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TECHNOLOGY
ME 416 Unit 1
Dr. Ch.Lakshmi Srinivas
Syllabus
UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES:
Industrial prime movers - A brief system comparison: An electrical system, A hydraulic
system, A pneumatic system, A comparison - Definition of terms: Mass and force,
Pressure, Work, energy and power, Torque - Pascals law - Gas laws.
HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND PRESSURE REGULATION:
Pressure regulation - Pump types: Gear pumps, Vane pumps - Loading valves - Filters.
AIR COMPRESSORS, AIR TREATMENT AND PRESSURE REGULATION:
Piston compressors - Air receivers and compressor control - Stages of air treatment Pressure regulation: Relief valves, Non-relieving pressure regulators and Relieving
pressure regulators - Service units.
Learning Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to
Differentiate various terms such as mass, force, pressure, power, torque and
speed
Understand the construction, working and performance of gear pumps and vane
pumps
Know the various aspects of compressed air generation, air treatment and types of
compressors
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FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION
The fluids have been used to help human from ancient times. Even before man
developed an understanding of the science and knowledge of how it can be usefully used, it had
been used as an application to reduce his burden. The primitive application known is the water
wheel used in irrigation and the driving of ship with the aid of wind, using logs of wood to cross
the river etc. But once the science of fluid and industrial revolution joined hands the application
of the fluids have been wide and ever growing and now it is used in all the fields of engineering,
biomedical, space, automobile, defense, agriculture and all industrial sectors.
The greatest advantage of this system is its versatility to be controlled by a feather touch
and drive a large power (in tones) and its precision in its application when used in repeated
loading with close tolerances (in microns). In this fast growing computer/electronic world, it is
still advantageous and easy to control this powerful muscle remotely, smoothly, efficiently, safely
and precisely to accomplish useful work.
The development in the designing of a hydraulic and pneumatic system is today
integrating with recent developments namely the electronics and computers. The use of fluid
power system in industrial sectors had helped in producing quality components at less cost and
less time. Fluid power is not only used in industrial sectors but also used in household
applications. They are available in small sizes which are portable and easy to operate.
The technology of generating, controlling and transmitting power using pressurized fluids
is termed as fluid power. Fluids are either gas or liquids. They are termed hydraulics for liquids
and pneumatics for gases. Hydraulic systems use petroleum oil; water etc, while pneumatics uses
air as the most prime medium.
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Electrical systems
Hydraulic systems
Pneumatic systems
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A hydraulic system
A solution along hydraulic lines is shown in Figure 1.2.
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A pneumatic system
Figure 1.3 shows the components of a pneumatic system.
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Energy source
Energy storage
Distribution system
Energy cost
Rotary actuators
Linear actuators
Controllable force
Points to note
Electrical
Usually from outside
supplier
Limited(batteries)
Excellent,
with
minimal loss
Hydraulic
Electric motor or diesel
driven
Limited(accumulator)
Limited, basically a
local facility
Lowest
AC &DC motors. Good
control on DC motors
Ac motors cheap
Short motion
via
solenoid. Otherwise
via
mechanical
conversion
Possible with solenoid
and
DC
motors.
Complicated by need
for cooling
Danger from electric
shock
Medium
Low
speed.
Good
control. can be stalled
Cylinders.
force.
Very high
Controllable medium
force
Leakage,
dangerous Noise
and unsightly. Fire
hazard
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Pneumatic
Electric motor or
diesel driven
Good(reservoir)
Good, can be treated
as a plant wide
service
Highest
Wide speed range
accurate
speed
control difficult
Cylinders
medium
forces
8
APPLICATIONS OF FLUID POWER
1. Fluid power drives high-wire overhead tram.
2. Fluid power is applied to harvesting corn
3. Hydraulics power brush drives
4. Fluid power is the muscle in industrial lift trucks
5. Fluid power drives excavators
6. Hydraulics power robotic dexterous arm
Primary functions of a hydraulic fluid
1. To transmit power
2. To lubricate moving parts
3. To seal clearances between mating parts
4. To dissipate heat generated.
Desirable properties of a hydraulic fluid
1. Good lubricity
2. Ideal viscosity
3. Chemical and environmental stability
4. Compatibility with system materials
5. High degree of incompressibility
6. Fire resistance
7. Good heat transfer capability
8. Low density
9. No toxicity
10. Low volatility
11. Inexpensive
12. Ready availability
Advantages of Air
1) It is inexpensive
2) Readily available
3) It is fire resistant
4) It is not messy
5) It can be exhausted back in to the atmosphere
Disadvantages of Air
a) It cant be used in an applications where accurate positioning or rigid holding is
required
b) Sluggish
c) Air can be corrosive, since it contains oxygen and water
d) A lubricant must be added to lubricate valves and actuators
e) Pressures of greater than 10-15 bar are typically not used due to explosion dangers
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Fluids: Liquids and Gases
The term fluid refers to both gases and liquids.
A liquid is a fluid that, for a given mass, will have a definite volume independent of the
shape of its container. This means that even though a liquid will assume the shape of the
container, it will fill only that part of the container whose volume equals the volume of the
quantity of the liquid. For example, if water is poured into a vessel and the volume of water is not
sufficient to fill the vessel, a free surface will be formed.
Liquids are considered to be incompressible so that their volume does not change with
pressure changes. This is not exactly true, but the change in volume due to pressure changes is so
small that it is ignored for most engineering applications.
Gases on the other hand are fluids that are readily compressible. In addition, their
volume will vary to fill the vessel containing them. If a gas is allowed to enter an empty vessel,
the gas molecules always fill the entire vessel. The volume of a given mass of a gas will increase
to fill the vessel that contains it. Gases are greatly influenced by the pressure to which they are
subjected. An increase in pressure causes the volume of the gas to decrease, and vice versa.
Table 1.2 Physical differences between liquids and gases
Parameter
Volume
Shape
Compressibility
Liquid
Has its own volume
Gas
Volume is determined by
container
Takes shape of container but Expands to completely fill and
only to its volume
take the shape of the
container
Incompressible for most Readily compressible
engineering applications
Force is a push or a pull or more generally anything that can change an objects speed or
direction of motion. The SI unit used to measure force is the Newton (symbol N). If a force is
applied to a mass, acceleration (or deceleration) will result given by the formula
=
A Newton is defined as the force which produces an acceleration of 1 m s-2 when applied
to a mass of 1 kg. (N= kg m s-2)
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Pressure
Pressure occurs in a fluid when it is subjected to a force. As shown in figure 1.4 a force F
is applied to an enclosed fluid via a piston of area A. This results in a pressure P in the fluid.
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Work, energy and power
Energy is defined as the ability to perform work. If a force acts on a body and moves the
body through a specified distance in the direction of its application, a work has been
done on the body.
Mathematically we can write,
Work=force (N) x distance moved (m)
The SI unit of work is the joule. (1 J= 1 Nm) A joule (J) is the work done when a
force of 1N acts through a distance of 1m. Since work equals force times distance, we
have
1J =1N x 1m = 1Nm
Thus, we have Energy (J) = F (N) x d (m)
The transfer of energy is an important consideration in the operation of fluid
power systems. Energy from a prime mover is transferred to a pump via a rotating motor
shaft and couplings. The pump converts this mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by
increasing the fluid pressure. The pressurized fluid does work on hydraulic actuators. An
actuator converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and moves the external
load.
Power is the rate at which work is performed. Thus the power input to the
hydraulic system is the rate at which an actuator delivers energy to the external load.
Similarly, the rate at which an actuator delivers energy to the external load is equal to the
power output of a hydraulic system. The power output is determined by the
requirements of the external load.
A hydraulic system is used because of its versatility in transferring power. The versatility
includes the advantages of variable speed, reversibility, overload protection, high powerto-weight ratio and immunity to damage under a stalled condition.
=
Where F is the force (N), v is the velocity (m/s) and P is the power (Nm/s or W). The SI
unit of power is the watt, defined as 1 Js-1
( )=
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( )=
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Torque
The term torque is used to define a rotary force, and is simply the product of the force
and the effective radius as shown in figure 1.8.
Where, F is the force acting on the piston, A is the area of the piston, and p is the
pressure on the fluid.
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Multiplication of Force
The most useful feature of fluid power is the ease with which it is able to multiply force. This
accomplished by using an output piston that is larger than the input piston. Such a system is
shown in figure 1.10.
=
------ (1)
Here to obtain the output force, the input force is multiplied by a factor that is equal to the
ratio of the output piston area to the input piston area.
Verifying the principle of conservation of energy
The conservation of energy principle states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. Here the large piston on the right is only moved by the fluid displaced by the small
piston on left. Therefore, what has been gained in force must be sacrificed in piston travel
displacement.
Force-displacement relation
Hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence the volume displaced by the piston is
equal to the volume displaced at the output piston.
=
Since the volume of a cylinder equals the product of its cross-sectional area and its height,
we have
=
Where Sin is the downward displacement of the input piston and Sout is the upward
displacement of the output piston;
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=
-------- (2)
---------- (3)
Force-power relation
Hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence the quantity of oil displaced by the
input piston is equal to the quantity of oil gained and displaced at the output piston. Flow
rate is the product of area and volume of fluid displaced in a specified time;
=
=
=
---------- (4)
---------- (5)
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Solution: since the volume of a cylinder equals the product of its cross-sectional area and its
height, we have: Ain Xin = Aout Xout, where Xin is the downward movement of the input piston
and Xout is the upward movement of the output piston. Hence we get:
=
Given that
Fin = 1000 N, Ain = /4 x 302 (mm2) =0.7854 x 302 and Aout =/4 x 802 (mm2) =0.7854 x 802,
Sout= 1000mm
(a) Force on the large piston Fout :
=
= 1000
= 7111.1
= 1000
= 7111.1
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Figure 1.12 (a) Pistons are at same level (b) Pistons are at different level
The mass density of the liquid in the jack is 103 kg/m3
Solution:
We know that:
=
If
a small force can raise a larger load W. The jack has a mechanical advantage of A/a.
850 0.015
= 8500
0.0015
= 866.5
18
(b) If the larger piston is a distance h below the smaller, the pressure p2 is greater than p1,
due to the head h, by an amount gh, where is the mass density of the liquid:
=
=
Now
= 56.7 10
= 103
= 0.75
So,
Now,
Therefore
Mass lifted =
= 867.6
Gas laws
During the 16th century scientists discovered the laws that determine the interactions of
pressure, volume and temperature of a gas. These laws are called the perfect gas laws.
Air can be considered to be a reasonable approximation to an ideal gas for the range of
pressures and temperatures occurring with pneumatic systems and thus obey the ideal gas
laws. These are
1. Boyles law
It states that if the temperature of a given amount of gas is held constant, the volume of
the gas will change inversely with the absolute pressure of the gas.
=
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2. Charles law
It states that if the pressure on a given amount a gas is held constant the volume of the
gas will change in direct proportion to the absolute temperature. Absolute temperatures are
measured on the Kelvin scale. (0oC=273K)
=
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Example problem 1.3
A container has a volume of 0.10 m3 and is filled with compressed air at a gauge pressure of 600
kPa and a temperature of 40oC. If the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa, determine the air
pressure in the container when the air cools to 20oC. Neglect any change in dimensions of the
container as a result of the temperature change.
Solution:
The volume is assumed to be constant, the following equation is used:
=
Where p1 and T1 are the initial pressure and temperature and p2 and T2 are the final pressure and
temperature. Thus;
=
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There are two broad classifications of pumps as identified by the fluid power industry.
1. Positive displacement pumps
2. Non-positive displacement pumps
Non-positive
displacement pumps
(Hydro dynamic pumps)
Priming required.
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Pump lift
The pump shown in figure 1.20 is above the fluid in the tank. The pump creates negative
pressure (less than atmospheric) pressure at its inlet port causing fluid to be pushed up the inlet
pipe by atmospheric pressure. This action creates a fluid lift which is generally, incorrectly
described as arising from pump suction. In reality fluid is pushed into the pump. Maximum pump
lift is determined by atmospheric pressure. The lift should be as small as possible to avoid
cavitation (formation and destructive collapse of bubbles from partial vaporization of fluid). The
normal limit for pump lift is around 1m for most of the cases.
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=
=
=
=
600
Pressure regulation
Figure 1.22 shows a system in which load is raised or lowered by hydraulic cylinder. With
valve V1 open, fluid flows from the pump to the cylinder, with both pressure gauges P1 and P2
indicating a pressure of F/A. With valves V1 closed and V2 open, the load falls with fluid being
returned to the tank. With the load falling, gauge P2 will still show a pressure of F/A, but at P1
the pump is dead-ended, leading to a continual increase in pressure as the pump delivers fluid
into the pipe. Obviously some method is needed to keep P1 at a safe level. To achieve this,
pressure-regulating valve V3 has been included. This is normally closed (no connection between P
and T) while the pressure is below some preset level (called the cracking pressure). Once the
cracking pressure is reached valve V3 starts to open, bleeding fluid back to the tank. As the
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pressure increases, valve V3 opens more until, at a pressure called the full flow pressure, the
valve is fully open. With valve V1 closed, all fluid from the pump returns to the tank via the
pressure-regulating valve, and P1 settles somewhere between the cracking and full flow
pressures. Cracking pressure of a relief valve must be higher than a systems working pressure,
leading to a fall in system pressure as valve V1 opens and external work is performed. Valve
positions and consequent pressure readings are shown in figure 1.23.
Figure 1.22 Typical hydraulic circuit showing the action of pressure regulation
Figure 1.23 Pressure recording for the hydraulic circuit shown in figure 1.22
Simple Pressure relief valve
The most widely used type of pressure control valve is the pressure relief valve, since it is
found in practically every hydraulic system. It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit
the pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump back to the pump.
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Figure 1.26 Pressure versus flow curve for simple relief valve
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Compound Pressure relief valve (balanced piston relief valve)
A compound pressure relief valve is one that operates in two stages. As shown in figure
1.27, the pilot stage is located in the upper valve body and contains a pressure-limiting poppet
that is held against a seat by an adjustable spring. Diversion of the full pump flow is accomplished
by the balanced piston in the lower body.
When fluid pressure rises, the poppet cracks and a small flow of fluid passes from the
upper chamber to the tank via the hole in the piston center. This fluid is replenished by fluid
flowing through the hole in the piston. With fluid flow there is now a pressure differential across
the piston, which is acting only against a light spring. The whole piston lifts, releasing fluid around
the valve stem until a balance condition is reached. Because of the light-restoring spring a very
small override is achieved.
Pump types
There are essentially three different types of positive displacement pumps used in hydraulic
systems.
1. Gear pumps
2. Vane pumps
3. Piston pumps
Gear pumps
External gear pump
The simplest and most robust positive displacement pump, having just two moving parts
is the gear pump. (Figure 1.28) Its parts are non-reciprocating, move at constant speed and
experience a uniform force.
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Thus the volumetric displacement can be represented by
=
)=
) (
The above equation shows that the pump flow varies directly with speed and is graphically shown
in figure 1.29. Hence theoretical flow rate is constant at a given speed as shown in figure 1.30.
Figure 1.30 Positive displacement pump Flow versus pressure curve at constant pump speed
Volumetric efficiency
There must be a small clearance (about 0.025 mm) between the teeth tip and pump
housing. As a result, some of the oil at the discharge port can leak directly back toward the
suction port. This means that actual flow rate QA is less than the theoretical flow rate QT, which is
based on volumetric displacement and pump speed. This internal leakage, called pump slippage,
is identified by the term volumetric efficiency v which equals about 90% for positive
displacement pumps operating at design pressure.
=
The higher the discharge pressure, the lower the volumetric efficiency because internal leakage
increases with pressure. Pump manufacturers usually specify volumetric efficiency at the pump
rated pressure.
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Example problem 1.4
A gear pump has a 75 mm outside diameter, a 50 mm inside diameter, and a 25mm width. If the
volumetric efficiency is 90% at rated pressure, what is the corresponding actual flow-rate? The
pump speed is 1000 rpm.
Solution:
The volume displacement is,
1000
= 0.0614
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This maximum value of eccentricity produces a maximum possible volumetric displacement;
=
Noting that we have the difference between two squared terms yields
=
)(
)(2
Some vane pumps have provisions for mechanically varying the eccentricity. Such a
design is called a variable displacement pump. Figure 1.35 shows one such type with adjustable
capacity, set by the positional relationship between rotor and inner casing, with the inner casing
position set by an external screw.
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= (
Variable displacement
NO
YES
YES
Efficiency (%)
90
95
98
Cost
Low
Medium
high
Pump Efficiencies
Pump manufacturers run tests to determine performance data for their various types of pumps.
The overall efficiency of a pump can be computed by comparing the hydraulic power output of
the pump to the mechanical input power supplied by the prime mover. Overall efficiency can be
broken into two distinct components called volumetric efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
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100 =
100
100
100
100
100
Note that the theoretical torque required to operate a pump (TT), is the torque that
would be required if there were no leakage.
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Theoretical torque
( .
) (
2
)=
Actual Torque
( .
( )
)=
(
We have
= 0.000100
= (0.000100
/
/
/
3
QT=0.00167 m /s
Now,
.
.
= 0.898 = 89.8%.
=
(b)
)(0.000167 )
2
(120 . ) 1000
60
11690 .
=
= 0.930 = 93.0%
12570 .
= 0.898 0.930 = 0.835 = 83.5%
=
(70 10
=
= (120)(0.93) = 112 . Thus, due to mechanical losses within the pump,
120 N.m of torque are required to drive the pump instead of 112 N.m.
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Loading / Unloading Valves
It is evident that allowing excess fluid from a pump to return to the tank by a pressure
relief valve is wasteful of energy and can lead to a rapid rise in temperature of the fluid as the
wasted energy is converted to heat. It is normally undesirable to start and stop the pump to
match load requirements, as this causes shock loads to pump, motor and couplings.
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2. Generated within system during operation. Example are moisture due to water
condensation inside the reservoir, entrained gases, scale caused by rust, bits of worn
seal materials, particles of metal due wear, and sludges and varnishes due to oxidation
of the oil.
3. Introduced into system from external environment. The main source of contamination
here is due to the use of dirty maintenance equipment such as funnels, rags and tools.
Filters and strainers are devices for trapping contaminants.
Filter is a device whose primary function is to retain, by some porous medium, insoluble
contaminants from a fluid.
A strainer is a coarse filter. Strainers are constructed of a wire screen that rarely contains
openings less than 100 mesh. The screen is wrapped around a metal frame.
Particle sizes removed by filters measured in micrometers (microns). The smallest- sized
particle that can be normally be removed by a strainer is approximately 150 m. On the other
hand, filters can remove particles as small as 1 m.
There are three basic types of filtering methods used in hydraulic systems; mechanical,
absorbent, and adsorbent.
Mechanical; this type normally contains a metal or cloth screen or a series of metal disks
separated by thin spacers. Figure 1.43 shows one such type of filter called edge type filter.
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Mechanical filters can usually be removed, cleaned and re-fitted, where as absorbent
filters are usually replaceable items.
Pressure drop across the filter element is an accurate indication of its cleanliness, and
many filters incorporate a differential pressure meter calibrated with a green (clear), amber
(warning), red (change overdue) indicator. Such types are called indicating filters.
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= 0.43
In Figure 1.47, a reservoir of volume two cubic meters is connected to a compressor which
delivers three cubic meters of air (measured at atmospheric pressure) per minute. Using Boyles
law the pressure rise is shown in Table 1.5.
0
1
2
3
2
5
8
11
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Pressure Absolute
(bar)
1
2.5
4
5.5
Pressure gauge
(bar)
0
1.5
3
4.5
45
Behavior of a gas subjected to changes in pressure, volume and temperature is governed by the
general gas equation;
=
Where pressures are given in absolute terms and temperatures are measured in degrees Kelvin.
Figure 1.48 represents the component parts of a pneumatic system.
Compressors
A compressor is a machine that compresses air or another type of gas from a low inlet pressure
(usually atmospheric) to higher desired pressure level. This is accomplished by reducing the
volume of the gas. Figure 1.49 shows the symbol for a compressor.
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compressed, an intercooler is used between the two stages. Figure 1.52 shows the basic form of
a single-acting, two stage, and reciprocating compressor.
Thus if we have, for the trapped air in a compressor, the pressure/volume graph is given
in figure 1.53.
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50
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52
(7 + 1 )
1
=8
The volume of free air in the receiver containing air at a gauge pressure of 6 bar is:
=
(6 + 1 )
1
=7
Thus the volume of free air delivered from the receiver as the pressure falls from 7 bar to
6 bar is 8V-7V =1 V m3. Thus 1V=12 m3 and so the receiver volume required is 12 m3.
Compressor Volumetric efficiency
With a reciprocating compressor there has to be some clearance at the end of the
compression stroke between the piston head and the cylinder. It is also impossible to fully charge
the cylinder with air at the end of the suction stroke. In addition, there may also be some leakage
of air through the inlet valve at the changeover from suction to compression and also leakage
across the piston from the high-pressure to the low-pressure side. Because of this, the volume of
air delivered by the compressor is less than the swept volume of the cylinder. This is also true of
other forms of compressor. Thus we specify volume efficiency as;
=
Compressor control
Control of the compressor is necessary in order to maintain the pressure in the air
receiver. The simplest method of control is start/stop control where the compressor is started
when the receiver pressure falls to some minimum pressure and stopped when the pressure in
the receiver has risen to the required value. An electrical pressure switch can be used to monitor
the pressure and provide the signals to start and stop the compressor. Figure 1.60 shows such
control.
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In general, this treatment falls into three distinct stages, shown in figure 1.63. First, inlet
filtering removes particles which can damage the air compressor. Next there is the need to dry
the air to reduce humidity and lower the dew point. This is normally performed between the
compressor and the receiver and is termed primary air treatment.
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55
Air filters are rated in terms of the largest size of spherical particles that will pass through
the filter. Particle sizes are measured in terms of micrometers. Dust particles are generally larger
than 10 m, while smoke and oil particles are about 1 m. Figure 1.66 shows the symbol for filter
with manual water trap.
After- coolers
After-coolers are heat exchangers similar to intercoolers. Figure 1.67 showing the general symbol
for a cooler. They can be either air or water cooled. The air leaving the compressor will contain
water vapor and the reduction in temperature produced by the cooler condenses some of this
vapor. This condensate has to be drained. For this purpose, automatic drain valves are generally
used. These allow the liquid to escape when it reaches a particular level in the valve.
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Air dryers
Water in compressed air can cause many problems, e.g. corrosion and malfunction of
pneumatic components and problems if the compressed air is used in manufacturing process.
In discussing the quantity of water vapor in air, the following terms are used.
1. Saturation
Air is said to be saturated when it contains the maximum amount of water vapor which it
can hold at a particular temperature. Figure 1.69 shows the water content needed to
saturate air at different temperatures. For example, at -20oC air is saturated by 1 g/m3
but at 40oC saturation is not achieved until there is 50 g/m3.
100%
If we have air at 20oC containing 5 g/m3 of water then, since saturation requires about 15
g/m3 at that temperature, the relative humidity is (5/15)x100% = 33%.
3. Dew point
The dew point is the temperature at which a sample of air becomes saturated. Thus
using figure 1.69, if we take air containing 1 g/m3 of water it will have to be cooled to 20oC before it becomes saturated and liquid starts to condensate out. Thus -20oC is the
dew point of that sample. Figure 1.69 can thus be considered to be a graph of dew point
for different amounts of water vapor. Table 1.6 gives some dew point values.
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Table 1.6 Dew point values
Water
Dew Point
content
(oC)
3
(g/m )
4.9
0
6.8
5
9.4
10
12.8
15
17.3
20
23.1
25
30.4
30
39.6
35
The amount of water vapor needed to saturate a sample of air depends on the
temperature. It also depends on the pressure because increasing the pressure on a
sample of air will reduce its volume. We can use the gas laws to determine the change in
the volume of air. Figure 1.70 shows the general symbol for an air dryer.
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The refrigeration dryer
This involves cooling the wet air down to a temperature of about +2oC and so condensing
out much of the water vapor to give a dew point of that temperature. Figure 1.73 shows the basic
principle. The incoming wet air is first cooled by passing through a heat exchanger where it is
cooled by the outgoing dry air, warming that air in the process. It then passes through the
refrigerant heat exchanger where it is further cooled. Some typical temperatures at the various
points in the sequence are shown on the figure.
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Load A vents continuously to atmosphere. Air pressure is controlled by a pressure
regulator which simply restricts air flow to the load. This type of regulator requires some
minimum flow to operate. These types of regulator in which air must pass through the load are
called non-relieving regulators.
Load B is a dead-end load and uses a pressure regulator which vents air to atmosphere to
reduce pressure. This type of regulator is called a three-port or relieving regulator.
Load C is a large capacity load whose air volume requirements are beyond the capacity of
a simple in-line regulator. Here a pressure control loop has been constructed comprising pressure
transducer, electronic controller and separate vent valve. This technique can also be used if the
pressure regulating valve cannot be mounted locally to the point at which the pressure is to be
controlled.
Relief valves
The simplest pressure regulating device is the relief valve shown on Figure 1.76. This is
employed as a back-up device which will open and vent air if the pressure in the system becomes
too high. The ball valve is held closed by the spring, the force exerted on the ball by the spring
being greater than the force exerted by the system air pressure. However, the pressure in the
system rises, the force it exerts on the ball rises and at some predetermined value it exceeds the
force exerted by the spring and the ball valve opens and vents air from the system.
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Service units
The term service unit is used for a filter, moisture separator, pressure regulator, pressure
indicator and lubricator, such combinations frequently being required. Figure 1.79 shows the
individual component symbols and the composite symbol used for the service unit.
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QUESTIONS, CONCEPTS, AND DEFINITIONS
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PROBLEMS
33. A positive displacement pump has an overall efficiency of 88% and a volumetric efficiency of
92%.What is the mechanical efficiency?
34. A gear pump has a 82.6 mm outside diameter, a 57.2 mm inside diameter, and a 25.4 mm
width. If the actual pump flow rate at 1800 rpm and rated pressure is 0.00183 m3/s, what is
the volumetric efficiency?
35. A hydraulic press has an input cylinder 1 inch in diameter and an output cylinder 6 inches in
diameter.
(a) Assuming 100% efficiency, find the force exerted by the output piston when a force of 10
pounds is applied to the input piston.
(b) If the input piston is moved through 4 inches, how far is the output piston moved?
36. A hydraulic system is said to have a mechanical advantage of 40. Mechanical advantage (MA)
is FR (output) / FE (input). If the input piston, with a 12 inch radius, has a force of 65 pounds
pushing downward a distance of 20 inches, find
(a) the volume of fluid that has been displaced
(b) the upward force on the output piston
(c) the radius of the output piston
(d) the distance the output piston moves
37. What pressure does a 130 pound woman exert on the floor when she balances on one of her
heels? Her heels have an average radius of 0.5 inch.
38. A car has a weight of 2500 pounds and rests on four tires, each having a surface area of
contact with the ground of 14 square inches. What is the pressure the ground experiences
beneath the tires that is due to the car?
39. The input and output pistons of a hydraulic jack are respectively 1 cm and 4 cm in diameter.
A lever with a mechanical advantage of 6 is used to apply force to the input piston. How
much mass can the jack lift if a force of 180 N is applied to the lever and efficiency is 80%?
40. A pump has a displacement volume of 98.4cm3. It delivers 0.0152m3/s of oil at 1000 rpm and
70 bars. If the prime mover input torque is 124.3 Nm.
(a) What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
(b) What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?
41. A compressed air tank has a volume of 0.5m3 and contains air at a gauge pressure of 1.96MPa
and a temperature of 50oC. if the atmospheric pressure is 103kPa, determine the mass of air
in the tank. The gas constant for air is 0.287kJ/kgK.
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https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/WindTunnel/Activities/Pascals_principle.html
http://www.vickers.sh.cn/pdfs/M-SRSR-MC001-E.pdf
http://file.seekpart.com/keywordpdf/2011/3/31/20113319837232.pdf
http://www.associatedgroups.com/EATON-CAT/pdfs/i3155s.pdf
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