquestionsofanadvanced
natureareinsertedwhichcallforspecialstudyandresearchin
interestingfields.
Footnote42:ARomancelanguageisonewhosebasisisLatin,notthe
classiclanguageofliterature,butavulgarorpopularLatinspokeninthe
militarycampsandprovinces.ThusItalian,Spanish,andFrenchwere
originallydifferentdialectsofthevulgarLatin,slightlymodifiedbythe
minglingoftheRomansoldierswiththenativesoftheconqueredprovinces.

Footnote43:Seep.51.
Footnote44:Itisinterestingtonotethatallthechroniclersofthe
period,whetherofEnglishorNormanbirth,uniteinadmirationofthe
greatfiguresofEnglishhistory,asitwasthenunderstood.Brutus,
Arthur,Hengist,Horsa,EdwardtheConfessor,andWilliamofNormandyare
allalikesetdownasEnglishheroes.InaFrenchpoemofthethirteenth
century,forinstance,wereadthat"thereisnolandintheworldwhereso
manygoodkingsandsaintshavelivedasintheisleoftheEnglish...
suchasthestrongandbraveArthur,Edmund,andCnut."Thisnationalpoem,
celebratingtheEnglishEdward,waswritteninFrenchbyaNormanmonkof
WestminsterAbbey,anditsfirstheroesareaCelt,aSaxon,andaDane.
(SeeJusserand,_LiteraryHistoryoftheEnglishPeople_,I,112ff.)
Footnote45:_EnglishLiteraturefromtheNormanConquesttoChaucer_.
Footnote46:AnselmwasanItalianbybirth,butwrotehisfamouswork
whileholdingtheseeofCanterbury.
Footnote47:DuringtheRomanoccupancyofBritainoccurredacurious
minglingofCelticandRomantraditions.TheWelshbegantoassociatetheir
nationalheroArthurwithRomanancestors;hencethestoryofBrutus,
greatgrandsonofAeneas,thefirstkingofBritain,asrelatedbyGeoffrey
andLayamon.
Footnote48:ProbablyaLatincopyofBede.
Footnote49:Wace'stranslationofGeoffrey.
Footnote50:OnlyonewordinaboutthreehundredandfiftyisofFrench
origin.AcenturylaterRobertMannyngusesoneFrenchwordineighty,
whileChaucerhasoneinsixorseven.Thisincludesrepetitions,andisa
fairestimateratherthananexactcomputation.
Footnote51:ThematterofBritainrefersstrictlytotheArthurian,i.e.
theWelshromances;andsoanotherdivision,thematterofEngland,maybe
noted.ThisincludestalesofpopularEnglishheroes,likeBevisof
Hampton,GuyofWarwick,HornChild,etc.
Footnote52:Accordingtomedivalliterarycustomthesesongswere
rarelysigned.Later,whenmanysongsweremadeoverintoalongpoem,the
authorsignedhisnametotheentirework,withoutindicatingwhathehad
borrowed
Footnote53:AnEnglishbookinwhichsuchromanceswerewrittenwas
calledaGestorJestBook.Soalsoatthebeginningof_CursorMundi_
(_c_.1320)weread:
Menyernenjestisfortohere
Andromaunceredeindiversemanere,
andthenfollowsasummaryofthegreatcyclesofromance,whichweare
considering.
Footnote54:TennysongoesfartherthanMaloryinmakingGawainfalseand
irreverent.Thatseemstobeamistake;forinalltheearliestromances
Gawainis,nexttoArthur,thenoblestofknights,themostlovedand
honoredofalltheheroesoftheRoundTable.
Footnote55:TherewerevariousFrenchversionsofthestory;butitcame
originallyfromtheIrish,wheretheherowascalledCuchulinn.
Footnote56:Itisoftenallegedthatinthisromancewehaveavery
poeticalfoundationfortheOrderoftheGarter,whichwasinstitutedby
EdwardIII,in1349;butthehistoryoftheordermakesthisextremely

doubtful.Thereaderwillbechieflyinterestedincomparingthisromance
with_Beowulf_,forinstance,toseewhatnewidealshavetakenrootin
England.
Footnote57:OriginallyCockaygne(variouslyspelled)wasintendedto
ridiculethemythicalcountryofAvalon,somewhatasCervantes'_Don
Quixote_laterridiculestheromancesofchivalry.InLuxuryLand
everythingwasgoodtoeat;houseswerebuiltofdaintiesandshingledwith
cakes;butteredlarksfellinsteadofrain;thestreamsranwithgoodwine;
androastgeesepassedslowlydownthestreets,turningthemselvesasthey
went.
Footnote58:Child's_EnglishandScottishPopularBallads_isthemost
scholarlyandcompletecollectioninourlanguage.Gummere's_OldEnglish
Ballads_isagoodshortwork.ProfessorKittredge'sIntroductiontothe
CambridgeeditionofChild's_Ballads_isthebestsummaryofavery
difficultsubject.Foranextendeddiscussionoftheliterarycharacterof
theballad,seeGummere's_ThePopularBallad_.
Footnote59:littlebird.
Footnote60:inherlanguage.
Footnote61:Ilive
Footnote62:fairest
Footnote63:Iam
Footnote64:power,bondage.
Footnote65:apleasantfateIhaveattained.
Footnote66:Iknow
Footnote67:gone
Footnote68:lit,alighted
Footnote69:FortitlesandpublishersofreferencebooksseeGeneral
Bibliographyattheendofthisbook.
Footnote70:Thereadermayperhapsbemoreinterestedinthesefinal
letters,whicharesometimessoundedandagainsilent,ifheremembersthat
theyrepresentthedecayinginflectionsofouroldAngloSaxonspeech.
Footnote71:_HouseofFame_,II,652ff.Thepassageismoreorless
autobiographical.
Footnote72:_LegendofGoodWomen_,Prologue,ll.29ff.
Footnote73:wealth.
Footnote74:thecrowd.
Footnote75:success.
Footnote76:blinds.
Footnote77:act.
Footnote78:trouble.
Footnote79:i.e.thegoddessFortune.

Footnote80:kick.
Footnote81:awl.
Footnote82:judge.
Footnote83:Forthetypographyoftitlestheauthorhasadoptedtheplan
ofputtingthetitlesofallbooks,andofallimportantworksgenerally
regardedassinglebooks,initalics.Individualpoems,essays,etc.,are
inRomanletterswithquotationmarks.Thuswehavethe"Knight'sTale,"or
thestoryof"PalamonandArcite,"inthe_CanterburyTales_.Thissystem
seemsonthewholethebest,thoughitmayresultinsomeinconsistencies.
Footnote84:_TroilusandCriseyde_,III.
Footnote85:Seep.107.
Footnote86:ForasummaryofChaucer'sworkandplaceinourliterature,
seetheComparisonwithSpenser,p.111.
Footnote87:clad.
Footnote88:wonder.
Footnote89:brook.
Footnote90:sounded.
Footnote91:theirs
Footnote92:rule
Footnote93:righteousness
Footnote94:called
Footnote95:theirs
Footnote96:yield
Footnote97:say
Footnote98:them
Footnote99:hate
Footnote100:persecute
Footnote101:slander
Footnote102:rains
Footnote103:InitsEnglishformtheallegedMandevilledescribesthe
landsandcustomshehasseen,andbringsinallthewondershehasheard
about.Manythingshehasseenhimself,hetellsus,andtheseare
certainlytrue;butothershehasheardinhistravels,andofthesethe
readermustjudgeforhimself.Thenheincidentallymentionsadesertwhere
hesawdevilsasthickasgrasshoppers.Asforthingsthathehasbeentold
bydevouttravelers,herearethedogfacedmen,andbirdsthatcarryoff
elephants,andgiantstwentyeightfeettall,anddangerouswomenwhohave
brightjewelsintheirheadsinsteadofeyes,"andiftheybeholdanyman
inwrath,theyslayhimwithalook,asdoththebasilisk."Herealsoare
thefolkofEthiopia,whohaveonlyoneleg,butwhohopaboutwith
extraordinaryrapidity.Theironefootissobigthat,whentheylieinthe
sun,theyraiseittoshadetheirbodies;inrainyweatheritisasgoodas

anumbrella.Atthecloseofthisinterestingbookoftravel,whichisa
guideforpilgrims,theauthorpromisestoallthosewhosayaprayerfor
himashareinwhateverheavenlygracehemayhimselfobtainforallhis
holypilgrimages.
Footnote104:FortitlesandpublishersofreferenceworksseeGeneral
Bibliographyattheendofthisbook.
Footnote105:_ConstitutionalHistoryofEngland_.
Footnote106:Symonds,_RevivalofLearning_.
Footnote107:Sismondiattributesthistotwocauses:first,thelackof
generalculture;andsecond,theabsorptionoftheschoolsinthenewstudy
ofantiquity.See_LiteratureoftheSouthofEurope_,II,400ff.
Footnote108:Erasmus,thegreatestscholaroftheRenaissance,wasnot
anEnglishman,butseemstobelongtoeverynation.Hewasbornat
Rotterdam(_c_.1466),butlivedthegreaterpartofhislifeinFrance,
Switzerland,England,andItaly.His_EncomiumMoriae_wassketchedona
journeyfromItaly(1509)andwrittenwhilehewastheguestofSirThomas
MoreinLondon.
Footnote109:Unless,perchance,thereaderfindssomepointsof
resemblanceinPlato's"Republic."
Footnote110:SeeWordsworth'ssonnet,_OntheSonnet_.Foradetailed
studyofthismostperfectverseform,seeTomlinson's_TheSonnet,Its
Origin,Structure,andPlaceinPoetry_.
Footnote111:WilliamCaxton(_c_.14221491)wasthefirstEnglish
printer.Helearnedtheartabroad,probablyatCologneorBruges,and
abouttheyear1476setupthefirstwoodenprintingpressinEngland.His
influenceinfixinganationallanguagetosupersedethevariousdialects,
andinpreparingthewayfortheliteraryrenaissanceoftheElizabethan
age,isbeyondcalculation.
Footnote112:Maloryhas,inourownday,beenidentifiedwithanEnglish
countrygentlemanandsoldier,whowasmemberofParliamentfor
Warwickshirein1445.
Footnote113:FortitlesandpublishersofgeneralworksseeGeneral
Bibliographyattheendofthisbook.
Footnote114:_EastwardHo!_aplaygiveninBlackfriarsTheaterabout
1603.TheplaywaswrittenbyMarstonandtwocollaborators.
Footnote115:Liesofaint.
Footnote116:The_View_wasnotpublishedtill1633.
Footnote117:clad.
Footnote118:handsome.
Footnote119:jousts,tournaments.
Footnote120:countenance.
Footnote121:dreaded.
Footnote122:tookoff.
Footnote123:pity.

Footnote124:know.
Footnote125:Inthenineteenthcenturymenlearnedagaintoappreciate
Chaucer.
Footnote126:Themostdramaticpartoftheearlyritualcenteredabout
Christ'sdeathandresurrection,onGoodFridaysandEasterdays.An
exquisiteaccountofthismostimpressiveserviceispreservedinSt.
Ethelwold'sLatinmanualofchurchservices,writtenabout965.TheLatin
andEnglishversionsarefoundinChambers's_MediaevalStage_,Vol.II.
Forabrief,interestingdescription,seeGayley,_PlaysofOur
Forefathers_,pp.14ff.
Footnote127:HowmuchweareindebtedtotheNormanloveofpageantry
forthedevelopmentofthedramainEnglandisanunansweredquestion.
DuringtheMiddleAgesitwascustomary,inwelcomingamonarchorin
celebratingaroyalwedding,torepresentallegoricalandmythological
scenes,likethecombatofSt.Georgeandthedragon,forinstance,ona
stageconstructedforthepurpose.Thesepageantswerepopularallover
EuropeanddevelopedduringtheRenaissanceintothedramaticformknownas
theMasque.Thoughthedramawasofreligiousorigin,wemustnotoverlook
thesesecularpageantsasanimportantfactorinthedevelopmentof
dramaticart.
Footnote128:MiracleswereactedontheContinentearlierthanthis.The
Normansundoubtedlybroughtreligiousplayswiththem,butitisprobable
thattheybeganinEnglandbeforetheConquest(1066).SeeManly,
_SpecimensofthePreShakspereanDrama_,I,xix.
Footnote129:SeeJusserand,_ALiteraryHistoryoftheEnglishPeople_,
I,iii,vi.ForourearliestplaysandtheirauthorsseeGayley,_Playsof
OurForefathers_.
Footnote130:Thesethreeperiodsarenothistoricallyaccurate.The
authorusesthemtoemphasizethreedifferentviewsofourearliestplays
ratherthantosuggestthattherewasanyorderlyorchronological
developmentfromMiracletoMoralityandthencetotheInterludes.The
latterisaprevalentopinion,butitseemshardlywarrantedbythefacts.
Thus,thoughtheMiraclesprecedetheMoralitiesbytwocenturies(the
firstknownMorality,"ThePlayoftheLord'sPrayer,"mentionedbyWyclif,
wasgivenprobablyabout1375),someofthebestknownMoralities,like
"PrideofLife,"precedemanyofthelaterYorkMiracles.Andtheterm
Interlude,whichisoftenusedassymbolicalofthetransitionfromthe
moraltotheartisticperiodofthedrama,wasoccasionallyusedinEngland
(fourteenthcentury)assynonymouswithMiracleandagain(sixteenth
century)assynonymouswithComedy.Thatthedramahadthesethreestages
seemsreasonablycertain;butitisimpossibletofixthelimitsofanyone
ofthem,andallthreearesometimesseentogetherinoneofthelater
MiraclesoftheWakefieldcycle.
Footnote131:Infact,Heywood"cribbed"fromChaucer's_Tales_in
anotherInterludecalled"ThePardonerandtheFrere."
Footnote132:Schelling,_ElizabethanDrama_,I,86.
Footnote133:Thatthesegallantswereanunmitigatednuisance,andhad
frequentlytobesilencedbythecommonpeoplewhocametoenjoytheplay,
seemscertain.Dekker's_Gull'sHornbook_(1609)hasaninterestingchapter
on"HowaGallantshouldbehaveHimselfinaPlayhouse."
Footnote134:Thefirstactorswereclassedwiththievesandvagabonds;
buttheyspeedilyraisedtheirprofessiontoanartandwonareputation
whichextendedfarabroad.Thusacontemporary,FynesMoryson,writesin
his_Itinerary:_"SoIrememberthatwhensomeofourcastdespisedstage
playerscame...intoGermanyandplayedatFranckford...havingnethera

completenumberofactors,noranygoodaparell,noranyornamentofthe
stage,yettheGermans,notunderstandingawordetheysayde,bothmenand
wemen,flockedwonderfullytoseetheirgestureandaction."
Footnote135:Schelling,_ElizabethanDrama_.
Footnote136:Baker,inhis_DevelopmentofShakespeareasaDramatist_,
pp.5762,takesadifferentview,andshowshowcarefullymanyoftheboy
actorsweretrained.Itwouldrequire,however,avigoroususeofthe
imaginationtobesatisfiedwithaboy'spresentationofPortia,Juliet,
Cordelia,Rosalind,oranyotherofShakespeare'swonderfulwomen.
Footnote137:Thesechoirmastershadroyalpermitstotakeboysofgood
voice,whereverfound,andtrainthemassingersandactors.Theboyswere
takenfromtheirparentsandwereoftenhalfstarvedandmostbrutally
treated.Theabuseofthisunnaturalprivilegeledtothefinalwithdrawal
ofallsuchpermits.
Footnote138:SocalledfromEuphues,theheroofLyly'stwoproseworks,
_Euphues,theAnatomyofWit_(1579),and_EuphuesandhisEngland_(1580).
Thestyleisaffectedandoverelegant,aboundsinoddconceits,anduses
hopelesslyinvolvedsentences.ItisfoundinnearlyallElizabethanprose
writers,andpartiallyaccountsfortheirgeneraltendencyto
artificiality.ShakespearesatirizeseuphuisminthecharacterofDon
Adrianoof_Love'sLabour'sLost_,butishimselftiresomelyeuphuisticat
times,especiallyinhisearlyor"Lylian"comedies.Lyly,bytheway,did
notinventthestyle,butdidmorethananyothertodiffuseit.
Footnote139:SeeSchelling,I,211.
Footnote140:Seep.114.
Footnote141:In1587thefirsthistoryofJohannFaust,ahalflegendary
Germannecromancer,appearedinFrankfort.WhereMarlowefoundthestoryis
unknown;butheusedit,asGoethedidtwocenturieslater,forthebasis
ofhisgreattragedy.
Footnote142:Wemustremember,however,thatourpresentversionof
_Faustus_isverymuchmutilated,anddoesnotpreservetheplayasMarlowe
wroteit.
Footnote143:Thetwodramatistsmayhaveworkedtogetherinsuch
doubtfulplaysas_RichardIII_,theheroofwhichislikeTimurinan
Englishdress,and_TitusAndronicus_,withitsviolenceandhorror.In
manystrongscenesinShakespeare'sworksMarlowe'sinfluenceismanifest.
Footnote144:_GammerGurton'sNeedle_appeared_c_.1562;_Love's
Labour'sLost,c_.1591.
Footnote145:_KingJohn_,IV,2.
Footnote146:QueenMab,in_RomeoandJuliet_.
Footnote147:ByArchdeaconDavies,intheseventeenthcentury.
Footnote148:In1709,nearlyacenturyafterthepoet'sdeath.
Footnote149:RobertGreene,oneofthepopularplaywrightsofthetime,
whoattackedShakespeareinapamphletcalled"AGroat'sWorthofWit
BoughtwithaMillionofRepentance."Thepamphlet,asidefromitsjealousy
ofShakespeare,isasadpictureofamanofgeniusdyingofdissipation,
andcontainsawarningtootherplaywrightsofthetime,whoseliveswere
apparentlyalmostasbadasthatofGreene.
Footnote150:_Love'sLabour'sLost,ComedyofErrors,TwoGentlemenof

Verona_.
Footnote151:_HenryVI,RichardIII,RichardII,KingJohn_.Priorto
1588onlythreetrueChronicleplaysareknowntohavebeenacted.The
defeatoftheArmadainthatyearledtoanoutburstofnationalfeeling
whichfoundoneoutletinthetheaters,andinthenexttenyearsover
eightyChronicleplaysappeared.OftheseShakespearefurnishednineor
ten.Itwasthegreatpopularsuccessof_HenryVI_,arevisionofanold
play,in1592thatprobablyledtoGreene'sjealousattack.
Footnote152:SeeLee's_LifeofWilliamShakespeare_,pp.188196.
Footnote153:Like_HenryVIII_,andpossiblythelost_Cardenio_.
Footnote154:Anamegiventotheprivilegeclaimedbythemedival
Churchforitsclergyofbeingexemptfromtrialbytheregularlaw
courts.AftertheReformationthecustomsurvivedforalongtime,and
specialprivilegeswereallowedtoministersandtheirfamilies.Jonson
claimedtheprivilegeasaminister'sson.
Footnote155:AsimilarstoryofquackeryisfoundinChaucer,"The
Canon'sYeoman'sTale."
Footnote156:Inthisandin_AFairQuarrel_Middletoncollaboratedwith
WilliamRowley,ofwhomlittleisknownexceptthathewasanactorfrom
_c_.16071627.
Footnote157:Thereaderwillfindwholesomecriticismofthesewriters,
andselectionsfromtheirworks,inCharlesLamb's_SpecimensofEnglish
DramaticPoets_,anexcellentbook,whichhelpsustoabetterknowledge
andappreciationofthelesserElizabethandramatists.
Footnote158:Thefirstfivebookswerepublished15941597,andareas
Hookerwrotethem.Thelastthreebooks,publishedafterhisdeath,areof
doubtfulauthorship,buttheyarethoughttohavebeencompletedfrom
Hooker'snotes.
Footnote159:FortitlesandpublishersofreferenceworksseeGeneral
Bibliographyattheendofthisbook.
Footnote160:See,forinstance,the"HymntoSt.Theresa"and"The
FlamingHeart."
Footnote161:SocalledfromPindar,thegreatestlyricpoetofGreece.
Footnote162:See,forinstance,"Childhood,""TheRetreat,"
"Corruption,""TheBird,""TheHiddenFlower,"forVaughan'smystic
interpretationofchildhoodandnature.
Footnote163:Thereissomedoubtastowhetherhewasbornatthe
Castle,oratBlackHall.Recentopinioninclinestothelatterview.
Footnote164:"OnhisbeingarrivedtotheAgeofTwentythree."
Footnote165:"Itisremarkable,"saysLamartine,"howofteninthe
librariesofItalianprincesandinthecorrespondenceofgreatItalian
writersofthisperiodyoufindmentionedthenameandfameofthisyoung
Englishman."
Footnote166:InMilton'sworkweseeplainlytheprogressiveinfluence
ofthePuritanAge.ThushisHortonpoemsarejoyous,almostElizabethanin
character;hisproseisstern,militant,unyielding,likethePuritanin
hisstruggleforliberty;hislaterpoetry,followingtheapparentfailure
ofPuritanismintheRestoration,hasanoteofsadness,yetproclaimsthe
eternalprinciplesoflibertyandjusticeforwhichhehadlived.

Footnote167:OfthesesixtyweretakenfromtheBible,thirtythreefrom
EnglishandfivefromScotchhistory.
Footnote168:ThelatterwasbyLewisBayly,bishopofBangor.Itis
interestingtonotethatthisbook,whoseverytitleisunfamiliartous,
wasspeedilytranslatedintofivedifferentlanguages.Ithadanenormous
sale,andranthroughfiftyeditionssoonafterpublication.
Footnote169:Abridgedfrom_GraceAbounding_,Part3;_Works_(ed.
1873),p.71.
Footnote170:Fortitlesandpublishersofreferenceworks,seeGeneral
Bibliographyattheendofthisbook.
Footnote171:Guizot's_HistoryoftheRevolutioninEngland_.
Footnote172:JeremyCollier(16501726),aclergymanandauthor,noted
forhisscholarly_EcclesiasticalHistoryofGreatBritain_(17081714)and
his_ShortViewoftheImmoralityandProfanenessoftheEnglishStage_
(1698).Thelatterwaslargelyinstrumentalincorrectingthelowtendency
oftheRestorationdrama.
Footnote173:TheRoyalSociety,fortheinvestigationanddiscussionof
scientificquestions,wasfoundedin1662,andsoonincludedpractically
alloftheliteraryandscientificmenoftheage.Itencouragedthework
ofIsaacNewton,whowasoneofitsmembers;anditsinfluencefor
truthatatimewhenmenwerestilltryingtocompoundthephilosopher's
stone,calculatingmen'sactionsfromthestars,andhangingharmlessold
womenforwitchescanhardlybeoverestimated.
Footnote174:Ifthereaderwouldseethisinconcreteform,lethimread
aparagraphofMilton'sprose,orastanzaofhispoetry,andcompareits
exuberant,melodiousdictionwithDryden'sconcisemethodofwriting.
Footnote175:EdmundWaller(16061687),themostnotedpoetofthe
RestorationperioduntilhispupilDrydenappeared.Hisworksarenow
seldomread.
Footnote176:From_DivinePoems_,"OldAgeandDeath."
Footnote177:FollowingtheadviceofBoileau(16761711),anotedFrench
critic,whomVoltairecalled"thelawgiverofParnassus."
Footnote178:Byacriticwemeansimplyonewhoexaminestheliterary
worksofvariousages,separatesthegoodfromthebad,andgivesthe
reasonsforhisclassification.Itisnoticeablethatcriticalwritings
increaseinanage,likethatoftheRestoration,whengreatcreativeworks
arewanting.
Footnote179:Twootherprinciplesofthisbookshouldbenoted:(1)that
allpoweroriginatesinthepeople;and(2)thattheobjectofall
governmentisthecommongood.Hereevidentlyisademocraticdoctrine,
whichabolishesthedivinerightofkings;butHobbesimmediatelydestroys
democracybyanotherdoctrine,thatthepowergivenbythepeopletothe
rulercouldnotbetakenaway.HencetheRoyalistscouldusethebookto
justifythedespotismoftheStuartsonthegroundthatthepeoplehad
chosenthem.ThispartofthebookisindirectoppositiontoMilton's
_DefenseoftheEnglishPeople_.
Footnote180:Locke's_TreatisesonGovernment_shouldalsobementioned,
fortheyareofprofoundinteresttoAmericanstudentsofhistoryand
politicalscience.ItwasfromLockethattheframersoftheDeclarationof
IndependenceandoftheConstitutiondrewmanyoftheirideas,andeven
someoftheirmoststrikingphrases."Allmenareendowedwithcertain

inalienablerights";"life,liberty,andthepursuitofhappiness";"the
originandbasisofgovernmentisintheconsentofthegoverned,"these
andmanymorefamiliarandstrikingexpressionsarefromLocke.Itis
interestingtonotethathewasappointedtodraftaconstitutionforthe
newprovinceofCarolina;buthisworkwasrejected,probablybecauseit
wastoodemocraticfortheageinwhichhelived.
Footnote181:Afewslightchangesandomissionsfromtheoriginaltext,
asgiveninWheatley'seditionofPepys(London,1892,9vols.),arenot
indicatedinthesebriefquotations.
Footnote182:Thefirstdailynewspaper,_TheDailyCourant_,appearedin
Londonin1702.
Footnote183:SeeLecky,_EnglandintheEighteenthCentury_.
Footnote184:Addison's"Campaign"(1704),writtentocelebratethe
battleofBlenheim.
Footnote185:Greatwritersineveryage,menlikeShakespeareand
Milton,maketheirownstyle.Theyarethereforenotincludedinthis
summary.Amongtheminorwritersalsothereareexceptionstotherule;and
finefeelingisoftenmanifestinthepoetryofDonne,Herbert,Vaughan,
andHerrick.
Footnote186:Wehaveendeavoredheresimplytoshowthemeaningofterms
ingeneraluseinourliterature;butitmustberememberedthatitis
impossibletoclassifyortogiveadescriptivenametothewritersofany
periodorcentury.While"classic"or"pseudoclassic"mayapplytoapart
ofeighteenthcenturyliterature,everyagehasbothitsromanticandits
classicmovements.Inthisperiodtherevoltagainstclassicismisshownin
therevivalofromanticpoetryunderGray,Collins,Burns,andThomson,and
inthebeginningoftheEnglishnovelunderDefoe,Richardson,and
Fielding.Thesepoetsandnovelists,whohavelittleornoconnectionwith
classicism,belongchronologicallytotheperiodwearestudying.Theyare
reservedforspecialtreatmentinthesectionsfollowing.
Footnote187:Pope'ssatires,forinstance,arestronglysuggestedin
Boileau;his_RapeoftheLock_ismuchlikethemockheroic_LeLutrin;_
andthe"EssayonCriticism,"whichmadehimfamous,isanEnglishedition
andimprovementof_L'ArtPotique_.Thelastwas,inturn,acombination
ofthe_ArsPoetica_ofHoraceandofmanywellknownrulesofthe
classicists.
Footnote188:Thesearethefourkindsofspiritsinhabitingthefour
elements,accordingtotheRosicrucians,afantasticsectofspiritualists
ofthatage.InthededicationofthepoemPopesayshetooktheideafrom
aFrenchbookcalled_LeComtedeGabalis_.
Footnote189:ComparethiswithShakespeare's"Alltheworld'sastage,"
in_AsYouLikeit_,II,7.
Footnote190:ItisonlyfairtopointoutthatSwiftwrotethisandtwo
otherpamphletsonreligionatatimewhenheknewthattheywoulddamage,
ifnotdestroy,hisownprospectsofpoliticaladvancement.
Footnote191:SeeTennyson's"MerlinandtheGleam."
Footnote192:Ofthe_Tatler_essaysAddisoncontributedfortytwo;
thirtysixotherswerewrittenincollaborationwithSteele;whileatleast
ahundredandeightyaretheworkofSteelealone.
Footnote193:From"TheVanityofHumanWishes"
Footnote194:AverylovablesideofJohnson'snatureisshownbyhis

doingpenanceinthepublicmarketplaceforhisunfilialconductasaboy.
(See,inHawthorne's_OurOldHome_,thearticleon"Lichfieldand
Johnson.")HissterlingmanhoodisrecalledinhisfamouslettertoLord
Chesterfield,refusingthelatter'spatronageforthe_Dictionary_.The
studentshouldreadthisincidententire,inBoswell's_LifeofJohnson_.
Footnote195:InJohnson's_Dictionary_wefindthisdefinition:
"Grubstreet,thenameofastreetinLondonmuchinhabitedbywritersof
smallhistories,_dictionaries_,andtemporarypoems;whenceanymean
productioniscalledGrubstreet."
Footnote196:FromMacaulay'sreviewofBoswell's_LifeofJohnson_.
Footnote197:Manyofthewritersshowaminglingoftheclassicandthe
romantictendencies.ThusGoldsmithfollowedJohnsonandopposedthe
romanticists;buthis_DesertedVillage_isromanticinspirit,thoughits
classiccoupletsarealmostasmechanicalasPope's.SoBurke'sorations
are"elegantlyclassic"instyle,butareilluminedbyburstsofemotion
andromanticfeeling.
Footnote198:AmuchmoreinterestingworkisThomasPaine's_Rightsof
Man_,whichwaswritteninanswertoBurke'sessay,andwhichhadenormous
influenceinEnglandandAmerica.
Footnote199:Inthesameyear,1775,inwhichBurke'smagnificent
"Conciliation"orationwasdelivered,PatrickHenrymadearemarkable
littlespeechbeforeagatheringofdelegatesinVirginia.Bothmenwere
pleadingthesamecauseofjustice,andwereactuatedbythesamehigh
ideals.Averyinterestingcontrast,however,maybedrawnbetweenthe
methodsandtheeffectsofHenry'sspeechandofBurke'smorebrilliant
oration.Burkemakesuswonderathislearning,hisbrilliancy,his
eloquence;buthedoesnotmoveustoaction.PatrickHenrycallsus,and
wespringtofollowhim.Thatsuggeststheessentialdifferencebetweenthe
twoorators.
Footnote200:Theromanticrevivalismarkedbyrenewedinterestin
medivalidealsandliterature;andtothisinterestisduethesuccessof
Walpole'sromance,_TheCastleofOtranto_,andofChatterton'sforgeries
knownasthe_RowleyPapers_.
Footnote201:From_TheTask_,BookII.
Footnote202:See,forinstance,Phelps,_BeginningsoftheRomantic
Movement_,foralistofSpenserianimitatorsfrom1700to1775.
Footnote203:SuchisGoldsmith'sversionofasomewhatsuspicious
adventure,whosedetailsareunknown.
Footnote204:Goldsmith'sidea,whichwasborrowedfromWalpole,
reappearsinthepseudo_LettersfromaChineseOfficial_,whichrecently
attractedconsiderableattention.
Footnote205:FitzGreeneHalleck'spoem"ToaRosefromnearAlloway
Kirk"(1822)isagoodappreciationofBurnsandhispoetry.Itmightbe
welltoreadthispoembeforethesadstoryofBurns'slife.
Footnote206:Introduction,_SongsofInnocence_.
Footnote207:Swinburne's_WilliamBlake_.
Footnote208:Thereareseveralomissionsfromthetextinthisfragment
from_Fingal_.
Footnote209:SeveralfragmentsofGaelicpoetry,attributedtoOssianor
Oisin,arenowknowntohaveexistedatthattimeintheHighlands.

Macphersonusedtheseasabasisforhisepic,butmostofthedetailswere
furnishedbyhisownimagination.Theallegedtextof"Ossian"was
publishedin1807,someelevenyearsafterMacpherson'sdeath.Itonly
addedanothermysterytotheforgery;for,whileitembodiedafewoldand
probablygenuinefragments,thebulkofitseemstobeMacpherson'swork
translatedbackintoGaelic.
Footnote210:Forvariousothercollectionsofsongsandballads,
antedatingPercy's,seePhelps's_BeginningsoftheEnglishRomantic
Movement_,ch.vii.
Footnote211:Thefirstbookstowhichtheterm"novel,"inthemodern
sense,maybeapplied,appearedalmostsimultaneouslyinEngland,France,
andGermany.TherapiddevelopmentoftheEnglishnovelhadanimmense
influenceinallEuropeannations.
Footnote212:Thename"romance"wasgivenatfirsttoanystoryinone
oftheRomancelanguages,liketheFrenchmetricalromances,whichwehave
considered.BecausethesestorieswerebroughttoEnglandatatimewhen
thechildishmindoftheMiddleAgesdelightedinthemostimpossible
stories,thename"romance"wasretainedtocoveranyworkoftheunbridled
imagination.
Footnote213:Thisdivisionofworksoffictionintoromancesandnovels
isasomewhatarbitraryone,butitseems,onthewhole,themostnatural
andthemostsatisfactory.Manywritersusethegenericterm"novel"to
includeallprosefiction.Theydividenovelsintotwoclasses,storiesand
romances;thestorybeingaformofthenovelwhichrelatescertain
incidentsoflifewithaslittlecomplexityaspossible;andtheromance
beingaformofnovelwhichdescribeslifeasledbystrongemotionsinto
complexandunusualcircumstances.Novelsareotherwisedividedintonovels
ofpersonality,like_VicarofWakefield_and_SilasMarner_;historical
novels,_Ivanhoe_;novelsofromance,like_LornaDoone_andnovelsof
purpose,like_OliverTwist_and_UncleTom'sCabin_.Allsuch
classificationsareimperfect,andthebestofthemisopentoobjections.
Footnote214:Oneofthesetaleswascalled_TheWonderfulThingsbeyond
Thule_.Itisthestoryofayouth,Dinias,whoforloveofagirl,
Dercyllis,didheroicthingsandundertookmanyadventures,includinga
journeytothefrozennorth,andanothertothemoon.Asecondtale,
_Ephesiaca_,isthestoryofamanandamaid,eachofwhomscoffsatlove.
Theymeetandfalldesperatelyinlove;butthecourseoftruelovedoes
notrunsmooth,andtheyseparate,andsuffer,andgothroughmanyperils,
beforethey"livehappilyeverafter."Thistaleisthesourceofthe
medivalstory,_ApolloniusofTyre_,whichisusedinGower's_Confessio
Amantis_andinShakespeare's_Pericles_.Athirdtaleisthepastorallove
story,_DaphnisandChloe_,whichreappearedinmanyformsinsubsequent
literature.
Footnote215:Minto's_LifeofDefoe_,p.139.
Footnote216:Thesewerenotwhatthebooksellersexpected.Theywanteda
"handyletterwriter,"somethinglikeabookofetiquette;anditwas
publishedin1741,afewmonthsafter_Pamela_.
Footnote217:Seep.315.
Footnote218:Fortitlesandpublishersofgeneralreferenceworks,and
ofinexpensivetexts,seeGeneralBibliographyatendofthisbook.
Footnote219:Mrs.Radcliffe'sbestworkisthe_MysteriesofUdolpho_.
Thisisthestoryofatenderheroineshutupinagloomycastle.Overher
broodstheterribleshadowofanancestor'scrime.Therearetheusual
"gooseflesh"accompanimentsofhauntedrooms,secretdoors,sliding
panels,mysteriousfiguresbehindoldpictures,andasubterraneanpassage

leadingtoavault,darkandcreepyasatomb.Heretheheroinefindsa
chestwithbloodstainedpapers.Bythelightofaflickeringcandleshe
reads,withchillsandshivering,therecordoflongburiedcrimes.Atthe
psychologicmomentthelittlecandlesuddenlygoesout.Thenoutofthe
darknessacold,clammyhandugh!Foolishassuchstoriesseemtousnow,
theyshow,first,awildreactionfromtheskepticismoftheprecedingage;
andsecond,adevelopmentofthemedivalromanceofadventure;onlythe
adventureishereinwardratherthanoutward.Itfacesaghostinsteadofa
dragon;andforthisworkanunwithherbeadsisbetterthanaknightin
armor.Soheroinesabound,insteadofheroes.Theagewastooeducatedfor
medievalmonstersandmagic,butnoteducatedenoughtorejectghostsand
otherbogeys.
Footnote220:The_LyricalBallads_werebetterappreciatedinAmerica
thaninEngland.Thefirsteditionwasprintedherein1802.
Footnote221:_ThePrelude_wasnotpublishedtillafterWordsworth's
death,nearlyhalfacenturylater.
Footnote222:_ThePrelude_,BookIV.
Footnote223:Dowden's_SelectionsfromWordsworth_isthebestofmany
suchcollections.SeeSelectionsforReading,andBibliography,attheend
ofthischapter.
Footnote224:See"Christ'sHospitalFiveandThirtyYearsAgo,"in
_EssaysofElia_.
Footnote225:SeeScott'scriticismofhisownwork,incomparisonwith
JaneAusten's,p.439.
Footnote226:Scott'snovelswerenotthefirsttohaveanhistorical
basis.Forthirtyyearsprecedingtheappearanceof_Waverley_,historical
romanceswerepopular;butitwasduetoScott'sgeniusthatthehistorical
novelbecameapermanenttypeofliterature.SeeCross,_TheDevelopmentof
theEnglishNovel_.
Footnote227:SeeSelectionsforReading,andBibliography,attheendof
thischapter.
Footnote228:Shelleyundoubtedlytookhisideafromalostdramaof
Aeschylus,asequelto_PrometheusBound_,inwhichthegreatfriendof
mankindwasunchainedfromaprecipice,wherehehadbeenplacedbythe
tyrantZeus.
Footnote229:ThisideaissuppportedbyShelley'spoem_Adonais_,andby
Byron'sparodyagainstthereviewers,beginning,"WhokilledJohnKeats?I,
saystheQuarterly."
Footnote230:See"Christ'sHospitalFiveandThirtyYearsAgo,"in
_EssaysofElia_.
Footnote231:See_EssaysofElia,_"TheSuperannuatedMan."
Footnote232:Inthefirstessay,"TheSouthSeaHouse,"Lambassumedas
ajokethenameofaformerclerk,Elia.Otheressaysfollowed,andthe
namewasretainedwhenseveralsuccessfulessayswerepublishedinbook
form,in1823.Intheseessays"Elia"isLambhimself,and"CousinBridget"
ishissisterMary.
Footnote233:SeehistoriesfortheCongressofVienna(1814)andthe
HolyAlliance(1815).
Footnote234:Forfulltitlesandpublishersofgeneralreferencebooks,
seeGeneralBibliographyatendofthisbook.

Footnote235:AnexcellentlittlevolumeforthebeginnerisVanDyke's
"PoemsbyTennyson,"whichshowstheentirerangeofthepoet'sworkfrom
hisearliesttohislatestyears.(SeeSelectionsforReading,attheend
ofthischapter.)
Footnote236:Tennysonmadeadistinctioninspellingbetweenthe_Idylls
oftheKing_,andthe_EnglishIdyls_,like"Dora."
Footnote237:AnexcellentlittlebookforthebeginnerisLovett's
_SelectionsfromBrowning_.(SeeSelectionsforReading,attheendofthis
chapter.)
Footnote238:Thisterm,whichmeanssimplyItalianpaintersbefore
Raphael,isgenerallyappliedtoanartisticmovementinthemiddleofthe
nineteenthcentury.ThetermwasfirstusedbyabrotherhoodofGerman
artistswhoworkedtogetherintheconventofSanIsodoro,inRome,with
theideaofrestoringarttoitsmedivalpurityandsimplicity.Theterm
nowgenerallyreferstoacompanyofsevenyoungmen,DanteGabriel
RossettiandhisbrotherWilliam,WilliamHolmanHunt,JohnEverett
Millais,JamesCollinson,FrederickGeorgeStevens,andThomasWoolner,
whoformedthePreRaphaelitebrotherhoodinEnglandin1848.Their
officialliteraryorganwascalled_TheGerm_,inwhichmuchoftheearly
workofMorrisandRossettiappeared.Theytookfortheirmodelstheearly
Italianpainterswho,theydeclared,were"simple,sincere,andreligious."
Theirpurposewastoencouragesimplicityandnaturalnessinartand
literature;andoneoftheirchiefobjects,inthefaceofdoubtand
materialism,wastoexpressthe"wonder,reverence,andawe"which
characterizesmedivalart.Initsreturntothemysticismandsymbolismof
themedivalage,thisPreRaphaelitismsuggeststhecontemporaryOxfordor
Tractarianmovementinreligion.(Seefootnote,p.554).
Footnote239:Arnoldwasoneofthebestknownpoetsoftheage,but
becausehehasexertedadeeperinfluenceonourliteratureasacritic,we
havereservedhimforspecialstudyamongtheessayists.(Seep.xxx)
Footnote240:Itshouldbepointedoutthatthe_EnglishHumorists_is
somewhattoohighlycoloredtobestrictlyaccurate.Incertaincasesalso,
notablythatofSteele,thereadermaywellobjecttoThackeray's
patronizingattitudetowardhissubject.
Footnote241:Seepp.260261.
Footnote242:EmilyBront(18181848)wasonlyalittlelessgiftedthan
herfamoussister.Herbestknownworkis_WutheringHeights_(1847),a
strongbutmorbidnovelofloveandsuffering.MatthewArnoldsaidofher
that,"fortheportrayalofpassion,vehemence,andgrief,"EmilyBront
hadnoequalsaveByron.AnexquisitepictureofEmilyisgivenin
CharlotteBront'snovel_Shirley_.
Footnote243:_Essays_,Riversideedition,I,318.
Footnote244:ThestudentshouldrememberthatCarlyle'sliterary
opinions,thoughverypositive,aretobereceivedwithcaution.Sometimes,
indeed,theyaresoonesidedandprejudicedthattheyaremorevaluableas
arevelationofCarlylehimselfthanasastudyoftheauthorheis
considering.
Footnote245:TheOxfordmovementinreligionhasmanypointsof
resemblancetothePreRaphaelitemovementinart.Bothprotestedagainst
thematerialismoftheage,andbothwentbackfortheirmodelstothe
MiddleAges.Originallythemovementwasintendedtobringnewlifetothe
Anglicanchurchbyarevivalofthedoctrineandpracticesofanearlier
period.Recognizingthepowerofthepress,theleaderschoseliterature
fortheirinstrumentofreform,andbytheir_TractsfortheTimes_they

becameknownasTractarians.Toopposeliberalismandtorestorethe
doctrineandauthorityoftheearlyChurchwasthecenteroftheir
teaching.Theirbeliefmightbesummedupinonegreatarticleofthe
Creed,withallthatitimplies,"IbelieveinoneCatholicandApostolic
Church."ThemovementbeganatOxfordwithKeble'sfamoussermonon
"NationalApostasy,"in1833;butNewmanwastherealleaderofthe
movement,whichpracticallyendedwhenheenteredtheCatholicchurchin
1845.

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