CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The need for having home protection has always been of
great importance. But in recent times, considering a dramatic rise
in petty crimes like robbery and theft, the need has been more
strongly felt to have a fool proof protection of the belongings and
the family members. Home security has come a long way in the
last few decades. Initially security was in the hands of guards who
manually provided surveillance during the night in the earlier
days, but it was not fool proof as it was only normal for a security
man to have momentary lapses in concentration. The guard was
also susceptible to sleep at times. It was then that home alarm
systems based upon electronic circuits were developed which
proved to be highly reliable and were appreciated by the people
as they were relieved from constant monitoring of their homes.
A shadow alarm, as defined by Trimmer, H. William (1981) is
a system designed to detect intrusion unauthorized entry into
a building or area by generating or giving off an alarm whenever a
shadow falls on it. Security alarms are used in residential,

commercial, industrial, and military properties for protection

against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as personal
protection against intruders. Shadow alarms are widely used for
security purposes. Shadow sensors are widely used to detect the
movement of a person in a confined area. Many circuits published
earlier have a serious drawback that only one light dependent
resistor (LDR) is used for shadow detection. In this project work,
we shall describe a simple but improved circuit of a smart shadow
sensor alarm, which can register a shadow when there is a light
difference. Here, two 5mm LDRs are used with the popular Opamp LM741CN to drive an active piezo-sounder when a valid
shadow is detected. The whole shadow sensor circuit can be
powered from four 1.5V AA cells (6VDC), or similar dc supply
sources. It can be easily installed on the windows and doors of
buildings and offices. The opto-sensitive device sounds an alarm
whenever a shadow falls on it. So it can be used at night by
shopkeepers to protect the valuables in their showrooms. A dim
lighting in the room is necessary to detect the moving shadow. It
does not require an aligned light beam to illuminate the photosensor.

According to Schatz, David A., et al (1998), a shadow

detector equipment will do exactly the way it is named detect a
shadow or movement within the range of its set sensitivity and
subsequently raise an alarm. Needless to say these are used for
securing restricted zones or simply for monitoring unwanted
occupations. Compared to other types of popular security devices
and concepts, a shadow detector alarm is comparatively more
reasonable and accurate. This is simply because the operating
principles of these devices make them detect only genuine
intrusions and only around the restricted area, so whenever an
alarm is sounded through it, you can be certain that an infiltration
has taken place.
This shadow alarm system uses IC CA3130, one of the most
common Operational Amplifiers which was wired in an inverting
mode and used as the tone generator and amplifier to obtain
maximum audible sound.
The first chapter of this project talked about the introduction,
the concept of the system and also the aims and objective of the
project among other things. Chapter two is about the review of

past literature and work done on the project under consideration.

Chapter three is about the construction in full while Chapter four
is on result analysis. Chapter five is conclusion, recommendation
and References.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The twentieth century also saw major developments in
security alarm technology. Once Calahan's emergency call box
design had become more affordable after the second world war,
more control points could be used for medical services, police and
fire departments, thus improving the security of the population
nationwide (Terrance Hughes, 2012). In the 1970s, engineers
integrated the first motion detectors in their alarm systems. The
80s

and

90s

were

particularly

marked

by

growing

democratization, in which security alarm systems became a

standard feature of building security. Finally, the first wireless
alarm systems came on the market and revolutionized alarm
technology as well as on a practical level until the unavoidable
tangle of cables eventually passed away. Several other ideas and
methods have been proposed and used as solutions to curb cases

of intrusions and subsequent thefts into residential and office

building. Some of such methods include having human sentries,
employing security outfits, fixing barbed wire fences, etc. Other
methods abound but one observable problem with these devices
were that they proved to be ineffective in detecting and
apprehending intruders who took advantage of lapses in the
security methods to perpetrate crime. This project work therefore
seeks to critically look at these already existing devices and their
modes of operation with the intention of finding out their
limitations and proffer a better design that can comfortably
surmount the observed limitations of the former systems. Looking
at the high cost of losses which could be and is usually incurred
always when thieves break in and steal from our homes and
offices, it is pertinent we look at a solution which has the
capability of preventing intrusions and thefts than providing
solutions after a theft must have already occurred.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It is worthy to note that despite the so many efforts aimed at
apprehending criminals who intrude into our homes and privacy,

none of them has been able to prevent crime. The monitoring

cameras and other such gadgets and devices have only served to
provide information as to how a crime was committed. But how
these theft incidents could be nipped in the bud and prevented is
another thing these devices has not and could not do. And then
we find out that many times even when the information on crime
is provided, nothing is done to apprehend the culprits. It is no
longer enough for us to just have information on a crime, the
problem then is to find ways to prevent these crimes from
happening in the first instance. This solution then, is what this
project seeks to provide.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
John D. Jenkins (2013) wrote that a few years ago, precisely
in 2008, product developers in modern wireless alarm technology
at ABUS Security-Center managed to integrate a combination of
mechanical and electronic protection in just one single alarm
system. Any attempts at intrusion are averted with high
mechanical resistance force and detected electronically at the
same time. For example, any burglar who wants to pry open a

window will find it virtually impossible to break into the house due
to the claw-like steel bars. In addition, any attempt to force entry
that is detected is forwarded to an alarm control panel, which
then reliably sets off a loud alarm and the offender is forced to
escape.
But the flaw in the above described device however, is that
there is no definite difference between the shadow cast by an
intruder and that of a small animal. The aim and objective of this
project work is to design a device which can comfortably detect a
human shadow as distinct from shadows cast by little animals and
trees. This is going to be achieved by using a moving and sizeable
shadow as the reference shadow of the device. This project has
the capability of reducing burglary and unauthorized intrusion to
its barest minimum, thereby giving property owners a sense of
security and comfort even when they leave their premises and
homes.
1.4

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

This device functions as an electronics watch dog. This

device functions as a major security alarm that can be used in

residential, commercial, industrial, and military buildings to

protect properties against burglary (theft) or property damage, as
well as personal protection against intruders.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Scope is used here to indicate the depth into which this
study intends to go in examining the role smart security devices
and gadgets play in ensuring the safety of lives and property of
individual in buildings such as residential buildings, office
buildings, shopping malls, supermarkets, social events centres,
churches and educational institutions, etc. In one aspect, this
project is going to examine the different models of security
devices, methods and solutions already in use, and the ways in
which the shadow detector can be incorporated so as to bring
lasting solution to burglary thefts. On the other aspect, it is going
to look for ways the device can be effectively utilized to provide a
better solution to crime prevention.
1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
A careful review of the different crime and intruder
prevention devices and models shows that there exist minor and
8

major differences in the operational mode of already existing

devices. Some smart security devices are quite distinct from
others in so many aspects. One of the problems encountered in
this project work is that even the shadow of big animals can also
trigger the device just as the shadow of human being can as well.
This obviously posed a limitation in evaluating the effectiveness
of usage of the device. However, an attempt was made to make
the sensitivity of the device intelligent enough so as to take
notice of shadows only as large as that of humans. Another
limitation encountered in this study is that a comprehensive
documentation has not yet been made with respect to the
construction and effective use of shadow detector circuit. Efforts
however were made to gather the little bits of information on the
project together and use them as secondary materials upon which
the evaluation of the present system and its construction and
usage are based.
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS
In the course of carrying out a research on a project such as
this, there is need for careful definition of the operative words

used in the project and its report. This is so as to minimize the

possibility of ambiguity in discussions as the study progresses. In
the light of the above therefore, attempt will be made to define
keywords as used in this project. The words to be defined then are
as follows:
Intruder Alarm: An intruder alarm is a system designed to
detect intrusion unauthorized entry into a building or area.
Burglary: Burglary is the crime of breaking into and entering the
dwelling of another with felonious intent, whether or not the
felony is actually perpetrated.
Sensors: Sensors are devices which detect intrusions. Sensors
may be placed at the perimeter of the protected area, within it, or
both.
Electric Fence: Security electric fences consist of wires that
carry pulses of electric current to provide a non-lethal shock to
deter potential intruders. Tampering with the fence also results in
an alarm that is logged by the security electric fence energiser,
and can also trigger a siren, strobe, and/or notifications to a
control room or directly to the owner via email or phone.

10

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 REVIEW OF THE SYSTEM
Several works have been done by various authors and
scholars on this topic and several other related topics. This
chapter reviews previous efforts made in the construction and
design of a shadow detector circuit. One of such works was done
by the Kaduna State University, Computer Science Department.
Their project was on automatic alarm of various kinds. In the
project, they wrote about the intruder alarm and its design, as

11

well as its construction. The modes of operation, limitations, etc.

were talked on. There are very few reviews on the topic though.
Describing the shadow alarm detector, Trimmer, H. William
(1981) postulated that shadow alarm devices are usually used for
protection against theft. He went ahead to define the device as a
compact shadow alarm unit that sounds an alarm when a shadow
falls on it. This compact shadow alarm unit is capable of sensing a
moving shadow in a restricted area, and can be easily installed on
walls, windows or doors to protect valuables from theft. Constant
lighting however is required in the confined area to detect the
moving shadow. Writing also on the issue of shadow alarms and
security, Weber, Thad L. (1985) mentioned other individuals such
as Karl Benz, the owner of Mercedes Benz and Henry Ford, the
owner of Ford cars who saw the need for this alarm in the 70s
and 80s and started using these alarms in their products. Today,
most cars in the world come with this shadow alarm and even
more advanced security systems. Therefore, it can be said that
house shadow alarms are the basis of all car security systems.

12

2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF INTRUDER ALARM

According to Walker, Philip (1985), intruder alarms have
been around for thousands of years. The most basic alarm used
by ancient humans was the dog. It would protect property and
guard against people who were attempting to take valuables. He
further said that the first electro-magnetic alarm system in the
world was patented on 21 June 1853 in the name of a man called
Augustus Russell Pope, an inventor from Sommerville in Boston.
Up until then, people had mainly relied on the loud chatter of their
startled geese, the integrity of their guard dogs or mechanical
ringing to catch any intruders on their property. Over time,
humans used other tricks like chimes to warn them against
burglars.

Modern

intruder

alarms,

however,

are

far

more

elaborate and use advanced forms of technology.

The second half of the 19th century was a period of great
innovation in the security industry according to Ramsey, Anthony
(2001). He as well said that the first home alarm system was
patented in 1853 by a Bostonian inventor named Augustus
Russell Pope. According to him, Augustus created a proximity

13

sensor for doors and windows by connecting them to a parallel

circuit, a simple device which rang a bell. Much like alarm
systems today, Popes alarm could not be turned off simply by
shutting the door or window that tripped it!
Augustus eventually sold his invention to Edwin Holmes, who
created the first modern alarm company, the Holmes Electric
Protection Company. Pope's battery-operated gadget may seem
very simple from today's point of view but it proved extremely
effective against intruders. It reacted to the closing of an electric
circuit: doors and windows were connected as independent units
by a parallel circuit. If the door or a window was opened and the
electric circuit closed, the sudden flow of current caused one of
the attached magnets in the system to vibrate. The electromagnetic vibrations were transmitted to a hammer which then
struck a brass bell. The special feature of Pope's invention was
that the alarm could not be switched off by merely closing the
windows or doors. A switch spring mounted in the wall above the
door kept the current interrupted in this case as well, so that the
bell could keep ringing.

14

Despite the pioneering work of Pope, most individuals

usually assume that someone else, namely Edwin Holmes was the
father of the modern alarm system. Making the clarification
however, Atss, R. Nandakumar (1998) said that Edwin Holmes was
a businessman and founder of the first company for electrical
alarm systems, who had in fact bought the rights to Pope's
invention in 1857. Going further, Atss, R. Nandakumar (1998)
continued that it was him (Edwin Holmes) who then led the way in
the business of electro-magnetic alarm technology with his
Holmes Electric Protection Company.
Another milestone in the history of modern alarm systems
according to John D. Jenkins (2012) was made after Holmes, by a
young man named Edward A. Calahan. In 1867 the qualified
telegrapher invented the first gold and stock ticker which meant
that price changes on Wall Street could be rapidly transferred to
the investors. The messenger boys who delivered the notes to all
the stockbrokers then had even more to do, as there was much
more information available within a very short time from that
point on. But what has all this to do with the development of

15

electric alarm systems? Jenkins went on to explain that the

connection came about by the president of the company who
soon funded the production of the stock ticker, Elisha Andrews,
who was now Calahan's boss. The poor man was taken by surprise
in his home one night by a burglar and seriously robbed. Shocked
by the incident, Calahan felt obliged to protect his boss from such
dangers in future. His plan was to fit each of the fifty neighbours
in the proximity of Andrew's house with one emergency call box
and one bell and then to connect the houses to one another. For
each household call box, a certain number of bell rings was
determined that could distinguish the houses in the event of a
burglary. If an alarm rang in house A, houses B and C would know
that house A was probably being burgled.
While he was working on the first emergency call apparatus,
Calahan

had

another

decisive

idea:

burglaries

occurred

particularly frequently in cities if his system were to not only

trigger an alarm but also provide a service then an emergency
central station was necessary which could react to incoming calls
for help. He began by dividing New York City into districts which

16

were all to be connected up to a central monitoring station. In the

event of an incoming emergency call, a messenger boy would be
sent out to promptly arrange help for that particular district. The
advantage of the call boxes was that they required very little
maintenance. They were run on the mains supply from the local
central station. In 1871, Calahan helped form the American
District Telegraph (ADT) company. The company was highly
successful and held offices in Brooklyn, New York, Baltimore,
Philadelphia and Chicago from 1875. Calahan's emergency call
boxes became standard use for police and fire services, as well as
for messenger services. By the end of the 1870s, two thirds of all
stock sold was made via messenger boys from ADT.
Another innovator of alarm technology worth mentioning
was Alexander Graham Bell. Although Alexander is best known for
his development of the first working telephone, few know that he
used this same technology to create the first version of a central
monitoring station. Writing on Alexander Graham Bell and this
innovation, Aii, N. Clifton (2002) said that in May 1877, the worlds
first telephone switchboard was created to connect five bank

17

branches together. The 1800s had been a period of deadly bank

robberies, and bank managers were desperate to figure out some
way to protect their customers valuables. The switchboard made
bank robbery a far more difficult proposition for a couple of
reasons: First , bank staff could immediately notify the other four
branches that a robbery was in progress, which meant law
enforcement had a chance of arriving in time to apprehend the
bank robbers. Second, bank employees could describe the
robbers physical appearance over the phone, which made it
easier for law enforcement to find them and post Wanted posters
if the robbers managed to get away.
While burglar alarm technology has developed significantly
since the 19th century, it is still based on the basic principles
innovated by Augustus Pope and Alexander Bell. All major alarm
companies, including Mijac Alarm, make use of proximity sensors
in the windows and doors as the first line of defense against
potential burglars, and alarm systems transmit information to a
central monitoring station that can dispatch law enforcement
quickly and effectively.

18

Fortunately, technological advances have made security

systems more reliable than a brass bell and a magnet, and way
more secure than sliding a big rock in front of your door but we
should be mindful of how much we owe to the innovators that
have made families around the world safer than ever before.

2.2 REVIEW OF THE INFRARED DETECTOR

The infrared sensor, being one of the primary and most
important components of the shadow detector circuit shall be
briefly discussed in this section.
According to Nafees, Ahmed A. et al, the history of the
infrared

detector

started

with

Herschels

experiment

with

thermometer on February 11th, 1800. They postulated that

infrared detectors are in general used to detect, picture, and
measure patterns of the thermal heat radiation which all objects

19

emit. At the beginning, their development was connected with

thermal detectors, such as thermocouples and bolometers, which
are still used today and which are generally sensitive to all
infrared wavelengths and operate at room temperature. The
second kind of detectors, called the photon detectors, was mainly
developed during the 20th Century to improve sensitivity and
response time. These detectors have been extensively developed
since the 1940s. Lending credence to this, Marian P. (2009)
explained that Lead Sulphide (PbS) was the first practical IR
detector with sensitivity to infrared wavelengths up to ~3 m.
After World War II, infrared detector technology development
continued

to

be

primarily

driven

by

military

applications.

Discovery of variable band gap HgCdTe ternary alloy by Lawson

and coworkers in 1959 opened a new area in IR detector
technology and has provided an unprecedented degree of
freedom in infrared detector design. Many of these advances were
transferred to IR astronomy from Departments of Defence
research. Later on civilian applications of infrared technology are
frequently called dualuse technology applications. One should
point out the growing utilisation of IR technologies in the civilian

20

sphere based on the use of new materials and technologies, as

well as the noticeable price decrease in these high cost
technologies.
Swetha R. et al (2009) also pointed out that in the last four
decades different types of detectors have been combined with
electronic readouts to make detector focal plane arrays (FPAs).
Development in FPA technology has revolutionized infrared
imaging. Progress in integrated circuit design and fabrication
techniques has resulted in continued rapid growth in the size and
performance of these solid state arrays.
Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary
protection; combination systems may provide both fire and
intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be
combined with closed-circuit television surveillance systems to
automatically record the activities of intruders, and may interface
to access control systems for electrically locked doors. Systems
range from small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated,
multi-area systems with computer monitoring and control.
2.3 DESIGN OF ALARM DEVICES

21

The most basic alarm consists of one or more sensors to

detect intruders, and an alerting device to indicate the intrusion.
However, a typical premises security alarm employs the following
components:
Premises control unit (PCU), Alarm Control Panel (ACP),
or simply panel: The "brain" of the system, it reads sensor
inputs, tracks arm/disarm status, and signals intrusions. In
modern systems, this is typically one or more computer
circuit boards inside a metal enclosure, along with a power
supply.
Sensors: Devices which detect intrusions. Sensors may be
placed at the perimeter of the protected area, within it, or
both. Sensors can detect intruders by a variety of methods,
such as monitoring doors and windows for opening, or by
monitoring

unoccupied

interiors

for

motions,

sound,

vibration, or other disturbances.

Alerting devices: These indicate an alarm condition. Most
commonly, these are bells, sirens, and/or flashing lights.

22

Alerting

devices serve

the dual purposes of warning

occupants of intrusion, and potentially scaring off burglars.

These devices may also be used to warn occupants of a fire
or smoke condition.
Keypads: Small devices, typically wall-mounted, which
function as the human-machine interface to the system. In
addition to buttons, keypads typically feature indicator
lights, a small multi-character display, or both.
Interconnections between components. This may consist
of direct wiring to the control unit, or wireless links with local
power supplies.
Security devices: Devices to detect thieves such as
spotlights, cameras & lasers.
In addition to the system itself, security alarms are often
coupled with a monitoring service. In the event of an alarm, the
premises control unit contacts a central monitoring station.
Operators at the station see the signal and take appropriate
action, such as contacting property owners, notifying police, or

23

dispatching

private

security

forces.

Such

signals

may

be

transmitted via dedicated alarm circuits, telephone lines, or

Internet.
2.3.1

TIMELINE OF SECURITY ALARM INVENTIONS

In 1852, Edwin Holmes invented the first electric alarm

system in Boston. The basic design featured a tripwire that
electrically powered a solenoid that struck a gong when it
was set off. He started a business with the concept and
moved to New York.
In 1905, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company
purchased

the

Holmes

business.

Using

the

advanced

electrical grid that was established in New York, the

company linked the personal burglar alarms to police and
fire departments.
Starting in the 1970s, a number of alarm systems came
equipped with motion sensors. These used basic ultrasonic
technology that were emitted from a sensor and reflected
back. Any change in sound would cause the system to go off.

24

2.3.2

IMPROVEMENTS

During the 1980s, improvements to motion sensors merged

with other technologies. Motion sensors began to use
infrared technology to avoid false positives and also superior
electrical components to establish full home protection
systems.
2.3.3

INTEGRATION

Throughout the 1990s, the prices on home security systems

fell. Many companies offered free installation packages with
a monthly fee. The system was integrated with not only
safety services, but also phone support from the company
itself.

25

CHAPTER THREE
CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
3.0 SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
Shadow alarms are widely used for security purposes.
Described here is a simple but improved circuit of a smart shadow
sensor alarm, which can register a shadow when there is a light
difference. A shadow alarm is a device that generates an alarm
whenever a shadow falls on it. This shadow alarm circuit can
sense a moving shadow in a confined area. It can be used to
protect things from theft. When somebody approaches the unit, it

26

will give a loud alarm to abort the attempt of theft. The circuit
uses the light sensing property of the Photo diode. This project
can be easily installed on windows and doors. This block diagram
demonstrates the principle of operation of a simple shadow alarm
using photodiode. The block diagram is as shown below:

Figure 1: Block diagram of the shadow detector circuit

3.1 SHADOW ALARM CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

27

Figure 2: Circuit diagram of the shadow detector

3.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE DEVICE
The circuit uses the light sensing property of the PIN
Photodiode. The p-n junction of the photo diode gives light current
when it is forward biased. IC1 is designed as a voltage
comparator. Its non inverting input is connected to a potential
divider R1 and VR. By adjusting VR, input current to pin3 can be
set to a reference level. The inverting input of IC1 is connected to
a photo diode. IC CA3130 is a 15 MHz BiMOS Operational amplifier
with MOSFET inputs and bipolar output. The inputs contain
MOSFET transistors to provide very high input impedance and
very low input current as low as 10pA. It has high speed of
performance and suitable for low input current applications.
CA3130A and CA3130 are op amps that combine the
advantage of both CMOS and bipolar transistors. Gate-protected
P-Channel MOSFET (PMOS) transistors are used in the input circuit
to provide very-high-input impedance, very-low-input current and
exceptional speed performance. The use of PMOS transistors in
the input stage results in common-mode input-voltage capability

28

down to 0.5V below the negative-supply terminal, an important

attribute in single-supply applications. A CMOS transistor-pair,
capable of swinging the output voltage to within 10mV of either
supply-voltage terminal (at very high values of load impedance),
is employed as the output circuit.
The CA3130 Series circuits operate at supply voltages
ranging from 5V to 16V. They can be phase compensated with a
single external capacitor, and have terminals for adjustment of
offset voltage for application requiring offset-null capability.
Terminal provisions are also made to permit strobing of the output
stage. The CA3130A offers superior input characteristics over
those of the CA3130.
Normally in the light (as set by VR) Photodiode gives voltage to
pin2 of IC1. Since this voltage is higher than the voltage set by VR
at pin3 ,output of IC1 remains low keeping LED and buzzer off.
When a person approaches the photodiode, the shadow causes a
reduction in current through the photodiode so that voltage at
pin2 decreases below that of pin3. Output of IC1 then goes high
and Buzzer sounds.

29

Note: The circuit triggers when the light intensity changes

without a shadow. It is better to keep the unit in a place where
constant light is available
3.3 SYSTEM OPERATION
This shadow alarm circuit can sense a moving shadow in a
confined area. It can be used to protect things from theft. When
somebody approaches the unit, it will give a loud alarm to abort
the attempt of theft. The circuit uses the light sensing property of
the Photo diode.
3.4 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

Figure 3: Diagram of the power supply unit of the device

30

A regulated 9V/500mA power supply that can be used for

powering the basic fire alarm circuit and its modified versions is
shown above. Transformer T1 is a 230V primary, 12V secondary,
500mA step down transformer. D1 is a 1A bridge which performs
the job of rectification. Capacitor C1 filters the rectifier output and
C2 is the AC by-pass capacitor. IC1 (7809) is a 9V fixed positive
voltage regulator. The output of the rectifier+filter section is
connected to the input of 7805 and a regulated steady 9V is
obtained at its output. S1 is the ON/OFF switch. F1 is a 500mA
safety fuse.
3.5 FUNCTION OF THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE
DEVICE
3.5.1

PHOTODIODE

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light

into current. The current is generated when photons are absorbed
in the photodiode. A small amount of current is also produced
when no light is present. Photodiodes may contain optical filters,
built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas.
Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface
31

area increases. The common, traditional solar cell used to

generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.

Figure 4: Diagram showing a photodiode

Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes
except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or
X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to
allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes
designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction
rather than a pn junction, to increase the speed of response. A
photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.

32

Photodiode is a pn junction or PIN structure. When a photon

of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it creates an electron-hole
pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric
effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region,
or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from
the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region.
Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current
through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current
that is generated in the absence of light) and the photocurrent, so
the dark current must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of
the device
3.5.2

CAPACITOR

It is a passive component with two terminals and used to

store charges. Capacitors are made up of two conductors which
are separated by the dielectric medium flows in between. It works
when the potential difference applied across the conductors
polarize the dipole ions to store the charge in the dielectric
medium.

33

Figure 5: Diagram of a capacitor

There are two types of capacitors

i.

Polarized They have polarity means + and- sign

marked on it. It is mainly used to store the charges.
Before troubleshooting the circuit capacitors must be
fully discharged as they have charges store in it.

ii.

Non-polarized They dont have a polarity and can be

mounted in any of the way. They are generally used to
remove the noises present during the conversion of AC
into DC.

3.5.3

RECTIFYING DIODE

34

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating

current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct
current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of
forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper
and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, siliconcontrolled

rectifiers

and

switches.

Historically,

other

even

silicon-based

synchronous

semiconductor

electromechanical

switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called
crystal radios, used a cats whisker of fine wire pressing on a
crystal of galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or crystal detector.

Figure 6: Rectifying diodes in a rectifier circuit

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as
components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current

35

power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles

other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power.
As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas
heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of
flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave,
the process of rectification alone produces a DC current which,
although unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio,
television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC
current (as would by produced by a battery). In these applications
the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter to
produce a steady current.

3.5.4

I.C. CA3130 OPAMP

CA3130A and CA3130 are op amps that combine the

advantage of both CMOS and bipolar transistors. Gate-protected
P-Channel MOSFET (PMOS) transistors are used in the input circuit

36

to provide very-high-input impedance, very-low-input current, and

exceptional speed performance. The use of PMOS transistors in
the input stage results in common-mode input-voltage capability
down to 0.5V below the negative-supply terminal, an important
attribute in single-supply applications.

Figure 7: Circuit diagram of the Op Amp

APPLICATIONS
i.

Ground-Referenced Single Supply Amplifiers

ii.

Fast Sample-Hold Amplifiers

iii.

Long-Duration Timers/Monostables

iv.

High-Input-Impedance Comparators (Ideal Interface with

Digital CMOS)

v.

High-Input-Impedance Wideband Amplifiers

37

vi.

Voltage Followers (e.g. Follower for Single-Supply D/A

Converter)

vii.

Voltage Regulators (Permits Control of Output Voltage Down

to 0V)

viii.

Peak Detectors

ix.

Single-Supply Full-Wave Precision Rectifiers

x.

Photo-Diode Sensor Amplifiers

3.5.5

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.

LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are
increasingly used for general lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity
red light, but modern versions are available across the visible,
ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

38

Figure 8: Light Emitting Diodes and its symbol

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are
able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy
in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence,
and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon)

is

determined

by

the

energy

band

gap

of

the

semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2),

and integrated optical components may be used to shape its
radiation pattern. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent
light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively
expensive,

and

management

require

than

more

compact

precise

fluorescent

current
lamp

and

heat

sources

of

comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as
aviation

lighting,

automotive

lighting,

advertising,

general

lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video
displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching

39

rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many
commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other
domestic appliances. LEDs are also used in seven-segment
display.

3.5.6

RESISTORS

It is a passive component having two terminals that are used

to manage the current flow in the circuit. A current that flows via
a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage that appeared into
the resistor.
A resistor in its definition is an electrical and electronic
component that offers opposition to the flow of electrical current.
It also acts as a pre-load on the voltage supplies to a system i.e.
causes an initial voltage drop across it this is a pre-load
component. It is often called a bleeder resistor because it
provides the following advantages.
Resistors are of two types

40

i.

Fixed Resistor having a fixed value of resistance

ii.

Variable Resistor whose value of resistance can be changed

for example if we have a resistor of 5K then the value of
resistance will vary from 0 to 5 k.

Value of resistance can be calculated with the help of a

multimeter or with the color code which is visible on the resistor.
1.

It improves voltage regulation of the supply by acting as a

pre-load on the supply, thereby causing an initial voltage
drop. In this way difference between no-load and full-load is
reduced hence improving the regulation of the system.

2.

It improves filtering action

3.

It also provides safety to the technician handling the

equipment when power supply is switched off by providing a
path for the filtering capacitor to discharge through it, and
that is why it is called bleeder resistor. Without the resistor,
the capacitor will retain its charges for quite a very long time
even when the power supply is switched off. This high

41

voltage is always a problem to electrical electronic engineers

working on equipments.
TYPES OF RESISTOR
Variable Resistor
Rheostat Resistor
Potentiometer Resistor
Fixed Resistor
Table 1.0: A table showing the resistor colour code
COLOUR

FIRST
BAND

BLACK

SECOND
BAND
_

BROWN

RED

00

ORANGE

000

YELLOW

0000

GREEN

00000

BLUE

000000

VIOLET

0000000

GREY

00000000

WHITE

THIRD
BAND

TOLERANCE

10

1%
2%

000000000

GOLD

X0.1

SILVER

X0.01

5%
10%

42

The symbol is as shown below:

CHAPTER FOUR
TEST AND RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
In building this project, the following procedures were
properly considered and observed.

43

i.
ii.

Assembling of the entire materials/components needed.

Resistance check of the components bought, with the help of
the ohmmeter before making the necessary connection with

iii.

the components.
Drafting out a schematic diagram on how to arrange the

iv.
v.

materials/components.
Testing the completed system to see if the design works and
Finally, implementation of design of the project.
Having procured all the materials, we proceeded into

arranging the components onto the Vero board. Care was taken
not to lay the I.C. directly on the bread board since the heat the
soldering iron emits while soldering could damage it. After every
other soldering, the I.C. was then properly soldered. The
components were all soldered onto the board after which the
circuit was correctly confirmed done.
4.1 ASSEMBLING OF THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS
Having

provided

the

casing

and

having

finished

the

construction of the sections of this system, the assembling into

the casing followed. The sections were properly laid out and
assembled into the casing where the general coupling and
linkages into the peripheral devices took place.

44

Finally, the indicator was brought out to indicate when the

system is powered. A switch was as well brought out for powering
the system. The sensor and power indicator were also brought out
from the casing.
4.2 MOUNTING PROCEDURE
The transformer was bolted directly to the bottom of the
case. This was followed by mounting of the power section of the
circuit board. A gap was made between one mounting and the
successive ones. This is necessary to avoid overcrowding. The
vero board was also mounted at the upper side of the case. The
resistors, transistors, and other components used were mounted
on the vero board. All the accessories were tightly fixed to avoid
slack that may result in the malfunction of the system.
4.3 CASING AND PACKAGING
All the components were soldered onto the Vero Board. After
which a case was gotten where the entire circuit was mounted
followed by other external components such as indicators,
sensors, and switches.

45

4.4 PACKAGING
This is a very important aspect of the design work. It is the
appearance given to the final work. After soldering on the vero
board, we did not leave the work as it were; it has to be cased.
Packaging could serve two major functions.
1.

Serve to protect the components used for the design.

2.

Serve to make the finished work look attractive.

A portable plastic casing covered with leather was used in

packaging the work. The plastic case was chosen because of its
poor conduction of heat and electricity.

The dimension and

design of the box was arrived at after considering various factors

such as the width and length of the vero board
The dimensions for the casing are:
Length

-- 31.5 cm and 26.5cm

Height

-- 14.cm

The vero board and the transformer are held firmly by bolts and
nuts.
4.5 TESTING
46

Testing is one of the important stages in the development of

any new product or repair of existing ones. Because it is very
difficult to trace a fault in a finished work, especially when the
work to be tested is too complex. For the purpose of this project,
two stages of testing were involved
i. Pre-implementation testing
ii. Post-implementation testing.
4.5.1 PRE-IMPLEMENTATION TESTING
It is carried out on the components before they are soldered
to the veroboard. This is to ensure that each component is in
good working condition before they are finally soldered to the
board. The components used in this design are grouped into two.
Discrete components e.g. resistors, light emitting diodes,
capacitors, transistors. Etc.
Integrated circuit components.

47

The discrete components were tested with a milliammeter by

switching

the

meter

to

the

required

value

and

range

corresponding to each discrete component to check for continuity.

4.5.2

POST-IMPLEMENTATION TESTING

After implementing the circuit on a project board, the

different sections of the complete system were tested to ensure
that they were in good operating condition. The continuity test
carried out is to ensure that the circuit or components are
properly linked together. This test was carried out before power
was supplied to the circuit. Finally, after troubleshooting had been
done on the whole circuit, power was supplied to the circuit.
Visual troubleshooting was also carried out at this stage to ensure
that the components do not burn out.
The circuit was tested in the day time, for that reason, a dark
object was allow to pass through the sensor (LDR) and the alarm
was observed triggered and when the black object was removed
the alarm was observed to have gone OFF.

48

4.6 RESULTS OBTAINED

The results obtained during the construction states after
necessary troubleshooting were satisfactory. The system was able
to respond to its operation.

49

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 CONCLUSION
Security alarms are system designed to detect intrusion
unauthorized entry into a building or area. Security alarms are
used in residential, commercial, industrial, and military properties
for protection against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well
as personal protection against intruders. Car alarms likewise
protect vehicles and their contents. Prisons also use security
systems for control of inmates.
Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary
protection; combination systems provide both fire and intrusion
protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with
closed-circuit television surveillance systems to automatically
record the activities of intruders, and may interface to access

50

control systems for electrically locked doors. Systems range from

small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area
systems with computer monitoring and control. Shadow sensors
are widely used to detect the movement of a person in a confined
area using photodiode.

5.1 RECOMMENDATION
This project is designed to be used in our homes, offices and
industries or any other place where there is need for protection of
properties against theft. It is recommended that work should be
done on the implementation and integration of this device into
the security network in our homes and industries.

51

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APPENDIX 1
COMPREHENSIVE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF THE SHADOW
DETECTOR DEVICE

55

56