Unsteady Flows: Saint-Venant Equations

Derivation; numerical solutions; special forms

(dynamic, gravity, kinematic and diffusion waves)

By Mohamed S. Ghidaoui, prepared for DSD, May 27,

2016
Mass Balance (Continuity):

x1
V1

A1

x2
A2

V2

dV (V n )dA (V n )dA

t C .V
Ain
Aout

Assuming that the fluid is incompressible,

dV (V n ) dA (V n ) dA

t C .V
Ain
Aout

V
VA x x VA x x
1
2
t

Noting that V A( x2 x1 ) , then

A( x2 x1 )
A VA x x1 VA x x2
VA x x VA x x

1
2
t
t
( x2 x1 )

At the limit when x2 x1 (i.e., when the control volume shrinks to zero) we get:

A
VA
A VA
A Q

0 Or in terms of flowrate

0
t
x
t
x
t
x

Newton 2nd Law (Momentum):

Fex
VdV (V n )VdA (V n )VdA

t C.V
Ain
Aout

Along the channel (i.e., in the x direction), we have:

Fx

VdV (V )VdA (V )VdA

t C.V
Ain
Aout

Change of momentum within the CV:

VA( x2 x1 )

VV
VA
VdV

( x2 x1 )

t C.V
t
t
t

Net flux of momentum from the CV:

(V )VdA (V )VdA V

Ain

Aout

A x V 2A x
2
1

External forces along the channel:

y

w
Fx Vg sin PA x PA x x2 x1 p
dz pe x2 x1

2
1

x
0
gravity
friction

pressure gradient

w2 w1
PA x x1

w(x)

PA x x2

w
dz
x

Plan view showing the pressure forces on the CV, where pe denotes the perimeter.

Collecting all the terms of the momentum equations, gives:

y

Vg sin PA x PA x x2 x1 p
2
1

w
dz pe x2 x1
x

VA
( x2 x1 )
V 2A x V 2A x
2
1
t

Noting that V A( x2 x1 ) , dividing through by x2 x1 & taking the limit

when x2 x1 :
y

PA
w
VA
V 2 A
Ag sin
p
dz pe

x
x
t
x
0

Remark 1: The channel slope is often very small, implying that

sin tan S o .

Remark 2: When the flow is uniform and steady, the momentum

equation is:
AgS 0 pe 0 g

A
pe

Hydraulic Radius R

S 0 gRS 0 gRS f

where S f is the friction slope. For steady uniform flow, S 0 S f . Assuming

that the same relation between wall shear and friction slope holds at every
instant (i.e., remains valid under unsteady non-uniform conditions),
(t ) gRS f g

A(t )
S f (t )
pe(t)

The above assumption is referred to as quasi-steady assumption, and its

validity breaks down for highly diverging flows and highly unsteady
flows with flow reversal. The figure below, taken from the book of C.B.
Vreugdenhill 1994, shows the ratio of the unsteady shear to the quasisteady shear as a function of a 2 / , where ,is the frequency of the
flow unsteadiness; a is the water height and is the viscosity.

Example: The water depth in HK is of the order of 20 m, the eddy

viscosity is of the order of 0.1 m 2 /s. Determine the error associated with
the quasi-steady assumption due to tidal effects.
2
(20) 2
a 2 12hr

0.6

0 .1

From the graph, the error in phase shift is about 10% and the error in

magnitude is about 5%. These errors are small and the quasi-steady
assumption can be used. In fact, the quasi-steady assumption is used all
the time in modeling of surface water flows! Im not aware of any model
that does not employ such assumption.
What would happen should the eddy viscosity reduces to 0.01 m 2 /s. In
this case,
2
( 20) 2
a
12
hr

0.01
2

From the graph, the error in phase shift is about 80% and the error in
magnitude is about 50%. The quasi-steady assumption is a poor one in
this case.
It is noted that
2

a2

1
T
T
w d
1 Tw
Td

which is the ratio of time scale of vertical diffusion to the time scale
(period) of the wave. When the time scale of diffusion is small compared
to the time scale of the wave, the wall shear and the flow field have ample
time to adjust to the flow unsteadiness. Hence, the quasi-steady
assumption is good as long as
1
T
T
a

w d 1.0

Tw
2
Td
a
2

Remark 3: Using the definition of pressure force and Leibnitzs rule we

get
y

PA

pw
y
0
pw

pdA
pwdz
dz pw z y
pw z 0

dz

x
x A
x 0
x
x
x 0 x
0
y

p
w
g ( y z )
w
y
w
dz p
dz w
dz p
dz g
wdz p x dz
x

x
0
0
0
0
0
A

With the above 3 remarks, the momentum equation becomes:

AgS 0 gA

Since

y
VA
V 2 A
AgS f

x
t
x

Q VA and V 2 A Q 2 / A ,

then

Q
Q / A
y

Ag ( S 0 S f ) gA
t
x
x

In summary, the one-dimensional unsteady flow equations, also called the

Saint-Venant equations or the dynamic wave equations, in conservation
form are:
A Q

0
t
x

(Continuity)

1 Q 1 Q 2
y

g S0 S f 0
A t
A x A
x

(Momentum)

The non-conservation form of the continuity equation is

A y Q
y Q
y
V
A

0T

0T
A
V
0
y t
x
t
x
t
x
x

Further manipulation leads to:

A y
y x

y
V
A
y
V
y
T
A
V
0T
A
VT
0
t
x
x
t
x
x

The non-conservation form of the momentum equation can be developed

as follows. First, consider the inertial terms:
Q
Q 2 / A
VA
QVA / A
VA
QV

t
x
t
x
t
x

V
A
V
Q
V
V

Q
Therefor
A
V
Q
V
A
Q
V

t
t
x
x
t
x
t
x

0 (continuity)

V
V
V
DV
V
A
Q
A
V
A
t
x
x
Dt
t

e, the non-conservative form of the momentum is:

Q
Q 2 / A
y
V
V
y

Ag ( S 0 S f ) gA

V
g (S0 S f ) g

x
x

Henc
V
V
A
V

x
t

e, the flow equations in non-conservative form in terms of flow depth and

velocity are:
y
V
y
A
VT
0
t
x
x
V
V
y
V
g (S0 S f ) g
t
x
x

Method of Characteristics
Recall that the momentum equation is:
1 Q 1 Q 2
y

g S0 S f 0
A t
A x A
x

Carrying out the differentiation of the advective acceleration (2 nd term in

the left hand side of the above equation) gives:
A

1 Q Q 2
x 2Q Q g y g S S 0

0
f
A t
A A2
x
A 2 x

1 Q TQ 2 y 2Q Q
y

g
g S0 S f 0
3 x
2 x
A t
x
A
A

Therefore, the continuity & momentum are:

T

y Q

0
t
x

1 Q 2Q Q TQ 2 y
y
2
3
g
g S0 S f 0
A t
A x
A x
x
* Continuity Momentum 0

1 Q 2Q Q
TQ 2 y
y Q
T

2
g 3
g S0 S f 0

A t
A x
A x
t x

Or:
y g
Q 2 y
1 Q
2Q Q

3
A
g S0 S f 0

A t
A x
t T A x

For the 1st and 2nd terms to be total differential, we need

dx
g
Q2
2Q

3 A
dt T A
A

Or:
2 A

2Q
g Q2
3 0
A
T A

Q 2 gA Q 2 gA

2
A2 T
A
T

1, 2

Q A gA T
A

dx

dt

g
Q2
2Q

1 A
3
1T 1 A
A

Q
2Q
gA T
A
A
Q

gA T
A
V C
-

dx
dt

2 A

2Q
Q

A
A

gA
V C
T

gA 2Q

T
A

Therefore, the governing equations become:

dy 1 dQ

g S0 S f 0,
dt A dt
dy 1 dQ
2T

g S0 S f 0,
dt A dt

1T

dx
V C
dt
dx
along
V C
dt

along

Replacing 1 and 2 by their value gives:

dy dQ

gA S 0 S f 0;
dt
dt
dy dQ
TV C

gA S 0 S f 0;
dt
dt
TV C

V-C

dx
V C
dt
dx
along
V C
dt

along

V+C

dx
V C
dt
V

C
1
C

C Fr 1

dy dQ
T V C
gA S0 S f 0
dt dt

T V C

dx
V C
dt
C Fr 1

dy dQ

gA S0 S f 0
dt dt

Integrating along the positive characteristic from A to P gives:

P

T V

C dy dQ gA S 0 S f dt 0.

Integrating along the negative characteristic from B to P gives:

P

T V C dy dQ

gA S 0 S f

dt 0.

Since the flow conditions are known at A and B, coupling the above two
characteristics equations gives the flow conditions at P. This is the
essence of the method of Characteristics.

Finite Difference Approximations

Finite Volume:
The fact the integral relations are valid for smooth as well as
discontinuous flows explain why finite volume techniques became highly
popular recently. Note that the Saint-Venant equations can be re-written
in vector form as follows:

W f (W )

S (W )
t
x

where W is the vector of flow variables;

f(W) is the corresponding fluxes and S(W) is the source term (external
force terms); which correspond to

y
W
yV

yV

0
f (W) gy2 S(W )
y V 2 gy(S0 S f )

Integrating in a finite (control) volume (or cell) from

from tn to tn+1 results in

xi 1

to

xi 1

and

n 1i 1 / 2

n 1i 1 / 2
f (W )
W

dxdt
S (W )dxdt

n i 1 / 2
n i 1 / 2

i 1 / 2

i 1 / 2

n 1

Win 1 Win

where

W n dx

n 1

i 1 / 2 f i 1 / 2 dt

n 1i 1 / 2

S (W )dxdt

n i 1 / 2

x 1
t n 1 i 2

t
1

Fi 1 Fi 1
S (W )dxdt
x
x n x
2
2
t
i 1
2

x x i 1 x i 1
2

, and

which is known. Solving

Wi n

is the average value of W in volume (i),

Wi n 1

requires the knowledge of the net flux,

i.e., the first term on the right-hand-side of. Possible approaches include:
Riemann solution.
Boltzmann approaches.
Others.

Note that this approach

Do not require that the quantities are continuous.
Conserves mass and momentum.

Win 1 Win

x 1
t n 1 i 2

t
1

F 1 Fi 1
S (W )dxdt
x i 2

x n x
2
t
i 1
2
n 1 xi 1

2
t I
1 I t

Win 1 Win x Fi 1 Fi 1 x S (W )dxdt

2
2
i 0
i 0
i 0 t n x 1
i
2
I

Win 1 Win x
I

i 0

n 1 xi 1
I t
2

F0 1 FI 1
S (W )dxdt

x i 0 n x

2
2
t
i 1
2

A necessary condition for the stability of MOC is the Courant-FriedricksLewis (CFL) condition:
t * max V c,V c
1 .0
x

Special Forms of

the Unsteady Flow

Equations
A Q

0
t
x
V
V
y
V
g (S0 S f ) g
t
x
x

(Continuity)
(Momentum)

Without loss of generality, let us focus on a control volume of rectangular

shape of width B or a rectangular channel of width B. In both cases, the
flow equations are:
By VBy
y Vy

0
t
x
t
x
V
V
y
V
g (S0 S f ) g
t
x
x

Let:
1. L be the horizontal length scale. This length defines the horizontal
extent of flow features (e.g., wave length, bore length, length of
the front of a flood wave etc.).
2. H be the vertical length scale (e.g., uniform water depth).
3. U be the velocity scale (e.g., uniform flow velocity).
4. T= L/U be the time scale, which defines the time scale for a fluid
particle to travel a distance equal to the length of the important
feature being studied such as a wave.
Using these scales then,
x*

x
t
t
y
V
; t*
; y*
; V *
L
T
L /U
H
U

As a result, the flow equations in dimensionless form are:

H y* UH V* y*
y
V* y*

0 *
0
L / U t*
L x*
t*
x*

U V* U 2 V*
H y*

V*
g ( S0 S f ) g
L / U t *
L
x*
L x*
2

Sf

U V*
V
H y*
g

V* * gS0 1
L t *
x*
S0
L x*

S f gH y*
V*
V gS L


V* * 0 1
2

x
S
U
U 2 x*
*
*
0
gS0 L
gH
1
1

U2
U 2 F2

If

gS 0 L
U2

gS 0 L H
S L
0 1 , then the first term in the right hand side of the
U 2 H HF 2

above equation is much larger than the fluid acceleration (left hand side).
In addition, if

gS 0 L
U2

S0 L

HF 2

S L
0 1, then the first term in the right
H
F2
1

hand side of the momentum equation (gravity and friction) are much
larger than the pressure gradient (surface slope). When both of these
conditions are satisfied, the flow equations become:
y Vy

0
t
x
g (S0 S f ) 0

The wave governed by the above model is called kinematic wave and
k

gS 0 L
U

S0 L

HF 2

is called the kinematic wave number.

So L
Therefore, the kinematic wave number is justified when the vertical drop
of the fluid S 0 L , due to the slope of the channel when it travels a length
L, is significantly larger than the water depth.
Wolshier and Liggett (1967) showed that the KW model applicable
as long as k > 20.
Daluz Vieira (1983) showed that the KW is applicable as long as

and F < 2.0.

Ponce and Simons (1977) derived a criteria for the applicability of
the KW on the basis of the analytical solution of the linearized
Saint-Venant equation. They found that, the error associated with
the KW is 5% when T

US 0
US
171 and 10% when T 0 83 , where
H
H

T is the period of the wave under investigation.

Example: Consider the following two cases.

1. A channel reach with slope 0.0001, water depth 3m and
velocity of 1 m/s.
2. An overland flow plane with slope 0.01, water depth 0.25 m
and velocity of 1.25 m/s.
Compute the time scale required for an accuracy of at least 95 % that
would be given by the kinematic wave.
For 95% accuracy, the condition derived by Ponce and Simons (1977) is
T

US 0
171 . Therefore, for case 1, we have:
H

US 0
H
3
171 T 171
171
59 days .
H
US 0
0.0001 1

For case 2,
T

US 0
H
0.25
171 T 171
171
0.95 hour .
H
US 0
0.01 1.25

Rating Curves for KW and DW:

The discharge relation is:
Q CAR m S 0f .5

where m= 1/2 for the case of the Chezy relation and m= 2/3 for the case
of the Manning equation. For the dynamic wave, the frictional slope and
discharge are:
V
V
y
y 1 V
V
V
g (S0 S f ) g
S f S0

V

t
x
x
x g t
x
Q CAR m S 0f .5 CAR m S 0

y 1 V
V

V

x g t
x

Note that for a given depth and velocity, the discharge can acquire
different values depending on the slope of the water surface and the local

fluid acceleration, which explains why the rating curve for the DW is
loop and not a single curve. For the kinematic wave, the frictional slope
and discharge are:
( S 0 S f ) 0 S f S 0 Q CAR m S 0f .5 CAR m

QDW

QKW

CAR m S 0

y 1 V
V

V

x g t
x

CAR m S 0

S0

y 1 V
V

V

x g t
x
1
S0

Kinematic Wave Speed:

The KW equations are:
y Vy

0
t
x
g (S0 S f ) 0

Or:
y Vy y Vy y
dy

0
0 along
t
x
t

x
dt

dx
dt

Recall that:

dx Vy
V

V y
dt y
y
q
y

Q CAR m S 0 V Cy m S 0

dV
mCy m 1 S 0
dy

dV
y mCy m 1 S 0 mV
dy
dx
dV
C
V y
V mV (m 1)V
dt
dy
y

Hence, the KW speed for the case of a rectangular channel, or a wide

Natural channel, or a rectangular CV is:
5
3 V for the Manning equation.
dx
C mV
3
dt
V
for the Chezy equation.
2

For general cross sectional area, we have:

A Q

0
t
x
g (S0 S f ) 0

Or:
A Q A Q A
dA

0
0 along
t
x
t A x
dt
dx
dt

dx Q
V

V A
dt
A
A
VA
A

The KW can also be written in terms of flow:

A Q A Q Q
Q Q Q
dQ

0
0 along
t
x Q t
x
t
A x
dt

dx
V
V A
dt
A

Main body of flood wave

(kinematic)
V-C

Dynamic wave moving

upstream

V+C
Dynamic wave moving
downstream
(dynamic
forerunner)

Note, the dynamic wave moving downstream will lead the kinematic
wave as long as:
3
1
dx
dx

V V gy V gy F 2

dt
dt
2
2

KW
DW

The condition that F < 2 is satisfied in most natural rivers. Therefore, the

leading wave is a dynamic wave. We showed in the previous chapter that

dC d gy 2 gS 0 ( F0 2)

(C C 0 )
dt
dt
F0

The right hand side is negative when the Froude number is less than 2,
which shows that the forerunner dynamic wave will attenuate. Similarly,
the secondary dynamic wave which moves upstream will also attenuate.
V-C<<V+C when F<2
V-C

V+C

Main body of flood wave

(kinematic)
V-C

V+C

Dynamic wave moving

upstream

Dynamic wave moving

downstream
(dynamic
forerunner)

Example: A rectangular channel is 61 m wide, has a bed slope of 1 in a

100 and Manning roughness of 0.035. Determine the water velocity as
well as the KW and DW velocities when the discharge is 140 cms.
Compute the time scale required for an accuracy of at least 95 % that
would be given by the kinematic wave.

1
AR 2 / 3
n

S0

1
Byy 2 / 3
n

re, the water velocity is:

nQ
B S
0

S0 y

3/ 5

3/ 5

0.035 * 140

1
61

100

0.87 m

Therefo

Q
140

2.63m / s
A 61 * 0.87

The KW speed for the case of the Manning equation is:

5
5
C KW V 4.4m / s
3
3

The speed of the primary dynamic wave is:

V

gy 2.63

9.8 * 0.87 5.55m / s

The speed of the secondary dynamic wave is:

V

gy 2.63

9.8 * 0.87 0.29m / s

For 95% accuracy, the condition derived by Ponce and Simons (1977) is
T

US 0
171 . Therefore, the required time scale is:
H

US 0
H
0.87
171 T 171
171
1.6hr .
H
US 0
0.01 2.63

Example: A rectangular channel is 61 m wide and 4570 m long, has a

bed slope of 1 in a 100 and Manning roughness of 0.035. Route the
following triangular inflow hydrograph using the KW:

0.0472t m 3 / s

Q( x 0, t )

for t 3600 s.

0.0472(6480 t ) m / s

for 3600 t 6480 s.

The KW equation is:

dQ
0 along
dt

dx
V 5
V A
V
dt
A 3

Q ( x, t ) Q( x 0, t t 0 ) 0 along

dx

5
Vdt
3
to

5
x-0 V(t t o )
3

Q ( x, t ) Q( x 0, t t 0 ) along

At the outflow, x = L, and thus:

5
L
x V (t to ) L t t0
5
3
V
3

and Q( L, t ) Q ( L, t0

L
) Q ( x 0, t t 0 )
5
V
3

Rec

all that:
Q

1
AR 2 / 3
n

S0

1
Byy 2 / 3
n

nQ
B S
0

S0 y

3/ 5

3/5

0.035 * Q
1
61

100

ore, the water velocity is:

V

Q
Q
Q

0.36Q 2 / 5
A 61 * y 61 * 0.045Q 3 / 5

The KW speed for the case of the Manning equation is:

0.045Q 3 / 5

Theref

 0.6(0.0472t ) 2 / 5 0.18t 2 / 5
5
5
C KW V 0.36Q 2 / 5
3
3

0.18(6480 t ) 2 / 5

for t 3600 s.
for 3600 t 6480 s.

The

solution at the outflow, x = L, is:

Q( L, t ) Q(0, t 0 t

L
)
5
V
3

) 0.0472 t
0.18t 2 / 5
0.18t 2 / 5

L
L

Q (0, t0 t
) 0.0472 6480 t
2/5
2/5

0.18(6480 t )
0.18(6480 t )

Q(0, t 0 t

Note that:
t 3600

t t0
4750
0.18t

2/5

L
5
V
3

for t 0 3600 s.
for 3600 t 0 6480 s.

. Thus, when t0 3600s ,

3600

4750
0.18(3600) 2 / 5

4597s

Therefore, the solution at the outflow, x = L, is:

L
;
) 0.0472 t
t 4597 s.
0.18t 2 / 5
0.18t 2 / 5

L
L
; t 4597 s
Q(0, t 0 t
) 0.0472 6480 t
0.18(6480 t ) 2 / 5
0.18t 2 / 5

Q(0, t0 t

Q ( L, t )

For example, for t=65 min;

L
138m 3 / s
Q ( L,50 min) 0.0472 t
2/5
0.18t

Consider the flood event in the Centiahe reservoir in April 1984.

The reservoir is located at the upstream reaches of Xiaoshu
river, a branch of Xiangjang river, Hunan province, China.
Monitoring at reservoir revealed the following data about the
reach from Jianghua to Huajiang: average water depth H = 5.08
m; L = 15.4 km; average flow velocity 0.69 m/s, wave period of
the flood event is 30 hr and the slope of the reach is 0.00035.
They found that, the error associated with the KW is 5% when
S U
0.00035 0.69
T 0 30 3600
171
H
5.08

Additional Processes
Lateral Inflow:

e.g., seepage, rainfall, overland flow into

channels etc. Let q denote the lateral inflow. The continuity equation
needs to be adjusted by adding a flux term to account for q. In addition,
the lateral inflow adds momentum along the x proportional to qVq x . If

the inflow is orthogonal to x, then the influx of momentum is zero. The

additional flow along the channel due to the lateral inflow increases the
net efflux of momentum by qV. Therefore,
y
V
y
A
VT
q
t
x
x
V
V
y q
V
g (S0 S f ) g
(Vq x V )
t
x
x A
T

x2

x1
V1

A1

A2

V2

The KW in this case is given by:

A Q

q and S 0 S f
t
x

Or:
A Q A Q A
dA

q
q along
t
x
t A x
dt
dx
dt

dx Q
V

V A
dt
A
A
VA
A

In terms of flow:
A Q A Q Q
Q Q Q Q

q
t
x Q t
x
t
A x
A
dQ Q
dx
V

q along
V A
dt
A
dt
A

Example: Determine the variation of discharge and water depth with

time in a wide catchment for a constant effective rainfall, ie .
dA
dy
q
ie y iet
dt
dt

Weak

form

of

the

Dynamic

Wave

Equations (Saint-Venant Equations)

Recall that the DW equations are:
y Vy

0
t
x

gy 2
yV 2

2
yV

gy ( S 0 S f )
t
x

These equations are valid when both y and V are continuous. Therefore,
these equations and the models based on them are invalid when applied to
shocks waves (jumps & bores). However, the integral form of these
equations (also called weak form) is valid at shock waves! Consider, the
bore shown below.

CV is moving to the left with a

speed C

Integrate the Saint-Venant equations from x1 to x2

x2

x2
x2
y
y
y Vy

dx

dx

Vy

Vy

t x
t
t dx q2 q1
2
1
x1
x1
x1

yV 2 gy

x2
x2

2
yV

dx gy ( S 0 S f ) dx
t
x

x1
x1

x2

yV
gy 2
gy 2
dx yV 2
yV 2
gy ( S 0 S f ) dx

t
2
2

x1
x1
2
1

Using Leibnitzs rule,

x2

f
dx
t
x1

f
dx
t
x1

x2

f
dx
t
x

dx
dx
dx2
dx
x
x2
f ( x1 ) 1
f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
f dx f ( x 2 )
t x
dt
dt
t x
dt
dt
1

dx
dx
dx
dx
x
x2
x2

f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
t x
dt
t x
dt
t x
dt
dt
1

But,

dx
dx
and are both equal to the speed of the bore C. Thus,
dt
dt

x2

f
x2
dx

f dx C f ( x ) f ( x )
t

t
x
x1
1

Using the above identity, we get:

x2

y
x2
dx
ydx C y ( x ) y ( x )
t
t x
x1
1

x2

yV
x2
dx

yV dx C y ( x )V ( x ) y ( x )V ( x )
t

t
x
x1
1

Therefore, the integral form of mass and momentum is:

x2

y
x2
dx

ydx C y ( x ) y ( x ) q2 q1
2
1
t
t x
x1
1

x2

x2
2
2

yV
2 gy
2 gy

t dx yV 2 yV 2 gy ( S0 S f ) dx

2
1 x1
x1
2

x2
gy 2
2 gy

yV 2
yV dx C y ( x )V ( x ) y ( x )V ( x ) yV

t x
2
2

1
2
1

x2

gy (S 0 S f ) dx

x1

At the limit x1 x2
x2

y
x2
dx

ydx C y ( x ) y ( x ) q2 q1
2
1
t

t
x
x1
1
C y ( x2 ) y ( x1 ) q2 q1

x2

x2

yV
gy 2
gy 2
2
2

t dx yV 2 yV 2 gy ( S0 S f ) dx

2
1 x1
x1

x2
gy 2
gy 2
2

yV 2
yV dx C y ( x )V ( x ) y ( x )V ( x ) yV

t x
2
2

1
2
1

x2

gy (S 0 S f ) dx

Or:

x1

gy 2
gy 2
C y ( x2 )V ( x2 ) y ( x1 )V ( x1 ) yV 2
yV 2
0

2
2

2
1

C y2 y1 q2 q1

1 2 2 1 2 2 C 1 gy2 yV 2 which are the same as the jump

C q2 q1 gy2 y2V2 gy1 y1V1 q

2
2
2
(shock) relations which were derived in the last chapter!

 HKUST competitive advantage

Over mainland universities
IP right protection, excellent infrastructures, high
degree of academic integrity
International, English-speaking, connections with
worldwide research centers
Top notch researchers, faculty diversity, and cutting
edge research
Window and bridge to the world
Over European/North American universities
Geographically closer to the headquarters of
Mainland companies