Critical Reading Module PDF

Parlindungan Pardede
CRITICAL
READING
Instructional Material
For FKIP UKI Use Only
Parlindungan Pardede
Critical
Reading
English Department
Faculty Of Education and Teachers Training
Christian University of Indonesia
Jakarta
2016
PREFACE
ritical Reading is intended for students of teacher training
college, or faculty, majoring in English. It grew out of the

present writers observations and experiences in teaching
reading skills at some teacher training faculties in Jakarta. Due to
the fact that reading skills textbooks that cover the comprehensive
aspects of critical reading are not available yet on the market up to
the present day, the need for a special reading-skills textbook that
focuses on critical reading is apparent. Ideally, the special book
should be designed by keeping two points in mind. First, it should
meet the objectives stated in Critical Reading Syllabus. Second, the
material should cover a balanced diet between conceptual
explanations and exercises. Critical Reading is a trial to provide such
a book.
This book is based on the theory that critical reading is the
process of questioning and evaluating printed material and is closely
associated with the readers ability to think critically and to react
intelligently to the writers ideas. A critical reader should always
questions, analyzes, and forms judgments. He sorts facts from
opinions, searches for causes, and considers the authors
qualifications, bias and purpose. His mind is alert to unfounded
assumptions, fallacious reasoning, propaganda, and illogical
conclusions. The concepts and exercises in this book are therefore
intended to help students develop their skills to critically read
advertisements, textbooks, works of reference and general academic
interest, sourcebooks and journals in English. The concepts are
presented as clear and comprehensive as possible, whereas the
exercises are so carefully selected that they are interesting and
stimulating.
To keep their authenticity, the passages presented in this book
were intentionally selected from various authoritative textbooks,
magazines, newspaper, and works of reference that are listed on the
last page. Thus, to a certain extent, this book should primarily be
seen as a work of compilation. In order not to break the text
continuity and in order to optimize the space of the book, most of
original sources of the passages are not designated.
:: i::
I am indebted to several people who have made the writing and

publication of this book possible. In particular, we wish to thank past
and present students of the English Department of FKIP-UKI Jakarta
and STIS Jakarta with whom I used some of this books materials on
experimental basis in their reading classes. I also owe special
gratitude to colleagues who contributed some critics to the content
of this book. Last but not least, I would also like to acknowledge the
help of my beloved families. This book is dedicated to you.
Parlin Pardede
: : ii : :
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Contents
iii
Chapter 1:
Introduction
A. What is Critical Reading?
B. The Procedure of Critical Reading
1
1
4
Chapter 2:
Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

A. Statement of Opinion
B. Statement of Fact
C. Justified and Unjustified Opinions
7
7
8
16
Chapter 3:
Interpreting Connotations of Words

A. Denotations and Connotations
B. Tone and Mood
25
25
34
Chapter 4:
Discovering The Authors Point Of View
45
Chapter 5:
Crooked and Fallacious Thinking

A. Hasty or Over-Generalizations
B. Attack on the Person
C. Appeal to the Emotions
D. Circular Argument
E. False Analogy
F. Equivocation
G. Either-or Assumption
H. Talking What is to be What ought
I. Jumping from a Non-Inclusive Proposition
to an Inclusive Conclusion
J. Supposing the Whole to be Like the Parts.
K. Asking False Questions
L. Taking what are Mere Coincidences to be
the Causes (The Non Sequitur)
57
57
59
60
62
63
64
65
67
: : iii : :
68
69
71
72
Chapter 6:
Detecting Propaganda
A. What is Propaganda?
B. Propaganda Devices
1. Name Calling
2. Glittering Generalities
3. Transfer
4. Testimonial
5. Plain Folks
6. Card Stacking
7. Band Wagon
C. Propaganda and Emotion
Chapter 7:
Recognizing Statistical Slips

A. What is Statistics?
B. Common Statistical Slips
1. The Deceptive Sample
2. The Misleading Average
3. Plausible Charts and Graphs
4. Presenting the Facts without a
Reference Point.
99
99
101
101
103
106
Chapter 8:
Making Inferences
A. Using Terms of Qualification
B. Considering Word Choice
C. Considering Details of Support
117
117
123
127
Chapter 9:
Other Aspects of Critical Reading

A. The Authors Competence
B. The Authors Intention
C. The Authors Attitude
D. The Authors Bias
E. The Time of Publication of the Reading
Material
F. The Policies of Publication
G. The Target Readers
137
137
139
141
141
: : iv : :
79
79
81
82
83
84
86
87
88
89
90
106
145
145
146
Chapter 10:
Critical Reading in Action

A. A Model of a Thorough Critical Analysis
on a Longer Passage
B. Critical Reading Exercises
Bibliography
155
155
162
183
:: v::
: : vi : :
CHAPTER I INTODUCTION
1
INTRODUCTION
A. What is Critical Reading?

Based on its level of difficulty, reading could be classified into
three levels. First, literal reading which entails the ability to recognize
words accurately; to identify topic, main ideas, and supporting
details; to understand sequence of events; to recognize cause and
effect relationships; to interpret directions; and to understand
organizational patterns used in various types of reading matter.
Second, critical reading, or a way of looking at a text and analyzing
what the author is saying and the methods he is using to
communicate a message or idea. In critical reading, the readers
analysis is complete when he has formed his own interpretations of
the author's intentions. Thus, critical reading necessitates the ability
to read with analysis and
judgment. The third type
is affective reading, which
fuses
the
readers
intellectual and emotional
responses to what he
read. The relationship of
these three levels can be
illustrated through the
following triangle. Literal
reading is put on the
bottom of the triangle
because it is the basis for the other two. It also takes the widest
area because this level covers the greatest number of all reading
skills. Critical reading is put in the second level because one can read
critically only if he has mastered all the skills covered by literal
reading. Thus, critical reading ability is higher than literal reading
ability. Affective reading is put on top of the triangle because it is the
highest reading level. One can read affectively only if he has
mastered all the skills covered by both literal and critical reading.
:: 1::
PARLINDUNGAN PARDEDE
The need for critical reading grows daily because much

reading matter, particularly newspapers, magazines, and
advertisements, attempt to influence the readers thinking and
behavior. In general, theres nothing wrong with this; it is only
wrong if you allow yourself to be unknowingly influenced just
because you passively absorb other peoples opinions without trying
to find out whether they are truly sound or not. By applying critical
reading techniques, for instance, a citizen will be able to weigh
public issues and make intelligent choices among political
candidates. Critical reading will also enable someone to detect
misleading advertisement claims, recognize the best values, and
avoid spending their money foolishly. And since it is a skill, it can be
developed and refined with practice. The exercises in this book are
aimed to provide you with critical reading skills.
To a certain extent, critical reading is the process of
questioning and evaluating printed material and is closely associated
with the readers ability to think critically and to react intelligently to
the writers ideas. In other words, critical reading is the
manifestation of critical thinking, i.e. the use of mental ability as a
tool of inquiry for making purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which
results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well
as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological,
criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that
judgment is based, in reading. Kurland (2006) says that critical
reading and critical thinking are interdependent. Critical thinking
allows us to monitor our understanding as we read. If we sense that
assertions are ridiculous or irresponsible (critical thinking), we
examine the text more closely to test our understanding (critical
reading). Con-versely, critical thinking depends on critical
reading. You can think critically about a text (critical thinking), after
all, only if you have understood it (critical reading). We may choose
to accept or reject a presentation, but we must know why. We have
a responsibility to ourselves, as well as to others, to isolate the real
issues of agreement or disagreement. Only then can we understand
and respect other peoples views. To recognize and understand
those views, we must read critically.
In relation to that view, critical reading is obviously a highlevel comprehension skill, because a good critical reader is able to go
beyond the literal interpretation of what he reads. In other words, he
::2::
reads between the lines to determine what the author means by

what he is saying. He knows how to question, analyze, and form
judgments. He sorts facts from opinions, searches for causes, and
considers the authors qualifications and purpose. His mind is alert to
unfounded assumptions, fallacious reasoning, and illogical
conclusions. By thinking for himself, he does not necessarily accept
the biased viewpoints and propaganda of writers who are trying to
influence him.
Unlike literal comprehension, critical reading requires the
reader to interact with the writer. The reader must understand the
writers message, question it, and react to it in terms of his own
knowledge and experience. He is probing, comparing, and reflecting
as he thinks along with the writer about the ideas that have been set
forth. Because of this interaction, the reader has not only absorbed
the writers thoughts, but also adapted them in light of his own
background to fit his purposes.
Your first obligation as a critical reader is to understand the
authors message. You must approach the reading with an open
mind and a willingness to accept new ideas or another point of view.
Although you have some doubts about the material before you begin
reading it, you must give the writer an opportunity to present his
position. Avoid letting your personal biases or prejudices interfere
with clear thinking and objectivity.
As you begin reading and are becoming aware of the writers
thoughts, your mind should be analyzing and questioning the logic of
what he is saying. You should be skeptical toward unsupported
assumptions and contrived relationships. You should be alert to
faulty reasoning and illogical conclusions. You should also be aware
of the authors prejudices and your own as you make judgments
about the material you are reading.
The more experiences and knowledge you have concerning a
subject, the better qualified you are to read it critically. One cannot
think about nothing: one must have knowledge of what he is going
to criticize. When you are familiar with a topic, you can recognize
misleading statements, make intelligent comparisons, and be aware
of significant omissions. You find that the material either expands
the concepts you already have or fails to harmonize with what you
have experienced.
:: 3::
B. The Procedure of Critical Reading

Are there any fixed procedures for reading critically and
intelligently? There are no set answers to this question, because
each kind or situation may demand a different type of thinking or
reaction on the part of the reader. However, asking yourself certain
questions as you read helps you interpret an authors ideas critically.
There is admittedly no single list of questions that is applicable to
every situation. Yet, certain types of question will be suitable for
most kinds of printed matter. In the beginning, you may need to
consciously ask the following questions, but after you have formed
the habit of questioning, you will probably find they occur to you
automatically.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Are the statements fact or opinion?

What is the authors purpose or motif in writing this material?
What is the author bias?
How is the author qualified to write this particular material?
How recently was the material written?
What do I know about the publication of this material?
Who is the target reader?
Do I accept, reject, or defer judgment on the authors material?
How has the author organized his material?
Does the writer employ emotionally toned words?
What is the relationship, if any, of the authors ideas to my own
experience?
What analogies exist in the reading?
What are the cause-and-effect relationships, if any?
What, if anything, is irrelevant in the reading?
Is there any fallacious reasoning or misuse of statistics in the
reading?
What comparison can I make of present reading with previous
reading?
What inference might I draw from knowledge I have gained?
To sum up, the process of critical reading might be described in

the following steps. First, identifying facts, in which the reader tries
to clearly recognize what the author is saying. Second, examining
the source, during which the reader critically looks at the author and
his or her competence, reliability, and probable viewpoints or biases.
::4::
The third step is to analyze the material by examining the authors

assumptions and the logic and accuracy of these assumptions and
conclusions; recognizing the inferences that the reader is supposed
to make; detecting the implications present in the authors diction,
style, or tone; and by recognizing the authors use of propaganda
tricks and emotional appeals. The last stepespecially necessary in
college assignmentsis the comparison of a selection with other
sources that may present conflicting viewpoints. This fourth step is
profitable in such area as political science, sociology, psychology,
history, law, journalism, as well as in literary critics, essays,
biography, and much expository material.
Throughout this book, you will deal with the concepts of various
important aspects you need to acquire in order to develop your
critical reading skill. Some of the aspects are quite simple to learn,
whereas the others are relatively complicated. Due to this fact, they
are not given equal proportion of study and practice. Every sothought complicated aspect, such as point of view, connotation of
words, fallacious thinking, propaganda, statistical slips, making
inference, etc., is presented in one different chapter (Chapter 2
through Chapter 8). The simple aspects, however, are presented
together in a single chapter (Chapter 9). Explanations on each
aspect are given as brief but as concise as possible, and to make it
easier to master every aspect, each explanation is accompanied by
some related exercises. The last chapter is devoted to the use of
integrative skills in critical reading. In this closing unit, after showing
you how to apply the skills you have practiced in an integrative way,
you are given some longer passages to read critically.
Reference
Kurland's, D. 2006. Critical Reading v. Critical Thinking. Retrieved
on July25, 2008 from: www.criticalreading.com
:: 5::
::6::
CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION
2
DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION
Anything you read combines statements of opinion with

statements of fact. This can arouse problems because if you are not
alert, you might not aware that a writer gives you his or her
particular take or bias (a particular opinion, or slant, or a judgment
on the part of the writer based upon his or her own personal
viewpoint) upon events. He or she might be trying to persuade you
by manipulating facts or events. Realizing this, one of the constant
tasks you have to face in your trials to be a critical reader is to
discriminate between opinion and fact. It is not always easy,
because in some cases there is only a very slight difference between
a fact and an opinion.
A. Statement of Opinion
A statement of opinion reveals an authors personal feelings,

beliefs, attitudes, or judgments on a particular subject. Connelly
(1996) states that an opinion is a statement of belief or feeling which
shows one's feelings about a subject.It expresses his or her
individual viewpoint or perspective. It tells you not only what was
seen but how it was seen as well. The followings are examples of
statements of opinion:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Cindy Prima is the best newsreader on television.

Birds make much better pets than cats do.
Chairil Anwars poem Aku has inspired many heroic deeds.
Bakmi 88 is the best restaurant in this area.
Learning a foreign language is very easy.
Highways would probably be more attractive without any
billboards.
Since such statements depend on the personal experience,

history, culture, and training of the people who hold them, they
cannot be judged true or false, right or wrong. That is one reason
for the expression everyone has a right to his or her own opinion.
:: 7::
Statements of opinion express a persons individual response to the

surrounding world. In other words, only the person holding the
opinion can affirm or deny its accuracy. Imagine, for example, that
you are trying to confirm a dog lover that birds actually make better
pets. You would be wasting your time and energy.
B. Statement of Fact
In contrast to a statement of opinion, a statement of fact
describes the world without interpreting it. Connelly (1996) states
that a fact is a statement of actuality or occurrence which is based
on direct evidence, actual experience, or observation. Unlike
statements of opinion, statements of fact can be tested for accuracy
through your own personal observation or through examining
historical records and scientific reports. The following are statements
of fact:
a) It is raining outside.
b) Microsoft Corporation released Windows XP on October 25,
2001.
c) The water in the lake is over twenty meters deep.
d) Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7, 1941.
e) Moon is the only satellite of the earth.
f) Mr. Soekarno was Indonesian first president.
g) Lightning can cause forest fires.
In each case, you can check the accuracy of these statements.
For item 1 and 3, you could actually see for yourself if they were
actually true, and for the other three you could check a variety of
trustworthy sources, like history books, encyclopedias, and
dictionaries.
To make it easier to remember the distinction between
statements of opinion and statements of fact, keep the following
points in mind:
1.
Statements of fact employ more concrete words and phrases.

These refer to physical objects, events, or characteristics.
Concrete words refer to things that can be seen, touched or
measured. Book, cup, chair, red, ten kilograms, five meters, and
ten minutes are all examples of concrete language.
::8::
2.
3.
Statements of opinion rely more on abstract words or phrases.

Abstract words refer to things that cannot be seen, touched or
measured. Freedom, justice, kindness, health, and happiness are
examples of abstract words. Since they do not refer to any
specific physical object or experience, people use them in
different ways. One persons happiness, for instance, could well
be another persons misery.
Statements of opinion frequently use words that make value
judgments, like excellent, good, significant, poor, superior, or
inferior. They are often signaled by phrases like I would suggest,
It would seem possible, It seems, and I believe. Be alert for
such phrases as you read.
If you find that a writer uses words or phrases that belong to

both concrete and abstract language in his or her statements, we
can call them a blend of fact and opinion. To illustrate, look at the
following examples:
a) Being very inspiring and challenging, Pauls Education in the
Global Era has been sold 10,000,000 copies in the first semester
of its publication.
b) An extraordinary and imaginative film, Steven Spielbergs
Jurassic Park earned several million dollars in the first weekend
of its American debut.
Explanation:
In the first sentence, the amount of copies sold can be easily

checked. Thats a fact. However, just how inspiring and challenging
the book was very personal. It is an opinion. Using the same way of
analysis, the amount of money that the movie earned in the second
sentence can be easily checked. Thats a fact. But just how
extraordinary and imaginative the film was is a matter of personal
opinion. So, both of sentence a) and b) blends fact and opinion.
:: 9::
EXERCISE 21
Read each of the following sentences carefully. Then label
them F for fact, O for opinion, or B if the sentence blends
both.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
The quantity and quality of love children accept is highly

correlating to the economic wealth of their family: the
wealthier the family, the more love children can get. ____
Human behavior is the result of a persons heredity and
environment. ____
Learning by imitation is one of the most effective ways of
learning because it provides a complete behavioral sequence
for the learners. ____
Within ten years, computers are going to replace teachers.
____
We live in a terrible and violent world. ____
Human digestion begins when we use our teeth to cut and
grind food. ____
Indonesia proclaimed its independence in August 17, 1945.
____
To be a good father is very difficult. ____
Children display an amazing ability to become fluent speakers
of any language consistently spoken around them. ____
A person with good management skills will make a good
president for Indonesia. ____
The Supreme Court should reintroduce prayer into school.
____
Baseball is the most popular sports in the United States. ____
In all human communication, information is transferred from
one persons memory to another. ____
Like the main idea of a paragraph, an essays thesis is
developed throughout the text. ____
The symptom of a serious emotional disorder named anorexia
nervosa, a disease that can have terrible and even fatal
consequences, usually strikes adolescent girls who have no
reason to diet. ___
: : 10 : :
EXERCISE 22
Read the following paragraphs and identify each
sentence in the paragraph according to whether it is fact
(F), opinion (O), or a mixture of both (B).
1.
[1] The story of American people is a story of immigration and

diversity. [2] The U.S. has welcomed more immigrants than any
other countrymore than 50 million in alland still admits
almost 700,000 persons a year. [3] In the past American
writers emphasized the idea of the melting pot, an image that
suggested new comers would discard their old customs and
adopt American ways. [4] Typically, for example, the children of
immigrants learned English but not their parents first language.
[5] Recently, however, Americans have placed greater value on
diversity, ethnic groups have renewed and celebrated their
heritage, and the children of immigrants often grow up being
bilingual.
1. ____
2.
3. ____
4. ____
5. ____
[1] In all communications through language people do not only

use their linguistic competence but also involve their
perception, idea, gesture and many other things shaped by
their culture. [2] If the persons involved in the communication
come from the same culture, to a certain extent, they can
understand each other without any complicated obstacles. [3]
However, if they are members of different cultures, although
their linguistic competence in the language used is quite high,
misunderstandings are likely to occur. [4] Thus, it is apparent
that culture and language are two inseparable factors in human
communication.
1. ____
3.
2. ____
2. ____
3. ____
4. ____
[1] To be successful you must be compassionate. [2] It

basically involves nothing more than putting yourself in the
other persons shoes and trying to feel what hes experiencing.
[3] It costs nothing but is worth everything, because, to
different degrees, average person lives in pain, and taking that
: : 11 : :
factor into consideration before speaking or acting, you will help

others gain their cooperation as well. [4] In other words, you
have to meet people in the hurt. [5] It is said that in life youll
reap what you sow. [6] A person who demonstrates the most
compassion toward others is the person who is destined to reap
the most compassion from others. [7] Thus, although you
cannot force others to be compassionate to you, you can learn
to be compassionate to them. [8] By being compassionate,
youll gain a heightened sense of self-esteem and reap many
additional rewards, both directly and indirectly, as time
passes.
1. ____
7. ____
4.
2. ____
8. ____
3. ____
5. ____
6. ____
[1] Americans are a peculiar people. [2] They work like mad,
then give away much of what they earn. [3] They play until
they are exhausted, and call this a vacation. [4] They love to
think of themselves as though-minded businessmen, yet they
are pushovers for any hard-luck story. [5] They have the
biggest of nearly everything including government, motorcars
and debts, yet they are afraid of bigness. [6] They are always
trying to chip away at big government, big business, big unions,
and big influence. [7] They like to think of themselves as little
people, average men, and they would like to cut everything
down to their own size. [8] Yet they boast of their tall buildings,
high mountains, long rivers, big state, the best country, the
best world, and the best heaven. [9] They also have the most
traffic deaths, the wastest, the most racketeering.
1. ___ 2. ___
3. ____
____ 8. ____ 9. ___
5.
4. ____
4. ____
5. ____
6. ___
7.
[1] Though a subject of intense speculation, empirical studies on

homosexuality and its relationship to creativity have been few and far
between. [2] Also the methodology of some of these has been
questionable since it hasnt always been easy to get a large enough
sample size. [3] One of the earliest studies (Ellis 1959) comparing a
group of homosexual patients in psychotherapy with a set of
: : 12 : :
heterosexual patients, proved heterosexuals to be more creative that

the homosexual patients. [4] Also greater the degree of emotional
disturbance of the homosexual patients the less creative they proved
to be. [5] The main critique of the study here throughout the literature
has been use of psychotherapy patients as sample and the results
therefore cannot be generalized, also creativity was judged based on a
dictionary definition rather than performance or test data. [6] A later
study by George Domino (1977) included four groups of homosexuals
(activists, social homosexuals, clients of a college counseling center,
and artistic homosexuals) and four groups of control heterosexuals. [7]
The subjects were administered a battery of tests that included nine
measures of aspects of creativity. [8] In all cases where significant
mean differences were obtained, homosexuals scored lower and there
was no support for the contention that homosexuals are more creative.
1. ____ 2. ____
____ 8. ____
3. ____
4. ____
5. ____
6. ____
7.
EXERCISE 23
Answer the following questions by reading the advertisement that follow.
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
[T/F] The advertisement is primarily filled with facts.

[T/F] According to the ad, Developing Sexual Versatility is
based on research obtained from thirty gorgeous women.
3. Circle the letter of each statement you consider to be fact:
a. women today want a lot from man.
b. guaranteed results within one week after reading our
book.
c. Developing Sexual Versatility tells you all you need to
know about what women want.
d. step-by-step techniques that no woman will be able to
resist.
4. Circle the letter of each statement you consider to be opinion:
a. Now, it is the best-selling book that tells you all you need to
know about what women want.
b. Your for only $5.95
c. fool-proof pick-up methods that will work on any woman.
: : 13 : :
d. dozens of proven methods that we guarantee will change

your sex life.
5. To whom (what audiences) do you think this ad is directed?
6. Would you buy the book advertisedor its counterpart written
for female audience? Why or why not?
WOMEN TODAY WANT A LOT FROM A
MAN
Can you give it to them?
Yes, you can! Now, that best-selling book that
tells you all you need to know about what
women
wantDEVELOPING
SEXUAL
VERSALITY. Yours for only $5.95 (plus
postage and handling)
Filled with action photos that show you how
to make any girl you want your pleasure
slave.
DEVELOPING SEXUAL VERSALITY contains:
guaranteed results within one week after reading our book
fool-proof pick-up methods that will work on any woman.
clear, luscious how to pictures to teach you our method for
conquest.
researched-based methods from interviews with thirty gorgeous
women who told us what they expect from a real man.
step-by-step techniques
that no woman will be
ALL THE ANSWERS, Co.
able to resist: how to
P.O. Box 1000, N.Y.
look her in the eyes and
tell her what you want
Ive enclosed $ 5.95 plus $2.00
how to touch and
for postage and handling. Rush my
stimulate her desire for
copy of DEVELOPING SEXUAL
you how to remove
VERSALITY!
her clothes how to
Bill me COD for my copy of
DEVELOPING SEXUAL VERSALITY
develop sexual control
many others
Name ______________________
Street ______________________
Dozens of proven
City
______________________
methods that we
State ______________________
guarantee will change
ZIP ______________________
your sex life
Book sent in plain brown wrapper
: : 14 : :
EXERCISE 24
Determine whether each of the following quotations is F
(fact), O (opinion), or B (blend of both).
1. From the Congressional Record:
It is tragic that in a society grown great through freedom we now
endeavor to stay great by enforced taxation, Federal programs
and the substitution of Federal Government schemes for private
initiative. ____
2. From the an Associated Press release:
Many people want better, more reliable information about the
products and services they buy, according to one manufacturer. A
nationwide survey, conducted for general electric, found that 71
percent felt that information about products was confusing. Sixty
percent added that information supplied by manufacturers was
useless. ____
3. From the Time magazine, June 21, 1971:
Adolf Hitlers mistress, Eva Braun, was a pudgy, middle-class
blonde who gloomed more than she glittered. Yet, her name will
go down in history alongside such famous and glamorous kept
women as Lola Montez, Madame de Pompadour, Nell Gwyn, and
Du Barry. ____
4. From the Essentials of American Democracy:
A black can expect to live, on the average, seven years less than
a white person of the same sex, to enjoy a little more than half
the incomeeven if he has more education than his white
brothersand to suffer about twice the unemployment rate.
____
5. From the National Geographic News Service:
The latest WHO (Word Health Organization) figures report that
over 150 million new cases of malaria were reported in 1981, with
an estimated 215 million people chronically afflicted with the
disease. Despite decades of struggling against it, malaria is once
again on the rise around the world. ____
: : 15 : :
C. Justified and Unjustified Opinions

The ability to distinguish between statements of fact and
statements of opinion is an important skill to develop because it can
help you decide whether or not an authors opinions are justified.
When we say that an opinion is justified we mean that the author
has provided a number of convincing facts to support his or her
personal belief. Justified opinions are worthy of your serious
consideration. You may even want to make them your own.
Beware, however, of statements of opinion that lack all factual
support. We call these unjustified opinions, and they should be
treated with skepticism. You certainly dont want to take them
seriously without doing further reading on the subject.
To help you see the difference between justified and
unjustified opinions, look at the following pair of paragraphs. The
first one expresses a justified opinion while the second one does not.
The national Bureau of standards investigated the Hyatt
regency accident in Kansas City, where many people died
when a skywalk collapsed. Through that investigation, it was
discovered that the original design of the skywalks had been
changed during the construction of the building. As a result,
the loads those structures could carry were greatly reduced.
In addition, a second study by the International Conference of
Building Officials concluded that the building inspection
procedures at the time of construction were not adequate.
Given the results of these two studies, I would make the
following suggestion: the design of buildings, especially if they
incorporate novel features and are used by large crowds,
should be carefully examined and evaluated at all stages of
construction.
The last sentence of this paragraph is a topic sentence expressing an
opinion: from now on, buildings, with new features that are to be
used by large crowds should be carefully examined and evaluated at
all stages of construction. But the author knows that his readers may
not share that opinion. From their point of view, the existing system
of inspection may be just fine. In order to convince them, he offers
some specific facts about the construction of the Hyatt regency. This
: : 16 : :
is his way of showing you that his opinion is justified and therefore
worth sharing. Now read the second paragraph.
We Americans like to brag about progress, but, in fact, life
was better in the nineteenth century than it is in the
twentieth. People were happier and more at peace with
themselves. There just wasnt the same kind of anxiety and
tension that there is today. If we had a chance, we would
probably all get into a time machine and go backward in time,
rather than forward. All of our highly touted technological
progress has not brought us contentment.
The author of this paragraph clearly believes that life was much
better one hundred years ago than it is today. However, he does not
offer one specific fact in support of that belief. He might have said to
support his opinion, that the divorce rate was lower and that it is one
reason why he believes people were happier. Or he might have
pointed out that larger families were more common and parents
could live with their children. Thus, old age did not mean entry into a
nursing home and isolation. But he doesnt say anything like this.
Instead, he simply presents his opinion and expects us to accept it.
In response to this paragraph, the readers would say that the
opinion is unjustified. They would even wonder if people actually did
feel that much better a century ago. My be they did, but to find out,
the reader would have to do more reading. Above all, the readers
have to see the specific facts on which the opinion is based.
Otherwise, there is no reason to believe that the authors opinion has
any basis in reality, past or present, and the readers have to reserve
judgment until they know more.
EXERCISE 25: Underline the topic sentence of each
paragraph below. Then on the blank provided, put a J for
justified, if you think the author provides relevant facts;
put U for unjustified, if you think the author has not
provided any facts or has provided only irrelevant ones.
The first item is done for you as an example.
1.
It is just not fair for smokers to be allowed to smoke when nonsmokers are present; there should be more regulations
: : 17 : :
forbidding people to indulge in smoking if nonsmokers are

present. In a recent study, the American Cancer Association has
reaffirmed and strengthened its original position on smoking
cigarettes. There is a clear-cut link between smoking cigarettes
and the incidence of lung cancer. In addition, smokers are three
times more likely to get heart disease and emphysema. _ U__
2.
The animals used in laboratory research are treated in

scandalously abusive fashion. In their pursuit of cures for
human diseases, scientists do not seem to care how they treat
their animal subjects. Considered inferior beings, animals can
be tortured, starved, even killed, and no one cares. After all,
the mistreatment is done in the name of medical progress for
human beings. Because animals have no language to voice their
pain, we ignore it and let their suffering continue. ___
3.
People in Southeast Asia are living in both traditional and

modern culture. In this region, cities of more than one million
peoplesuch as Bangkok, manila, Singapore, and Jakarta with
Western-style high rise buildings and automobile-clogged
streetsspread into rise-growing countryside where peasants
still plow with water buffaloes and live in little wooden house on
stilts. Jet airliners take off from big municipal airports and in a
few minutes are flying over mountains inhabited by tribesmen
who wear almost no clothes and still hunt with poisoned darts.
The king of Laos lives in a French-style palace with western
dcor, but for official ceremonies he dons the baggy panung,
the pantaloons worn by his ancestors for a thousand years. On
the Indonesian island of Bali, barefoot men and girls perform
elegant traditional dances in dusty village squares and then go
see an American movie at the local theater. ____
4.
All over the U.S.A., union membership is down, and the

percentage of successful strike has diminished. Unions now win
fewer battles with management each year than they did twenty
years ago. In recent article in the New York Times, union
organizers said that they were having trouble recruiting new
members. During interviews with prospective members, they all
reported hearing the same comment: people no longer believe
: : 18 : :
that unions can deliver on their promise to protect worker

interests. The signs are clear: now, American unions are
undergoing a serious crisis. ____
5.
A recent study by the Rand Corporation estimates that

American teen-agers watch at least five hours of television per
day. Teenagers should not be allowed to watch this much
television; its not good for them. Accustomed to the bright
images of television, teen-agers will lose interest in books and
reading. They wont want to do any homework because
compared to television, homework will be too boring. It is not
accompanied by enough pictures, and there isnt any music. If
this trend toward more and more television viewing continues,
the future generation will not be able to read, write, or think.
____
6.
Confucius was a great Chinese teacher. Unlike the Buddha,

Confucius did not seek to escape from the world. He wanted
instead to find a way for man to be happy on earth. He thought
that human nature was good, not bad. To be more specific, if
man would think and act properly, he believed, most evils
would disappear. His teachings held that men should develop
the virtues of kindliness, tolerance, and respect for older people
and ancestors. In government he believed the ruler was like the
father in a family: he directed the government, but was
responsible for the welfare of his people. Certainly, Confucius
ranks as one of the great teachers of all time. ____
7.
One of the most tragic facts, if not the most tragic of human
existence is that while physical maturity for normal people
develops naturally and automatically with the passage of time
and normal consumption of food, mental maturity does not
come so easily. A large number of people who have the
physique and age of adults and are thus in possession of adult
status and privileges, are not mentally mature. This is rather
unfortunate for as Harry A. Overstreet in The Mature Mind
observes, The most dangerous members of our society are
those grownups whose powers of influence are adult but whose
motives and responses are infantile. Adults who are incapable
: : 19 : :
of carrying out their duties and obligations with a proper sense

of responsibility can not only give themselves unnecessary
trouble, but also cause much harm to those over whom they
have influence. ____
8.
There is no doubt that a persons mental growth depends to

some extent on the way his parents guided him when he was a
child and on the environmental conditions he grew up in.
However, mental development, unlike physical growth, need
not stop at the end of puberty. A man is what he makes
himself. Just as he can, after completing his basic education,
choose between writing in a mundane manner, using clichs
and worn-out phrases, and emulating the fresh and apt
expressiveness of a Shakespeare or a D.H. Lawrence, he can,
at any stage of his life, always further develop himself if he
consciously makes the effort to do so. As Gautama Buddha puts
it, The mind is everything; what you think, you become. ____
9. A high level of agreement on what constitutes beauty may
exist in every culture, but specific ideals of the beautiful
woman or man undoubtedly vary over time and from culture
to culture. In the 1880s, after surveying numerous tribes and
cultures, Charles Darwin concluded, It is certainly not true
that there is in the mind of man any universal standard of
beauty with respect to the human body. While the standards
may have varied, the emphasis placed on physical
attractiveness through the ages has not. Adornment was
common as far back as Neanderthal times. The pigment 1
ochre2, used to color the body, has been found in burial sites
from the mid-Paleolithic era. Since that time, an enormous
variety of beautification techniques have developed throughout
the world. ____
10. Chinese philosophers have given many men advice on how to
be happy. If you dont want your house to be disturbed by
robbers, do not fill it with gold and jade, said Lao-Tzu. Avoid
wealth, rank, and arrogance; for as surely as two and two
1
2
pigment: color
ochre: yellow-brown
: : 20 : :
make four, they add up to ruin. Reduce your desires, urge

the Buddhists. Be modest in all the seven passions, demand
the Confucians. Seek no things nor position, for they bring
misery, declare the Taoists. If you are a king, others will
convert or desire your throne and assassinate you. If you are
a beautiful concubine, the jealous will kill you. If you are
rich, you will be robbed or kidnapped. ____
11. Television is one of the most booming products of technologies
in the world. Its broadcasting began in the United States and
Great Britain in the 1930s, but its development was halted by
World War II. Soon when the war ended, television became a
worldwide medium of entertainment and information. The
number of sets in the United States rose from 1 million in 1949
to 10 million in 1951. By the end of the 1960s, most countries
had some kind of television broadcasting. By 1980, there were
over 400 million sets in the world. ____
12. People make inferences about who you are, at least in part,
from the way you dress. Whether these inferences are
accurate or not, they will influence what people think of you
and how they react to you. Molloys three researches
conducted in three different eras (1979, 1984, and 1990)
indicated that ones socioeconomic class, seriousness, attitudes
(for example, whether youre conservative or liberal), concern
for convention, sense of style, and perhaps even his creativity
will all be judged in part by the way you dress. The same
results were also found in researches conducted by Burgoon,
Buller, & Woodall (1996) and Knapp and Hall (1997). Similarly,
college students will perceive an instructor dressed informally
as friendly, fair, enthusiastic, and flexible; they will see the
same instructor dressed formally as prepared, knowledgeable,
and organized (Malandro, Barker, & Barker, 1989). ____
13. English is undoubtedly the most widely spoken language in the
history human being. It is used in some way by at least one
out of every seven human beings around the globe. Half of the
world's books are written in English, and the majority of
international telephone calls are made in English. English is the
: : 21 : :
language of over sixty percent of the world's radio programs.

More than seventy percent of international mail is written and
addressed in English, and eighty percent of all computer text is
stored in English. English has acquired the largest vocabulary
of all the world's languages, perhaps as many as two million
words, and has generated one of the noblest bodies of
literature in the annals of the human race.____
14. Despite its status as the most widely spoken language in the
world, English is incontrovertibly a crazy languagethe most
lunatic and loopy and wifty and wiggy of all languages. In the
crazy English language, the blackbird hen is brown,
blackboards can be green or blue, and blackberries are green
and then red before they are ripe. Even if blackberries were
really black and blueberries really blue, what are strawberries,
cranberries, elderberries, huckleberries, raspberries, and
gooseberries supposed to look like? To add to this insanity
there is no butter in buttermilk, no egg in eggplant, no grape
in grapefruit, no bread in shortbread, neither worms nor wood
in wormwood, neither mush nor room in mushroom, neither
pine nor apple in pineapple, neither peas nor nuts in peanuts,
and no ham in a hamburger. (In fact, if somebody invented a
sandwich consisting of a ham patty in a bun, we would have a
hard time finding a name for it.) To make matters worse,
English muffins weren't invented in England, French fries in
France, or Danish pastries in Denmark. And we discover even
more culinary madness in the revelations that sweetmeat is
made from fruit, while sweetbread, which isn't sweet, is made
from meat. In addition, in this unreliable English tongue,
greyhounds aren't always grey (or gray); panda bears and
koala bears aren't bears (they're marsupials); a woodchuck is
a groundhog, which is not a hog; a horned toad is a lizard;
glowworms are fireflies, but fireflies are not flies (they're
beetles); ladybugs and lightning bugs are also beetles (and to
propagate, a significant proportion of ladybugs must be male);
a guinea pig is neither a pig nor from Guinea (it's a South
American rodent); and a titmouse is neither mammal nor
mammaried. (from Lederers English is a Crazy Language)
____
: : 22 : :
15. Motivation is undoubtedly crucial for successful learning, and

there are two different types of motivation that can help you
achieve your goals. The first is called intrinsic motivation. This
is self-motivation, meaning you have reasons why you want to
do something. Your interests, goals, and values are all intrinsic
motivators. For example, you may want to learn the tango to
perform at your wedding, or you may want to study world
issues so you can apply to join a peace group. The second
form of motivation is called extrinsic motivation. This is
motivation that does not come from you, but rather comes
from sources outside yourself. Learning something because
someone else, whether it is your mother, your boss, your
teacher, or your spouse, wants you to is extrinsic motivation.
Examples include studying for an exam so you do not get in
trouble with a parent, or learning a computer program to get a
raise. Extrinsic motivators are not as effective as intrinsic ones,
so being self-motivated gives you a better chance at
succeeding. ____
: : 23 : :
: : 24 : :
CHAPTER 3 INTERPRETING CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS
3
INTERPRETING CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS
A. Denotations and Connotations
Of all the numerous implements man uses in the conduct of
his existence, language is most widely, most frequently and most
variedly used. It is used not only to convey facts and thoughts, but
also to persuade and cajole, insinuate and anger, torture and
depress, inspire and gladden, we should see how words may be false
and full of art. Many words, unlike a carpenters tools, are not dead
and unsuggestive; while they denote, they can also connote.
All words have denotations, but they do not necessarily
possess connotations. The words of, the, where, table, and curtains,
for example, seldom arouse emotions of any kind. They make
connections, show relationships, and name objects. They do not
represent ideas, and they evoke neither positive nor negative
responses. We say, then, that these words have only denotations,
i.e. explicit definitions that can be found in any dictionary.
What a word denotes is its objective meaning; what it
connotes are the ideas and associations it suggests. The word
home, for example denotes the residence of a man and his family,
but it often gives one the suggestion of comfort and family intimacy
and happiness. Similarly, while baby literally means a young child, it
his highly connotative of endearment and affection. Thus a proud
young lover would refer to the home of his baby and not to the
residence (or hovel of habitation) of his woman-friend.
The connotative power of words thus brings out the nuances
of the speaker or writers thoughts, which may be more significant
than the bare direct meanings. A person who wants his words to
express exactly what he wants to say must therefore be aware of
the suggestive effect of his words. To say that X is childish is very
different from saying that he is child-like. A clever or knowing
person is also different from one who is cunning or sharp or even
artful. Similarly sauntering differs from marching or limping or
prowling.
Careful interpretation of the language used also enables one
to learn much about the speaker or writer. The speaker or writer
: : 25 : :
may claim that he is an impartial observer, but his words will often
betray sympathies and commitments, which he himself may or may
not be conscious of. A man who refers to a staunch Buddhist as a
man of faith or a pious believer in the blessings of Buddha is
obviously not in any way against him. The phrase a superstitious
bigot, however, would reveal antipathy. Indeed, taking note of the
connotative effects of words is thus one method of reading between
the lines to discover not only the likes and dislikes of the speaker or
writer but also his intentions and characters.
However, people are often not fully discriminating and
attentive, and are thus swayed by public speakers, advertisers and
all those who seek to influence and gain through skillful use of word
connotations. A lawyer who utters that the accused is a scoundrel
who hounded the poor, helpless victim to his grave is working
surreptitiously through bold presuppositions on those members of
the jury who are not evidence-conscious. Similarly, advertisers, who
are probably the most frequent users of fine-sounding words or
catching assertions (matchless flavor for ladies men long to kiss!
figure flattering, ), often manage to influence purchasers into
buying one brand instead of another by craftily playing on his weak
spotshis desires, fears, envy and vanity. In fact, if the purchaser
analyzed carefully the connotative overtones of the advertisements
he would realize that he is given very little indisputable information
on the advertised goods. In that case, can his advertisementinfluenced choice be rational?
In the context of critical reading, it should be noted that
authors are aware of the connotation as-associated with certain
words, especially if they know their audience well, and they use
them quite deliberately to make their writing persuasive or
convincing. In their trials to appeal to emotions in order to make
their ideas acceptable and believable, or to influence their readers
thinking, writers always use highly connotative language. Thus, it is
not always what we say but how we say it that influences people.
Assume, for example, that you want to encourage a friend to change

an opinion. Your choice of words will be important to your success.
Compare the following approaches, noting the positive and negative
connotations of the words used.
: : 26 : :
1. I know how stubborn you are, but in this case, youve got to get
that idea out of your thick skull.
2. I know how firm of purpose you are, but in this case, you have
to modify your opinion.
Chances of success with sentence 1 are not good. Many
people would react angrily to being told they are stubborn and have
a thick skull. Sentence 2, in contrast, contains words with favorable
associations. It is considered good to be firm of purpose, and the
word modify does not have to indicate a drastic change. This
second approach could meet with success.
Here is another example that illustrates the use of connotative
language. Imagine two different descriptions of the same book, one
from a book review meant to discourage potential readers:
1. The White Hotel by D.M. Thomas is a highly imaginative novel;
reading it, I entered into a dream world, filled with the most
extraordinary and unique fantasies.
2. The White Hotel by D.M. Thomas is a highly unrealistic novel,
filled with the most extraordinary and eccentric fantasies.
Reading it, I felt as if I were having a weird nightmare.
In the first description, phrases like highly imaginative and
unique fantasies are used because they have positive associations
that might persuade someone to buy the book. In the second
description, the author has a very different intention in mind and
therefore employs phrases like highly unrealistic and eccentric
fantasies because they usually have negative connotations.
When you read, you would do well to think about the
connotations of the words used. If you do, you will be less likely to
be influenced without being aware of it.
However, the use of connotative effects of words is not always
surreptitious or bad. There are noble men who make effective
speeches directed at the loftiest instincts of menkindness,
humanity, and understandingto stir them into positive, constructive
action. The sermons of Christ are perhaps the best example. Poets,
novelists, and dramatists also make positive use of connotations.
Their intention is not to deceive the reader but to make him see,
hear, and feel through words. To be sure, the proper use of
: : 27 : :
connotations makes it impossible to paraphrase great literary works

without losing much of the richness of the originals. Conversely, a
paraphrase of an advertisement or a political slogan may well reveal
how swallow and empty it really is.
EXERCISE 31
In each item, three sentences say almost the same thing.
Choose the sentence that attempts to eliminate almost all
connotations.
Example
Explanation
a. He weighs 65 kilograms and is 2 meters tall.

b. He is skinny.
c. He is slender.
Sentence a is the only sentence whose words do
not evoke strong positive or negative connotations.
In contrast, skinny has negative connotations, and
slender has positive ones.
1.
a. She is happy.
b. She laughs a lot.
c. She is silly.
2.
a. Bob runs his business by applying good management.

b. Bob is a shrewd businessman.
c. Bob is a cunning businessman.
3.
a. The car is an antique.

b. The car was bought in 1945.
c. The car is old.
4.
a. She wore a colorful sweater.

b. She wore a red and green turtleneck.
c. She wore a flashy sweater.
5.
a. General Soedirman was a valiant soldier.

b. General Soedirman led his troop to fight without fear
during the revolution war.
c. General Soedirman always fought boldly.
: : 28 : :
6.
a. He is so blunt.
b. No one has ever caught him in a lie.
c. He has always been very honest.
7.
a. Susan likes to date with a submissive gentleman.

b. Susan usually dates with a meek gentleman.
c. Susan decides to date only with a friendly gentleman.
8.
a. She is a liar.
b. She has a great imagination.
c. She failed the lie detector test.
9.
a. He is a fanatical republican.
b. He supports the Republican Party enthusiastically.
c. He is a dedicated republican
10.
a. Bob plays tennis aggressively.

b. Bob is a competitive tennis player.
c. Bob plays tennis calmly.
EXERCISE 32
In each sentence, underline the word or phrase with either
a neutral or a positive connotation.
Example
Your hair is quite fine/thin.
Explanation
The word fine is underlined because most people

react positively to being told they have fine hair,
but they react negatively if their hair is labeled thin.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
He is very ambitious/pushy.
She is an enthusiastic/fanatical believer.
I wont, she answered/retorted.
Youre a slow/thorough reader.
She is getting fatter/getting heavier.
His grandfather was a notorious/famous general.
That plan is foolhardy/daring.
: : 29 : :
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
What a weird/unique idea.

The presidents speech was very succinct/short.
The room is a little damp/clammy.
The vase is very brittle/fragile.
He is thrifty/stingy.
I think shes drudge/hard worker.
Dick Johnson was a modest/pompous Nobel winner.
The infants face looks quiet/serene.
He is a fanatic / dedicated democrat.
EXERCISE 33
In the following statements the writer uses emotional
words to persuade the reader to think positively or
negatively about something. If the writer intends the
readers reaction to be positive, write P in the blank space. If the
reaction is intended to be negative, write N. Underline the emotional
words or phrases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
____ His beliefs are ridiculous and old fashioned

____ Beagles are excellent house pets and make the best
hunting dogs.
____ This scheme to raise money is fraudulent.
____ Gary Olsen is a skinny, emaciated fellow with dull hair.
____ We wasted an hour listening to his silly chatter.
____ He delighted us with his reflections on life during the
fifties.
____ It is dreadful to have to get up early in the morning
when you are still exhausted and need to sleep longer.
____ The painting was filled with bright, glowing colors.
____ The garish colors were a jumbled mess on the canvas.
____ Like all good Americans, George Anderson believes in
justice for all.
____ If you stay at the hotel, you can have your breakfast
close to a beautiful, sparkling stream of water flowing
across the garden.
____ If you stay at the hotel, you can have your breakfast
close to a dirty, stinking, polluted water flowing across
the garden.
____This country is as beautiful as paradise.
: : 30 : :
EXERCISE 34.
List the words and phrases from the following article
which appeal to the readers emotions. If they are
intended to create positive feelings, write P. If they are
intended to create negative feelings, write N.
Flight
Flight is, for many
persons,
a
frightening
experience. Having ones
flesh light is, for many
passengers, a truly hurtling
along thousand of feet from
the ground at hundreds of
miles an hour makes the
whole affair seem somewhat
unnatural, if not downright
suicidal. Volunteers to ride
along would dwindle to a handful if it were not for one important
ingredient: the implicit understanding that the pilot in command
possessed both calm hands and cool wit.
The ability to frighten passengers is certainly not a goal of the
competent pilot; yet all too often, he accomplishes precisely that it
takes much less than an obviously hairy incident to open the
floodgates of fear in a non-pilot. All that is required is just a little
carelessness on the part of the captain.
Analogies that provide captains with god-like qualities are
observations not to be taken lightly. From the passengers seat, it
appears that the pilot could cut everyone down like some terrible
swift sword with a flip of a handan observation that is, in essence,
reasonably accurate. The fact remains that fear is generated by
the mind of the beholder, and a passengers own opinion that
disaster is imminent is enough to scare him half to death. The flight
may be perfect from a safety standpoint, but the pilot must convince
the passengers of that fact. Dont forget, however, that the nonpilots ignorance can be an asset if you are in bad situation and
: : 31 : :
youre the only one who knows it. When a pilot puts unsuspecting
passengers in an airplane, he has given himself an additional job.
Besides the flying, he must watch over his riders and take
reasonable steps to preserve their peace of mind.
Words or Phrases
P or N
Words or Phrases
P or N
EXERCISE 35
List the words and phrases from the
following article that appeal to the readers emotions. If
they are intended to create positive feelings, write P. If
they are intended to create negative feelings, write N.
California: Gateway for Trade
[Gregory Mignano--Executive Director, California State World
Trade Commission]
Few states in our nation depend as highly on trade as does
California. This state is the nations leading producer of agricultural,
electronic, aerospace, and entertainment service products, all of
which have large export markets. As a gateway for trade between
the dynamic Asia/Pacific region and the rest of the United States,
California accounts for about 13 percent of U.S. international trade,
and that two-way trade means nearly a million jobs and billions in
tax revenues and profits. In fact, if California were independent
nation, it would rank near the top ten in terms of gross domestic
product and international trade value.
: : 32 : :
Impressive statistics, but more impressive are the responsibilities

those numbers impose on all concerned with state and national
economic development. At the national level, there is increasing
awareness of the need to develop sound trade policies and effective
export ex-pension programs. Here in California, were supporting
those objectives through the work of newly created California State
World Trade Commission.
The Commission is a nonpartisan alliance of government,
business, and labor leaders that, I believe, will be the key to this
states improved trade performance. The governor, lieutenant
governor, secretary of state, and 12 private sector members
representing manufacturing, services, and agriculture meet regularly
to address the toughest problems facing our ex-porters and
importers, be they state or federal disincentives, or domestic or
foreign barriers to trade. Assisting the commission is a strong and
experienced advisory council.
On the state level, the Commission is working in Sacramento to
create a regulatory climate that encourages the free flow of
Californias goods and services overseas. We are reviewing our tax
policies and export financing proposals to determine how best to put
our states exporters on more equal footing with their foreign
competitors. And, recognizing that trade is a two way street, we are
watching carefully moves to unfairly restrain the access of foreign
goods and services to our markets.
On the national level, the impact of Wash-ingot on Californias
trade performance is increasingly significant. No states exports have
been as directly affected by Operation Exodus, the U.S. custom
services program to control high technology exports, as Californias.
And domestic content legislation, which is under serious
consideration by Congress and which would drastically reduce the
number of foreign cars, trucks, and parts imported into the United
States, would deal a severe blow to Californias port activities and
likely would result in injured countries sealing off their markets to
our exports. These are but two of many examples that motivate the
Commission to raise its voice in Washington.
On the international level, we are calling on U.S. trade officials
to enforce vigorously U.S. and international trade laws. Unfair
foreign competition must be stopped if Californias exporters are to
enjoy the fruits of their labor. It makes little sense for our producers
: : 33 : :
to develop a market, only to see it quickly lost to foreign subsidized

competition.
You can be sure that California, its people, its industry, and its
policymakers are increasingly aware that we are part of a global
market. Properly prepared, we will be the most significant part of the
market, as the future capital of a region that is embarking upon a
golden age of economic prosperity the dynamic Pacific Basin.
In creating the World Trade Commission, California has sent a
strong signal that trade performance is a matter of highest state
priority. Our goal is to bring Californias producers to the global
market and keep them competitive there.
Words or Phrases
P or N
Words or Phrases
P or N
B. Tone and Mood

Paying attention to the connotations of words is particularly
important in helping you understand what is not explicitly stated in
the text. For example, it can help you understand the authors tone
and mood, two very important aspects of writing that are normally
implied rather than stated. Tone is like tone of voice; it reflects the
authors attitude toward his subject and sometimes toward his
readers. It is revealed partly through the words chosen and the
details presented in a text. A text may have an objective tone, a
subjective tone, a light-hearted or angry tone, an optimistic or
pessimistic tone, a humorous tone, an ironic tone etc. Mood is the
feeling that a text produces in the reader. Similar to tone, mood
produced by a text can happy, admiring, enthusiastic, disapproving,
etc.
: : 34 : :
Identifying the authors tone can tell you a great deal about
his or her purpose. If the tone is angry or critical, the author may be
attempting to discourage you about a particular person or idea. In
contrast, a happy or approving tone may reflect the desire to
encourage support or belief for a cause or individual. The following
paragraphs illustrate this distinction.
Senator X is everything a statesperson should be. An eloquent
speaker, she has the ability to choose the right word at the
right moment. Filled with determination as she is, she will
undoubtedly be elected governor.
Senator X is a true politician. A smooth talker, she knows just
what to say and when to say it. Devoured by ambition as she
is, she undoubtedly will be elected governor.
In the first paragraph, the author obviously takes an
approving tone toward the subject of senator X, and the words
statesperson, eloquent, and determination are meant to have a
favorable effect on the reader as well, persuading him or her to
support the senator. In contrast, the second paragraph employs the
words politician, smooth talker, and devoured by ambition to
produce a critical or pessimistic tone, one clearly meant to diminish
voter support.
When an author openly takes a stance in writing, implying a
particular attitude through the creation of tone, we call it subjective
reporting. In this type of writing, the author suggests a personal
involvement (usually indicated by the use of first person viewpoint),
using language that appears to reflect his or her attitude. However,
this is not always the case: authors do not always assume a
particular tone. Instead, they may attempt to eradicate all evidence
of a personal opinion. This is called objective reporting. The
difference between these two types of reporting will become clearer
if you compare a front-page news article with an editorial in your
local newspaper. The purpose of the news article is to inform. And
every attempt is made to eliminate evidence of authorial tone, in
contrast to the editorial, where the authors point of view is evident.
In general, objective reports employ less connotative language
than reports that are subjective. But they still rely on words with
: : 35 : :
connotations to communicate something about the mood or feeling

surrounding the topic under discussion. Take the following
paragraph as an example:
Members of the union leadership met yesterday with
management to debate what they called the union-busting
tactics of their employers. When a representative of
management spoke, she was greeted with a prolonged silence
that ended in catcalls and whistles on the part of the workers.
Clearly, the audience was not pleased with her proposals.
When the meeting ended, union and management left in stony
silence.
We might say that the mood of this meeting, as described by
the writer, is ominous or angry. Phrases such as catcalls and stony
silence indicate an unpleasant, bitter atmosphere, although this is
nowhere explicitly stated. The author employs these connotative
words to create the appropriate mood of the meeting; however, they
are not an indication of personal attitude. We do not know how the
author feels about the subject.
When you read, you should always be alert for the way in
which an author uses connotative language to convey tone or mood,
since both provide vital information. Tone can provide a clue to
authors purpose, whereas mood can tell you something

about the circumstances surrounding the topic.
EXERCISE 36: To make the idea how writers try to
influence your thinking or behavior by means of
connotations of words clearer, compare the following
two brief reviews (by two different reviewers) of the
same Canadian history textbook, Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 19101945 by Ralph Allen. Then answer the questions that follow.
Ordeal by FireFirst Review
For the colorful story of Canadas growth as a nation, there is

more lively reading than the Canadian History series edited by
Thomas B. Costain, and this fifth volume is another rich slice of
anecdotes, vivid characterizations of public figures, and fascinating
: : 36 : :
insights into the life of Americas northern neighbor. It is

enlightening to see history from the Canadian perspective.
1.
2.
3.
Did the reviewer create a favorable or disapproving tone, and

how did he set it?
Did he tell you anything objective about the book or its author;
its accuracy and completeness, the viewpoint and competence of
the author, or his use of documentary or research sources?
If you were seeking a good Canadian history book, would the
review just quoted influence you to make Ordeal by Fire your
selection?
Ordeal by FireSecond Review
The Ordeal is excellent journalism (even assuming that

accuracy is still an aim of the journalist) and bad history. Indeed, it
is not really a history at all, but a collection of tales told by a man of
considerable ability but signifying very little. Quite clearly, readability
and drama were the authors paramount aims; significance, balance,
and accuracy were well down the list. Even accepting Mr. Allens
apparent aims and assumptions he can be faulted for inadequate
knowledge and poor historical judgment. Nonetheless, Allen
achieved his major object. He has written a colorful and dramatic
book. His generalizations are fascinating: sometimes brilliant in
insight and imagery, sometimes daring, sometimes absurd. If he
cares little for issues, his treatment of people is often superb. Ordeal
by Fire will not last long, but it is a good fare.
1.
2.
3.
Did the second reviewer create a favorable or disapproving tone,

and how did he set it?
Did he tell you anything objective about the book or its author;
its accuracy and completeness, the viewpoint and competence of
the author, or his use of documentary or research sources?
Now, would you use Ordeal by Fire as a source of historical
information?
EXERCISE 37: Read the following paragraphs. Decide if
the author employs a certain tone or conveys a particular
mood. Then label each paragraph S for a subjective
report or O for an objective report. The first item is done
: : 37 : :
as an example.
1. Americans have always lusted for heroes, and lacking them, we

have been driven to invent them. Such was certainly the case
with the man born Joel Hagglund but christened Joe Hill. A poet
and songwriter, Hill first came to public attention when he wrote
a series of songs that were adopted by the early American labor
movement. His name, however, did not become a household
word until he was arrested for armed robbery and murder.
According to the legend, Hill never committed the murder, and
he was executed in an attempt to destroy the labor movement.
Although it was true that Hill was tried and convicted on
circumstantial evidence, it is equally true that his story contained
numerous contradictions and loopholes. At his best, he was a
man unfairly tried and convicted; at his worst, he was a criminal
who boldly proclaimed himself innocent. But in neither case was
he a legendary hero, nor is the tendency to eulogize him a
misguided attempt to create a hero where none existed.
S__
Explanation:
The author of the paragraph employs a skeptical tone. The use

of the plural pronoun we, along with highly connotative language
such as lusted and misguided attempt, tells you this is an
example of subjective reporting.
2. At the present time, cognitive psychology offers the promise of a
scientific breakthrough. Although it has been unfashionable for
more than half a century to theorize about the inner workings of
the mind, more and more attention is being paid to the work of
cognitive scientists, who hold that the functions of the brain, and
ultimately the human mind, can be scientifically investigated.
Despite the fact that much research still needs to be done,
scientists have already begun to explore the complexities of
memory and speech acquisition. By all accounts, it appears that
the most sophisticated modern computer is no match for the
intricacies of human thinking. Experiments have shown, for
example, that even very small children can perceive complicated
patterns and anticipate cause-and-effect relationships. ____
: : 38 : :
3. Fifty years ago, parents could lean over the back fence and chat
companionably with other adults who had the same family
problems. Today things have changed, and we live in a highly
urbanized society where it becomes harder and harder to meet
our neighbors. Many single parents feel particularly isolated in
their home; they lack the easy camaraderie 1 an earlier
generation enjoyed. As a result, many have turned to public and
private support groups in which they can talk over problems and
exchange information. Parents who feel unable or unwilling to
cope by themselves can find a wide variety of services in these
parent centers, including health information, crisis intervention,
family counselling, and financial advice. For a long time, it has
been assumed that only children needed the support of their
peers. As a result, the emphasis has been on the creation of
counselling centers and meeting places for young people. Its
about time we thought of parents as well. They too need the
guidance and friendship available in a peer group. ____
4. The Japanese have accustomed themselves to the presence of
robots in the work place. More than two-thirds of all industrial
robots, in fact, are found in Japan. Although robots are not
capable of assembling finished products, they can do the many
simple tasks that lead up to that stage, and they have proven to
be a boon2 to their employers, increasing worker productivity by
a substantial amount. For their part, Japanese workers are
relaxed about the rise in the robot population. Most contracts
guarantee the average worker employment until the age of fiftyfive. In addition, the majority of workers participate in some kind
of profit-sharing plan, with the result that robot productivity only
increases the workers paychecks. ____
5. Humans are capable of developing into rational beings. This is
our ultimate assumption. At some level all of us want to
effectively analyze and solve our problems. We want to live
significant, meaningful lives. We want to be persons of integrity.
We did not consciously choose to be selfish and egocentric, any
1
2
camaraderie: friendship, companionship

boon: benefit, help, advantage
: : 39 : :
more than we consciously chose to think unclearly, inaccurately,

irrelevantly, superficially, narrow-mindedly, or illogically.
Nevertheless, we often think and behave egocentrically. We
often think unclearly, inaccurately, irrelevantly, superficially,
narrow-mindedly, and illogically. ____
6. William Howard Taft was the twenty-seventh president of the
United states, and, by all accounts, his presidency was
undistinguished. A huge bear of a man, Taft did not inspire
confidence; even his own mother did not support his candidacy.
Instead she publicly maintained that the White House would be
a mistake for her sons career. Taft himself is said to have
claimed that any party nominating him would make a great
mistake. Once in office, Taft proved to be as incompetent he
had predicted, and he managed to alienate an old friend and
mentor, Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt was so outraged at
Tafts conservation policy, he decided to challenge his former
friend when re-election time came. Although Roosevelt did not
win, he managed to split the republican party sufficiently that
Woodrow Wilson was elected. Taft was not surprised at his loss
and accepted defeat graciously. ____
7. Asia has many problems. Her first problem is the population
explosion taking place on the continent. Can these extra millions
be fed, housed, and clothed? The second problem is the need
for industrialization. Factories require capital, engineers, and
trained workers. Most Asian countries do not have these, so it
will take a long time for them to industrialize. Lack of education
is the third problem. A nation cannot make real progress unless
its citizens are educated. Weak governments are a fourth
problem. They create instability and discourage foreign
investments. Above all, however, the greatest problem in the
non-Communist lands of Asia is the threat of a Communist takeover. ____
EXERCISE 38
Read each of the following paragraphs and choose the
word that best describes the dominant tone or mood.
: : 40 : :
1. Recently, several hundred psychiatrists met to debate whether

or not homosexuality should be deleted from the standard list of
mental illness. Even after hours of energetic, sometimes exited,
discussion, members of the group remained polarized 1 in their
views. Whereas some insisted that homosexuality was absolutely
not a mental illness, others insisted just as doggedly 2 that
homosexual tendencies indicated a neurotic disorder. Pale and
tired after hours of wrangling, the departing members of the
medical profession refused to discuss their meeting.
In this paragraph, the evoked mood is
A. Peaceful
B. sympathetic
C. Enjoyable
D. apathetic
2. Confucius was a great Chinese teacher. Unlike
the Buddha, Confucius did not seek to escape
from the world, but wanted instead to find a
way for man to be happy on earth. He taught
that human nature was good, not bad. To be
more specific, if man would think and act
properly, he believed, most evils would
disappear. His teachings held that men should
develop the virtues of kindliness, tolerance,
and respect for older people and ancestors. In government, he
believed the ruler was like the father in a family: he directed the
government, but was responsible for the welfare of his people.
Certainly, Confucius ranks as one of the great teachers of all
time.
In this paragraph, the authors tone is
A. admiring
B. sympathetic
C. disapproving
D. enthusiastic
3. Haiti is a small Caribbean country of astonishing beauty. But it is
also a land of heartbreaking poverty. Unemployment plagues
more than 50 percent of the population, and the annual income
1
2
polarized: opposed to one another

doggedly: persistently
: : 41 : :
is pitifully low, less than $300 per year. It is no wonder, then,

that many Haitians want to leave their island home. A large
number want to escape to America, but unfortunately America
does not welcome them. According to officials, economic
devastation does not entitle Haitians to political asylum in the
United states. As a result, many who enter this country illegally
are returned to their homeland to face the consequences,
Although no one is really sure what those consequences are, it is
clear that the government of Haiti is not pleased with those who
have tried to flee its shores, and those returned may face severe
reprisals. If Haitian refugees are not allowed political asylum in
this country, they will be returned to a life of misery and fear.
A. admiring
B. sympathetic
C. disapproving
D. enthusiastic
4. One of the most extraordinary and absurd episodes in the
history of numerological3 pseudoscience concerns the work of a
Berlin surgeon named Wilhelm Fliess. Fliess was obsessed by the
numbers 23 and 28. He convinced himself and others that
behind all living phenomena and perhaps inorganic nature as
well there are two fundamental cycles: a male cycle of 23 days
and a female cycle of 28 days. By working with multiples of
those
two
numberssometimes
adding,
sometimes
subtractinghe was able to impose his number patterns on
virtually everything. The work made a considerable stir in
Germany during the early years of this century.
A. admiring
B. sympathetic
C. disapproving
D. enthusiastic
5. A trauma that elderly Americans must face deals with emotional
isolation due to their seclusion from the rest of society, either in
rest home or in retirement communities. A consistent pattern in
American society involves placing the elderly in rest home when
3
numerological: using the theory that personality can be determined by analyzing

numbers.
: : 42 : :
they are physically or emotionally ill or in retirement community

when they are no longer a part of the work force. These
communities consist exclusively of early residents. Unlike the
elderly in many European and Third World countries, the
American elderly are frequently not allowed to stay within the
households of their children and grandchildren. By being
segregated into communities of elderly, the old frequently has
little contact with children and adults. The result is that the
elderly in the United States are generally waiting to die.
A. admiring
B. sympathetic
C. disapproving
D. enthusiastic
: : 43 : :
: : 44 : :
CHAPTER 4 DISCOVERING THE AUTHORS POINT OF VIEW
4
DISCOVERING
THE AUTHORS POINT OF VIEW
As it has been explained in the previous chapters, many
writers often try to persuade you to accept their beliefs. They might
do this by making statements that are not based on facts (see:
Chapter 2) or using highly emotional words (see: Chapter 3). In
addition to these, they can purposively use a special point of view.
Point of view is the position from which details of a passage
are perceived, considered, and described. In other words, point of
view is the point through which the author considers, presents or
communicates his messages or ideas. Due to the fact that
someones perception and consideration are highly influenced by his
political inclinations, religion, sex, or geographic background, some
writers are apt to be biased. Consider these examples. Most
Indonesian educators might see the inclusion of religion into the
public school curriculum through a different point of view used by
most American educators. A Northerner might write the history of
the Civil War by using a different point of view than a Southerner.
Sometimes you will read about something or someone from
more than one point of view. During a political campaign you read
about different candidates, with each one claiming to be the best. In
different newspapers, you read editorials about controversial
subjects in which one newspaper supports the same issue that the
other newspaper attacks. The sport editor in one town reports a ball
game quite differently from the way the editor from the town of
opposing team does. Occasionally, history books may present
different accounts of the same event, depending on the authors
point of view.
Considering the explanations above, we can see how
important it is to recognize the authors point of view in order to
detect their purposes or biases. Sometimes it is quite easy to do but
sometimes quite hard. These purposes or biases may sometimes be
obvious, and sometimes they may be subtle or hidden. The following
exercises are designed to help you practice to discover the authors
point of view.
: : 45 : :
EXERCISE 41
Read the following article for discovering the authors point
of view. Then, read the list of statements that follows and
determine whether they are true (T) or false (F).
Students Need to Grapple with Significant Ethical
Problems
Delusions spawned by the success of science.
Universities have gone much too far in trying to produce valuefree teaching and research. This happened primarily because
scholars within universities were deluded by the thought that only
complete objective, scientific inquiry was respectable and that
values were not amenable to rigorous scholarship. There is,
however, no totally objective science of political affairs or economics.
Values always creep in.
For a long time, the success of science, along with the rewards
and accolades society provided to scientists, cause people in other
fields to delude themselves into thinking that they could achieve a
completely scientific form of inquiry. Many scholars even distorted
the reality they studied in order to make it susceptible to their
rigorous methods of analysis. Now we are beginning to understand
that while scientific methods have utility in softer fields such as the
social sciences, they are not adequate to understanding all
questions.
Another reason for the move away from dealing with values is
that some people are more comfortable doing research in fields
where they think that they may get reasonably certain answers. By
contrast, in most important ethical issues, one can clarify the issue
and satisfy ones feeling on the matter, but one cannot lay claim to
achieving any sort of universally demonstrable, logical truth. Issues
of value have no logical answer.
A Movement to introduce values
Fortunately, there is now a movement to introduce values into

the curriculum through courses in applied ethics that ask students to
come to grips with significant ethical problems. Those courses do not
try to indoctrinate students or tell them what they should think. They
do try to help students become more sensitive to ethical issues and
: : 46 : :
reason more carefully about those questions. They also acquaint

students with the best writing that has accumulated on these
matters over the centuries.
In this connection, I have been surprised and gratified to find
that courses in moral reasoning are the most oversubscribed of any
of the group of courses we ask students to take as part of Harvards
new core curriculum. That suggests there is a genuine interest in
these issues.
No one can be sure how much effect such courses will have on
the quality of human behavior. But we do know that a number of
people have gotten into ethical difficulty because they really didnt
see a problem arising until it was too late. We also know that many
people rationalize unethical behavior on the basis of reasoning that
wont stand up under careful examination. If students are put in the
habit of inquiring more rigorously into ethics, they will presumably
find it easier to avoid these pitfalls.
Universities have a greater reach

This is a widely held belief among the public that institutions in
the society, such as families and churches, are not as influential as
they once were in transmitting values to individuals. If that is so,
then universities should take even more seriously their
responsibilities in these matters. We educate a much higher
proportion of the citizenry than we used to and hence have a greater
reachand therefore a greater responsibilityto help fill gaps that
exist as a result of the declining influence of other institutions.
But efforts by universities to teach students about ethical issues
are likely to be limited in value and to produce cynicism if the
institutions themselves are perceived to be ethically careless or
insensitive. That doesnt mean we have to agree with the students
or take institutional positions on public questions of the day, which I
think would be wrong.
But we have to take seriously the ethical issues that confront the
universality and take the time to explain to students our attitudes on
these questions. And when we disagree with the students, we should
explain the grounds of disagreement with sufficient care so that any
sensible person would recognize that moral questions have not been
cavalierly tossed aside, ignored or subordinated to the selfish
interests of the university.
: : 47 : :
1.
(T/F) The writer believes that students who habitually think

more deeply about ethics are less likely to rationalize
unethical behavior than other students are.
2.
(T/F) The writer feels that universities should take institutional

positions on current social issues.
3.
(T/F) According to the writer, universities should strive to keep

scholarly pursuits objective and scientific, completely
unaffected by values or ethics.
4.
(T/F) The writer believes that a completely scientific form of

inquiry is possible.
5.
(T/F) The writer feels that the university has an obligation to

explain to students its stand on moral and social issues.
6.
(T/F) The writer supports the idea of introducing values into

the college curriculum.
7.
(T/F) According to the writer, universities should accept a

greater share of the res-ponsibility for transmitting social
values than they used to.
8.
(T/F) The writer believes that logical answers can be found for
issues of value through scientific methods of research.
EXERCISE 42
Read the following article for discovering the authors point
of view. Then, read the list of statements that follows and
determine whether they are true (T) or false (F).
COAL: We Have it, They Want it, Lets Move it

(Rosemary TomichPresident of Siesta Cattle Co., Chino, Calif.,
and a member of the Presidents Export Council)
The United States wants to expand trade. We have a vast,
important resource and the capability to harvest that resource.
: : 48 : :
Foreign customers want to purchase the product. There are willing

buyers, and willing sellers.
That sounds too good to be true, but it isnt.
In September, the Energy and Natural Resources Committee of
the United States Senate held hearings on United States Coal
Exports. The Committee staff presented a succinct and revealing
report:
1.
2.
3.
With the exception of 1978, the United States has always been
the largest coal exporter in the world. World coal trade has,
however, been primarily in metallurgical coal and thus the
business has been very cyclical.
We are now entering a period of growth in the overseas
demand for steam coal, as well as for metallurgical coal.
The World Coal Study estimates that overseas exports of steam
coal from the United States could increase from 2.5 million tons
(1979) to 15 to 20 million tons in 1985; 25 to 50 million tons in
1990 and as high as 70 to 150 million tons by the year 2,000.
The United States has sufficient reserve base to support both

greater domestic needs and exports without substantial effect on
real mine-mouth cost. Our industry is large enough to guarantee
contractual arrangements.
Potential benefits from increased coal exports are tremendous.
Improved balance of trade is basic. There is the obvious substitution
of coal for oil. The projected increase in coal exports from Virginia
alone in 1980 could generate 10,000 new jobs with an additional
payroll of $200 million.
Can we take advantage of the opportunity?
The answer seem to depend on (a) the capability of the railroads
and river transportation to move coal to port facilities; (b) on our
capability to load the coal into vessels without delay; and (c) on the
ability of our ports to handle larger vessels.
These are the kinds of structural problems which people
interested in trade may have a tendency to leave to someone else.
We must get interested. And we must help!
(California, December 15, 1980)
: : 49 : :
1.
(T/F) The writer feels that United States coal should be

exported in greater quantities to foreign customer.
2.
(T/F) The author is afraid that the United States does not have
sufficient coal reserves to increase foreign sales very
much.
3.
(T/F) The writer thinks that, in order to support both greater

domestic needs and exports, there will be a substantial
effect on real mine-mouth cost.
4.
(T/F) The writer believes that increasing coal exports will be

extremely beneficial.
5.
(T/F) The writer feels that increased coal exports could hurt
the balance of trade.
6.
(T/F) The author implies that it would be good to substitute

coal for oil in some cases.
7.
(T/F) The author sees an increase in available jobs as being

positive outcome of larger coal exports.
8.
(T/F) The author is sure that the United States can handle the
structural problems that may stand in the way of this
opportunity for expanded coal exports.
EXERCISE 43
In this exercise you will read two versions of an event that
took place at Lexington Green on April 19, 1775. As you
read, notice which country each reporter represents in
order to understand the basic difference in the points of view.
What Happened? Or, Whose Version Do You Believe?
(John Shy)
Military history is no better than the evidence it rests on. Trying
to determine exactly what happened at Lexington Green on 19 April
1775 illustrates the point perfectly.
: : 50 : :
Captain John Parker, who commanded the militiamen engaged

in the small but vitally important first battle of the American
Revolution, remembered it this way:
on the nineteenth instant, in the morning, about one of the
clock, being informed, that there were a number of the regular
officers riding up and down in the road, stopping and insulting
people as they passed the road, and also informed that a number of
the regular troops were on their march from Boston, in order to take
the province stores at Concord, I ordered our militia to meet on the
common in said Lexington, to consult what to do, and concluded not
to be discovered, nor meddle, or make with said regular troops, if
they should approach, unless they should insult or molest us; and
upon their sudden approach, I immediately ordered our militia to
disperse and not to fire. Immediately, said troops made their
appearance, and rushing furiously on, fired upon and killed eight of
our party, without receiving any provocation therefore from us.
But Ensign Jeremy Lister of His majestys 10th regiment of Foot
was also there, and he saw itor at least told itdifferently.
the country people began to fire their alarm guns, light their
beacons, to raise the country. However, to the best of my
recollection about 4 oclock in the morning, being the 19 th April, the
five front companies were ordered to load, which we did. About a
half an hour after, we would found that precaution had been
necessary, for we had to unload again, and then was the first blood
drawn in this American Rebellion. It was at Lexington when we saw
one of their companies drawn up in regular order. Major Pitcairn of
the Marines, second in command, called to them to disperse, but
their not seeming willing he desired us to mind our space, which we
did, when they gave us a fire, then run off to get behind a wall. We
had one man wounded of our accompany in the leg. Also Major
Pitcairns horse was shot in the flank. We returned their salute, and
before we proceeded on our march from Lexington I believed we
killed or wounded either seven or eight men.
1. a. Captain Parker represents ______________________________
b. Ensign Lister represents _______________________________
: : 51 : :
Put P for Parker or L for Lister beside each of the statements below
to show the information reported by each of the men.
2. a. ___
b. ___
The incident began at one oclock in the morning.

The incident began at four oclock in the morning.
3. a. ___
b. ___
The country people began firing alarm guns and

lighting beacons to raise the country.
The regular officers were stopping people and insulting
them along the road.
4. a. ___
b. ___
The American company was drawn up in regular

formation.
The American militia met on the common to decide
what to do.
5. a. ___
b. ___
The American militia dispersed and did not fire.

The American company did not disperse and soldiers
fired their guns.
The regular troops received no provocation.
One man of his Majestys 10th regiment of Foot was
wounded and a horse was shot.
6. a. ___
b. ___
7. a. ___
b. ___
Seven or eight men were killed or wounded.

Eight men were killed.
EXERCISE 44
Read the following article for discovering the authors
viewpoint. Then, read the list of statements that follows
and determine whether they are true (T) or false (F).
Science and Technology: A Positive Outlook

(Dr. Wernber Von Braun)
There is a chronic misunderstanding about science and
technology on the publics part that I am afraid is growing, but which
: : 52 : :
isnt altogether the publics fault. This concerns the role that science
and technology play in the development of society and the economy.
There is, unfortunately, no visible link between scientific discovery
about natural phenomena on the Moon, for example, and our
everyday lives here on earth. Yet, there are concepts and knowledge
coming out of the Apollo explorations, and experiments with the
rocks and dust brought back from the Moon, that offer the potential
of improving agriculture and the treatment of disease, and as we
learn more about interior of heavenly bodies may even help us in
locating mineral resources here on Earth or predict earthquakes.
Most concepts and scientific knowledge take years from the time
a scientist formulates them and they enter the technology until some
no-nonsense pragmatist comes along and turns the idea or
knowledge into a product and a flock of new jobs. By that time,
everyone has forgotten, if he knew at all, that it was the scientist
who started it in the first place. The interesting thing about this
process is that the scientist is labeled impractical because he deals
in theories and squiggle1 mathematical symbols.
We face a militant, highly emotional, even fanatical segment of
population which has seized upon a valid and good cause, but which
will accept no facts, no reasoning that run counter to its own fixed
ideology. The anti-science/technology people are demanding that we
pull the plug on modern civilization in the belief that somehow we
shall be better off in a more primitive state.
However, in primitive times, the major question for mankind was
physical survival. It is not hard to guess the predictable fate of
hundreds of millions of people who depend upon modern technology
for the necessities of life. We have only to consider for a moment
what we would do without electricity, permanently. Even the famous
naturalist, Konrad Lorenz, has been warning student audiences that
if they destroy our store of knowledge to make a fresh start, they
will fall back not a few centuries, but several hundred thousand
years. If you make a clean sweep of things, he observes, you
wont go back to the Stone Age, because you are already there, but
to well before the Stone Age.
But it isnt the young people, the students, who are really to
blame for this attitude of hostility to science and technology. They
1
squiggle: small twisty line or scrawl

: : 53 : :
are simply misguided by certain social philosophers, cultural

historians, and the like, whose teachings and published works
provide only a very lopsided view of science and technology pictured
as causing the downfall of man.
When you teach impressionable and idealistic youth that the
rational, logical, puritanical work approach to life is bankrupt, and
that technology serves not only to erode the quality of life, you are
bound to ring responsive bells in many minds of generation that has
never known the deprivation, the want, and the poverty of some
older generations.
When a historian and philosopher of Lewis Mumfords stature
inveighs2 angrily and brilliantly against the megamachine of science
and technology, and declares there can be no reform until the
present megatechnical wasteland is destroyed, a revolutionary
spirit is fanned among the young. The natural fires of rebellion we
have all felt against the system or the establishment are now
stoked by an eminent and respected authority.
It seems strange that America is about the only nation in the
world where technology and science are held in such low repute. All
the so-called have-not countries in Africa and Asia are straining
their limited resources to gain what some of our students seem bent
on destroying. The older European countries would give their
eyeteeth to have our technological capabilities. The Soviets are
especially envious, and frequently announce they will surpass the
United States in production or some other field of technology. So far
they have failed to do so.
The anti-science and anti-technology voices
making blanket attacks on science and technology
in the name of conservation, a clean environment,
or improving the quality of human life, are doing
the nation and all of us a great disservice. The
problems they are rightly anxious and concerned
about cannot be solved by a return-to-nature cult.
That course leads only to disaster for multitudes
of people.
inveighs: speak bitterly; attack violently in words

: : 54 : :
Closely related to the general attacks on science and technology

is the denigration 3 of the space program among some persons.
Mumford describes the space rocket as the most futile 4 in tangible
and beneficial human results, and sees only that while man is
indeed conquering space, the megamachine is carrying further its
conquest of man.
Surprisinglyor perhaps, not so surprisinglyMumford ignores
the apparently limit-less resources of knowledge that await man in
space. Some of this knowledge, as we have just begun to learn, has
great significance to man, to earth environment, and to the ecology.
We are learning of the relationships between Earth and Sun and
their effects on our lives which could be learned in no other way
save by means of the rocket and spacecraft. Nor does Mum-ford
make an allowance for mans need to extend his intellectual horizons
by physically exploring new worlds, no matter how barren and unfit
for organic life, such as the Moon may be today.
The kind of knowledge and intellectual broadening apparently is
of little or no value in the eyes of social philosophers and historians
preoccupied with man in the microcosm. They have not yet learned
to visualize mankind extending into the macrocosm, or for the
spiritual need to do so. The desire to know is more powerful than
they may suppose. Pragmatism is a valuable, stabilizing human
characteristic; but without imagination we would not be human, and
as long as man exercises this precious faculty, he will not long be
imprisoned in the successive shells the pragmatists try to enclose
him.
Those who look upon science and technology as a mega
machine that dominates their lives and holds them in thrall to a
strictly programmed existence have their own special hang-ups.
There is another view, and it was expressed by Glenn Seaborg:
The difference is a positive outlook, some imagination, and
the desire to put science and technology to work more creatively.
3
4
denigration: disparagment; belittling; mocking

futile: useless
: : 55 : :
QUESTIONS
1. (T/F) The writer feels that the only way of learning about the
relationships between Earth and Sun and their effects on
our lives is by means of rockets and spacecraft.
2. (T/F) The writer believes young people are responsible for the
negative attitude toward science and technology.
3. (T/F) The author agrees with the views expressed by Lewis
Mumford.
4. (T/F) The writer believes that imagination has no place in
science and technology.
5. (T/F) The author feels that the public understands science and
technology better than it used to understand them.
6. (T/F) The author feels that people do not realize that scientific
concepts are often responsible for new products and new
jobs.
7. (T/F) The author agrees that people would be better off if they
returned to a more primitive state.
8. (T/F) The author implies that certain philosophers and historians
present misleading views of science.
: : 56 : :
CHAPTER 5 CROOKED AND FALLACIOUS THINKING
5
CROOKED AND FALLACIOUS THINKING
The development of critical reading skills entails the advancement of
a clear and perceptive out-look, and the advancement of a clear and
perceptive outlook necessitates the ability to think logically and to
recognize and analyze instances of crooked and fallacious thinking.
Much human misunderstanding and blunder arises because many
people are not aware of the fact that their trends of thoughts, and
thus their communication processes, are frequently muddled, illogical
and fallacious. But while such innocent, though troublesome,
blunders may well be good-humouredly regarded as part of human
weaknesses, we should be aware that there are thinking people who
consciously take advantage of general ignorance and weaknesses of
others. In persuasions and discourses, such people subtly use
crooked tricks of argument to insidiously influence their readers or
listeners. It would therefore be wise to look at the more common
forms of crooked and fallacious trends of thought.
A. Hasty or Over-Generalizations
Many opinions are generalizations, or conclusions about whole
groups drawn from knowledge of individual cases. A generalization
will be accepted if it is supported by an appropriate amount of facts
or individual cases. In other words, the number of individual cases or
examples cited to support the opinion is extremely important. If an
author does not show that he has examined a large number of
individual cases to support his generalization, we call that statement
of opinion a hasty or over-generalization. This is the converse of the
fallacy of supposing the whole to be like the parts (See Point J
below). What is true of the whole need not necessarily be true for
the individual parts. America is a rich nation but that does not mean
that John Brown, an American tramp is also rich. So, if an author has
insufficient evidence for the opinion, a critical reader should seriously
question his position. The followings are some examples of hasty
generalizations:
1) Most Indonesians are truly democratic. Their last general
election was peacefully and successfully carried out.
: : 57 : :
2) Marriage just cannot survive these days. Three of my friends

from school are already divorced.
3) Cycling is more popular than swimming. When I was in the sport
hall yesterday no one was swimming. Every body was cycling.
4) Oh, hes a film star. He must be tall and handsome!
5) John must be a very playful and talkative student, for he
belongs to Class 1Bthe most disputable class in this school.
6) As a Moor, Othello must be thick-lipped and lascivious.
In all these examples, the writers provide factual statements
that could be checked in order to support their opinions. However,
there just arent enough of them. A single successful election does
not prove that a nation daily life is democratic. By the same token,
three couples with marital problems do not confirm that all
marriages are doomed to failure. And would any one accept the
claim that cycling is more popular than swimming though it based on
a one-day observation?
To be accepted by a critical reader, all of these generalizations
would have to be supported by many more factual statements citing
specific examples. To be meaningful, generalizations must be backed
by a large body of concrete, factual evidence. When they are not,
you should think twice about their value. To help you see the
difference between accepted and hasty generalizations, compare the
following three passages. The first one is worth considering, while
the last two deserve to be thought twice.
1) American courts are finally beginning to take drunk driving
seriously. In forty-eight of our fifty states, penalties for the
offense of drunk driving have been much more severe, with
thirty states set to institute jail terms in addition to heavy
monetary fines.
2) Government welfare programs are filled with people who are
cheating the tax-paying public. In todays newspaper, for
example, there are stories about three different cases of welfare
fraud.
3) Whats wrong with todays schools? The secretaries I hire dont
know how to spell in transcribing my legal documents. When I
: : 58 : :
went to school, we really learned to spell. Today they spend too

much time on nonessentials.
Be especially wary of generalizations that use the words always,
never, and all. They are particularly questionable because very few
generalizations hold true for all cases all of the time.
B. Attack on the Person
Some writers or speakers sometimes do not bother to support
their opinions with facts due to their lack of factual support for their
positions. In such a situation, to convince their readers they can
attack the character, life, career, or background of the person they
are discussing. Look at this example:
Although Professor Z insisted during a hearing that defense
spending by the government must be cut, I cannot take
seriously the proposals of someone who is an acknowledged
draft dodger.
The issue at hand is a cut in defense spending. Yet the author does
not deal with that question at all, but instead attacks the person
proposing the cut. However, the professors military career is not
relevant to defense spending, which is the subject that should be
criticized.
Sometimes there are cases where a person and a position are
so closely linked that character cannot be overlooked. Take, for
example, the following memorandum:
Ms. Miller, I was very impressed with your suggestion for
revising our bookkeeping procedures. But it has been brought
to my intention that your past record contains two convictions
for embezzlement. I am afraid that must influence my final
decision.
In this example, it makes sense to challenge Ms. Millers proposal on
the basis of her past conduct, although the proposal should be
evaluated on its own merits before being completely discounted.
: : 59 : :
C. Appeal to the Emotions

Another tactic someone can use to convince their readers or
listeners when he or she lacks of factual support for their positions is
appeal to the emotions. An appeal to the emotions occurs when a
speaker or writer tries to persuade by playing on the audiences
emotions instead of by supplying them with factual information.
Imagine reading the following speech by a defense lawyer:
The defendant is accused of serving liquor to those under the
age of eighteen, thereby contributing to the delinquency of
minors. Yet this is a man with two children of his own, a
family man who has worked hard for over twenty years to
earn a decent living. Only by the sweat of his brow has he
managed to put enough bread on the table to feed those
hungry mouths.
This is a case where the defense should either convince the jury that
the accuse is not guilty or else explain the circumstances of the
crime. The man serving the liquor, for example, may not have
known the age of the peopledrinking. But no argument or
explanation of this type is used; instead, the lawyer attempts to
arouse pity by evoking the image of a man who has struggled to
make a living for his children. The intention is to stir up enough
emotion so that the members of the jury do not think clearly about
the crime itself.
Appeals to the emotions are certainly not restricted to jury
trials. They occur any time that someone thinks emotion might be
more effective than fact. In 1982, for example, when Argentina
invaded the Falkland islands, English newspapers published many
speeches like the following:
This is an open act of vicious aggression on the part of
Argentinean military forces, one that will not be tolerated by a
people whose history testifies to Englands honor and
greatness. We are ready to answer force with force, and we
will not flinch from once again taking up arms in the name of
freedom.
: : 60 : :
Here the author might have justified the need for war by arguing
that British residents of the islands were not safe under Argentinean
rule. This at least would have been an attempt to give reasons for
the assertion that war was necessary. There is, however, no
suggestion of reason in this brief illustration: the entire emphasis is
the arousal of strong patriotic emotions.
EXERCISE 51: Decide whether the author of each of
the following passages has adequately supported his or
her opinion or not. If not, put a check mark to the error in
reasoning that makes you suspicious of the authors
position.
1.
The poet Ezra Pound has again been suggested as a candidate

for a posthumous literary award. The suggestion has caused an
uproar among many members of the literary community, and
there are those who insist that Pounds name be withdrawn
because of his treasonous behavior during World War II, when
he made broadcasts for Hitlers supporters.
a. hasty generalization
b. attack on the person
2.
Our schools should now substitute books with cartoons and

comics, because the use of cartoons and comics gives many
advantages. First of all, cartoons and comics are interesting. All
my three children and the children next doors like reading
cartoons and comics. Secondly, compared to books, cartoons
and comics are easier to perceive due to the presence of
pictures and illustrations. Finally, the massive use of cartoons
and comics will open many job opportunities for illustrators and
cartoonists.
3.
c. appeal to the emotions

d. no error.

d. no error.
Renewal of the so-called Civil Rights bill by the Senate should be

absolutely prevented. This bill would do no good to anyone and
would destroy all our rights by turning our government into a
: : 61 : :
dictatorship. No doubt the dictator would place our country

under one-world government under the UN. Because this
organization is Communist-conceived and Communist-controlled,
we would really be under Communist slavery.
4.
There have been many complaints about cuts in social services.

It has been pointed out that the cuts were both unnecessary
and unfair. That is, however, quite untrue. If money has been
withdrawn, it has been withdrawn with good reason. This is a
country built on the self-reliance of the individual, and the
pioneer spirit of the past was not fueled by money from the
government. That spirit must live again.
5.

d. no error.

d. no error.
In the last years, the state legislature approved the allocation of

more than fifty thousand dollars for the improvement of city
jails. This decision was ill-timed, ill-conceived, and above all
misguided. The men and women inside those jails are guilty of
robbery, rape, and murder. As free individuals, they were a
menace to the society, and they have been placed in prison in
order to be punished. They should not be rewarded with fancy
surroundings.

d. no error.
D. Circular Argument
Circular argument is a trick used by a crooked thinker when he
wants to give the impression that he is saying something meaningful
and logical when he is in fact not proving anything. He is simply
drawing his conclusion from a premise which is itself dependent on
what is asserted in the conclusion. In such a case, he tries to prove
that A is correct by using B as a support; however B also needs
to be supported. So he proposes C, which necessitates the support
: : 62 : :
of A to be sound correct. Take, for example the following

statements.
1) Walter Scott is certainly a better writer than Jane Austeen
because my teacher who is an expert told me so. I am sure my
teacher is an expert! Who other than an expert would prefer
Scott to Austeen?
2) To read books about religion is better than to read books about
atheism, because all critics, i.e. those who believed that books
about religion are better than books about atheism, unanimously
approved that books about religion surpass books about
atheism.
The first statement needs to be questioned by asking, How
expertise is the teacher? Whereas the second statement should be
tested by asking, What do the criticswho are probably as many as
those who support atheismthink about it?
The circularity of the argument in these examples is obvious,
but in an instance when the circle of the argument is a big one, the
fallacy may be hard to detect. Indeed, the argument in this type may
extend over a long article or even a book.
E. False Analogy
Like circular argument, a false analogy used to support an
argument in fact proves nothing. In a false analogy, there is only a
superficial or chance similarity between the things that are
compared, but a crooked thinker may use the small degree of
similarity to give the impression that the things are in all ways alike.
An advertisement may, for example, read as follows:
John Lee aimed high. So, he took our Made-simple
Business Management Course. Now he is the Director of
a big money-making enterprise, and he lives happily
with his beautiful wife and children in a luxurious
seaside bungalow.
You too aim high!
Remember: what Mr. John Lee has achieved, you also
can!
: : 63 : :
Careful reading of the advertisement would enable one to see

that even if the John Lee (a very common name) referred to in the
advertisement does really exist, the fact that the readers of the
advertisement too aim high does not necessarily mean that they
have the other relevant characteristics of John Lee. To be sure, the
keen interest and aptitude John Lee had for the course, the financial
backing he had, and his business luck might, among other things,
have been more important reasons for his success than the ambition
he shares with all those who bother to read the advertisement. Thus
when we come across an analogy in an argument we should see that
the things compared are really similar in the characteristics that are
relevant to the conclusion.
F. Equivocation
It is a well-known fact that a single word may have a variety
of meanings. There is usually no harm in this fact, for the context
usually determines which of the several meanings is intended. For
instance, the word table has one meaning in which it refers to
furniture and another in which it refers to lists (as in table of
contents or table of logarithms), but this multiplicity of meanings
could hardly ever lead to confusion. There are cases, however, in
which a word is used in such a way that we cannot tell which of its
several meanings is intended. In such cases, we say that the word is
being used ambiguously, for the statement in which it occurs is open
to at least two distinct interpretations. In the absence of additional
context, the statement Jane is dusting her plants may mean that
she is cleaning the plants by removing dust from them or it may
mean that she is protecting them by applying an insecticidal dust.
Indeed ambiguous use of words can give rise to a lot of
fruitless disputes and misunderstanding. Questions such as Does a
table continue to exist when there is no one in the room to see it?
and When a white horse not a white horse? cannot be properly
answered unless the key terms of the questions are properly
defined. Thus, the only way to check fallacies of equivocation is to
get the key term used in a discourse or argument aptly defined.
Look at the following example.
: : 64 : :
Only man is rational.

No woman is a man
All women are irrational.
This argument would be valid if the term man had the same
meaning each time it occurred. However, for the first premise to be
true, man must mean human, whereas, for the second premise
to be true, man must mean human male. Thus, if the premises
are to have any plausibility whatever, the term man must shift its
meaning. We would surely be misconstruing the premises if we
understood the term man to mean the same in both. The result is
an equivocation that destroys the validity of the argument.
G. Either-or Assumption
The either-or fallacy is also committed by many people due to
the tendency to think in extremes (often been called black-white
thinking). We are all too familiar with the people who believe their
nation can do no wrong, whereas other nations can do no right,
except when they cooperate with our goals. Likewise, we are all too
familiar with the person who believes that his political party is on the
right side in every political dispute, while the opposition party is
always in the wrong. Thus, a candidate standing in a political
election may proclaim: it is common knowledge that my opponent is
not quite normal in his behavior. How then, my friends, can we
entrust an abnormal person with heavy responsibilities? This
candidate plays a trick by assuming that the demarcation of the
opposite states is absolute and complete. If a listeners power of
understanding were not blurred by the diction of the speaker or by
anything else, he would see clearly that between the extreme states
of normality and abnormality are different degrees of normality.
Indeed, if a person wants to be clear and perceptive in outlook, he
should, among other things, always remember that when a thing is
not black it need not necessarily be white, for it could be of many
different shades of gray.
: : 65 : :

position.
1.
It is cruel to kill fowls for food because no human beings

would like to be killed.
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
b. circular argument d. either-or assumption
2.
Strawberry beverages are pink in color. The liquid content of

this glass is pink. It must be strawberry.
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
b. circular argument d. either-or assumption
3.
The normal college freshman has a lively interest in athletics

and liquor and a consuming preoccupation with sex. These
things engulf his attention. Poetry, for instance, leaves him
cold. Once in a while, however, you run across a freshman
who is entirely different. He spends much of his free time
reading, and perhaps even writing, poetry. He does so
because he likes to. He is an abnormal case. Often he has an
abnormally high IQ. He is not interested in the things that
interest normal boys of his age. He is a boy set a part from
other boys. When we encounter boys of this kind we ask
ourselves, What can be done for them? Surely there must
be some way to help them achieve a normal adjustment to
life!
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
b. circular argument
d. attack on the person
4.
If you think that a brick wall is solid, you are quite wrong.
Modern science has shown that things like brick walls are
made of atoms. An atom is something like the solar system;
electrons revolve around the nucleus much as the planets
revolve around the sun. Like the solar system, an atom is
mostly empty space. What common sense regards as solid,
science has shown to be anything but solid.
: : 66 : :
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
d. appeal to the emotion
5.
A man who was rising from his bed asked his wife, Is it
raining, darling?
No, it isnt, the wife replied.
Good! said the man. Pack up and well go to the beach to
sun-bathe.
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
6.
Lawyers know all the laws. Since you cant understand what
your lecturers have told you about Newtons laws, you
should consult lawyers in John and Paul Law Firm.
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
7.
A Woman would make a better member of the House of

Representative than a man, because she, not he, is a
mother.
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
8.
When two of his editorials offering contradictory views were

republished in another paper, the editor of the Tribune
defended himself. He accused the editor of the other
newspaper of being immoral, mean and deceitful, and of
printing his newspaper on poor paper with poor type. He
blasted his opponents for daring to accuse him of
inconsistency.
a. equivocation
c. false analogy
H. Talking What is to be What ought

In order to be heard persuasive, some people try to treat
What is as What to be. A fashion designer, for instance, may speak
in favor of a particular form of dress in the following way:
: : 67 : :
Wearing the see-through Ultra-mini is certainly not

immoral, because most woman like it. Large
numbers of such dresses are sold every day!
This argument appears to be persuasive but one must remember
that What is is not necessarily the same as What to be. After all,
human beings are not perfect. In reality, people are more easily
persuaded by their weaknesses than by reason. Thus, the fact that
many people smoke cigarettes does not mean that smoking is good.
Similarly, the availability and effectiveness of modern contraception
does not mean that human beings should be sexually promiscuous.
I. Jumping from a Non-Inclusive Proposition to an Inclusive
Conclusion
The most convenient way to study this form of fallacious or
crooked thinking is, perhaps, to consider the following invalid
syllogism:
All tall people are brave.
All brave people are highly educated.
Therefore, all highly educated people are tall.
A little careful thinking would enable one to see that the flaw
of the argument lies in the fact that not all highly educated people
are referred to in the second premise. All brave people are highly
educated is certainly not the same as All highly educated people
are brave. It is therefore wrong to refer to all highly educated in the
conclusion.
However, in our daily conversation, arguments of this type are
often more deceptive because they are expressed in a more concise
manner. Thus, the above argument may be put as All highlyeducated people are tall because they are brave. With one premise
All tall people are brave, regarded as tacit, a crooked thinker
speeds through the whole course of his argument and thus easily
deceives those listeners or readers who are not fully alert. So, the
best way to avoid being deceived whenever one is confronted with
this type of argument is to ask if the conclusion necessarily follows
from the premise or premises.
: : 68 : :
J. Supposing the Whole to be Like the Parts.

At a general meeting of farmers, the president of a farmers
association may give the following piece of advice:
Everyone of you should raise more chickens if you hope
to increase your income. Since the beginning of last year
Farmer Lee has been spending his time only on his large flock
of chickens and he has earned quite a fortune. His chickens
produce 1000 eggs a day, and he sells 90% of that! Hundred
of chicks are hatched every week in his farm and so he, as the
chief supplier for the chicken dealers at our market, is able to
earn lots of money from the sale of chicks and chickens. Even
the chicken droppings bring him gold from fertilizer shops! So,
my friends why dont you learn from him?
The bitter irony is that if all the farmers followed the advice of
the well meaning but unperceptive president, they would find the
markets flooded with large supplies of chicken-farm products. They
would have to sell their goods at very low prices and would thus
suffer loses.
This clearly shows that what is true for one person alone is
not necessarily true for all the farmers taken together. All the sides
of a triangle or a square are straight lines, but they do not make a
triangle or a square a straight line.
position.
1.
The campaign showing smoking is bad should be restricted or

even banned. More than 70% of men in the world smoke
cigarettes, and more and more women consume cigarettes,
too. That means the majority of adults smoke. How can we
say it is bad?
a. Talking what is to be what ought.
b. Jumping from a non-inclusive proposition to an
inclusive conclusion.
c. Supposing the whole to be like the parts.
: : 69 : :
d. No error.
2.
The best football players in the world are now playing for Real
Madrid F.C. There is no doubt that Real Madrid F.C. is the best
football team in the world.
d. No error.
3.
Singing is the most prospective career today. Michael Jackson

and Siti Nurhalizah have proved that to sing is to be materially
prospered and socially popular. This also true to Celine Dion,
West life, Ruth Sahanaya, and many other individual and
groups. Why dont we push our children to profess singing
the career that surely guarantees both prosperity and
popularity?
d. No error.
4.
Many Americans who have conservative beliefs about life are

now campaigning to put pressure on the people on the local
school boards in order to stop sex education and the use of
books describing the lives of working mothers or parents who
are divorced. They emphasize that, as decent, God-fearing
parents, they know what their children should be taught and
what books they should be read.
d. No error.
: : 70 : :
5.
The winners and nominators of the latest Academy Awards are

assigned to star The Best Mentor. Due to this fact, this
cinema will undoubtedly hit the box office.
d. No error.
K. Asking False Questions

In this case the crooked thinker makes an unfair assumption
in his question. Thus, a teacher who likes her students to be
mentally agile may ask her class, How many corners has a
football? She will not be surprised if the students become
dumbfounded for a while. This is because she tricks them with a
false question that pre-supposes that a football has corners.
Lawyers often ask misleading questions of this sort when they
make their cross-examinations. Instead of asking, Were you with
the accused at midnight?, a lawyer may trick the witness with,
Why were you with the accused at midnight? The only way to get
round the trick of false questions is to analyze their assumptions
carefully.
Another variation of this type of misleading question is false
statement, by which a crooked thinker makes bald statement of a
highly questionable fact to shock or frighten the reader into following
the writers suggestion. For example, consider the following
statement, written by Rudolf Flesch in the preface to Why Johnny
Cant Read and What You Can Do About It:
What I found is fantastic. The teaching of readingall
over the United States, in all the schools, in all the textbooks
is totally wrong and flies in the face of all logic and common
sense. Johnny couldnt read until half a year ago for the
simple reason that nobody ever showed him how. Johnnys
only problem was that he was unfortunately exposed to an
ordinary American school.
: : 71 : :
You know that I was born and raised in Austria. Do you

know that there are no remedial reading cases in Austrian
schools? Do you know that there are no remedial reading
cases in Germany, in French, in Italy, In Norway, In Spain
practically anywhere in the world except in the United States?
Do you know that there was no such thing as remedial reading
in this country either until about thirty years ago? Do you
know that the teaching of reading never was a problem
anywhere in the world until the United States switched to the
present method around about 1925?
Actually, Flesch is offering all these implications without a
shred of proof. It is his purpose to prepare us to believe these
implications by first destroying any faith we may have in the
American system. Then it will be easier to convince us of the
infallibility of European (his) reading instruction. The administrators
of European school might profoundly wish that Dr. Flesch were
correct. But unfortunately, he is not. In several of these countries,
there are, as in America, organized societies of professional teachers
who devote a good deal of their time to the cure or prevention of
current failures in reading. Several of those associations regularly
publish journals describing the extent of the reading problem in their
respective countries and the research being conducted in this field.
Failures in reading are peculiar neither to America nor to the last
thirty years.
Why would a skilled, professional writer make such
statements? Simply because he knows that the average reader is
unable to confirm or refute his facts and will be shocked into
attending carefully to the authors program for curing this imaginary
problem. Who would believe these unsupported allegations ? Fleschs
book was on the best-seller lists for an unfortunately long period of
several months after its publication.
L. Taking what are Mere Coincidences to be the Causes ( The
Non Sequitur)
This fallacy normally follows the following thinking pattern: X

precedes Y; therefore X causes Y. For example, a man may say,
Soon after I saw Jane, I had severe stomachache. Jane must have
caused my trouble and she must be a witch. Another person may
: : 72 : :
say, Poor John! He walked under a ladder this morning, and at

noon he met with an accident. Its unlucky to walk under a ladder.
Certain causation cannot be so simply and irrationally
determined. Night follows day but night is not caused by day.
Similarly, lightning does not cause thunder even though it flashes
before the thunder roars. Yet, many people commit this fallacy
unconsciously, and crooked thinkers who use this trick find as they
do with other tricks, a lot of simple-minded victims. Read the
following political campaign oratory, and see how the speaker
expects his listeners to the conclusion that Democratic
administrations cause The United States entry into war.
Under Wilson we entered World War I, during Roosevelts
administration we became embroiled in World War II, and
with Truman came the Korean War! My friends, dont you
know that they were Democrats?
position.
1.

Suzanne, a young married woman, was working for masters

degree. Reading a study of sexual behavior, she learned that
intellectuals generally prefer to have the lights on during
sexual intercourse, while nonintellectual generally prefers to
have the lights off. Since her masters examinations were
about to occur, she insisted that her husband to leave the
lights on, in the hope that it would improve her chances of
passing the examinations.
a. The Non-Sequitur
b. Supposing the Parts
(Overgeneralization).
c. Asking False Questions
d. no error.
2.
to
be
Like
the
Whole
A public opinion pollster questions five thousand people in the
: : 73 : :
United States, to determine their opinions about the

advisability of admitting Communist China to the United
Nations. Of those questioned, 72 per cent (approximately) of
the people in the United States oppose admission of
Communist China to the United Nations.
a. The Non-Sequitur
b. Supposing the Parts to be Like the Whole
d. no error.
3.
In a certain factory, there is a machine which produces can

openers. An inspector examines one-tenth of all the can
openers produced by this machine. In his sample, he finds
that 2 percent of the can openers are defective. The
management concludes, on the basis of this information, that
2 per cent (approximately) of the can openers produced by
the machine are defective.
a. The Non-Sequitur
b. Supposing the Parts
d. no error.
4.
to
be
Like
the
Whole
It is reported that the ancient Chinese believed that an eclipse

of the moon consisted of a dragon devouring the moon. They
shot off fireworks to scare the dragon away, leaving the moon
behind. Their attempts were always successful, for the moon
always reappeared. They concluded that there was a causal
relationship between shooting of fireworks and the
reappearance of the moon.
a. The Non-Sequitur
b. Supposing the Parts to be Like the Whole
d. no error.
: : 74 : :
5.
The United States Has No Army, No Navy, No Air Force.

For doubting Thomasses who think this statement is not true,
Senate Bill No. 2180 entitled The Arms Control and
Disarmament Act was proved by the House of
Representatives as House Bill 9118 and was signed into effect
as Public Law 87-297 on September 26, 1961, by John F.
Kennedy, President of the United States. This bill was
prepared to expedite a plan already proposed at Geneva by
our administration and State Department to affect the
legal connotation to disarmament.
The only thing that keeps our Army, Navy and Air Force from
being wiped out of existence is public opinion. At any time he
chooses the President of the United States can now transfer
our Army, Navy and Air Force (your husband, son or brother)
to the command of Eugene D. Kiselev (Russian) who is
secretary of the United Nations Security Council (World Police
Force).
(A statement taken from a leaflet distributed by the United

Societies of Methodist Laymen, Inc.)
a. The Non-Sequitur
b. Supposing the Parts to be Like the
c. Asking False Questions (False Statements)
d. no error.
Whole
EXERCISE 55: Decide weather the author of each

passages has adequately supported his/ her opinion or
not. If not, from the list of option at the top, select the
most suitable term to determine the error in reasoning
makes you suspicious of the authors position.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
attack on the person

hasty generalization
circular arguments
supposing the whole to be like the
parts
either-or assumption
jumping from a non-inclusive
proposition to an inclusive
conclusion
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
: : 75 : :
talking what is to be what ought

appeal to the emotion
non-sequitur
equivocation
asking/ making false
questions/statements
no error
1. Dog is the most faithful animal in the world. It is ready to

sacrifice its life to guard its master. Realizing this, it is important
for scientists to study how to train people like a dog. There is no
doubt that if we design such training, the world will be peaceful
because all people are faithful one to another. __________
2. People from Ambon are skillful in singing. Would you please sing
La Bamba (a Mexican song) for us? __________
3. I will never attend the orchestra led by Brama. I dont believe he
could conduct some musicians to perform a good music. When
he was the captain of our senior high school football team, we
never won a trophy. It indicates he will never be a good leader.
__________
4. Malaysians have deported thousands of our workers. Their navy
is now trying to invade Ambalat. Moreover, they show no respect
to our ambassador. How can we tolerate such disapproval? We
are honorable, sovereign, and great nation. We are ready to
answer force with force. Never do we flinch from taking up arms
for the sake of our honor. __________
5. My aunt always wears white T-shirts. I couldnt fine my white Tshirt I bought in Bandung last month. My aunt must have taken
it without my permission. __________
6. Bram has just graduated from a post-graduate program
majoring in modern languages. I believe he is able to help me
any time I find difficulties in translating any foreign languages.
__________
7. Teenagers under seventeen should not be prohibited from
driving cars. Most people between fourteen and seventeen are
as tall as adults. They are physically able to drive without any
difficulty. __________
8. Rock-music concert should be banned in Indonesia. It is nothing
than a killing field. When The Top Marcy, a group of rock-band
from Australia, performed a concert in Surabaya in 1982, six
: : 76 : :
persons died in the riot around the stage. In 1984, eleven

teenagers died in the car accident on their way home after
watching The Hard Rolling, a rock-group from America, in
Cirebon. One year after that, four young girls fell unconscious to
the ground when they were watching the concert of another
American rock-band, Bad Boys, in Jakarta. __________
9. The novelist Maman Parwoto has again been suggested as a
candidate for Anugrah Sastra 2005 award. This suggestion has
caused an uproar among many members of the literary
community. Some of them have even insisted that Parwotos
name be withdrawn because of his close friendship with the
former President Suharto. __________
10. My sister Windy is a good writer. Although she is still 25 years
old, she has produced 22 novels. My English professor asked me
to write a paper (of about 15,000 words) that discusses about
the teaching of English in elementary schools in Jakarta. In order
to finish it in a week, Ill ask for Windys help. __________
: : 77 : :
: : 78 : :
CHAPTER 6 DETECTING PROPAGANDA
6
DETECTING PROPAGANDA
A. What is Propaganda?
The word propaganda is defined as designating any attempt
to influence the opinions or actions of others to some predetermined
end by appealing to their emotions or prejudices or by distorting the
facts. The propagandist, in other words, wants others to take a
certain attitude or make a certain decision; he intends to influence
them so that they act in a manner desired by him; and he tries to
achieve his purpose by the use of suggestion and spurious
arguments.
Propaganda, as here understood, is independent of the
nature of the end toward which it moves. The predetermined goal
which the propagandist tries to achieve may be either good or bad.
It may be a new form of
slavery and the suppression
of countless millions; it may
be the financial support of
the
aged
and
the
establishment
of
new
playgrounds for children of
the slums, or it may be the
sale of worthless stocks and
the
corruption
of
an
electorate. Whatever the end,
propaganda devices may be
employed in its realization,
and the same devices may
serve the most divergent
purposes. It is not the end or
goal that stamps an argument as propaganda: it is the nature of the
argument, which does that. The devices employed, not the purpose
for which they are employed, characterize propaganda as
propaganda.
No absolute distinction can be drawn between propaganda
and education. Sociologically and psychologically there is no sharp
line of demarcation between them. It is impossible to say with
: : 79 : :
certainty where one ends and the other begins. In general, however,
training in any skill that enables the individual to employ scientific
methods in dealing with all problems, which helps him to think more
clearly, and which makes him more discerning in his judgments,
must be regarded as education rather than as propaganda. Likewise,
the imparting of established scientific knowledge is education and
not propaganda, for such knowledge has been checked and rechecked by independent investigators; it is objective and unbiased.
In science the appeal is to experiment and reasoned analysis,
whereas in all propaganda the appeal is to prejudices, fears, hatreds,
aspirations, and traditionsto the emotions rather than to the
intellect, or to distorted facts and misconstrued arguments.
Education enables people to know or to discover the truth and then
to decide in the light of this truth what action is to be taken.
Propaganda, on the other hand, attempts to provoke action
regardless of, or even despite, truth.
This does not mean that educators and scientists never
employ propaganda, for they do. When a sociologist teaches the
established facts in his specialized field of study, he is engaged in
education; but if he tries to persuade people that sociology offers
panacea for all social ills, he indulges in propaganda, for his
contention is not unbiased and is not an established truth. What is
true for the sociologist is true of educators in general who try to sell
their goods or to put education across. It may be true of the
philosopher no less than of the physician or the minister of the
gospel. It is even possible to become a propagandist in favor of
propaganda analysis. Teaching the principles of analysis is a matter
of education, but making extravagant claims concerning the value of
such principles is nothing but propaganda. An objective evaluation
must consider all matters in proper relation to all relevant facts.
Propaganda is most frequently associated with conflicts of
some kind, with situations, that is, in which interested groups stand
opposed to one another and in which each group tries to get the
most for itself. Propaganda is therefore especially important in fields
where social, political, or economic advantages are at stake and
where public opinion is to be molded on a large scale and often to
the detriment of the majority of the people. It is encountered in
international as well as in domestic affairs, and in democracies no
less than under totalitarian forms of government.
: : 80 : :
For some purposes it may be important to distinguish

between monopoly propaganda emanating from a central
government office (such as the Ministry of Propaganda and
enlightenment of the Hitler regime, or the corresponding bureau of
Soviet Russia), and the competitive propaganda of rival groups as it
is encountered in a democracy having freedom of speech, a free
press, and uncensored radio channels. But this distinction involves
only the source and the channels of distribution, and does not
pertain to the nature of propaganda as such. The devices employed
and the general characters of propaganda are the same regardless
of the source and the means of dissemination. Propaganda as
carried on by a special interest group is still propaganda when it is
carried on by a government bureau, and the propagandistic activities
of a state or nation are not less propagandistic when they are carried
on by private individuals or group of individuals.
Since propaganda is expression of opinion or action by
individuals or groups deliberately designed to sway other to feel the
same way or to influence opinions or actions of others with reference
to predetermined ends, it is very different from scientific analysis.
The propagandist is trying to put something across, good or bad,
whereas the scientist is trying to discover truth and fact. Often the
propagandist does not want careful scrutiny and criticism; he wants
to bring about a specific action. Because the action may be socially
beneficial or socially harmful to millions of people, it is necessary to
focus upon the propagandist and his activities the searchlight of
scientific scrutiny. Socially desirable propaganda will not suffer
examination, but the opposite type will be detected and revealed for
what it is.
B. Propaganda Devices
We are fooled by propaganda chiefly because they appeal to
our emotions rather than to our reason. They make us believe and
do something we would not believe or do. And since it appeal more
to our emotions; we often dont recognize it when we see it.
Admittedly, on certain occasions it may be fun to be fooled.
However, it is more fun to know. We can more easily recognize
propaganda when we see it if we are familiar with the common
propaganda devices. There are seven of them, i.e. (1) Name Calling,
: : 81 : :
(2) Glittering Generalities, (3)

Transfer, (4) Testimonial, (5)
Plain Folks, (6) Card Stacking,
and (7) Band Wagon.
In examining these
devices, note that they work
most effectively at those times
when we are too lazy to think
for ourselves; also they tie to
our emotions which sway us to
be for or against nations, races,
religions, ideals, economic and political policies and practices, and so
on through automobiles, cigarettes, radios, toothpaste, presidents
and wars. With our emotions stirred, it may be fun to be fooled by
these propaganda devices, but it is more fun and infinitely more to
our own interests to know how they work.
1. Name Calling
Name Calling is a device to make us form judgment
without examining the evidence on which it should be based. Here
the propagandist appeals to our hate and fear. He does this by
giving bad names to those individuals, groups, nations, races,
policies, practices, and ideals that he would have us condemn and
reject. The name-calling technique links a person, or idea, to a
negative symbol. Institute for Propaganda Analysis (2002) writes
The propagandist who uses this technique hopes that the audience
will reject the person or the idea on the basis of the negative
symbol, instead of looking at the available evidence. For centuries
the name heretic was bad. Thousands were oppressed, tortured,
or put to death as heretics. Anybody who dissented from popular or
group belief or practice was in danger of being called heretic. In the
light of todays knowledge, some heresies were bad and some were
good. Many of the pioneers of modern science were called heretics;
witness the case of Copernicus, Galileo, and Bruno. Todays bad
names include Fascist, demagogue, dictator, red, financial oligarchy,
Communist, muckraker, alien, outside agitator, economic royalist,
utopian, rabble-rouser, troublemaker, Constitution wrecker.
Al Smith called Roosevelt a communist by implication when
he said in his Liberty League speech, There can be only one capital,
: : 82 : :
Washington or Moscow. When Al Smith was running for the

presidency, many called him a tool of the Pope, saying in effect, We
must choose between Washington and Rome. That implied that Mr.
Smith, if elected president, would take his order from the Pope.
Likewise Mr. Justice Hugo Black was associated with a bad name, Ku
Klux Klan. In these cases some propagandists have tried to make us
form judgment without examining essential evidence and
implications. Al Smith is a Catholic. He must never be President.
Roosevelt is a Red. Defeat his program. Hugo Black was a
Klansman. Take him out of the Supreme Court.
Use of bad names without presentation of their essential
meaning, without all their pertinent implications, comprises perhaps
the most common of all propaganda devices. Those who want to
maintain the status quo apply bad names to Communists and
Socialists. Those who want to change the status quo apply bad
names to those who would maintain it. For example, the Daily
Worker and the American Guardian apply bad names to conservative
republicans and democrats.
According to the Institute for Propaganda Analysis (2002), to
make ourselves aware of Name Calling, we should ask ourselves the
following questions when we spot such a propaganda technique: (1)
What does the name mean? (2) Does the idea in question have a
legitimate connection with the real meaning of the name? (3) Is an
idea that serves my best interests being dismissed through giving it
a name I don't like? (4) Leaving the name out of consideration, what
are the merits of the idea itself?
2. Glittering Generalities
Glittering Generalities is a
device by which the propagandist
identifies his program with virtue by
use of virtue words. Here he appeals
to our emotions of love, generosity,
and brotherhood. He uses words like
truth, freedom, honor, liberty, social
justice, public service, the right to
work, loyalty, progress, democracy,
Constitution Defender. These words
suggest shining ideals. All persons of
: : 83 : :
good will believe in these ideals. Hence, the propagandist, by

identifying his individual, group, nation, race, policy, practice, or
belief with such ideals, seeks to win us to his cause. As Name Calling
is a device to make us form a judgment to reject and condemn
without examining the evidence, Glittering Generalities is a device to
make us accept and approve without examining the evidence. For
example, use of the phrases the right to work and social justice,
may be a device to make us accept programs for meeting the laborcapital problem which, if we examine them critically, we would not
accept at all.
The Glittering Generality is, in short, Name Calling in
reverse. While Name Calling seeks to make us form a judgment to
reject and condemn without examining the evidence, the Glittering
Generality device seeks to make us approve and accept without
examining the evidence. In acquainting ourselves with the Glittering
Generality Device, therefore, all that has been said regarding Name
Calling must be kept in mind..." (Institute for Propaganda Analysis,
2002).
The propagandist is most effective in use of these devices
when his words make us create devils to fight or gods to adore. By
his use of the bad words, we personify as a devil some nation,
race, individual, group, policy, practice, belief or ideals; we are made
fighting mad to destroy it. By use of good words, we personify as
godlike idol some nation, race, individual, group, policy, ideals, etc.
Words which are bad to some are good to others, or may be
made so. Thus, to some the New deal is a prophecy of social
salvation while to others it is an omen of social disaster.
According to the Institute for Propaganda Analysis (2002), to
make ourselves aware of Glittering Generalities, we should ask
ourselves the following questions when when confronted with this
technique: (1) What does the virtue word really mean? (2) Does the
idea in question have a legitimate connection with the real meaning
of the word? (3) Is an idea that does not serve my best interests
being "sold" to me merely through its being given a name that I like?
(4) Leaving the virtue word out of consideration, what are the merits
of the idea itself?
: : 84 : :
3. Transfer
Transfer is a device by which the propagandist carries over
the authority, sanction, and prestige of something we respect and
revere to something he would have us accept. For instance, most of
us respect and revere our church and our nation. If the propagandist
succeeds in getting church or nation to approve a campaign in behalf
of some program, he thereby transfers its authority, sanction and
prestige to that program. Thus we may accept something which
otherwise we might reject.
In the Transfer device,
symbols are constantly used.
The
cross
represents
the
Christian Church. The flag
represents the nation. Cartoons
like Uncle Sam represent a
consensus. These symbols stir
emotions. At their very sight,
with the speed of light, is
aroused the whole complex of
feelings we have with respect to
religion or nation. A cartoonist
by having Uncle Sam disapprove
a budget for unemployment relief
would have us feel that the whole united states disapprove relief
costs. By drawing an Uncle Sam who approves the same budget, the
cartoonist would have us feel that American people approve it. Thus
the Transfer device is used both for and against causes and ideas.
When a political activist closes her speech with a public
prayer, she is attempting to transfer religious prestige to the ideas
that she is advocating. As with all propaganda devices, the use of
this technique is not limited to one side of the political spectrum. It
can be found in the speeches of liberation theologists on the left,
and in the sermons of religious activists on the right. In a similar
fashion, propagandists may attempt to transfer the reputation of
"Science" or "Medicine" to a particular project or set of beliefs. A
slogan for a popular cough drop encourages audiences to "Visit the
halls of medicine." On TV commercials, actors in white lab coats tell
us that the "Brand X is the most important pain reliever that can be
: : 85 : :
bought without a prescription." In both of these examples, the

transfer technique is at work.
These techniques can also take a more ominous turn. As
Alfred Lee has argued, "even the most flagrantly anti-scientific
racists are wont to dress up their arguments at times with terms and
carefully selected illustrations drawn from scientific works and
presented out of all accurate context." The propaganda of Nazi
Germany, for example, rationalized racist policies by appealing to
both science and religion.
This does not mean that religion and science have no place
in discussions about social issues! The point is that an idea or
program should not be accepted or rejected simply because it has
been linked to a symbol such as Medicine, Science, Democracy, or
Christianity. The Institute for Propaganda Analysis (2002) has argued
that, when confronted with the transfer device, we should ask
ourselves the following questions: (1) In the most simple and
concrete terms, what is the proposal of the speaker? (2) What is the
meaning of the the thing from which the propagandist is seeking to
transfer authority, sanction, and prestige? (3) Is there any legitimate
connection between the proposal of the propagandist and the
revered thing, person or institution? (4) Leaving the propagandistic
trick out of the picture, what are the merits of the proposal viewed
alone?
4. Testimonial
The Testimonial is a device to make us accept anything
from a patent medicine or a cigarette to a program of national
policy. In this device the propagandist tries to convince his audiences
by citing the statement of (popular) idividuals or by letting them
testify to somebody or somethings quality, ability, merits, etc. Of
course there is nothing wrong with citing a qualified source, and the
testimonial technique can be used to construct a fair, well-balanced
argument. However, it is often used in ways that are unfair and
misleading, suach as the followings:
1) Tiger Woods is on the cereal box, promoting Wheaties as part of
a balanced breakfast.
2) Cher is endorsing a new line of cosmetics, and La Toya Jackson
says that the Psychic Friends Network changed her life.
: : 86 : :
3) The lead singer of R.E.M appears on a public service

announcement and encourages fans to support the "Motor Voter
Bill."
The
most
common
misuse of the testimonial involves
citing individuals who are not
qualified to make judgements
about a particular issue. In 1992,
Barbara Streisand supported Bill
Clinton,
and
Arnold
Schwarzenegger threw his weight
behind George Bush. Both are
popular performers, but there is
no reason to think that they know
what is best for this country.
(Institute
for
Propaganda
Analysis, 2002).
Unfair testimonials are usually obvious, and most of us have
probably seen through this rhetorical trick at some time or another.
However, this probably happened when the testimonial was provided
by a celebrity that we did not respect. When the testimony is
provided by an admired celebrity, we are much less likely to be
critical.
According to the Institute for Propaganda Analysis (2002),
we should ask ourselves the following questions when we encounter
this device: (1) Who or what is quoted in the testimonial? (2) Why
should we regard this person (or organization or publication) as
having expert knowledge or trustworthy information on the subject
in question? (3) What does the
idea amount to on its own merits,
without the benefit of the
Testimonial?
5. Plain Folks
Plain Folks is a device
used by politicians, labor leaders,
business men, and even by
ministers and educators to win our
: : 87 : :
confidence by appearing to be people like ourselvesjust plain folks

among neighbors. America's recent presidents have all been
millionaires, but they have gone to great lengths to present
themselves as ordinary citizens. Bill Clinton ate at McDonald's and
confessed a fondness for trashy spy novels. George Bush Sr. hated
broccoli, and loved to fish. Ronald Reagan was often photographed
chopping wood, and Jimmy Carter presented himself as a humble
peanut farmer from Georgia. For the newspapermen they raid the
kitchen cupboard finding there some of the good wifes apple pie.
They go to country picnics; they attend service at the old frame
church; they pitch hay and go fishing, they show their belief in home
and mother. In short they would win our votes by showing that
theyre just common as the rest of usjust plain folks and
therefore, wise and good. Businessmen often are plain folks with
the factory hands. Even distillers use the device. Its our familys
whiskey, neighbor; and neighbor, its your price.
The Institute for Propaganda Analysis (2002) has argued
that, when confronted with this device, we should suspend
judgement and ask ourselves the following questions: (1) What are
the propagandist's ideas worth when divorced from his or her
personality? (2) What could he or she be trying to cover up with the
plain-folks approach? (2) What are the facts?
6. Card Stacking
Card Stacking is a device in which the propagandist employs
all the arts of deception to win our support for himself, his group,
nation, policy, practice, belief,
or ideal. He stacks the cards
against the truth. He uses
under-emphasis and overemphasis to dodge issues and
evade facts. He resorts to lies,
censorship, and distortion. He
omits facts. He offers false
testimony. He creates a
smokescreen of clamor by
raising a new issue when he
wants an embarrassing matter
forgotten. He draws a red
: : 88 : :
herring across the trail to confuse and divert those in quest of facts
he does not want revealed. He makes the unreal appear real and the
real appear unreal. He lets half-truth masquerade as truth. By the
Card Stacking device, a mediocre candidate, through the build-up,
is made to appear an intellectual titan; an ordinary prizefighter a
probable world champion; a worthless patent medicine a beneficent
cure. By means of this device propagandist would convince us that a
ruthless war of aggression is a crusade for righteousness. Card
stacking employs sham, hypocrisy, and effrontery.
7. Band Wagon
The Band Wagon is a device to make us follow the crowd, to
accept the propagandists program en masse. Here his theme is:
Everybodys doing it, and so should you, and since few of us want
to be left behind, this technique can be quite successful. His
techniques range from those of medicine show to dramatic
spectacle. He hires a hall, fills a great stadium, and marches a million
men in parade. He employs symbols, colors, music, movement, and
all the dramatic arts. He appeals to the desire, common to most of
us, to follow the crowd. Because he wants us to follow the crowd
in masse he directs his appeal to groups held together by common
ties of nationality, religion, race, environment, sex vacation. Thus
propagandist campaigning for or against a program will appeal to us
as Catholics, Protestants, Moslems or Jews; as members of the
Nordic race or as Negroes; as farmers or as school teachers; as
housewives or as miners. All the articles of flattery are used to
harness the fears and hatreds, prejudices and biases, convictions
and ideals common to the group; thus emotion is made to push and
pull the group on to the Bandwagon. In newspaper articles and in
the spoken word this device is also found. Dont throw your vote
away. Vote for your candidate. Hes sure to win. Nearly everybody
wins every electionbefore the votes are in.
According to the Institute for Propaganda Analysis (2002),
When confronted with this technique, it may be helpful to ask
ourselves the following questions: (1) What is this propagandist's
program? (2) What is the evidence for and against the program? (2)
Regardless of the fact that others are supporting this program,
should I support it? (3) Does the program serve or undermine my
individual and collective interests?
: : 89 : :
C. Propaganda and Emotion

Observe that in all these devices our emotion is the stuff with
which the propagandists work. Without it they are helpless; with it,
harnessing it to their purposes, they can make us glow with pride or
burn with hatred, they can make us zealots in behalf of the program
they espouse. As we said at the beginning, propaganda as generally
understood is expression of opinion or action by individuals or
groups with reference to predetermined ends. Without the appeal to
our emotionto our fears and to our courage, to our selfishness and
unselfishness, to our loves and to our hatespropagandists would
influence few opinions and few actions.
To say this is not to condemn emotion, an essential part of life,
or to assert that all predetermined end of propagandists are bad.
What we mean is that the intelligent person does not want
propagandists to utilize his emotions, even to the attainment of
good ends, without knowing what is going on. He does not want to
be used in the attainment of ends he may later consider bad. He
does not want to be gullible. He does not want to be fooled. He does
not want to be duped, even in a good cause. He wants to know
the facts and among these is included the fact of the utilization of his
emotions.
Keeping in mind the seven propaganda devices, turn to todays
newspapers and almost immediately, you can spot examples of
them. At election time or during campaign, Plain Folks and
Bandwagon are common. Card Stacking is the hardest to detect,
because it is adroitly executed or because we lack the information
necessary to nail the lie. A little practice with the daily newspapers in
detecting these propaganda devices soon enables us to detect them
elsewherein radio, news-reel, books, magazines, and in
expressions of labor unions, business groups, churches, school,
political parties.
: : 90 : :
EXERCISE 61: Read the following sentences or

paragraphs and decide which propaganda techniques they
represent. Using the following codes, place the appropriate
letters in front of each sentence.
NC= Name Calling
GG= Glittering Generalities
Tr= Transfer
Te= Testimonial
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
PF = Plain Folks
CS= Card Stacking
BW= Band Wagon
___ All your friends drink Sprite. You try it too!

___ This car is the latest thing in speed, power and luxury.
___ John Kerry, candidate for president, was seen playing
football at the church picnic yesterday.
___ Superstar Will Dempsey says Cheewees are the best for
breakfast.
___ Leading Medical men claim Calso capsules will cure the
common cold.
___ Abraham Lincoln stated he was born to fight slavery.
___ We should not let the government cut the budget. It will
reduce the citizents prosperity. I wonder why Senator Sean
Calloway support the budget cut. He is really a "stingy"
politician.
___ Senator sandy Roger is a two-faced politician.
___ Nine out of ten people use Gusto Shaving Cream.
___ Golden cigarettes last longer, taste better, and use finer
tobacco.
___ Bill Adams is the workingmans friend.
___ Take the advice of Stan Stokely, track star: Wear Whiz
Shoes!
___ Independent laboratory tests show Puresilk is the best for
your skin.
___ Everybodys dancing Flip and Flop. Let us teach you how.
___ Smart people drink Windagainst!
___ Buy new Blooze Soap in the giant economy size.
___ Forty million Indonesians drink Kapal Api. Why not you?
___ Cathy Butterfield, Olympic swimming champion, claims
Formfit swimsuits are the best.
___ Surely you dont want to elect a slacker like Martin Bryan!
: : 91 : :
20. ___ Senator Stockton rose his position after having been a
common laborer.
21. ___ Ben Franklin Savings and Loan Association will help you
save money!
22. ___ Leading medical men recommended taking Pilch Pills three
times daily for increased vigor.
23. ___ An honest American, Richard Reeves believes in freedom
and love of fellow man.
24. ___ Come to Bali, where you can enjoy paradise-like life.
25. ___ Fly with Lion airjust like what Siti Nurhalizah does.
26. ___ John Seen is clearly un-American in his views toward free
speech.
27. ___ Our president watches JTG TV every morning. If you do the
same, you tune on the best channel.
28. ___ RocketReader is a course which guaratees that within three
months you will multiply your reading speed and
comprehension up to five times. RocketReader also
increases your familiarity with less commonly occurring
words through what is called the Memory training module
which relies on learning reinforcement to improve
vocabulary. In addition, RocketReaders wide range of
readings incorporate a rich and diverse vocabulary set,
providing indirect vocabulary training. Those who had
joined the program claimed it very effective to make them
skillful readers.
29. ___ AFGANISTANAmerica and its crusader friends want to
establish their permanent presence in Afghanistan and then
like in Turkey, they want to use Afghan Americans to make
a secular (not religious) country and make their puppet
regime rule Afghanistan permanently. The aim is to deprive
them Afghans of their religion and give them the American
atheist mentality, make them embrace American religion
instead of the religion given by God and to worship them
Americans instead of worshipping God. America wants to
ensure its domination in Asia and bring the area out of
Russian control. Meanwhile, China and Iran will also find
themselves under seige. Jihad against the Americans and
their puppets is now the duty of every Muslim of
Afghanistan, a duty which does not need even the
: : 92 : :
permission of one's parents. The defender and protector of

the present regime of Kabul is an apostate or renegade and
shows nothing but hypocrisy and atheism.
30. ____HOUSTONEnron is one of the worlds leading electricity,
natural gas and communications companies. The company,
with revenues of $101 billion in 2000, markets electricity
and natural gas, delivers physical commodities and financial
and risk management services to customers around the
world, and has developed an intelligent network platform to
facilitate online business. Fortune magazine has named
Enron Americas Most Innovative Company for six
consecutive
years.
Enrons
Internet
address
is
www.enron.com. The stock is traded under the ticker
symbol ENE.
EXERCISE 62
Read the following possible advertisements. Make a
checkmark () beside the ones that make use of obvious
propaganda techniques.
1. ____ The Mercury Messenger Service delivers your messages
like a flash. Our messengers moved on a winged feet.
2. _____The Zippy Messenger Service offers a 24-hour service. We
guarantee that your message will be delivered within four
hours, or your money will be returned.
3. ____ Mark Mach, all professional football tackle, says, You can
always depend on Marvs Messenger to get there on time.
I wouldnt trust anyone else.
4. ____ Squeeky Sneakers are the shoes that everyone is buying.
Dont be left out.
5. ____ John Hawkings, the winner of the 2004 Nobel Prize for
Literature, said, Other universities can claim theyre the
first, but I believe my almamaterGlobal Quantum
Universityis the best. Join it to shape your glorious
future.
: : 93 : :
6. ____ We guarantee your money will be refunded in full if you

fail to double your reading rate with no lose in
comprehension in just one lesson.
7. ____ Im David Robson, striker of New York F.C. When Im not
playing football, I drive my new Soluna.
8. ____ Our institution does not only provide your children
knowledge but also teach them how to live.
9. ____ Nowhere else you can feel at home except in our hotel.
10. ____ Invest your money in our business. Its the only sector in
which you never suffer a loss.
EXERCISE 63
Read the following advertisement and answer the questions
that follow.
Save dont waste your money. Its so easy to spend when its in your
pocket and youll have little to show for it.
And dont try to save at home. The chances are you will be robbed one
day. Many people lose their lifes savings that way.
Keep your saving in The Theo Garcia Bank where they will be safe and will
earn you 3 % per annum.
You can withdraw part or all of your saving at any time at any of The
Banks branches. There are over 175 throughout Southeast Asia. All our branches
are inter-connected by computer and withdrawals or deposits can be made at any
branch.
Another way to Save and earn more interest is with Time Deposits. If you
agree not to withdraw your money for a fixed period you will receive greater
interest. At present 3 months earns you 4 % per annum, 6 months 4 % and
12 months 4 % per annum.
Come in and see us soon and discuss the best saving program for you. You can
open a Saving Account for as little as $1
The Theo Garcia Banking Corporation

: : 94 : :
A. Based on the context of passage, choose the most suitable option.

1. The advertisement tells us to save money because
A. the bank will pay interest on it.
B. we may be robbed one day.
C. it is easy to open a Saving Account.
D. we can have a better future if we do.
2. The advertisement tells us to put our money in the bank instead
of keeping it at home because
A. we can easily withdraw it when we need it.
B. banks are never robbed.
C. deposits can be made at any branch of the bank.
D. our homes are likely to be robbed.
3. We can earn interest on our money at the rate of 4% per
annum if we
A. open a saving account.
B. leave it on Time Deposit for at least a year.
C. put it on Time Deposit for between 3 and 6 months.
D. deposit as little as $1.
4. Once you have opened a savings Account you
A. must leave the money for a fixed period.
B. put more money into it every 3, 6, or 12 months.
C. can withdraw the money when you need it.
D. earn from 3% to 4% interest on it per annum.
5. The Theo Garcia Banking Corporation
A. offers only one kind of Savings program.
B. wants to encourage people to deposit money.
C. offers higher rates of interest than any other bank.
D. charges people $1 to open a Saving Account.
B. Critical Questions
1.
Advertisements dont only give us information about a product

or a service. They often instruct us to do certain things. Write
out those sentences in the passage that tell us to do something.
: : 95 : :
(a) ________________________________________________
(b) ________________________________________________
(c) ________________________________________________
(d) ________________________________________________
2.
Advertisements dont only give us information about a product

or a service. They often instruct us to do certain things. Write
out those sentences in the passage that tell us to do something.
(a) ________________________________________________
(b) ________________________________________________
(c) ________________________________________________
(d) ________________________________________________
3.
However, in order to make these instructions acceptable, they

are sometimes expressed in the form of suggestions. For
example: the suggestion, If you agree not to withdraw your
money for a fixed period you will receive greater interest
basically means the same with the order, Agree not withdraw
your money for a fixed period and you will receive greater
interest such suggestions you see in the passage. Rewrite the
four orders you have quoted above in to the form of
suggestions.
(a) ________________________________________________
(b) ________________________________________________
(c) ________________________________________________
(d) ________________________________________________
: : 96 : :
4. In general, what type of propaganda does the advertiser employ

in this passage? Explain!
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
___________________________
: : 97 : :
: : 98 : :
CHAPTER 7 RECOGNIZING STATISTICAL SLIPS
7
RECOGNIZING STATISTICAL SLIPS
The reading of facts presented in mathematical form seems to
bother many present day adults. Graphs, tables, and charts are just
so many lines and numbers to skip over, if possible. If you dont
think so, ask the next person you hear using the word billion to tell
you how much it really is. Or if he or she is talking in millions, ask
what a million dollars is, what it represents, and what you can do
with it. The chances are that he or she has little or no concept of
how much a million dollars is or will do.
This ignorance of mathematical terms and concepts is quite
widespread. As a result, those who present facts to the public
through mathematics can easily deceive the average reader.
Statistics and charts are manipulated to prove almost anything to the
nave consumer. Unless you learn to read mathematical materials
critically, you are too at the mercy of the unscrupulous statistician or
chart maker. The following is a brief introduction to statistics and a
discussion on the most common statistical slips you need to know in
order to guard yourself against being mislead by misused statistics.
A. What is Statistics?
The word statistics has two meanings. When it is used with
a plural verb, it refers to information about any phenomenon or
activity expressed in numerical form, such as vital statistics, college
enrolment figures, and opinion poll percentages. In its singular
sense, it denotes the art and science of collecting, presenting,
analyzing, and interpreting numerical data. In other words, it is, in
the second sense, the tool for us to make the maximum use of
quantitative measurements and assessments.
The importance of statistics in human affairs is obvious from
our tendency to associate facts closely with figures. However, raw,
undigested and voluminous figures that are carelessly accumulated
are useless and even meaningless. A long list of bus-ticket numbers
amassed from tickets found in a dustbin would be of no service to
anyone. But figures that are systematically collected and properly
analyzed can be used as the basis for rational decisions and
conclusions. A table that shows the quantity of bus-tickets of each
: : 99 : :
denomination sold will, for example, help the bus proprietor to

decide on whether he should have more buses running short or long
distances. Indeed, in an age of science when man tries to be
rational, objective and systematic in as many activities as possible,
the art and science of statistics is an indispensable analytical tool.
A government in conducting the nations affairs has to make
much use of statistical analysis. The effectiveness of a government
policy or plan depends to large extent on how well the government
knows the quantitative aspects of the social, economic and physical
conditions of the country. A school building project, for example,
would among other things, demand sound statistical analysis of
population figures, budget and the quantitative aspects of
educational facilities.
In the business field, the total dependence of insurance
companies on statistical forecasts is well known. But other
businessmen also depend on statistics in their prediction of sales and
costs, their quality control, their production and marketing
researches, and their quantitative personnel records. Even a sole
proprietor who makes shoes in expectation of demand will note the
quantity of each size of shoes that is normally sold, if he does not
want to have a big stock of unsalable goods.
Research workers engaged in fields that are concerned with
quantitative results also rely heavily on statistical analysis. The
methods of statistics are used to test, among other things, the
quality of animal feeds and other farm materials, the effectiveness of
new drugs and other medical developments, and the destructiveness
of weapons and military tactics. Even in the literary field, statistics
has been used to analyze vocabulary and to settle questions related
to disputed authorship.
But useful though statistic is, it often misused. Just as the
devil can cite Scripture for his purpose, people with vested interest
may enforce figures to serve their ends. Advertisements, for
instance, abound with misleading statistical statements and reports
such as those which begin with statistics prove that and Nine out
of ten university scholars use However, sheer ignorance and
carelessness may also give rise to statistical blunders. These human
weaknesses are the only explanation for some of the quantitative
errors in newspapers and magazine articles.
: : 100 : :
Of course, the way to guard oneself against being misled by

misused statistics is not to shun or mistrust all figures but to become
conscious of how statistical procedures may be incorrectly used.
Among the most common statistical slips that might consciously or
unconsciously be made are the following.
B. Common Statistical Slips
1. The Deceptive Sample
Many statistics are based on a sample of the population.
But no statistics is any better than the sample on which it is
based. This sample may be too small, or biased by obvious or
hidden factors, or deliberately chosen to prove the writers point.
Take the case of the Literary Digest poll of 1936 that predicted
the presidential election of Alfred Landon. The sample was
composed of ten million telephone and Digest subscribers who
had been used in a correct presidential prediction in 1932. Such
a sample seemed large enough and apparently free from bias.
But the people who could afford telephones and magazine
subscriptions just werent representative of the American public
in 1936. Most Americans were still struggling with the effects of
the great depression at the later date. Telephones and
magazines were luxuries for many trying to make both ends
meet. The sample was economically biased; it reflected the
voting preferences of a select group, not of the general public,
and the prediction was wrong.
To yield an accurate statistic, a sample must be
representative of the total group. It should be selected by pure
chance under circumstances in which every person or thing in
the total group has an equal chance of being selected. This is
: : 101 : :
called a random sampling. However, because it involves so great

a cross section of the total population, true random sampling is
almost prohibitive in time and cost. In its place, a stratified
sample composed of a small group possessing those traits
characteristic of the general population is commonly used. Public
opinion polls, surveys of users of a certain product, sales
prediction for a proposed new product, views of magazine
readers, and preferences of radio listeners and televiewers are
commonly based on this stratified sampling technique.
But how do the researches know that the stratified sample
is really a random sample of the total population? The truth is,
they dont. Their conclusions may be distorted by any of a dozen
factors, such as the very questions asked, the emotional
reactions of those interviewed to the questions or the
interviewer, or the extent to which social prestige or the ego of
the respondent is challenged. How accurate, for example, can a
survey of such personal matters as income, church attendance,
racial discrimination, or wife beating really be?
Considering these explanations, it is very important for
everyone to look more critically at any statistic based on
sampling. Most poll results are apt to be biased, even when they
are not deliberately distorted. This bias is likely to be toward
reflecting the thinking and actions of the person with betterthan-average economic and social status. If you were the
interviewer waiting outside a factory, which person would you
stopthe surly-looking fellow plowing along with his head down,
or the neat, smiling woman walking leisurely homeward?
To help you read and interpret statistics based on
sampling, we suggest that you ask the writer such questions
as: How many people are involved in these data? What kind of
people are they? How were they selected? What are some of the
factors that may have influenced the results? What do the
results prove, if anything? What kind of sense do they make?
For example, several years ago, the manufacturer of a popular
brand of cigarettes claimed that more doctors smoked his brand
than any other. Are doctors better judges of taste, mildness, and
other cigarette qualities than any other people? Aside from the
fact that we dont know many doctors were sampled, just what
does this statistic prove? The implication is, of course, the
: : 102 : :
medical training makes one a better judge of cigarette and more

aware of their possible harmful effects. Therefore, if more
doctors smoke X brand, it must be better and less harmful than
other brands. Only a moments thought will demonstrate that if
X is a widely sold brand, it is likely to sell well among most
groups, plumbers as well as doctors.
Or take the claim of the toothpaste manufacturer that six
out of eight people prefer the taste of his product to that of
others. Does he tell you how many people were sampled before
these results were secured? Usually not, because his researchers
probably waited until they found such a result in one small
group rather than reporting on the preferences of the entire
population sampled. If two toothpastes were being compared,
we would expect five out of ten people to prefer Z paste, purely
on the basis of chance. Flipping a coin several hundred times is
likely to result in half heads and half tails. But in a small sample,
the law of probability does not operate in the same fashion. The
first ten tosses of your coin may all be heads. Thus, if the
surveyors for Z toothpaste took a number of small samples, it is
quite possible that they would find one in which the results were
the kind they wanted. This may be dishonest reporting of
research, but it certainly is rigged to produce the desired results.
2. The Misleading Average
What is an average? It is the most common characteristic
of a relatively large number of people, or a point that divides the
population into two equal halves of haves and have-nots? Or
is it the total amount of certain trait divided equally among the
entire population? Well, it is and it isnt. It may be any or all of
these.
The term average is used loosely to describe any of three
measures known technically as the mode (the most frequently
occurring value in a group of values), the median (or the middle
value in an array of values that range from the highest to the
lowest), and the mean (or the sum of all values divided by the
number of values included). When we discuss such human traits
as height and weight, it doesnt matter much which we use, for
these characteristics are distributed normally throughout the
population. But if we talk about incomes taxes, wattage
: : 103 : :
consumption or divorce rates, it matters a great deal which

average is selected.
$250,000
$225,000
$200,000
$175,000
$150,000
$125,000
$100,000
$75,000
$50,000
$25,000
$0
Percentage
40
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
Figure 2: Increase in Unit Costs

(in %)
Total of Salaries
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
Years
Positions
Figure 3: Increase in Unit Cost (in

%)
Percentage
Lets take a case in

point. The ABC electronics
Company tells us that their
average employee earned $
10,000 last year. Sounds
fairly good, doesnt it? But
what does this average
mean? Was $10,000 the
most common salary among
the employees? No, because
the greatest number of
employees earning any one
salary, or the mode, is found
$7,000. Then what does the
$10,000 mean? It must be an
average of the salaries paid
to the two partners who own
the company ($50,000 each);
the two engineers ($25,000
each); a technician and a
production
manager
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
Year
Figure 4: Increase in Unit Cost (in

%)
10
Percentage
Total of Personnels
Figure 1: Average Yearly Salary--ABC

Electronics Company
: : 104 : :
7.5
5
2.5
0
75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
Year
($14,500 each); two foremen ($10,500 each); and the forty

hourly workers who earn about $7,000 per year. All these
salaries add up to $480,000, which divided by forty-eight
employees averages $10,000. Neat, isnt it? (Would you have
thought of adding in the owners shares to raise the average
yearly salary?) But the labor union leaders arent likely to use
this mean in asking for a better salary scale. They are more apt
to use the mode, the point at which most of the employees fall
on the scale of $7,000. In this case, the union could also use the
median of $7,000 because more than half of the workers earn
this amount of or less.
Graphically, these data could have been presented
somewhat as in Figure 1 (but, of course, no statistician
attempting to please the owners of The ABC electronics
Company would have used such a method of presenting the
facts.)
The next time you read something about an average, ask
yourself, What averagemean, mode, or median? Or Average
of what? Who and what are included here? Here are typical
average figures found in a recent publication. Just what do
they mean?
A leading magazine reports an average of 6.02 hours of
televiewing per day in American home. Last years figure is given
as 5.81 hours per day. It concludes, The glass screen is really
taking over.
These figures have an artificial note on authenticity because
of the use of the decimal figures. It sounds more accurate to say
6.02 hours rather than simply 6 hours. But how many homes
were involved in this survey? The fine distinctions implied in the
decimals are absurd unless the sample was quite large.
How was the survey done? By whom? By calling on the
phone and asking how many hours a day the TV set was used?
Were reliable time-sampling measures used to determine the
actual amount of televiewing? Are these figures offered by TV
manufacturers or broadcasting chains who, perhaps, have an
ulterior movie? As for monopolizing the televiewers day, how
much of a real difference is the .21 or an hour (thirteen
minutes)? Is the conclusion based on a significant difference? Do
: : 105 : :
these facts add up to anything at all? Do they even indicate a

reliable trend?
3. Plausible Charts and Graphs
In the effort to make mathematical concepts more
palatable, or more shocking, writers often employ a pictorial or
graphic presentation. Like most statistical data, this method can
be manipulated to convey almost any desired impression. For
example, suppose you were a production manager trying to
show top management why the unit cost of your product had
risen in the past decade. You are trying to convince top
management that the sales manager is mistaken in opposing a
reprising of the product. Which of the following charts would you
present? Figure 2, 3, or 4?
These graphs are all accurate and honest, but there is a
great deal of difference in the impression they create. Figures 2
and 4 imply a fairly constant but gradual increase in the unit
cost. In Figure 3, the rate of increase seems terrific. The trick, of
course, is merely to narrow the horizontal interval in the graph
and expand the vertical interval. If you do this, you
automatically come up with a startling picture. Push the base
line closer together, and your line shoots up. Or to produce the
opposite effect, merely lengthen the base line as in Figure 4.
What do you want to prove? Pick your own chart.
4. Presenting the Facts without a Reference Point.
There is another technique of manipulating graph that isnt
quite as obvious but helps to strengthen your data. This is
presenting the facts without a reference point. If the possible
range of data and the zero reference point are omitted, it
becomes much easier to prove your point, whatever it may be.
Figure 5 is an example of this type of graph. Visually, you are
led to believe that frozen food consumption has grown
tremendously in the period from 1967 to 1975. But how much
actual increase does this represent? One percent? Ten percent?
One hundred percent? There is no way of knowing from the
graph.
: : 106 : :
Figure 5: Frozen Food

Consumption
Figure 6: Increase in gasoline mile-age in

the latest Ford Models.
1975
48 %
1970
1967
In addition to that, percentages un-accompanied by actualal numbers may also give miss-leading impressions. To say that
75% of an experimental group found X brand to be better than
all other brands, sound very impressive. Nevertheless, the
person who asserts this may deliberately leave out the fact that
only four people formed the experimental group. Indeed if small
groups of people are tested, an experimenter will by sheer
chance, certainly get a group that yields a percentage suitable
for his purpose. Figure 6 is an example of such vague graphs
that was used by a major automobile manufacturer to boost the
sales of the latest models. Because no specific models are
mentioned, this graph tells the prospective purchaser nothing
about any particular type of automobile.
The same auto manufacturers are currently claiming that
their cars have improved 48 percent in quality in recent
productions. Improved how48 percent better than what? To a
cynical listener, this claim might mean that the car quality must
have been pretty bad, if this much improvement was possible.
But, of course, you are not supposed to interpret this advertising
nonsense in this fashion.
There is nothing wrong with this chart from the advertisers
viewpoint, or from the nave readers interpretation. He or she
gets the point. But from the standpoint of accuracy and
sincerity, there is much to be desired. But no one would stoop
so low, you say. Darrel Huff gives numerous samples drawn
: : 107 : :
from reputable newspapers and magazines in his interesting

book How To Lie with Statistics (New York: Norton 1954). The
author gives common methods of producing striking statistics
with weak data. *****
EXERCISE 71
Read the following passages and choose the appropriate
letters to show any statistical slips you discover in each
passage.
1. The causes of the American Civil War are numerous, but very
few historians agree about the most significant causes. Some of
them cite economic differences between the North and the
South. Others say that the North and the South really were
different cultures with different histories. Some others
emphasize the issue of slavery as the major cause of the Civil
War.
A.
C.
B.
D.
Presentation of Facts Without a Reference Point

Misleading Average
Manipulated Charts And Graphs
Deceptive Sample
2. An educational report recently revealed an increase in Malaysian

senior high school students mastery of English in the last three
years. The English average score achieved by the students in the
National Final Test in Kuala Lumpur was 76 (2001), 82 (2002)
and 90 (2003). In Selangor the average score was 74 (2001), 84
(2002) and 88 (2003); and in Serawak 72 (2001), 80 (2002) and
84 (2003). Hearing this, Malaysian Minister of Education and
Science congratulated all English teachers and asked them to do
better.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Misleading Average
Deceptive Sample
: : 108 : :
3. A sociological study on single people conducted in Jakarta was

completed recently. 35 adult males and 35 adult females were
asked to fill in a questionnaire in order to see whether they
tended to get married or to stay single. The results showed that
poor adult males were more likely to be single than wealthy
adult males. The results for females were the opposite. Wealthy
women were much more likely to be single than poor women.
Another interesting finding in the study was that women would
like to get married when they were between 24 to 35 years old,
whereas men thought its quite OK if they got married when they
were between 30 to 50 years old.
A.
B.
C.
D.

C. Misleading Average
Deceptive Sample
4. (Letter of Recommendation from an auto-manufacturer to a

major) First of all congratulation for your inauguration as the
major of one of the busiest industrial city in our country. I
support your plan to change the old city-buses in order to
provide better transportation to the whole people in your city. In
relation to that, let me inform you that my factory has just
designed and begun to produce the most economical bus in the
world. With 35 seats and fully air-conditioned, the bus needs
only 12.5 liters of gasoline to reach 50 kilometers. You can buy
our product as many units as possible with the most reasonable
price.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Misleading Average
Deceptive Sample
5. In a recent publication it was reported that most Indonesians

have increased their incomes over the past years. Seventy-nine
per cent of sixty farmers interviewed said that their harvest
increased between fifteen to twenty percent in the last two
years. Ninety percent of 100 persons working in professional and
: : 109 : :
technical occupations interviewed in Jakarta, Medan, Surabaya

and Bandung admitted that their monthly salary increased
around fife to ten per cent. Eighteen out of twenty sales workers
in Jakarta and Surabaya responded that their sales increased
about six percent every month. Ninety per cent of twelve
managers and administrators working in Jakarta and Tangerang
said their incomes increased around four per cent. Finally,
almost 99% of 28 persons working as transportation operators
admitted to get about seven percent increase in their monthly
incomes.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Misleading Average
Deceptive Sample
6. Afghanistan was a frustrating and senseless struggle. Three out

of four experts on Far East in The Washington University
commented that fighting the Mujahiddin guerillas would give
more loss than benefits. Ninety percent of political leaders
interviewed by the Washington Post warned the President of the
United States that this war could never be won. Nine out of ten
American soldiers who returned from Afghanistan last month
said that Mujahiddin fighters couldnt be subdued by
sophisticated military weapons. It was also reported that more
than a half of American soldiers posted in village 150 kilometers
to the south of Kabul died senselessly at the hand of Mujahiddin
guerillas hiding in the deserts of the country.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Misleading Average
Deceptive Sample
7. According to some proponents of feminist movement, American

society still commits sex discrimination in the area of pay. To
support this opinion, they claim that the average weekly income
for a woman in 1993 was $320, and for a man was $ 443. In my
opinion, however, the reason for this difference is not sex
: : 110 : :
discrimination, but the fact that women tend to enter low-paying

jobs. In the legal and medical professions, for example, 85% of
lawyers and doctors are men (although this situation is
changing). In technical professions, more than 90% of all
engineers are men. Women, on the other hand, have been the
majority in jobs that are not well paid. Statistics show that 99
out of 100 secretaries are women, and 90% of all nurses and
primary school teachers are female. To conclude, their tendency
to work in low-paying jobs is the reason why the average income
obtained by women is lower than those of men.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Misleading Average
Deceptive Sample
EXERCISE 72
Read the following Report which appeared in The Straits
Times, Singapore, on 6th August 1973. Criticize the
deductions made from the statistics of Singapores traffic.
Its Safer to cycle
than to drive or walk
ROAD casualty figures show that it is safer to ride a bicycle
than drive a car or walk.
The chances of survival under the hectic conditions of
Singapores traffic congested roads would seem to favor the cyclist
consistently over the last ten years.
Despite the fact that there are more bicycles (392,341 last
year) in Singapore than any other class of vehicle, fewer cyclists lost
their lives or were injured in 1972 compared with drivers or motor
vehicles, motorcyclists and pedestrians.
Official figures just published tell a story which suggests that
people might live longer if they take to the bicycle, besides making a
signal contribution to the fight against smoke pollution.
: : 111 : :
Big Drop
While total road casualties have more than doubled in the
number killed in the last 10 yearsfrom 1962s 171 to 379 last
yearthe fatally injured among cyclists (18 in 1962) totalled 21 last
year.
This represented a big reduction from 1971 when 45, the
highest number since 1962, were killed.
Pedestrians topped the casualties both in number killed and
injured.
In 1962, 82 were killed and 2,455 injured. These figures have
climbed steadily until the number killed had almost doubled in 1971
to 162 and then to 171 last year. The number injured stood at 3,294
last year, the highest since 1967 (3,345).
1. Deduction: People might live longer if they ride bicycle (rather
than ride motorcycles or drive cars) (paragraph 3)
Critic:
______________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________
: : 112 : :
2. Deduction: Fatally injured among cyclists was greatly reduced

from 1971. (Paragraph 5-6)
Critic:
______________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________
EXERCISE 73
The following graphs show increase in average income of
workers. On what occasions should they be used?
Graph 2
Graph 1
120
120
100
80
( $ ) 60
40
20
0
110
($)
100
90
80
Dec
Aprl
Aug
: : 113 : :
Dec
70
Dec
Aprl
Aug
Graph 3
Graph 4
120
1000
110
$
100
100
90
80
10
70
EXERCISE 74
These statistics refer to the average monthly expenditure of
the families of 3 different income groups in a recent year.
Study them carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Expenditure Patterns of Different Income Groups
Food
Drinks & tobacco
Clothing
Household goods
Fuel & power
Transport
Services
Sundry items
Rent, etc
Total
Income Group
$300-$400 monthly
URBAN
RURAL
Value in
Value in
$ ( %)
$ (%)
185 (52)
178 (52)
18 (5)
25 (8)
11 (3)
23 (7)
5 (2)
8 (2)
14 (4)
10 (3)
11 (3)
18 (5)
40 (11)
25 (7)
39 11)
46 (13)
34 (9)
48 (6)
357
Income Group
$401-$600 monthly
URBAN
RURAL
Value in
Value in
$ ( %)
$ (%)
279 (40)
229 (47)
24 (4)
33 (7)
27 (5)
29 (6)
8 (1)
10 (2)
24 (4)
13 (3)
36 (6)
41 (8)
74 (12)
45 (9)
78 (13)
70 (14)
10 (3)
20 (4)
343
595
490
Income Group
$700-$1100 monthly
URBAN
RURAL
Value in
Value in
$ ( %)
$ (%)
350 (35)
272 (34)
100 (10)
112 (14)
50 (5)
48 (6)
20 (2)
16 (2)
40 (4)
24 (3)
60 (6)
56 (7)
150(15)
96 (12)
130 (13)
128 (16)
100 (10)
48 (6)
1000
1. Look at the food expenditure figures of the first two income

groups. How can the two percent-ages in each income group be
the same when the actual amount in dollars spent on food for
rural and urban families are different?
: : 114 : :
700
2. Which of the following statements are false? How do you know

that they are false?
a. People in urban areas spend proportionally more of their
income foods than do people in rural areas. This is proved by
a comparison between the figures $185 and $178, $279 and
$229, and $350 and $272.
b. People in rural areas evidently do not get as hungry as the
people in rural areas. This is proved by the fact that they
spend less on food.
c. People in urban and rural areas spend about the same
proportion of their income on food.
d. Since people in the $401-$600 income group spend only 47%
of their income on food, they obviously eat less than people
in the $300-$400 income group who spend 52% of their
income on food.
3. Which of the following statements are false? How do you know
that they are false?
a. People in urban areas spend proportionally more of their
income foods than do people in rural areas. This is proved
by a comparison between the figures $185 and $178, $279
and $229, and $350 and $272.
b. People in rural areas evidently do not get as hungry as the
people in rural areas. This is proved by the fact that they
spend less on food.
c. People in urban and rural areas spend about the same
proportion of their income on food.
d. Since people in the $401-$600 income group spend only
47% of their income on food, they obviously eat less than
people in the $300-$400 income group who spend 52% of
their income on food.
4. Using the statistics as your evidence, write accurate statements
concerning the amount spent in urban and rural areas on each
of these: clothing, transport, services and rent. Make up four
: : 115 : :
separate statements which compare the amount spent on each

item. Then try to explain the difference between the amounts.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________
5. Which of these statements are correct? Give reasons for your
answer.
a. It is clear that people in rural areas must be drunkards.
b. The lack of entertainment facilities in the rural areas may
partly account for the lower amount spent on services.
c. The wealthier you become in an urban area, the less you
spent on rent.
d. The average monthly income is higher in urban areas than in
rural areas.
e. The more wealthy a family is, the smaller will be the
proportion of its income spent on food and other necessities
of life.
f. Expenditures on luxuries and recreation vary directly with
the average monthly income.
: : 116 : :
CHAPTER 8 MAKING INFERENCES
8
MAKING INFERENCES
After studying the previous chapters, it is obvious that many
reading materials often leave much unsaid. Facing such passages,
your background knowledge and linguistic competence are
sometimes inadequate to help you determine what the authors mean
through what they suggest. You need the skill to read between the
lines, or to make judgment and to draw conclusions about what is
merely implied. This is what is called making inferences.
Similar to other critical reading skills, making inference is very
important in both reading and listening. Thus, it is also very helpful
when you are listening to a lecture. By making correct inferences,
you will get a clearer organization and better understanding of your
materials. Consequently, you will find it easier to remember this
material.
You can make inferences about what you read or listen to by
looking for three kinds of information. First, look at the terms of
qualification that you find in a sentence. Second, look at the word
choice or the connotation of words used by the author or speaker.
Finally, look at the kinds of details used in the material. The
following parts are designed to give you brief but concise
explanations and practices on the use of these three kinds of
information to make inferences.
A. Using Terms of Qualification
A single word or phrase can markedly alter the message of a
sentence. Term of qualification can give a strong endorsement to a
statement, or they can add doubt to an author or speakers remark.
In most cases the writer or speaker will not directly tell you the
certainty or uncertainty of a statement. Rather, the degree of
certainty will be suggested in terms of qualification.
Look at the following words and phrases. Used in passages or
sentences, they express much certainty. So, it is important for you to
lock them in your mind. Any time you find them in a reading
material, they signal that the statement carries certainty or much
support from the author. See, for example, how the use of
: : 117 : :
absolutely adds conviction to the statement: John Kennedy was

absolutely the wisest presidential choice in the sixties, an era of
youth and hope. The writer evidently has strong and positive
feelings for Kennedy. Instead of expressing these feelings for
Kennedy directly, the author uses absolutely to confirm these
positive feelings. When you find such strong terms of qualification,
underline them and write an appropriate note in the margin.
List 1: Words and Phrases That Express No Doubt
all
none
never
always
certainly
definitely
surely
clearly
conclusively
unequivocally
precisely
plainly
assuredly
undoubtedly
absolutely
constantly
undeniably
without a doubt
there is no doubt
without reservation
without hesitation
it is a proven fact
it is undeniable
without question
Now consider some terms that express a small degree of doubt.

Such words and phrases should make you pause in your reading or
listening to ask what the exceptions to the statements are. In many
cases the author will not discuss the exceptions. By not recognizing
the terms of qualification in a sentence, you would wrongly conclude
that the statement was law, having no exceptions. For instance,
consider how usually plants a question in your mind in the following
statement: If a ring forms in the subjects urine, you can usually
assume that the subject is pregnant. If the exceptions are not
discussed, it would be wise to you to underline this term of
qualification and write in the margin something like: When do these
rings not suggest pregnancy?
List 2: Words and Phrases That Express A Small Degree of
Doubt
most
mostly
usually
consistently
seldom
rarely
slightly
one can safely say
there is little doubt
: : 118 : :
with little reservation

it is believed
almost never
almost always
the consistent pattern
Then, consider the following list of terms of qualification that

express some doubt. Such words and phrases should automatically
make you question and look for the exceptions. Again, the
exceptions are frequently not discussed in the material that you are
reading or listening to.
List 3: Words and Phrases That Express Some Doubt
many
frequently
often
may
might
perhaps
ostensibly
apparently
somewhat
likely
seemingly
it seems
it appears
one can infer
one would assume
the assumption is
one would infer
the inference is
it is suggested that
it is likely
this might mean
this could mean
the results imply

possibly
probably (stronger than
possibly)
at times
one can say with some
reservation
the hypothesis is
the theory is
it is theorized that
it is possible that
it is probable that
(stronger than possible)
Lets look at the influence of the use of it appears in the

following sentence: It appears from the experiment that too much
aspirin can lead to chronic stomach ailments. Because it appears is
included in this sentence, you cannot say that aspirin automatically
leads to stomach problems. Evidently the result of the experiment
cannot provide a definite cause-effect relationship between aspirin
and stomach problems. To take another example, consider the
following statement: In most instances, when the supply of a
product goes down, the demand goes up. Its easy to realize that
the inclusion of in most instances weakens the statement. It makes
us curious to know which instances violate this law of supply and
demand. Again, you would need to ask in a marginal note what
questions the experiment still leaves unanswered.
Finally, there are a few words and phrases that suggest much
doubt. When you see or hear these words, you should be very
careful that you do not blindly accept the statement.
: : 119 : :
List 4: Words and Phrases That Suggest Much Doubt

supposedly
it is guessed that
it is suspected that
it is rumored that
it is conjectured that
Consider, for example, how the presence of it is rumored that

makes the following sentence questionable: It is rumored that
Franklin Roosevelt knew beforehand that the Japanese were
planning to bomb Pearl harbor to bring the United States into World
War II. Because this statement is rumor, you can deduce that such
a remark has no factual basis and should not be used as evidence in
any serious discussion. Many irresponsible speakers and publications
use rumor and conjecture as the basis for their arguments. They do
this because they dont have facts to prove their opinions. Of course,
you should never cite such speakers or publications as sources in a
serious essay or speech.
EXERCISE 81
Below you will find ten statements, all of which contain
terms of qualification. First, underline the term of
qualification. Second, write a one-sentence comment
explaining how the term alters the meaning of the
statement. Comment on whether the term makes the statement
stronger or whether it casts doubt on the statement. You may want
to refer to the above discussion for the lists of terms of qualification.
Example: Recent studies concerning the use of marijuana

conclude that prolonged use may result in permanent personality
disorder.
Explanation: Because may is included in this sentence, you
cannot say that prolonged use of marijuana automatically leads to
permanent personality disorder. Evidently, the result of the studies
cannot provide a definite cause-effect relationship between the use
of marijuana and permanent personality disorder.
: : 120 : :
1
.
It appears that watching too much television dulls a childs

imagination.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________________________
2
.
The latest cancer study states conclusively that cigarette

smoking is a cause of lung cancer.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
3
.
Attractive females are consistently used in television advertising.

Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
4
.
American culture generally is obsessed with youth and discounts

the elderly.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
5
.
Children who grow up in a very strict family are likely to have

less proactivity.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
: : 121 : :
_____________________________
6
.
In most instances, when the demand for a product goes down,

the price also goes down.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
7
.
Chairil Anwar is without reservation one of the best figures in

Indonesian poetry.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
8
.
It is theorized that the universe is constantly expanding but will

one day contract.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
9
.
One can safely say that to create a clean government will be the
number one concern of President Soesilo Bambang Yudhoyono
during his presidency.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
: : 122 : :
10. A politician is frequently considered as the most controversial

figure in a modern society.
Explanation:__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________
B. Considering Word Choice
Many inferences are made through the kinds of words an author
or speaker uses. In Chapter 3 it is explained that the suggested
meanings, or connotations, of words will tell you whether the author
or speaker has a positive negative attitude toward the topic at hand.
The connotative power of words thus brings out the nuances of the
speaker or writers thoughts, which may be more significant than the
bare direct meanings. To illustrate, lets take the following sentence:
Herbert Hoover remained blindly passive to the economic
depression of his country. Do you see that blindly is a loaded word?
It suggests that President Hoover could not see the problems facing
his country. A blind person is also handicapped. Perhaps this
suggestion of being handicapped is another connotation the author
wants you associate with Hoover. Finally, someone who is accused
of being blind is also considered stubborn or inflexible. Most likely,
these negative descriptions are also part of the authors attitudes
toward Hoover.
Now look at the use of no-nonsense to see how it gives a
positive connotation to the following statement about Harry Truman:
This was just one of many of Harry Trumans no-nonsense replies.
Do you see that no-nonsense suggests common sense,
straightforwardness, and conciseness? Though the author of this
statement nowhere gives his direct appreciation of Truman, the
approval is suggested in the connotations of no-nonsense.
Careful interpretation of the language used also enables one
to learn much about the speaker or writer. The speaker or writer
may claim that he is an impartial observer, but his words will often
betray sympathies and commitments, which he himself may or may
not be conscious of. A man who refers to a staunch Buddhist as a
: : 123 : :
man of faith or a pious believer in the blessings of Buddha is

obviously not in any way against him. The phrase a superstitious
bigot, however, would reveal antipathy. Indeed, taking note of the
connotative effects of words is thus one method of reading between
the lines to discover not only the likes and dislikes of the speaker or
writer but also his point of view, intentions and characters.
EXERCISE 82 :
Below you will find ten statements, each of which has an
underlined word. Your task is to discuss in a sentence the
connotation of the word (its positive or negative
suggestions) and how the word changes the meaning of
the sentence. You may want to consult a dictionary or thesaurus to
determine the shades of meaning of the word in question.
Example: Abraham Lincoln struggled tirelessly to abolish

slavery in the United States.
Explanation: Tirelessly is used to put Lincoln in a positive light;
it suggests constancy, diligence, and vast amounts of energy.

1.
Japanese automakers have shrewdly managed to take over

some of the American automobile market.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
2.
The soviet Union had mercilessly committed the famous poet to

an asylum outside of Moscow.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
: : 124 : :
3.
Roger Williams had much foresight in not allowing his state of

Rhode Island in the 1600s to monetarily support any religious
group; this decision helped shaped Americas belief in the
separation of church and state.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
4.
The filibuster is a childlike attempt by a senator to talk

continuously in order to prevent the passage of a bill.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
5.
Martin Luther King had a steadfast belief in the power of

nonviolence.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
6.
Imperialism is the desire of a powerful country to extend its

power and wealth by subjugating less powerful countries.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
: : 125 : :
7.
The states of the Union timidly stood by as the Supreme Court

gave much of the states power to the federal government.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
8.
Albert Einstein had the singular ability to see the world from
the eyes of a scientist as well as from the perspective of a
poet.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
9.
In 1940 the Nazis wrenched control of over half of France from

the French and created an occupied state.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
10
.
Woodrow Wilsons noble venturethe League of Nations

never received much support in the United States.
Explanation:_________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
________________________________
: : 126 : :
C. Considering Details of Support

In longer passages of written material or in longer sections of
lecture material, you can infer much about the author or speaker
throughout the kind details or examples that are presented. If the
details follow a logical train of thought, you can infer that the author
or speaker is organized and has clearly thought out an argument.
But, if the examples are confused, you can deduce that the author is
not presenting a logical argument. You can often infer much about
the quality of a presentation by the sources that are cited. If
respected publications or experts are used, you are more likely to
value the argument that is presented. If the author or speaker is
vague about the sources, or if the sources are not well known, you
would be justified in questioning the argument or thesis. Again, the
author or speaker will probably not evaluate the material that is
presented. It is up to you to infer an evaluation or a bias from the
pattern of details.
Consider the following paragraph on Vietnam. How do the
details of support suggest or imply the competence of its author?
Vietnam was a frustrating and senseless struggle. Many
political leaders warned President Johnson and President
Nixon that this war could never be won. Someone once said
that guerilla fighters couldnt be subdued by sophisticated
military weapons. Many thousands of American soldiers died
senselessly at the hands of Vietnamese guerillas hiding in the
bushes and jungles of their country.
Even if you agree with the premise of this passage, the
evidence presented is consistently vague. The political leaders who
warned the presidents are not named. The premise about guerilla
warfare not being won through military might is also not given an
author. Finally, no specific number of American soldiers killed in
Vietnam is mentioned. From the vagueness of the details, you can
infer that the writer of this passage, though logical, is not prepared.
Study this second passage, on William Shakespeare, and make
an inference about the author (not Shakespeare!) from the details
used.
: : 127 : :
William Shakespeare has been critically appreciated for three

centuries, and in each country he has been appreciated for
different reasons. In the eighteenth century Samuel Johnson,
a famous critic, praised Shakespeare for developing believable
characters who mirrors the actions of real life. In the
nineteenth century, another famous critic, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, was particularly impressed with Shakespeares
Hamlet, especially with the amazing and complex intellectual
hero. Finally, in the beginning of the twentieth century,
Andrew Bradley, one of the most well known critics of
Shakespeare, was most impressed with the structure of
Shakespeares tragedies.
Do you see that the author of this paragraph has done careful
research? Specific critics are named, and their significant comments
are mentioned. You will tend to listen more carefully to this
argument, because you have inferred that it is both logical and well
documented.
EXERCISE 83: Infer whether each of these ten
paragraphs deserves consideration by determining
whether it is supported with consistent, concise, and
reliable details/ examples, or not. Choose A or B!
1. A federal study on single person completed recently. The results
showed that poor adult males were more likely to be single than
wealthy adult males. The results for females were the opposite.
Wealthy women were much more likely to be single than poor
women.
A. the details /examples are concise and the sources are
reliable.
B. the details /examples are vogue and the sources are not
reliable.
2. Information from a sample of 57,400 American households
surveyed by the U.S. Census Bureau in March of 1990 indicates
that the traditional American familya family consisting of two
parents and children under the age of 18is on the decline. The
traditional family made up only 40% of U.S. households in 1970,
: : 128 : :
31% in 1980, and 26 % in 1990. The more than 70 percent of

households falling outside of the category traditional family
includes households consisting of never-married parents and
children, divorced parents and children, couples without children,
parents and children over 18 years of age, people living alone,
and unrelated adults living in the same household.
reliable.
reliable.
3. David Harp and James Hogan, chemistry professors at McGill
University, Montreal, Canada, believe that routine use of random
seating and multiple version exams will eliminate cheating.
According to them, universities have a moral obligation to
prevent classroom from cheating because it causes ethical and
intellectual damage. Harp said, Cheating punishes good
students who work hard. To help put an end to cheating in the
classroom, they developed two computer programs. Using these
programs, in one study they analyzed test results of 1,000
students from two entry-level science classes. They found that
about 50 of them probably had cheated. The study revealed that
at least a 5 % level of cheating takes place on multiple choice
exams. This was confirmed by analysis of test papers from other
disciplines and from outside McGill University. Harp explained,
The basis for the detection of cheating is the mental
fingerprints students leave when they copy from one another.
These fingerprints or patterns can easily be detected by
statistical methods, which is the basis for their computer
programs. The computer programs compare and consider the
probability of pairs of students getting the same answers.
Answer sheets of all pair of students are checked, and those
with a predefined number of differences in their papers are
flagged. In all cases, the programs look at the number of
wrong answers students have in common, as well as the number
they answered in the same way. If the ratio of one to the other
exceeded a certain value, the pair of students were targeted as
: : 129 : :
suspects. In every case they looked at, those students sat in

close proximity to one another in the exam room.
reliable.
reliable.
4. Ruth McRoy conducted a study to write a paper assigned by his
sociology professor in University of Texas. In the study she
compared two groups of black middle-class teenagers. The
teenagers in one group had been adopted by black families,
while those in the other group had been adopted by white
families. In the results she found no difference in the selfesteem of the members of the two groups; she did, however,
note differences in the teenagers perception on their racial
identity. One area in which this difference was evident was in
dating and marriage. Those teenagers who had been brought up
in black families tended to date and want to marry other blacks.
The group raised by white parents had a tendency to minimize
racial difference as an important factor in choosing a mate.
reliable.
reliable.
5. According to the 1975 Statistical Abstract of the United States
(Table 604), membership in American unions increased steadily
from 19401970. In 1940 only 8.7 million workers were union
members; by 1970 the number had more than doubled, to 19.4
million. The percentage of the working force belonging to unions
was a different story. In 1940 15.5 percent of the total labor
force belonged to unions; in 1970 the percentage of union
members had increased only a few percentage points, to 22.6
percent.
reliable.
: : 130 : :
reliable.
6. The term cultural genocide has been used to refer to situations
in which whites are given custody of minority children. Members
of both black and Native American communities have feared that
transracial adoption threatens their cultural survival. This fear
was a major factor in bringing about the 1978 Indian Child
Welfare Act, which was enacted to ensure the survival of the
Native American culture. Before this legal measure was passed,
studies conducted in the late 1960s and early 1970s found that
between 25% and 35% of American Indian children were
placed in institutions or in adoptive or foster care. (As
reported in Time, May 2, 1988, p.64) and most were placed with
non-Indian families.
reliable.
reliable.
7.
According to the Fisheries yearbook (1978), the catch of fish

worldwide has increased between 1950 and 1970; then it
leveled off between 1971 and 1976. Between 1950 and 1970
the amount of fish caught in the world more than tripled from
21 billion kilograms to 70 billion kilograms. In 1971 the increase
in the catch of fish stopped. Between 1971 and 1976 the catch
of fish leveled off and fluctuated between 65 billion kilograms
and 70 billion kilograms.
reliable.
reliable.
8.
It is now widely accepted that Christopher Columbus was not

the first person to discover America. According to one group of
scientists, the Vikings were definitely the first people from
Europe or from the Mediterranean to cross the Atlantic to
: : 131 : :
America. But according to another group of scientists, people

from the Old World definitely reached parts of America before
the Viking journeys of the eleventh century. In their opinion,
the Phoenicians and the ancient Egyptians had the skills which
were necessary for long journeys of exploration.
reliable.
reliable.
9.
A survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau on 57,400

American households in March of 1990 reveals some interesting
trends in American family life. One finding was that while the
rate of divorce and childbirth out of wedlock (involving couples
not married) continued to increase, both of these phenomena
increased at a slower pace during the 1980s than during the
previous decade. But the number of unmarried couples living
together appears to be increasing rapidly, with the number in
the 1990 survey showing an 80 percent increase over the
number in 1980. The second finding was that the long-term
general trend toward smaller families was shown to continue.
The size of the average American household kept on dropping,
from 3.67 people in 1940, to 3.14 in 1970, to 2.76 in 1980, to
low of 2.63 in 1990.
reliable.
reliable.
: : 132 : :
EXERCISE 84: In the following passage on aging you

will be asked to make various inferences based on details,
word choice, and terms of qualification. Read the passage
carefully. Then choose the correct answer on the questions
that follow.
The Elderly Crisis
Leon Bouvier in his Population Profile estimated that in 1976
there were 23 million elderly Americansthat is, those aged 65 or
over. The number of elderly Americans is large and their problems
are grave. The elderly face three major difficulties: financial
insecurity, emotional isolation, and feelings of uselessness.
In The sociology of Aging, Robert Atchley estimated that 60
percent of all the elderly were in the poverty category. Atchley
defined the poverty level as the lower fifth of the income scale in the
United States. He noted further that for 80 percent of elderly
Americans, Social Security is the only means of support. This fact is
alarming, because having to live solely on social security benefits
would place most elderly Americans below the poverty level.
A second trauma that elderly Americans must face is their
isolation from the rest of society, either in rest home or in retirement
communities. A consistent pattern in American society involves
placing the elderly in rest home when they are physically or
emotionally ill or in retirement community when they are no longer a
part of the work force. These communities consist exclusively of
early residents. Unlike the elderly in many European and Third World
countries, the American elderly are frequently not allowed to stay
within the households of their children and grandchildren. By being
segregated into communities of elderly, the old frequently has little
contact with children and adults. The result is that the elderly in the
United States are generally waiting to die.
A third related issue is the elderlys sense of uselessness, a
belief that after retirement they do not have meaningful work left to
do. Most elderly workers are forced to retire even though they are
still physically and mentally healthy. Retirement is usually a period of
boredom for the elderly, whose financial plight almost always
restricts their travel. Also children of the elderly usually resent their
parents interfering in the rearing of their children. Here a second
opportunity for usefulness, the tending of children, is consistently
: : 133 : :
denied to the elderly. In response to this problem of uselessness the

elderly have organized such group as RSVP (Retired Service
Volunteer Program) and SCORE (Service Corps of Retired
Executives).
The condition of the elderly in the United States has reached
disgraceful proportions. The wisdom and experience of the elderly
are resources that are left untapped. Rather than allowing the
elderly to help raise and teach their grandchildren or the
grandchildren of others, Americans have chosen to isolate their
elderly, often in ghettos of economic and emotional poverty.
1.
The reference to Leon Bouvier in paragraph 1:

A. adds credibility to the paragraph.
B. is a specific detail.
C. is too general a detail.
D.
both (A) and (B)
2.
In paragraph 2 the reference to Robert Achley:

A. do not logically support the topic sentence.
B. present conflict information.
C. adds credibility to the paragraph.
D. both (A) and (B)
3.
The word trauma in the topic sentence of paragraph 3

suggests:
A. severe pain
B. mental health.
C. shock.
D. both (b) and (c)
4.
The details regarding RSVP and SCORE in paragraph 4:

A. do not allow logically from the statements of the
paragraph.
B. are specific organization that the elderly can join.
C. contradict the statement that the young ignore the elderly.
D. all of these.
: : 134 : :
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The strongest, most suggestive term used in the first sentence

of paragraph 5 is:
A. condition
B. elderly
C. the United States
D. disgraceful
The last sentence in paragraph 5 refers to ghettos of
economic and emotional poverty. Ghettos connotes:
A. the suburbs
B. segregation
C. hope
D. history
The last sentence in paragraph 2 uses a term of qualification.
It is:
a. solely
b. most
c. below
d. poverty
The second sentence in paragraph 3 uses a term of
qualification. It is:
A. a consistent pattern
B. no
C. longer
D. retirement communities
In paragraph 4 all the terms of qualification that are used
suggest that:
A. There is no doubt about the statements made.
B. There is little doubt about the statements made.
C. There is little doubt about the statements made.
D. None of these is correct. There are no terms of
qualification in this paragraph.
The word crisis in the title, The Elderly Crisis, suggests that
for the author the problems the elderly face are:
A. minor
B. moderate
C. critical
D. misunderstood
: : 135 : :
EXERCISE 85:
The following is a passage based on fact with many
inferences that are probably true. As you read, note the
inferences and the facts, and answer the questions that
follow.
The Sinagua
[1] Nine hundred years ago, in what is now north central
Arizona, a volcano erupted and spewed fine cinders and ash over an
area of about 800 square miles. The porous cinder layer formed a
moisture-retaining agent that transformed the marginal farmland
into a country of rich farmland.
[2] Wood of this new oasis spread among the Indians of the
Southwest, setting off a prehistoric land rush that brought together
the Pueblo dry farmer from the east and north, the Hohokam
irrigation farmer from the south, and probably Mongollon groups
from the south and east and Cohonino groups from the west. Focal
points of the immigrants were the stretches of land lying some 15
miles northeast and southeast of the volcano, bordering territory
already occupied by the Sinagua Indians.
[3] Nudged out of their now-crowded corners by the
newcomers, some of the Sinagua moved to the south of the volcano
to a canyon that offered building sites and a means of livelihood.
Here they made their homes.
[4] Remains of the Sinaguas home, built in the early 1100s,
are now preserved in Walnut Canyon National monument; the cone
of the benevolent volcano, in Sunset Crater National Monument; and
part of the focal points of the immigrants in Wupatki national
Monument.
1. (T / F)
2. (T / F)
3. (T / F)
4. (T / F)
5. (T / F)
6. (T / F)
The first paragraph is mainly fact rather than inference.

The first sentence of paragraph 2 is an inference.
The information in the last sentence of paragraph 2 is
based on inference.
Paragraph 3 is mostly an inference.
The last paragraph is mostly inference.
Chances are that some day t this information will prove
to be an error.
: : 136 : :
CHAPTER 9 OTHER ASPECTS OF CRITICAL READING
9
OTHER ASPECTS OF CRITICAL READING
In Chapter 2 through Chapter 8, you have successively dealt with
seven major types of aspects of critical reading. However, your
considerations of these seven aspects (together with their points)
are not yet sufficient to help you be an effective critical reader. You
need to consider some other aspects of critical reading, i.e. the
authors competence, intention, attitude and bias; the time of
publication of the reading material; the target readers and culture;
and the policies of the publication. The accuracy of your
consideration on these aspects largely depends on the scope of your
background knowledge and experience. The richer your knowledge,
the more intelligent your evaluation on these aspects will be.
A. The Authors Competence
There are many factors that affect what an author
communicates through his writing. These factors cover scope of
background knowledge and experience, education, habits, and skills.
Their combination forms the authors competence which makes
some authors more competent than others do in certain fields. For
instance, compared to a professor working in the laboratories, a
professor who works at a teacher preparation college can rationally
write papers that are more valid on any subjects in education. To
give another example, a writer who has had children can probably
write a more practical guide to child rearing than one who has never
had children.
EXERCISE 91: This exercise will give you an
opportunity to judge which person would likely be most
competent to write about a certain subject. Read each
statement and choose the person who is probably best
qualified to make the statement.
1. Laws must be passed to protect the quail from hunters.
A. Game commissioner
B. Lawyer
: : 137 : :
C. Engineer
D. Journalist
2. The Supreme Court has the right to rule on the constitutionality
of laws.
A. College president
B. Lawyer
C. Personnel manager
D. State police
3. A highway lane should be at least eleven feet wide.
A. Industrialist
B. State police
C. Engineer
D. Chemist
4. American colonists were at first loyal to Great Britain, but later
rebelled against British rule.
A. Historian
B. Musician
C. Engineer
D. Ornithologist
5. The people of Sweden can be seen sunning themselves in the
cities during lunch hour.
A. An African
B. An American
C. A Scandinavian
D. An Argentinean
6. The raven is a large bird that is a member of the crow family.
A. botanist
B. chemist
C. engineer
D. ornithologist
7.
The level of pitch is determined by the number of vibrations per

second.
A. Physicist
: : 138 : :
B. Chemist
C. Musician
D. Primary School teacher
8. The secret of enjoying a long life is to exercise regularly.
A. A young mother of five children
B. A recent college graduate
C. An octogenarian
D. A ballerina
9. The downhill race is one of the most exiting competitive skiing
events.
A. A sports commentator
B. A newspaper editor
C. A champion of water-skier
D. A popular football player
10. The nation is in the midst of crippling energy crisis.
A. A representative of the steel industry
B. A representative of the oil industry
C. A representative of the electronics industry
D. A representative of the tourism industry
B. The Authors Intention
An authors intentions in writing a passage may be various.
However, there is usually a particular purpose that an author
wants to achieve by writing a particular material at a particular
time. The particular purpose must be one of the general purposes
of the use of language, i.e. to maintain rapport, to inform, to
convince, to persuade (and to move to action), and to
communicate experience in esthetic form.
1. To Maintain Rapport.
In its simplest form, maintaining rapport is exemplified by

the conversation which takes place upon chance encounters with
strangers and casual acquaintances when conversation demands
that we speak in order to avoid seeming rude. Thus, language is
used primarily not for the communication of ideas, but for the
: : 139 : :
establishment of appropriate social relationships. On such

occasions, we are careful to introduce subjects immediately
establishing a common meeting ground, such as remarks about
the weather, inquiries about a persons health, and
inconsequential comments upon petty topics.
In written communication, this is in parallel with reading
materials written mainly for entertainment, like Post Scripts in
the Saturday Evening Post, and Lembergar in Pos Kota. Such
written matters use humor, anecdotes, exaggerations, the
strange, the incongruousanything that the writer thinks will
genuinely please his reader.
2. To Inform.
To inform something to somebody else is the most common

activity that people carry out using language. To inform means to
explain and to share. To successfully achieve this type of
purpose, professional writers often present their facts in a way
that piques curiosity. Some times, they do it by offering
explanations in a guise that both interests and informs. Take, for
example, the success achieved by the book entitled Conquest of
the North and South Poles.
3. To Convince
A writer who seeks to convince is desirous only of securing

agreement; the appeal is to the understanding. Any attempt to
convince uses facts. However, different from a writer who
presents facts only for the sake of explaining something, a writer
who intends to convince always starts by cautiously discovering
ideas he knows are non-controversial. Then he examines the
opposing viewpoints fairly and dispassionately; admits the
strength and shows the weaknesses; relies heavily on facts and
evidence; takes care to present a complete and logical picture;
and, if possible, uses testimony from competent and acceptable
authorities for reinforcement.
4. To Persuade
To persuade or to move to action is the most difficult

purpose to achieve, because in persuasion, the final appeal is to
the volition and most human beings are reluctant to change. It is
: : 140 : :
difficult because everyone has reasons, often deeply hidden and

unknown, for clinging to familiar ways, and because action may
mean giving up opinions lived with a long time, overcoming fears,
and altering habits. Thus, a writer who wants to get his writers to
act usually tries to achieve the first three purposes as
preliminaries to this forth.
5. To Present Experience in Aesthetic Form
This purpose is the goal a literary artist wants to achieve

through the creation of his works. He wants to reveal a segment
of experience in the most perfect form he can devise. Although at
times he may inform, convince, or persuade, that is not his real
purpose. Moved by the significance of some aspect of life, he
seeks to share his insights concerning human values and human
conduct.
C. The Authors Attitude

An authors treatment of a subject reflects an attitude toward it.
Attitude is also important to understand, because it shows the
authors personal feeling about the subject he is writing. Attitude
can range from sad to happy, angry to delighted, sympathetic to
unsympathetic, tolerant to furious. An author also has an attitude
toward the reader. Some writers assume they are writing to
people inferior to themselves while others write to their equals.
How many textbooks have you read where the author seemed to
be writing to other aspects in the field rather than to you, a new
comer to the field?
D. The Authors Bias
To be biased means to be prejudiced about or to have a special
leaning towards something. For instance, you may be biased
about the type of music you listen to. May be you have no
patience with classical music and prefer hard rock. That is a bias.
Perhaps you are biased when it comes to food and you would
rather eat vegetables than meat. Everyone is biased about
something, whether it is food, music, religion, politics, or people.
Recognizing bias is very important in reading. If you are not
capable of doing it, you may become the victim of an authors
propaganda. You may miss seeing how an author takes facts and
: : 141 : :
misrepresents them. You may miss seeing that an author is being

more subjective (using personal opinion) than objective (using
undistorted facts). Or you may miss seeing how one-sided some
writing is.
Sometimes recognizing an authors bias is easy; at other times, it
isnt. Bias is apt to be present in advertisements, newspaper, and
magazine editorials, and religions and political pamphlets. You
generally pay little attention to an author bias when it matches
your own bias. When you dont agree with an author, the reverse
is true. To read critically, you must always be aware of both your
own and the authors bias. This is, of course, means real
involvement in and thinking through what is being read. In effect,
critical reading is thinking.
EXERCISE 92:
The following article is about gun control laws. As you
read, look for the authors intention, attitude and bias
about the subject.
Guns and Batter
(Richard Lipez)
The hue and cry over the so-called American gun problem is
being raised again, but what the liberal advocates of gun control
continue to overlook are the legitimate uses to which guns are put
by millions of law-abiding Americans. Guns dont kill people, people
do. The gun critics conventionally choose to forget that the vast
majority of gun-owners in this country use their weapons only for
peaceful purposes.
Despite the popular misconceptions, most Americans rifles, for
example, are used as tomato stacks. Or as curtain rods, or softball
bats. Sometimes as rudders (extra oars) on small rafts. Many rifle
owners also stuff bundles of straw up the barrels of their rifles and
prestotheyve got a childs toy broom. (Gun owners know that the
sooner children start pretending to help keep the house clean, the
sooner theyll get into the habit of helping to do the real thing).
Hardly anybody ever loads and shoots a rifle at somebody or
something. The last thing a rifle owner would do with his weapon
would be to use it for its intended purpose.
: : 142 : :
Likewise with handguns. Many well-meaning but misguided

liberals are trying to restrict the ownership and use of handguns.
Again, the critics are ignoring the peaceful uses to which most
handguns are put.
A popular use of the handgun, for example, is to take two large
pistols and have them serve as shelf brackets. A gun lobbyist friend
of mine was recently explaining to some members of Congress how
average handgun owner does this, and the lobbyist let me listen it.
You get a power drill with a tough, well tempered one-eighth
inch bit. Drill two holes through the barrel (top to bottom) and the
butt (front to back) of each pistol. Place the guns against the wall
where you want the shelf. The barrels should be pointing down, with
the butts protruding away from the wall.
Next, screw the barrels into the wall with plaster screws. Lay the
shelf across the protruding gun butts, and secure it with nuts and
bolts.
Place books or objets dart on the shelf, and there you are.
Dangerous? Harmful? Not on your life. This admittedly widespread
use of the handgun is practical and ecologically sound. It may even
be necessary. Mans primal urge to put up shelves cannot be denied,
and doing it with handguns provides a double-barreled outlet that
is wholesome and so far (cross your fingers) socially acceptable.
Another gun lobbyist friend of mine described, over dinner at the
Washington Jockey Club, how millions of American handgun owners
who prefer to take a shower under a hard shooting stream of water
instead of a soft spray use their handguns as shower nozzles.
First, you remove the hammer from a well-made pistol and have
a pipe fitter thread the (upper) end of the firing chamber. Remove
your shower nozzle and screw on the pistol. This will give you a
good, stimulating shower, and it will keep you plenty clean if you
remember to shower at least once a day. As they say down at the
National Rifle Association, Shower nozzles dont let people get
smelly, people do. And, Register stinky people, not shower
nozzles.
Yet, another gun lobbyist acquaintance explained how handguns
are used quite often for whipping up a mouth-watering batch of
blueberry-and-sour-cream muffins:
Pre-heat oven to 400 degrees
: : 143 : :
Sift before measuring: 2 cups cake flour or 1 cup all-purpose

flour
Resift with: 1 teaspoon double-acting baking powder;
teaspoon salt; 2 tablespoons sugar; teaspoon soda.
Measure: 1 cup cultured sour cream; 1-cup blueberries
Combine with: 1 beaten egg
Pick up (unloaded) handgun by barrel and beat batter for ten to
twenty seconds. Pour batter into well-greased muffin tin and
bake for twenty to twenty-five minutes. Then pop em into your
mouth, lean back, and say, Mmm! Mmm! Mmmm!
Answer the following questions by circling the correct responses.

More than one response maybe necessary.
1.
The authors intent is:

a. to support gun control laws
b. to show that gun owners use their guns for peaceful
purposes.
c. to make fun of NRAs gun control position.
d. to show that guns are not used for peaceful purposes.
e. to argue against the NRA position
2.
The
is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
authors attitude toward guns as expressed in the article
3.
The
a.
b.
c.
d.
author is strongly biased against:

Strong gun control laws
NRA arguments for lax gun laws
Guns
Keeping and bearing arms
4.
Is the article mostly subjective or objective?

__________________________________________________
neutral
negative
positive
not apparent
Why do you say so? _________________________________
: : 144 : :
5.
Which of the following statements show bias on the authors

part?
a. A popular use of the handgun, for example, is to take two
large pistols and have them serve as shelf brackets.
b. As they say down in the National Rifle Association,
Shower nozzles dont let people get smelly, people do.
c. Despite the popular misconceptions, most Americans
rifles, for example, are used as tomato stakes.
d. The last thing a rifle owner would do with his weapon
would be to use it for its intended purpose.
6.
What is your bias regarding gun control laws?

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_______________________________________
E. The Time of Publication of the Reading Material

The validity of ideas depends greatly on time. An idea that
was valid some years ago may no longer hold true at the present
days. Perceive the following example. For nearly 2,000 years, it was
believed that the sun and other planets revolved around the earth.
However, in 1530 Copernicus in his Commentarioulus showed that
the earth and other planets move around the sun. And in his 1609
publication entitled Aetological Astronomy, Keppler further refined
the ideas of Copernicus, in which he showed that the planets do
move around the sun, but in an ellipse. Thus, anytime you read a
material, especially the one you need to take as a reference, dont
forget to check its time of publication. Many points in a book
published more than twenty years ago might not valid any more to
refer to.
F. The Policies of Publication
The policies of the publication often determine the type of the
published material. You would not expect to find liberal publications
: : 145 : :
in a country strictly dominated by certain doctrinal power, such as

religious and military dictatorship. Those who hold power will try to
prevent the publication of ideas considered potential to undermine
the political integrity and stability. Thus, in nearly all places,
censorship is continuously practice. The government of all nations
imposes censorship of one sort or another. Different degrees of
censorship have at different places been applied to all forms of
communication. Extreme censorship may take the form of an
absolute ban imposed on a particular medium of expression or
banishment, or even execution of the commentator.
However, to a certain extent, censorship has both positive and
negative dimensions. In some cases, due to its obligation to protect
public morals, a state may need to censor what it considers to be
corrupting in order to keep the continuity of the existence of its
society. On the other hand, the censorship need not be absolute. It
may be restricted to only those sectors of the public which are
susceptible to the evils that are supposed to arise from the particular
form of communication.
Realizing the existence of censorship, then, as a critical reader
you should always be alert that the policies of publication of the
materials you are facing might have influenced their validity.
G. The Target Readers
One of the most important questions a writer has address to
himself while he is writing is: To whom am I writing? The type of
the targeted readers affects the materials being written. An article
on the nature of language learning to be consumed by a college
student will be written differently from the one written for a layman.
That is why a literary work that has been adapted or simplified for
primary school pupils must have lost some of its beauty, compared
to the original version. Thus, in order to criticize fairly, you should
take to whom the material is written an aspect of your
consideration.
EXERCISE 93: This exercise will give you an
opportunity to consider miscellaneous aspects of critical
reading while facing a reading material. Read the article
carefully and answer the questions that follow by choosing
the correct option among the alternatives given. (The answer for
: : 146 : :
questions 7-14 may vary, depending on your background).

A Secret Dossier on Every American
Federal Agencies builds up too many private files U.S.
citizens. that possibility is cited by an official report which
calls for new laws to prevent it.
As more and more information about individual Americans piles
up in Government data banks
Demands are growing for new safeguards to prevent the
potential abuse of these computerized files.
The largest proposals for protecting the rights of citizens against
official snooping have just made by a government advisory
committee.
After a year-long study, this group concludes that people are
losing control over facts and figures on file about them, and that its
time for Congress to enact a Bill of Rights for the computer era.
The committee makes two broad recommendations:
Stiff new laws are needed to give people the right to know
what information about them is recorded in computer
systems, and how it is being usedalong with the right to
correct any mistakes that show up in the files.
The government should call an immediate halt to the
expanding use of social security numbers as lifelong
identification tags. This swing toward a universal identifier
for everyone in the country, the report warns, could
encourage government agencies and certain types of
private organizations to develop dossiers on much of the
nations citizenry.
Studying the problem. The advisory panel of 24 lawyers,
educators, computer-industry executives and others was recruited
early in 1972 to look into changes in American society which may
result from using computers to keep records about people.
Behind the study lies a rising chorus of complaints from
individuals worried about invasion of personal privacy through
computer banks, and the widespread use of Social Security numbers
for computer-coding purposes.
Reprinted from U.S. News & World Report, August 27, 1973.
: : 147 : :
The committee found that worries of this sort are justified.

Under current law, the report notes, a persons privacy is
poorly protected against arbitrary or abusive record-keeping
practices. Information collected legitimately for one purpose, it
adds, can easily be used by another agency for a completely
different purpose unfair to the individual concerned.
No personal-data system whose very existence is secret should
be permitted, the committee cautions. It calls for the creation of a
code of fair information practice for all automated-data systems
whether run by government agencies or private organizations, such
as credit bureaus, banks, educational institutions or othersto
define fair practice in record-keeping, and set penalties for any
violation of the rules.
Common denominator. Just as the spread of automated files can
threaten individual privacy, so can the drift toward using an
individuals Social Security number as personal identification, the
new study points out.
It cites a growing tendency to use the number as a password or
authenticator of identity when a name alone is not considered
sufficientas for cashing a check or using a credit card to make a
purchase.
Such use is not necessary, just convenient, the report notes,
giving this example from one of the committees own meetings: We
met on a Sunday in a conference room in a government facility.
Security procedures required us to give names and Social
Security numbers from a telephone located outside the locked main
entrance to a guard who was out of sight inside the building. The
guard had earlier been furnished with a list of our names and Social
Security numbers.
Given the wide dissemination of Social Security numbers, we
were impressed by how easily someone could have impersonated
any of us to gain entrance to the building.
Authorities on data-handling recall that when the Social Security
program was set up in 1936, the impression was widespread that an
individuals number would be a confidential matter, and that it would
never be used outside of the Social Security program.
But in 1943, an executive order by President Franklin D.
Roosevelt required the Social Security Administration to make the
number available for identification use by other agencies.
: : 148 : :
Explosive growth. In more recent years, with the mushrooming

growth of computers, the use of Social Security numbers as
identifiers in all sorts of files has proliferated. For example, they
have taken the place of the traditional military serial numbers in the
armed forces. They are required on individuals income-tax return,
and on most State income-tax forms. Many states require them on
drivers licenses.
The numbers frequently are used for purposes having nothing to
do with identification or record keeping, the committee explains. This
practice can have undesirable effects, it says, giving these
examples:
Some lucky number contests involve the drawing of a specific
SS number whose holder is awarded a prize. This is objectionable,
the committees states, because it may induce people to try to get an
extra SS numbers to increase their chances of winning, and it also
trivializes the Social Security number.
Various items of merchandise, such as wallets, sometimes are
sold with a facsimile with a Social Security card enclosed,
bearing a sample number. The committee refers to one
instance in which buyers of such a wallet thought the sample
number on the facsimile card078051120was to be
used as their own Social Security number. At one point, more
than 5,700 wage earners were claiming the series of digits as
their legitimate Social Security number.
Some skip tracing organizations mail out postcards showing
a false number and asking, Is this your Social Security
number? If not, call the phone number listed below to correct
this matter. Says the committee: This is blatantly deceptive
and violates reputable business practice.
To combat these and other unwarranted uses of Social Security
numbers, the advisory committee suggests that Congress enact laws
which would prohibit the use of the numbers for promotional or
commercial purposes and also prohibit any organization now
required by law to record Social Security numbers from disclosing
them without the consent of the individual concerned.
The report recognizes a possible drift toward a dossier society
in the U.S. and suggests that the time has come to keep
computerization of private data from getting out of hand.
: : 149 : :
Answer the following questions by circling the correct responses.

1. The main purpose of this article is to inform readers that
A. The widespread use of the automated files on private citizens
can result in a secret dossier on every American.
B. Social Security numbers have been misused by lucky
number contests, widely distributed facsimiles, and skip
tracing organizations.
C. The government should call an immediate halt to the
expanding use of Social Security numbers as authenticators
of identity.
D. Government advisory committee is asking for safeguards to
prevent the potential misuse of computerized files and Social
Security numbers.
2.
This official report was prompted by complaints from

A. individuals who resent being required to give their Social
Security number as identification too frequently.
B. organizations and agencies which sometimes have difficulty
obtaining personal information for their own purposes.
C. individuals worried about invasion of personal privacy
through computer banks and use of Social Security numbers.
D. government officials who feel that they should have
exclusive rights to personal information regarding the United
States citizens.
3. After a year-long study, the committee

A. recommended new laws to prevent misuse of files on
individuals and Social Security numbers.
B. made no recommendations.
C. advocated new laws concerning the individuals knowledge
about personal information in computer systems.
D. recommended limiting the use of Social Security number.
4. A basic concern expressed in this article is
A. the conflict between governmental and private agencies.
: : 150 : :
B. excessive record keeping.

C. the need for precise identification of every student.
D. the abuse of personal freedom.
5. Following its investigation, the committee found that the
complaints were
A. unjustified.
B. justified.
C. exaggerated.
D. in need of further investigation.
6. (Choose as many possible answers as you feel apply.)
Opponents of the thesis of this article might reasonably argue:
A. With a rapidly expanding population, it is necessary to have
a dossier on every individual.
B. Social Security numbers are a convenient form of
identification.
C. Individuals do not need to know what information is
recorded about them and how it is used; this knowledge
might upset them.
D. The people actually benefit by having information about
them widely distributed and readily accessible.
7. What do you know about the publication in which this article
appears?
A. I am familiar with this publication. I know that it is reputable
and I can assume the information is accurate.
B. From my former reading of this publication, I know it is
sometimes biased. This article, therefore, may be slightly
biased.
C. I have never read this publication, but I know of it from
people whose judgment I trust.
D. I know nothing about this publication.
8. Do you have sufficient background on this subject to make an
intelligent evaluation?
A. Im thoroughly familiar with the subject from reading of it in
a variety of publications and hearing it discussed by
competent people.
: : 151 : :
B. I know something about the subject, but my knowledge is

incomplete and my thinking may be biased.
C. I have heard something about this subject, but not enough
to form an opinion.
D. I know nothing at all about the subject.
9. The place of publication is Washington D.C. Therefore, you can
assume:
A. that the article accurately reflects the prevailing views on
this subject since the subject is a concern of this country.
B. that the article probably presents the thinking of American
people.
C. very little because many different views are held on subjects
within this country.
D. nothing, because an article published in another country
might present a more subjective report.
10. Was the material recently enough so that the information
provided is still valid?
A. The information is recent enough to be considered valid.
B. Most of the information is probably still valid, but new
information may have become available recently.
C. The information was probably written too long ago to be
accepted without checking more recent sources.
D. The information was written so long ago that it is completely
out of date and totally useless.
11. This article is based upon an official report from a Government
advisory committee consisting of 24 lawyers, educators,
computer-industry executives and others. The source of
information, therefore, you would judge to be:
A. excellent, since it has the endorsement of the Government,
and the committee consisted of well-qualified individuals
from varying occupations.
B. Fairly good, because of the varied representation on the
committee, but nothing is said about the personal biases of
these individuals.
: : 152 : :
C. Fair, because not enough information is given about the

qualifications of the committee members or their selection.
D. Poor, since members of Government committees are usually
influenced by politics rather than good judgments.
12. What is the authors reason for writing this material?
A. To provide the reader with information he should know.
B. To discuss a topic that may be of concern to a limited
number of people.
C. To persuade the reader to think the same way as he does.
D. To present his own ideas for personal advantage.
13. Is the reasoning logical and are the conclusions justified?
A. The situation is clearly stated, the reasoning makes sense,
and the conclusions are well supported.
B. Considering my limited background of knowledge, I feel that
both the reasoning and conclusions are probably correct.
C. The reasoning appears to be based on incomplete
information and the conclusions fail to consider the other
side of the situation.
D. Only one side of the case is presented and therefore the
reasoning is biased and the conclusions are unjustified.
14. On the basis of the previous seven questions (items 7-13),
evaluate your ability to make a critical judgment of this article.
A. I feel eminently qualified to evaluate this article critically.
B. With only a few reservations, I am ready to make judgment
about this article.
C. Since I have known little about the subject until know, I am
unable to make a valid judgment without additional
information.
D. I am unable to make any evaluation of this article.
: : 153 : :
: : 154 : :
CHAPTER 9 CRITICAL READING IN ACTION
10
CRITICAL READING IN ACTION
After studying comprehensive aspects and doing related exercises on
critical reading, you should be ready now to apply them to critically
analyse some passages that you often face in your academic life.
Your successes with the exercises that follow should be a good
indicator of how well prepared you are to comprehend and evaluate
with critical power any reading materials you are facing.
A. A Model of a Thorough Critical Analysis on a Longer
Passage
Basically, a critical analysis on a passage can be carried out by
asking yourselves any relevant questions listed in Chapter 1 to the
passage you are facing. To help you see how to apply a
comprehensive aspect of critical reading to a particular passage, a
somewhat thorough critical analysis of a passage entitled From
Education written by Immanuel Kant ([1724-1804], a German
philosopher who dealt with university life for almost 50 years and
was a professor for the remainder of his life) is presented as a
model. Read the passage carefully and study the suggested points of
analysis that follow.
From EDUCATION
(Immanuel Kant)
1
Man is the only being who needs education. For by

education we must understand nurture (the tending and
feeding of the child), discipline, and teaching, together with
culture. According to this, man is in succession infant
(requiring nursing), child (requiring discipline), and scholar
(requiring teaching).
Animals use their powers, as soon as they are possessed
of them, according to regular planthat is, in a way not
harmful to themselves. It is indeed wonderful, for instance,
that young swallows, when newly hatched and still blind,
: : 155 : :
are careful not to defile their nests. Animals, therefore need

no nurture, but at the most, food, warmth, and guidance, or a
kind of protection. It is true most animals need feeding, but
they do not require nurture. For by nurture we mean the
tender care and attention which parents must bestow upon
their children, so as to prevent them from using their powers
in a way which would be harmful to themselves. For
instance, should an animal cry when it comes into the world,
as children do, it would surely become a prey to wolves and
other wild animals, which would gather round, attracted by
its cry.
Discipline changes animal nature into human nature.
Animals are by their instinct all that they ever can be; some
other reason has provided everything for them at the outset.
But man needs a reason of his own. Having no instinct, he
has to work out a plan of conduct for himself. Since,
however, he is not able to do this all at once, but comes into
the world underdeveloped, others have to do it for him.
All the natural endowments of mankind must be
developed little by little out of man himself through his own
effort. One generation educates the next. The first
beginnings of this process of educating may be looked for
either in a rude and unformed or in a fully developed
condition of man. If we assume the latter to have come first,
man must at all events afterwards have degenerated and
lapsed1 into barbarism.
It is discipline which prevents man from being turned
aside by his animal impulses from humanity, his appointed
end. Discipline, for instance, must restrain him from
venturing wildly and rashly into danger. Discipline, thus, is
merely negative, its action being to counteract mans natural
unruliness. The positive part of education is instruction.
Unruliness consists in independence of law. By
discipline, men are placed in subjection to the laws of
mankind, and brought to feel their constraint. This, however,
must be accomplished early. Children, for instance, are first
Lapse: decline; come to an end.
: : 156 : :
10
2
3
sent to school, not so much with the object of their learning

something, but rather that they may become used to sitting
still and doing exactly as they are told. And this to the end
that in later life they should not wish to put actually and
instantly into practice anything that strikes them.
The love of freedom is naturally so strong in man that
when once he has grown accustomed to freedom, he will
sacrifice everything for its sake. For this very reason
discipline must be brought into play very early; for when this
has not been done, it is difficult to alter character later in life.
Undisciplined men are apt to follow every caprice2.
We see this also among savage nations, who, though
they may discharge functions for some time like Europeans,
yet can never become accustomed to European manners.
With them, however, it is not the noble love of freedom that
Rousseau and others imagine, but a kind of barbarismthe
animal, so to speak, not having yet developed its human
nature. Men should therefore accustom themselves early to
yield to the commands of reason, for if a man be allowed to
follow his own will in his youth, without opposition, a
certain lawlessness will cling to him throughout his life. And
it is no advantage to such a man that in his youth he has been
spared through an over-abundance of motherly tenderness,
for later on all the more will he have to face opposition from
all sides and constantly receive rebuffs3, as soon as he enters
into the business of the world.
It is a common mistake made in the education of those of
high rank that because they are hereafter to become rulers
they must on that account receive no opposition in their
youth. Owing to his natural love of freedom it is necessary
that man should have his natural roughness smoothed down;
with animals, their instinct renders this unnecessary.
Man needs nurture and culture. Culture includes
discipline and instruction. These, as far as we know, no animal
needs, for none of them learn anything from their elders,
impulse: desire; drive

rebuff: refusal, rejection, denial
: : 157 : :
11
except birds, who are taught by them to sing; and it is a

touching sight to watch the mother bird singing with all her
might to her young ones, who like children at school, stand
round and try to produce the same tones out of their tiny
throats. In order to convince ourselves that birds do not sing
by instinct, but that they actually taught to sing, it is
worthwhile to make an experiment. Suppose we take away
half the eggs from a canary and put sparrows eggs in their
place, or exchange young sparrows for young canaries; if the
young birds are then brought into a room where they cannot
hear the sparrows outside, they will learn the canarys song,
and we thus get singing sparrows. It is, indeed, very
wonderful that each species of bird has its own peculiar
song, which is preserved unchanged through all its
generations; and the tradition of the song is probably the
most faithful in the world.
Man can only become man by education. He is merely
what education makes of him. It is noticeable that man is
only educated by manthat is, by men who have themselves
been educated. Hence, with some people it is want of
discipline and instruction on their own part which makes
them in turn unfit educators of their pupils. Were some
being of higher nature than man to undertake our education,
we should then be able to see what man might become. It is,
however, difficult for us accurately to estimate mans natural
capabilities, since some things are imparted to man by
education, while other things are only developed by
education. Were it possible, by the help of those in high rank
and through the united forces of many people. To make an
experiment on this question, we might even by this means be
able to gain some information as to the degree of eminence
which it possible for man to attain. But it is important to the
speculative mind, as it is sad to one who loves his fellowmen, to see how those in high rank generally care only for
their own concerns and take no part in the important
experiments of education, which brings our nature one step
nearer to perfection.
: : 158 : :
12
There is no one who, having been neglected in his youth,

can come to years of discretion without knowing whether
the defect lies in discipline or culture (for so we may call
instruction). The uncultivated man is crude, the
undisciplined is unruly. Neglect of discipline is a greater evil
than neglect of culture, for this last can be remedied later in
life, but unruliness cannot be done away with, and a mistake
in discipline can never be repaired. It may be that education
will be constantly improved and that each succeeding
generation will advance one step towards the perfecting of
mankind; for with education is involved the great secret of
the perfection of human nature. It is only now that
something may be done in this direction, since for the first
time people have begun to judge rightly and understand
clearly what actually belongs to good education. It is
delightful to realize that through education human nature
will be continually improved and brought to such a
condition as is worthy of the nature of man. This opens out
to us the prospect of a happier human race in the future.
ANALYSIS:
1. Are Kants statements fact or opinion?

A fact is an event, state of existence, or relationship for which
reliable evidence can be found and which entails a minimum of
interpretation. An opinion is an interpretation of events that may be
true or false, reliable or reliable, justified or unjustified, but which is
not established.
What is your critical reaction to this statement from Kant: Discipline
changes animal nature into human nature? A concrete reader
(those who just looks at the surface meaning) could certainly collect
evidence to show what discipline does in education. Different from
him, a critical reader brings to bear his own interpretation of Kants
statement. And that interpretation is an opinion based upon his own
experience. In other words, the critical reader reacts to Kants
opinion by searching for evidence for facts.
: : 159 : :
2. What is Kants bias?

Bias is a mental leaning or inclination, a partiality, a prejudice. The
critical reader becomes aware of Kants special bias about education
when he reads the first paragraph where Kant clarifies his definition
of education, i.e. the stages of nurturing, imbuing discipline, and
teaching (including acculturation). After reading Kants further
explanation, isnt it obvious that his idea is highly influenced by
western way of thinking that emphasizes the high importance of the
individual?
3. How is Kant qualified to write this particular material?
For forty-nine years of his life, Kant was associated with university
lifehe first tutored several families, lectured at the university for
fifteen years, and became a professor there for the remainder of his
life. Those experiences certainly qualified him to write on education!
4. How recently was the material written?
Although a critical reader will have no doubt in Kants qualification to
write on education, since this essay was written in the eighteenth
century, some of Kants arguments certainly need to be questioned
in the light of contemporary ideas on education.
5. Who is the target reader?
This essay was written for public, not for particular types of reader.
Thus, it is quite acceptable if Kants style and diction are not very
technical.
6. How has Kant organized his material?
Kant wrote this essay very systematically. It makes the essay easy to
comprehend. Did you note that he precisely puts the thesis in the
opening paragraph and that successive paragraphs are used to
emphasize the three aspects of education introduced in the first
paragraph? Each of Kants thoughts leads to another in clear
: : 160 : :
progression. He also includes no material that is not related to his

main idea and major details. His examples about animals and birds,
for example, are meant to clarify his concepts about mans
education.
7. Do I accept, reject, or defer judgment on the authors
material?
Kant makes some specific statements about the importance of early

discipline in the childs education, and he holds an ideal attitude
toward mans improvement of his nature through education. Because
you have had educational experiences of your own, you should
certainly be able to react critically to Kants conclusions by accepting,
rejecting, or deferring4 judgment on his ideas.
Eighteenth-century viewpoints on education need to be considered
by the critical reader as he reacts to Kants conclusions. By doing
this, its not very difficult to realize that advances in education have
undoubtedly rendered obsolete some of Kants conclusions.
8. What is Kants purpose or motif in writing this material?
To a higher extent, Kants purpose to write this essay is to convince
his reader that educationwhich covers nurture, discipline and
instructionis the only means for improving human nature. To
achieve this purpose, Kant starts by cautiously discovering ideas he
knows are non-controversial (that animals need no nurture and
discipline). Then he examines and shows how every individual needs
nurture, discipline and instruction by presenting arguments and
logical picture.
9. What inference might I draw from knowledge gained from
Kant?
From the evidence that Kant provides in this essay, the reader might
infer that Kant is certainly a strong proponent of education and he
considers education the means for improving human nature.
defer: suspend; postpone
: : 161 : :
10. Is there any fallacious reasoning or misuse of statistics
in the reading?
This article sounds very philosophical and theoretical. Kant does not
support his explanations or arguments with statistical figures or
findings from researches. Thats why we cant find misuse of
statistics in this article. However, Kants comparison between the
young birds that are learning to sing with children at school can be
regarded as a false analogy. Birds children and human children may
have a small degree of similarity, but to give the impression that
both of them are in all ways alike is undoubtedly a fallacious
reasoning.
11. What comparison can I make of present reading with
previous reading?
What else have you read on the topic of education? For example,
what did Plato write about education? Aristotle? Sir Francis Bacon?
John Dewey? Ki Hajar Dewantoro? William James? What have you
read in current newspapers, magazines, and books? When you
compare Kants ideas with those you have encountered elsewhere,
you are being a critical thinker.
For example, much has appeared in print in past months about
student dissent 5 on school and college campuses. What would be
Kants reaction to opinions you currently read about dissent? Too,
many contemporary writers blame parents for having been too
permissive in raising children. How would Kant feel about that
criticism?
B. Critical Reading Exercises
As a final bit of practice in critical reading, in this part, three different
long passages that may prove more challenging to your reading
ability have been selected.
dissent: revolt; rebel
: : 162 : :
EXERCISE 101:
In this exercise you will be reading an essay, in which the
author writes about her childhood on a Caribbean island
that was an English colony for many years.. Read the
essay and choose the best option to the questions that follow to see
how critically you read the excerpt.
The Map of England

When I saw England for the first time, I was a child in school sitting
at a desk. The England I was looking at was laid out on a map gently,
beautifully, delicately, a very special jewel; it lay on a bed of sky blue,
its yellow form mysterious, because though it looked like a leg of
mutton6, it could not really look like anything so familiar as a leg of
mutton because it was England. England was a special jewel all
right, and only special people got to wear it. The people who got to
wear England were English people. They wore it well and they wore
it everywhere: in jungles, in deserts, on plains, in places where they
were not welcome, in places they should not have been. When my
teacher had pinned this map up on the blackboard, she said, This is
Englandand she said it with authority, seriousness, and
adoration, and we all sat up. We understood thenwe were meant
to understand thenthat England was to be our source of myth and
the source from which we got our sense of reality, our sense of what
was meaningful, our sense of what was meaninglessand much
about our own lives and much about the very idea of us headed that
last list.
At the time I was a child sitting army desk seeing England for the
first time, I was already very familiar with the greatness of it. Each
morning before left for school, I ate a breakfast of half grapefruit, a
bowl of oat porridge, bread and butter and a slice of cheese, and a
cup of cocoa. The can of cocoa was often left on the table in front of
merit had written on it the name of the company, the year the
company was established, and the words Made in England. Those
words, Made in England, were written on the box the oats came in
the flesh of a sheep
: : 163 : :
too. The shoes I wore were made in England; so were my socks and
cotton undergarments and the satin ribbons I wore tied at the end of
two plaits of my hair. My father, who might have sat next to me at
breakfast, was a carpenter and cabinet maker. The shoes he wore to
work would have been made in England, as were his khaki shirt and
trousers, his underpants and undershirt, his socks and brown felt
hat. Felt was not the proper material from which a hat that was
expected to provide shade from the hot sun should be made, but my
father must have seen and admired a picture of an Englishman
wearing such a hat in England. As we sat at breakfast a car might go
by. The car, a Hillman or zephyr, was made in England. The very
conception of the meal itself, breakfast, and its substantial quality
and quantity was an idea from England; we somehow knew that in
England they began the day with this meal called breakfast and a
proper breakfast was big breakfast.
At the time I saw this mapseeing England for the first timeI did
not say to myself, Ah, so thats what it looks like, because there
was no longing in me to put a shape to those three words that ran
through every part of my life, no matter how small; for me to have
had such a longing would have meant that I lived in a certain
atmosphere, an atmosphere in which those three words were felt as
a burden. But I did not live in such an atmosphere. My fathers
brown felt hat would develop a hole in its crown, the lining would
separate from the hat itself, and six weeks before he thought that he
could not be seen wearing ithe was a very vain manhe would
order another hat from England. And my mother taught me teat my
food in the English way: the knife in the right hand, the fork in the
left, my elbows held still close to my side. When I had finally
mastered it, I overheard her saying to a friend, Did you see how
nicely she can eat? But I knew then that I enjoyed my food more
when I ate it with my bare hands, and I continued to do so when she
wasnt looking. And when my teacher showed us the map, she asked
us to study it carefully, because no test we would ever take would be
complete without this statement: Draw a map of England.
I did not know then that the statement Draw a map of England
was something far worse than declaration of war. I did not know
: : 164 : :
then that this statement was part of a process that would result in
my erasure, not my physical erasure, but my erasure all the same. I
did not know then that this statement was meant to make me feel in
awe and small whenever I heard the word England: awe at its
existence, small because I was not from it. I did not know very much
of anything thencertainly not what a blessing it was that I was
unable to draw a map of England correctly.
1. According to the author, England could not really look like a leg
of mutton (par. 1) because:
(A) maps generally dont give an accurate impression of what a
place looks like
(B) England was too grand and exotic a place for such a
mundane image
(C) England was an island not very different in appearance from
her own island
(D) the usual metaphor used to describe England was a precious
jewel
(E) mutton was one of the few foods familiar to her that did not
come from England
2. The authors reference to felt as not the proper material (par.
2) for her fathers hat chiefly serves to emphasize her point about
the:
(A) extremity of the local weather
(B) arrogance of island laborers
(C) informality of dress on the island
(D) weakness of local industries
(E) predominance of English culture
3. The word conception as used in paragraph 2 means:
(A) beginning
(D) notion
(B) image
(E) plan
(C) origination
4. The word substantial in the end of paragraph 2 means:
(A) important
(C) down to earth
(B) abundant
(E) materialistic
(C) firm
: : 165 : :
5. In the third paragraph, the author implies that any longing to put
a shape to the words made in England would have indicated
(A) a resentment of Englands predominance
(B) an unhealthy desire to become English
(C) an inability to understand Englands authority
(D) an excessive curiosity about England
(E) an unfamiliarity with English customs
6. The author cites the anecdotes about her father and mother in
paragraph 3 primarily to convey their:
(A) love for their children
(B) belief in strict discipline
(C) distaste for anything foreign
(D) reverence for England
(E) overemphasis on formal manners
7. The word erasure (paragraph 4) as used by the author most
nearly means:
(A) total annihilation
(B) physical disappearance
(C) sense of insignificance
(D) enforced censorship
(E) loss of freedom
8. The main purpose of the passage is to:
A. advocate a change in the way a subject is taught in school
B. convey the personality of certain figures from the authors
childhood
C. describe an overwhelming influence on the authors early life
D. analyze the importance of a sense of place to early
education
E. relate a single formative episode in the authors life
9. For the author, the requirement to Draw a map of England
(paragraph 4) represented an attempt to:
(A) force students to put their studies to practical use
(B) glorify one culture at the expense of another
(C) promote an understanding of world affairs
: : 166 : :
(D) encourage students to value their own heritage

(E) impart outmoded and inappropriate knowledge
10. At the end of the passage, the author suggests that her inability
to draw a map of England correctly indicated a:
(A) heartfelt desire to see the country in person rather than
through maps
(B) serious failure of the education she received
(C) conscious rejection of the prestige of a foreign power
(D) harmful preoccupation with local affairs and customs
(E) beneficial ignorance of her own supposed inferiority.
EXERCISE 102: In this exercise you will be reading a

long passage, entitled The Less Developed Countries. It is
adapted from Philip C. Starrs Economics (1982), a highly
respected and widely used textbook in many universities in the
United States. Read the article and choose the best option to the
questions that follow to see how critically you read the excerpt
The Less-Developed Countries:

Challenge for the Future
(Philip C. Starr)
(1)
This chapter is about poverty among nations. Poverty is,

of course, a relative matter. Whenever there is any
inequality in the distribution of income, some people
will always be poor relative to others. But much of the
world is so abjectly7 poor that some observers speak of
absolute povertya condition of life so degraded by
abject: miserable
: : 167 : :
disease, illiteracy, malnutrition, and squalor8 as to deny

its victims basic human necessities.9
(2)
One billion peopleone quarter of the worlds

populationare in this category. One-quarter of a
million people in Calcutta are homeless. They eat, live,
and die in the streets. Three million people in Bolivia out
of a total population of 5 million have a life expectancy
of 30 years of age. The average Bolivian eats less than
one-half of one ounce of meat per year, which in effect
means that the peasant population is too poor to eat any
meat at all.10
(3)
These problems are hard for Americans to appreciate.

The problem is not like that of an American black male
who cannot get a college education or like that of a
female of any color who cannot get admitted to medical
school. The problem is that two-thirds of the worlds
population has not made it in terms of income to first
grade, while the other one-third has relatively easy
access to wealth and income. The problem is not the
typical American one of reducing the number of high
school dropouts: The problem is how to give more than 2
billion people the means and the opportunity to make
some investment in their own human capital. Our point
is that only when individuals begin to have some
perception of their own impact (positive or negative) on
our planet can we begin to appreciate our collective
responsibility to help one another.
(4)
Note that the chapter title refers to less-developed countries

(abbreviated LDCs). Several terms are used to describe
squalor: meanness; nastiness; unpleasantness

Robert S. McNamara, The Moral Case for Helping the Worlds Poor, Los Angeles
Times, 28 September 1973, pt. II, p.7.
10
Harvey Morris, Life of Bolivian Indians Remain Harsh, Los Angeles Times, 31
March 1977, pt. I-A, p. 1.
8
9
: : 168 : :
countries that are poorer than others: Underdeveloped

countries, developing countries, and Third World
countries. We prefer the term les developed.11
(5)
Economists have no specific dividing lines or explicit

definitions of such terms. A nations position on the
ladder is usually determined by dividing its GNP by
population (per capita GNP) so that there is a spectrum of
nations from rich to poorfrom $6,300 per person per
year in Sweden to $70,000 per person per year in
Burundi (both in 1973). There are probably poorer
countries than Burundi, but in those cases GNP and/or
population is usually unknown.
(6)
This chapter reviews the plight of the less developed

countries from the point of view of economic analysis.
This chapter is divided into four parts: (a) Why should
we bother? (b) Problems that must be solved. (c) What
can be done to help. (d) Conclusions.
Why Should We Bother?

There are five basic arguments.
a. Our Need for Strategic Materials
(7)
11
12
An industrial country like the U.S. cannot function

without certain raw materials. One estimate 12 is that
there are 13 such materials essential to the U.S. Some
examples are asbestos, bauxite (aluminum ore), chrome,
cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, nickel, petroleum,
platinum, silver, tin, and titaniumnot to mention
All countries, rich or poor, are to some extent developing. The difference is
relative; so, by less developed, we simply mean that such countries are less
developed than others. The term third World is a controversial term implying
poverty, but occasionally one will hear of fourth or fifth world countries,
depending on how far down the economic ladder they are.
Charles W. Maynes, Jr. Are the Worlds Poor Undeserving? Los Angeles Times, 8
December 1974, pt. VI, p. 1.
: : 169 : :
bananas, coffee, tea, and scotch. Many of these essentials

come from the less-developed countries and our
dependence on other countries is growing. In 1950 we
relied on other countries to provide us with more than
half of only 4 of the 13 materials. By 1985 we will want
more than half of 9 of the 13 from other countries.
b. Closer Social and Economic Ties
(8)
We are more closely bound than ever to all countries.

Americans worry about the international traffic in drugs,
some of which comes from the LDCs. We worry about
inflation that comes from higher coffee, tea, and oil
prices.
(9)
Many of the less-developed countries are following the

lead of OPEC, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries, and forming cartels 13 . Cartels have formed
among the countries that export bauxite, tin, coffee,
bananas, tea, rubber, and pepper, to name a few. The
intent of these cartels is to control supply and raise the
price. The United States will have to learn to deal with
and be on good relations with the countries that belong
to these cartels.
c. The Need for Political Stability

(10)
13
It is sometimes said that only the rich can afford

democracy. Consider a nation of starving, bewildered,
uneducated people. It is easy for them to turn to a
dictator who persuades them that he or she can solve
their problems. If the dictator becomes the source of
international tension, or even war, as in some of the
African or Latin American states, the peace of the world
may be threatened. No one (rich) nation like the United
Cartel: combination of traders, producers, etc. to control output, marketing and

price of goods, etc.
: : 170 : :
States can afford to permit a peoples suffering to

threaten the orderly progress of economic development
throughout the world. We mean to be cautious here. We
do not suggest military intervention to remove the
dictator but rather sufficient help for such a people to
make the dictator unnecessary.
d. The Moral Question
(11)
We are often viewed as the rich kid who pays no

attention to the kids in the slums. Americans consume 40
percent of the worlds resources with 6 percent of the
worlds population. Many people believe we are
indifferent to the problems of the poor countries. The
United States has a reputation for being miserly with its
foreign aid. In terms of GNP, we rank 14 among 16
developed nations. 14 For our own peace of mind, we
cannot afford to be viewed as a global parasite15 that
consumes the worlds resources while millions starve.
e. Time is Running Out

(12)
In a world of growing populations and declining food

reserves, the time left to solve the worlds poverty
problems is getting short. The worlds population is
increasing at the rate of 64 million16 per year now, rising
to 100 million per year by the year 2000.17 Roughly 87
percent of these new mouths to feed will be in the LDCs.
g. Running Out of Food

14
15
16
17
McNamara, The Moral Case for Helping the Worlds Poor.

Maynes, Jr. Are the Worlds Poor Undeserving?
We obtain this by multiplying 3.92 billion people by 1.64 percent, the growth rate
in 1975.
See Nathan Keyfitz, World Resources and the Middle Class, Scientific American,
July 1976; Running Out of Food, Newsweek, November 11, 1974; Lester R.
Brown. The World Food Prospect, Science, 12 December 1975; Thomas Y. Canby,
Can the World Feed Its People? National Geographic, July 1975; and Douglas, N.
Ross, Food and Population, The University Library, 1975.
: : 171 : :
(13)
To feed this present yearly addition of 64 million people

will require nearly 20 million tons of grain each year,
which is more than the total Canadian wheat crop. (The
population problem will be discussed in more detail in a
later section.)
(14)
Malthusian moment of truth has arrived. Although all

countries are currently using only about 44 percent of an
estimated 7.9 billion acres of arable land for food
production, all of that land will be in use by the year
2080 if present population trends continueeven if the
yield per acre is quadrupled.
(15)
The worlds grain reserves are drop-ping as they are

used up to meet increasing demand. Graph 1-1 shows
how the worlds grain reserves have declined to a point
where we had only a 35-day supply in 1975.
QUESTIONS:
1.
According to the author, poverty is a relative matter.

However, he agrees with what some observers speak of
absolute poverty because ..
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
much of the world is so miserably poor.

most people in the world are illiterate.
they manage to convince him about it.
the life expectancy of 60% of 5 million of the total
population of Bolivia is only 30 years of age.
How
A.
B.
C.
D.
many people in the world are in absolute poverty?

5 million
1 billion
2 billion
40 million.
: : 172 : :
3.
The
A.
B.
C.
D.
country with the highest gross national product (GNP) is:

Burundi.
United States.
Sweden
France
4.
The
in:
A.
B.
C.
D.
excerpt says that the less-developed countries are rich

raw materials.
educated people
foodstuffs.
both (A) and (C)
5.
The main purpose of this article is

A. to study problems faced by the less developed countries
from the point of view of economic analysis.
B. to persuade the readers that the United States should
be pushed to help the LDCs.
C. to convince the readers that the United States is miserly
with its foreign aid.
D. to ask the readers to empathize with the citizens of the
LDCs.
6.
In paragraph 7, the author argues that the United States

reliance on raw materials from other countries is increasing.
Is this argument reliable?
A. It is reliable because the author is an American
economist.
B. It is reliable because the author supports it with factual
data.
C. It is not reliable because it reflects the authors personal
biases.
D. It is not reliable because the author does not support it
with factual data
7.
The
A.
B.
C.
D.
reference to Harvey Morris in paragraph 2:

adds credibility to the paragraph.
is a specific detail.
is too general a detail.
both (A) and (B)
: : 173 : :
8.
In paragraph 11, the reference to Robert S. McNamara:

A. does not logically support the topic sentence.
B. presents conflict information.
C. adds credibility to the paragraph.
D. both (A) and (B)
9.
The
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Is the author competent to write the essay?

A. I cannot judge his competence because I dont have
much information about his background.
B. He is probably competent.
C. He is a well-known authority in Sociology. Thus hes
very competent to write it.
D. The contents of the essay reflect that he is not
competent.
11.
Was the material recently enough so that the information

D. The information was written so long ago that it is
completely out of date and totally useless.
12.
What is the emotional tone of the material?

A. The material is presented in a straightforward, objective
manner.
B. The material is basically factual, but some opinion
statements and persuasive words can be found.
C. Along with the factual material, emotional words and
ideas are included which influence the readers thinking.
D. Although the material appears to be factual, it is actually
written emotionally in order to stir up readers reaction.
excerpt suggests that less-developed countries:

tend to be democratic.
believe in elections.
tend to be under dictatorship.
have access to the atomic bomb.
: : 174 : :
13.
Is the reasoning logical and are the conclusions justified?

A. The situation is clearly stated, the reasoning makes
sense, and the conclusions are well supported.
B. Considering my limited background of knowledge, I feel
that both the reasoning and conclusions are probably
correct.
information and the conclusions fail to consider the
other side of the situation.
EXERCISE 103: The following is a discussion of the

reasons for the attraction that some religious sects seem
to have for young Americans. Hundreds of intelligent
young people have joined these groups, have separated
themselves from their families and relatives, and have resisted
returning to life outside the sphere of the sect. Some parents have
resorted to legal steps and even kidnapping to recover their children
and reprogram them for life as most people see it. Read the article
and choose the best option to the questions that follow to see how
critically you read the excerpt.
On Not Getting Hooked

(1)
(2)
In late November 1978, news began to arrive in the United

States, first slowly and than with tragic rapidity, that semi
religious, scholastic colony in Guyana, South America
headed by the Reverend Jim Jonesfounder of the
California based People Templehad been the scene of
one of the most shocking suicide-murder rites in recent
times. The bizarre tales appearing in the media prompted
many people to ask how people could have become
involved in something like that.
Some tried to answer these questions by dismissing the
participants as ignorant or mentally unbalanced
: : 175 : :
(3)
(4)
individuals. But as more news came out it became known

that many of the members were fairly well educated
young people, and that Jones was trusted and respected by
part of the California political establishment. We also
learned that such events, although rare, have occurred
before. Early Christian martyrs were willing to be torn
apart by lions rather than toss a pinch of incense to a
Roman god; the Book of Maccabees tells of pious Jews who
allowed themselves to be slaughtered rather than break the
Sabbath by fighting to defend themselves; Buddhists set
themselves on fire to protest the Diem regime in Vietnam
during the early 1960s.
Why are people willing to go to these extremes? Sociology
cannot totally answer this larger question; but it can help
us understand why people join the many sectlike religious
groups now in existence in the United States. During
sociologys formative years, W.I. Thomas noted four
wishes that people seem to share: the desire for
recognition; the desire for new experience; the desire for
mastery; and the desire for security. These needs are
usually
met
by
mediating
structuresfamilies,
neighborhoods, traditional religious organizations,
schoolsthat provide individuals with links to society and
simultaneously fulfill the needs Thomas wrote about.
In modern society, ties to mediating structures have
become quite looseeven nonexistentfor many
individuals. If these basic needs cannot be satisfied in
customary ways, some people are apt to turn to
unconventional alternatives. Poet and author Peter Marin
quotes from a letter from a friend who joined Guru
Maharaj Jis Divine Light Mission.
After a bad relationship, a disintegrated marriage, a
long illness, a deep searching for an answer, I was ripe.
I was always impulsive anyway. So, I bought in. That
: : 176 : :
feeling of love, of community. The certainty that you

are submitting to God incarnate. It creates a
wonderfully deep and abiding euphoria which, for
some, lasts indefinitely.
(5)
(6)
(7)
Harvey Cox, a social theologian, has isolated four reasons

why some Americans are being drawn to Eastern religious
movements. Interestingly enough, these reasons
correspond quite closely to Thomas four wishes.
Most of the converts to Eastern religions are looking for
friendship, companionship, acceptance, warmth, and
recognition. The group provides a supportive community
that helps over-come past loneliness and isolation. Cox
paraphrases this motive: They seem to care for me here. I
was bummed out, confused, just wandering around.
They took me in. They made me feel at home. Now I feel
like a part of it, an important part too. I belong here. In
other words, these Eastern religious groups provide
emotional ties that converts couldnt find at home, school,
church, or work. Many of these groups even adopt kinship
terms to give recruits new identities to set them apart from
their former existencesister, brother, Krishna. Often a
convert is renamed entirely. Entertainer Steve Allens son
Brian joined the Church of Jesus Christ at Armageddon in
Seattle and was reborn under the name Logic Israel.
Most of the Eastern religious movements emphasize
immediate experience and emotional gratification rather
than deliberation and rational movement.
All I got at any church I ever went to were sermons or
homilies about God. Words, words, words. It was all
up in my head. I never really felt it. It was always
abstract, never direct; always somebody elses account
of it. But here it really happened to me. I experienced it
myself. I dont have to tae someone elses word for it.
: : 177 : :
(8)
(9)
(10)
Converts, then, report experiencing religion rather than

merely thinking about it. Whether by meditation, speaking
in tongues, or singing hymns, adherents have the frequent
and intense emotional experiences they could not find
elsewhere.
Eastern religious groups also emphasize authority. By
having a firm authority structure and a clear, simple set of
beliefs and rules, they offer converts something to believe
in. Converts profess to exchange uncertainty, doubt, and
confusion for trust and assurance. Cox puts it this way:
They hunger for an authority that will simplify,
straighten out, assure; something or somebody that will
make their choices fewer and less arduous. For some, the
search for authority ends at the swamis feet.
These sect like religious groups purport to offer
authenticity and naturalness in an otherwise artificial
world. By emphasizing natural foods, communal living
apart from civilization, a unit-form dress code, and
sometimes nudity, these groups attempt to show they are
no part of the plastic society. In fact, some comments
indicate that they are not so much turning to the East as
turning from the West.
Western civilization is shot. It is nothing but
technology and power and rationalization, corrupted
to its core by power and money. It has no contact with
nature, feeling, and spontaneity. What we have to do
now is learn from the Oriental peoples who have never
been ruined by machines and science, which have kept
close to their ancestors simplicity. Western religion has
invalidated itself. Now only the East is possible.
(11)
Just as the original four wishes proposed by Thomas

contain some contradictionsnew experience versus
security, for examplethere are also contradictions within
these new religious groups. In a number of cases, these
: : 178 : :
contradictions have reached the point of serious concerns.

In 1972, for example, two members of the Church of Jesus
Christ at Armageddon were found dead in the church
sanctuary attempting to have an immediate emotional
religious experience by wrapping their heads in plastic
bags and sniffing some chemical. And any number of
popular magazines have discussed the problems of
deprogramming. Movement members become so
dominated by the group that they are unable to think for
themselves and must be placed under the care of
professional therapists. Occasionally they are even
kidnapped from the group by parents or friends who have
become concerned that a converts new identity actually
represents a loss of self-control and personal responsibility.
(12)
These contradiction within sect-like religious movements

indicate that they may not be able to meet their adherents
needs any better than the outside world they reject. Cox
fears that many of the new religious movements will lead
to disillusionment, frustration and bitterness when
members realize they must ultimately exist in the outside
world which is full of uncertainty, confusion, fuzzy
choices, and shades of gray. Moreover, Cox points out,
many of the new religious movements have joined the
consumer society they allegedly deplore by attractively
packaging and selling their techniques and disciplines to
the public. In other words, not only do the new religious
movements not solve the problems people in modern
society must face, but many have themselves become
inauthentic.
: : 179 : :
QUESTIONS
1.
The general public is apt to form opinions about young people

who join one of the new religious sects, such as:
A. the leaders of the groups are authentic holy men
committed to bring the word of god to others.
B. the religious groups fulfill the needs of young people.
C. the kids need close, warm relationships because they
dont experience them at home.
D. those who join must be emotionally unstable individuals
separated from their parents.
2.
The author considers the tragedy in Guyana similar to the .

A. actions of the Jewish Defense League in protecting their
people against anti-Semitism.
B. actions of present-day persons who join one of the new
religious groups.
C. individuals who kill themselves or permit themselves to
be killed because of a religious belief.
D. actions of the Jews in Germany who permitted
themselves to be taken to concentration camps.
3.
Do the four wishes of W.I. Thomas fully explain the behavior

of most people?
A. They are the fundamental needs of all people.
B. They are not the only needs, and moreover, they are
contradictory.
C. Thomas needs are examples of the psychological desires
of many people,
D. The behavior of young people shows the effects of these
wishes.
4.
The author shows the feelings of the young converts .

A. by quoting from their letters.
C. by empathizing
with their problems.
B. by describing their feelings.
D. by explaining what
they feel.
5.
The main purpose of this article is

A. to tell the readers the sociological reasons why people
: : 180 : :
B.
C.
D.
join the many sectlike religious groups now in existence

in the United States.
to persuade the readers that any sectlike religious
movements in the United States should be legally
stopped.
to convince the readers the latest development of sectlike
religious movements has reached a very critical point and
will endanger American society.
To ask the readers to empathize with the converts of the
new religious sects.
6.
Cox is said to believe that young people are drawn to religious

groups for certain reasons, such as .
A. they are isolated, mentally unbalanced persons.
B. they are seeking companionship, acceptance, warmth,
and personal relationships.
C. they are looking for a new religious experience.
D. they are lonely, maladjusted individuals.
7.
In the authors opinion, the new religious groups offer .

A. a more wholesome, natural way of life.
B. an authentic Oriental philosophy of life.
C. a way of life different from that found in most of the
world.
D. a more vibrant, true emotional religion.
8.
Some religious groups meet the needs of young people by

..
A. providing new a new name and a new identity.
B. providing new a supportive community life.
C. providing an authoritative set of simple beliefs and rules.
D. all A, B, C above
9.
Some of the problems created among new converts are ..

A.
B.
C.
E.
complete dependence on the group.

loss of personal self-control and initiative.
inability to deal eventually with the real world.
all A, B, C above
: : 181 : :
10.
Is the author competent to write the essay?

B. I cannot judge his competence because I dont have
much information about his background.
C. He is probably competent.
D. He is a well-known authority in Sociology. Thus hes very
competent to write it.
E. The content of the essay reflects that he is not
competent.
11.
Was the material recently enough so that the information

D. The information was written so long ago that it is
completely out of date and totally useless.
12.
Is the reasoning logical and are the conclusions justified?

A. The situation is clearly stated, the reasoning makes
sense, and the conclusions are well supported.
B. Considering my limited background of knowledge, I feel
that both the reasoning and conclusions are probably
correct.
information and the conclusions fail to consider the other
side of the situation.
: : 182 : :

Critical Reading Module PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Critical Reading Module PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Parlindungan Pardede

ritical Reading is intended for students of teacher training

college, or faculty, majoring in English. It grew out of the

I am indebted to several people who have made the writing and

Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

Interpreting Connotations of Words

Discovering The Authors Point Of View

Crooked and Fallacious Thinking

Recognizing Statistical Slips

Other Aspects of Critical Reading

Critical Reading in Action

A. What is Critical Reading?

The need for critical reading grows daily because much

reads between the lines to determine what the author means by

B. The Procedure of Critical Reading

Are the statements fact or opinion?

To sum up, the process of critical reading might be described in

The third step is to analyze the material by examining the authors

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

Anything you read combines statements of opinion with

A statement of opinion reveals an authors personal feelings,

Cindy Prima is the best newsreader on television.

Since such statements depend on the personal experience,

Statements of opinion express a persons individual response to the

Statements of fact employ more concrete words and phrases.

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

Statements of opinion rely more on abstract words or phrases.

If you find that a writer uses words or phrases that belong to

In the first sentence, the amount of copies sold can be easily

The quantity and quality of love children accept is highly

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

[1] The story of American people is a story of immigration and

[1] In all communications through language people do not only

[1] To be successful you must be compassionate. [2] It

factor into consideration before speaking or acting, you will help

[1] Though a subject of intense speculation, empirical studies on

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

heterosexual patients, proved heterosexuals to be more creative that

[T/F] The advertisement is primarily filled with facts.

d. dozens of proven methods that we guarantee will change

Book sent in plain brown wrapper

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

C. Justified and Unjustified Opinions

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

forbidding people to indulge in smoking if nonsmokers are

The animals used in laboratory research are treated in

People in Southeast Asia are living in both traditional and

All over the U.S.A., union membership is down, and the

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

that unions can deliver on their promise to protect worker

A recent study by the Rand Corporation estimates that

Confucius was a great Chinese teacher. Unlike the Buddha,

of carrying out their duties and obligations with a proper sense

There is no doubt that a persons mental growth depends to

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

make four, they add up to ruin. Reduce your desires, urge

language of over sixty percent of the world's radio programs.

CHAPTER 2 DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

15. Motivation is undoubtedly crucial for successful learning, and

CHAPTER 3 INTERPRETING CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS

Assume, for example, that you want to encourage a friend to change

CHAPTER 3 INTERPRETING CONNOTATIONS OF WORDS

connotations makes it impossible to paraphrase great literary works