Basic Laws Overview

Ideal sources: series & parallel

Resistance & Ohms Law
Denitions: open circuit, short circuit, conductance

Basic Laws

Denitions: nodes, branches, & loops

Kirchhos Laws
Voltage dividers & series resistors
Current dividers & parallel resistors

ECE 221

Wye-Delta Transformations

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v2

= Smoke

Ideal Voltage Sources: Parallel

v1

Ideal voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Ver. 1.25

Recall: ideal voltage sources guarantee the voltage between two

terminals is at the specied potential (voltage)
Immovable object meets unstoppable force
In practice, the stronger source would win
Could easily cause component failure (smoke)
Ideal sources do not exist

ECE 221

Technically allowed if V1 = V2 , but is a bad idea

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= v1+v2

Ideal Voltage Sources: Series

v1

v2

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ideal voltage sources connected in series add

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i1

Ideal Current Sources: Series

i2

= Smoke

Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series

Ver. 1.25

Recall: ideal current sources guarantee the current owing

through source is at specied value

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Recall: the current entering a circuit element must equal the

current leaving a circuit element, Iin = Iout

Could easily cause component failure (smoke)

Ideal sources do not exist

ECE 221

Technically allowed if I1 = I2 , but is a bad idea

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i2

Basic Laws

= i 1 + i2

Ideal Current Sources: Parallel

i1

Ideal current sources in parallel add

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Ver. 1.25

Resistance: Dened
All materials resist the ow of current

Resistance is usually represented by the variable R

Depends on geometry and resistivity of the material

A

Ver. 1.25

Nonlinear
(Ohm's Law Does Not Apply)

Basic Laws

Ohms Law

Linear
(Ohm's Law Applies)

ECE 221

resistance of an element in ohms ()

resistivity of the material in ohm-meters
length of cylindrical material in meters
Cross sectional area of material in meters2

R=

A cylinder of length
and cross-sectional area A has a resistance:

where
R=
=

=
A=

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ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Sign, , is determined by the passive sign convention (PSC)

Ohms Law: v = iR

The slope, m, is equal to the resistance of the element

Materials with a linear relationship satisfy Ohms law: v = mi

Many materials have a complicated nonlinear relationship

(including light bulbs): v = f (i)

As with all circuit elements, we need to know how the current

through and voltage across the device are related

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Resistance: Basic Concepts & Assumptions

We will always measure resistance in Ohms
Ohms are denoted by the greek letter Omega:
Examples: 50 , 1 k, 2.5 M
Conductors (e.g. wires) have very low resistance (< 0.1 ) that
can usually be ignored (i.e. we will assume wires have zero
resistance)
Insulators (e.g. air) have very large resistance (> 50 M) that
can usually be ignored (omitted from circuit for analysis)
Resistors have a medium range of resistance and must be
accounted for in the circuit analysis
Conceptually, a light bulb is similar to a resistor

ECE 221

Properties of the bulb control how much current ows and how
much power is dissipated (absorbed & emitted as light and heat)

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i2

v
+

ECE 221

+
v
-

+
5 mA

v6

Basic Laws

1.61 mA
6 k

+
v
-

+
-

13.53 V

v2

3.38 mA
2 k

Example 1: Ohms Law

2 k

- 0.5882 V +
+
10.59 V

8 k
i8

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

R4

Ver. 1.25

Other Equations Derived from Ohms Law

i

v
Ohms law implies: i = R

Recall p = vi. Therefore

2
v
p = vR
= vR
p = (iR)i = i2 R

1 = 1 V/A

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i
+
V
-

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Circuit

Basic Laws

0V
-

Ver. 1.25

Ver. 1.25

Could draw a resistor with R = 0, but is unnecessary and adds

clutter

Often just drawn as a wire (line)

An element (or wire) with R = 0 is called a short circuit

Circuit

Short Circuit as Zero Resistance

ECE 221

Resistors cannot produce power

Therefore, the power absorbed by a resistor will always be
positive

Resistors & Passive Sign Convention

v
+

Recall that relationships between current and voltage are sign

sensitive

10 V
-

ECE 221

Passive Sign Convention: Current enters the positive terminal of

an element
If PSC satised: v = iR
If PSC not satised: v = iR

=
=
=
=
=

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i2
v6
R4
v2
i8

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10

12

Circuit

i
Circuit

i
+
0V
-

Vs

Short Circuit as Voltage Source (0 V)

0V =
= Smoke

An ideal voltage source Vs = 0 V is also equivalent to a short

circuit
Since v = iR and R = 0, v = 0 regardless of i
Could draw a source with Vs = 0 V, but is not done in practice
Cannot connect a voltage source to a short circuit
Irresistible force meets immovable object

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Circuit

0A
+
V
-

= Smoke

Ver. 1.25

In practice, the wire usually wins and the voltage source melts (if
not protected)

0A =

Open Circuit as Current Source (0 A)

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Circuit

+
V
-

An ideal current source I = 0 A is also equivalent to an open

circuit
Could draw a source with I = 0 A, but is not done in practice
Cannot connect a current source to an open circuit
Irresistible force meets immovable object

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

In practice, you blow the current source (if not protected)

ECE 221

The insulator (air) usually wins. Else, sparks y.

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Circuit

Circuit

Open Circuit
+
V
-

0A

V
-

An element with R = is called a open circuit

Often just omitted

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Could draw a resistor with R = , but is unnecessary and would

add clutter

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Conductance

Sometimes conductance is specied instead of resistance

i
v

v2
p = vi = i2 R =
R
i2
G

p = vi = v 2 G =

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Conductance is a measure of the ability of an element to conduct

electric current
1
R

Inverse of resistance
G=

ECE 221

Units: siemens (S) or mhos (
)

1 S = 1
= 1 A/V

v = Ri
i = Gv

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Circuit Building Blocks

Before we can begin analysis, we need a common language and
framework for describing circuits
For this course, networks and circuits are the same

2 k

2 k

Basic Laws

8 k 5 mA

6 k

Nodes Dened

ECE 221

5 k

Ver. 1.25

Networks are composed of nodes, branches, and loops

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10 V

Example: How many nodes? How many essential nodes?

Node: the point of connection between two or more branches
May include a portion of the circuit (more than a single point)

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Essential Node: the point of connection between three or more

branches

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10 V

2 k

Branches Dened
6 k

8 k 5 mA

Example: How many branches?

2 k

Branch: a single two-terminal element in a circuit

2 k

Basic Laws

Loops Dened
6 k

8 k 5 mA

Basic Laws

5 k

Ver. 1.25

5 k

Ver. 1.25

Segments of wire are not counted as elements (or branches)

2 k

ECE 221

Examples: voltage source, resistor, current source

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10 V

Example: How many loops?

ECE 221

Loop: any closed path in a circuit

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20

Overview of Kirchhos Laws

The foundation of circuit analysis is
The dening equations for circuit elements (e.g. Ohms law)
Kirchhos current law (KCL)
Kirchhos voltage law (KVL)
The dening equations tell us how the voltage and current within
a circuit element are related
Kirchhos laws tell us how the voltages and currents in dierent
branches are related

ECE 221

Basic Laws

6 k

2 k

i2

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

5 k

Ver. 1.25

They govern how elements within a circuit are related

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2 k

i1
8 k 5 mA

= 0
= i2 + i4

i3

Kirchhos Current Law for Boundaries

10 V
i4

i1 i2 + i3 i4
i1 + i3

ECE 221

KCL also applies to closed boundaries for all circuits

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i
1

i5

i2

i4

Kirchhos Current Law

i3

i1 + i2 i3 i4 + i5
i1 + i2 + i5

= 0
= i3 + i4

Kirchhos Current Law (KCL): the algebraic sum of currents

entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero

The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the

currents leaving a node

6 k

i3

3 k

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

5 k

Ver. 1.25

Common sense:
All of the electrons have to go somewhere
The current that goes in, has to come out some place

Basic Laws

Based on law of conservation of charge

ECE 221

2 k

i6
i8

8 k 5 mA

i1

Example 2: Kirchhos Current Law

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10 V

ECE 221

Apply KCL to each essential node in the circuit.

Essential Node 1:
Essential Node 2:
Essential Node 3:

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Vm

= 0

Kirchhos Voltage Law

M

m=1

Kirchhos Voltage Law (KVL): the algebraic sum of voltages

around a closed path (or loop) is zero
Based on the conservation of energy

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

Analogous idea in hydraulic systems: sum of pressure drops and

rises in any closed path must be equal

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v = iR



In = 0
Vm = 0

Comments on Ohms Law, KCL, and KVL

Ohms Law:
KCL:
KVL:

Much of the circuit analysis that we will do is based on these three

laws

ECE 221

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

These laws alone are sucient to analyze many circuits

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1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:

10 V

2 k

v2

6 k

v6

+
8 k 5 mA

3 k

- v3
+
VI
-

Basic Laws

+
v4
-

Example 3: Kirchhos Voltage Law

+
+
v8
-

ECE 221

Apply KVL to each loop in the circuit.

Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop
Loop

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Ohms Law for Fluids

Ohms law applies in uid mechanics

r 4 P
8L

P =

Basic Laws

Ver. 1.25

5 k

8L
Q
r 4

Ver. 1.25

For turbulent ow, the pressure is related to the rate of ow

squared - not analogous
For laminar ow,
Q=

ECE 221

where
Q = ow rate (m3 /s)
r = pipe radius (m)
L = pipe length (m)
P = pressure drop (kN/m2 )
= dynamic viscosity of uid

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8L
r 4 ,

then

P
R
P = R Q

Ohms Law for Fluids Continued

If we dene R =
Q=
This is Ohms law for laminar uid ow in a pipe
Kirchhos laws also apply to fluid networks
Analogs
Resistor Pipe
Voltage source Pressure source
Current source Flow rate source
Capacitor Fluid capacitance (tanks)
Inductor Fluid inductance (inertia)
Transformers Fluid transformers (change in pipe diameter)

ECE 221

Basic Laws

4 k

io

6 k

vo

2vo

Basic Laws

4V

Ver. 1.25

Ver. 1.25

But there are no uid analogs to transistors or op amps

12 V

ECE 221

Example 5: Applying the Basic Laws

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Find io and vo .

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2 k

v2

ECE 221

6 k

v6

5 mA

Basic Laws

Basic Laws

Example 5: Workspace

ECE 221

+
vI
-

Example 4: Applying the Basic Laws

10 V

Find v2 , v6 and vI .

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Ver. 1.25

Ver. 1.25

32

30

70 k

i7
+
v3
i3

5 mA

i2

20 k

30 k

Basic Laws

+
vI
-

Example 6: Applying the Basic Laws

10 V

ECE 221

Find i7 , i3 , i2 , v3 , and vI .

Portland State University

Ver. 1.25

33 Portland State University

Basic Laws

Example 6: Workspace

ECE 221

Ver. 1.25

34