Bibliography (from Greek bibliographia, literally "book writing"), as a discipline, is traditionally the

academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology[1] (from Greek
-, -logia). Carter and Barker (2010) describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly disciplinethe organized
listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive
bibliography).
Branches of bibliography
An enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies
range from "works cited" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable
example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's, A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His
Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or
computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a "bibliography," is bibliographic in
nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.
Bibliographer workplace in Russia
Enumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other
characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a
title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative
bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual
bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to
the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or
selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources
related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates
to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.
Citation styles vary. An entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:
creator(s)
creator(s)
title
article title
publisher and place of publication
journal title
date of publication
volume
An entry for a journal or periodical article
pages
usually contains:
date of publication

A bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give
descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These
descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance.
Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as
required.
Bibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in
a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national
bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.
Descriptive bibliography
Fredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his
Principles of Bibliographical Description (1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as
authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, "[providing]
sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the
precise contents" (124).
Descriptive bibliographies as scholarly product
Descriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a
given book as a material object:
Format and Collation/Pagination Statement a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book
block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages
According to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:
Broadsheet: I or b.s. or bs.
Folio: 2 or fol.
Quarto: 4 or 4to or Q or Q
Octavo: 8 or 8vo
Duodecimo: 12 or 12mo
Sexto-decimo: 16 or 16mo
Tricesimo-secundo: 32 or 32mo
Sexagesimo-quarto: 64 or 64mo
The collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.
For example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:
2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D
would be represented in the collation formula:
4: A2B-C4D2
Binding a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)
Title Page Transcription a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments
Contents a listing of the contents (by section) in the book
Paper a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of
chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)
Illustrations a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g.
woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text
Presswork miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production
Copies Examined an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging
to which library or collector)
Analytical bibliography
This branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artifact such as
type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book to essentially recreate the conditions
of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence such as general printing
practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc. to scrutinize the historical
conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes
knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or
textual bibliography.[7] Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a
physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual
criticism) identifies variations and the aetiology of variations in a text with a view to determining "the
establishment of the most correct form of [a] text (Bowers 498[1]).
Importance
A bibliography can include books, newspapers, websites and interviews. An annotated bibliography goes a
step further by providing a short synopsis of each source, and some authors include a brief personal
analysis. Standard and annotated bibliographies give proper credit to the authors of the source materials, so
readers can determine if the ideas of the researcher are original or influenced by past works.
From a learning perspective, bibliographies aid the researcher in developing a strong standpoint during the
early stages. Writing annotations encourage researchers to perform in-depth readings of all sources,

compare different viewpoints and formulate opinions for a thesis.

In scholarly settings, published annotated bibliographies give fellow researchers a starting point for their
own work and an outline of the writers' thought process. For example, when a paper seems to leave out
leading viewpoints on a particular topic, readers can consult the bibliography to find out if the author
consulted those sources. A full bibliography also lets others know whether the writer performed extensive
research or only looked at a few references.
APPENDIX
Specifically, a text added to the end of a book or an article, containing information that is important to but
is not the main idea of the main text.
What does an Appendix in a book show?
You must be well aware of the appendix, an organ in the human body, but dont confuse it with an appendix
in a book. An appendix, in a book, is a collection of extra or supplementary material generally used in
books and academic writing and appears at the end of a book.
Where do you find appendix in a book?
To cite an easy example of an appendix how about going through a document about vacationing practices
of Americans. In all probability you would find an appendix that would include extra material such as site
maps, vacation brochures, train time-tables, statistical figures about the number and different age groups of
vacationers and so forth.
Appendix of a book is thus a huge table or reference section giving further details. It appears in the end as it
would be a distraction if included in the main material of the book. Appendix is extra content and as such is
different from an index which would be guide to the topics of the book or a glossary which is a list of the
common terms used in the book.
Why is appendix used in a book?
The main function of an appendix is to append to an earlier section, chapter or a subject used in the book.
The plural form of the word Appendix is appendices. They support the credibility of the author and the
publication. A book may have more than one appendix and are usually differentiated by using a letter such
as Appendix A or Appendix B and so on. An index, bibliography or a glossary may refer to different
types of appendices but each has got its specific function in the book.
An appendix in a book can contain a variety of information which may be useful for the reader. The
information should be presented in an organized and orderly manner so that it becomes easy for the reader
to look up for particular references when essential. The appendix may contain a list of the sources used,
tables, diagrams, and a list of dates and so on. It may also contain a list of additional works which may
interest the reader to read further and thus simplify his task of looking for additional material on the same
subject.
In research writings an appendix is very important as it can contain vital sources such as photographs,
letters and any original documents. Other references could include technical drawings and maps. In
academic and scientific works, raw data is often included in the appendix so that readers can verify the
sources immediately. The appendix by and large lends a certain degree of credibility to the data analysis
and conveys the use of good research methods.
In some books appendix is used to further include footnotes as well instead of using them in the main text.
Maybe, this method is suggested by some guides to reduce the distraction caused by footnotes and
presenting a convenient place to record all the footnotes in one section.

Bibliography (sometimes included)

This is either a separate list of sources which you have used during your research, but have not actually
made reference to in your writing, or this list together with your list of references.

Appendices. Use appendices to present supplemental information for secondary readers. When the
occasion arises in the text, refer readers to information in the appendix. For example:

Appendices (sometimes included)

An appendix (plural=appendices) is detailed documentation of points you outline in your findings, for
example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets etc. It is supplementary
information which you consider to be too long or complicated or not quite relevant enough to include in
your main body, but which still should be of interest to your reader.
Each appendix should be referred to in your text. You should not include something as an appendix if it is
not discussed in the main body.

Appendices

Under this heading you should include all the supporting information you have used that is not published.
This might include tables, graphs, questionnaires, surveys or transcripts. Refer to the appendices in the
body of your report.
Bibliography
Your bibliography should list, in alphabetical order by author, all published sources referred to in your
report. There are different styles of using references and bibliographies. Refer to the study
guide Referencing and Bibliographies and check your departmental handbook for guidelines. Texts which
you consulted but did not refer to directly could be grouped under a separate heading such as 'Background
Reading' and listed in alphabetical order using the same format as in your bibliography.

II. BODY OF THE REPORT

A. PURPOSE

-A purpose statement is a declarative sentence which summarizes the

specific topic and goals of a document. It is typically included in the
introduction to give the reader an accurate, concrete understanding what the
document will cover and what he/she can gain from reading it. To be
effective, a statement of purpose should be:
o Specific and precise - not general, broad or obscure
o Concise - one or two sentences
o Clear - not vague, ambiguous or confusing
o Goal-oriented - stated in terms of desired outcomes
-The introduction sets the scene for the main body of the report. The aims
and objectives of the report should be explained in detail. Any problems or
limitations in the scope of the report should be identified, and a description of
research methods, the parameters of the research and any necessary
background history should be included.
-The objectives of a report identify exactly what information it covers, for
whom it is written and why it should be produced; these objectives should be
clear to the writer long before the process of writing starts.

B. METHOD
-Information under this heading may include: a list of equipment used;
explanations of procedures followed; relevant information on materials used,
including sources of materials and details of any necessary preparation;
reference to any problems encountered and subsequent changes in
procedure.
-method used to test a theory, verify a design or conduct a process.
-experiments, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observational trials, and
many more.
-How your research was carried out; how the information was gathered.
-Similar to procedure, but more appropriate to scientific or engineering report
writing. The following advice comes from Robert Barrass' book Scientists
Must Write (Chapman & Hall, 1978:135-136):
1 List the equipment used and draw anything that requires description
(unless this is very simple).
2 State the conditions of the experiment and the procedure, with any
precautions necessary to ensure accuracy and safety. However, when
several experiments are reported, some details may fit better in the
appropriate parts of the Results section.
3 Write the stages in any new procedure in the right order and describe in
detail any new technique, or modifications of an established technique.
4 If necessary, refer to preliminary experiments and to any consequent
changes in technique. Describe your controls adequately.

5 Include information on the purity and structure of the materials used,

and on the source of the material and the method of preparation.

C. FIDINGS
-in as many sections as necessary.
-The findings (also called as results) sections begin with an overview of the
study or subject of the section.

-This section should include a summary of the results of the investigation or

experiment together with any necessary diagrams, graphs or tables of
gathered data that support your results. Present your results in a logical order
without comment. Discussion of your results should take place in the main
body (Discussion) of the report.
-Each subsection that follows discusses one of the sub problems.
-(possibly included in scientific/engineering reports)
This section records your observations (in the past tense) and would normally
include statistics, tables or graphs.
This is the substance of your report. The structure will vary according to the
nature of the material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used
to clearly indicate the different sections (unlike an essay). A
"situation>problem>solution>evaluation" approach may be appropriate.
It is not sufficient to simply describe a situation. Your tutor will be looking for
analysis and for a critical approach, when appropriate.
Charts, diagrams and tables can be used to reinforce your arguments,
although sometimes it may be better to include these as an appendix
(particularly if they are long or complicated).
Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section.

D. CONCLUSIONS
-recommendations if it is requested.
-Ensure that conclusions and recommendations stem directly from the
findings that the ample supporting evidence has been presented.
-Avoid extreme or exaggerated language.
-Provide an appropriate concluding paragraph.

In this final section of the body of the report, the author should briefly bring
everything together. It is similar to the abstract except that now the results
are concluded upon in a quantitative way. Therefore, the conclusion should
be a concise description of the report including its purpose and most
important results providing specific quantitative information. The conclusion
should not contain figures or make reference to them. As with the abstract,
the reader should be able to read this section on its own which means that
there should be no specific technical jargon, abbreviations, or acronyms used.

The conclusion section analyzes for the most important results from the
discussion and evaluates those results in the context of the entire work. In
your conclusion, you often make recommendations based on those
evaluations. The conclusion is much like an informative summary except for
one thing-in the conclusion, you are writing to an audience who has read your
report. Note that you do not necessarily have to use the word "Conclusion" as
the title for this section. Depending on the situation, you might for example
choose "Conclusions and Recommendations." In still other situations, your
conclusion might span two sections.