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AUTOMATION

TECHNOLOGY
ME 416 Unit 1
Dr. Ch.Lakshmi Srinivas

Syllabus
UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES:
Industrial prime movers - A brief system comparison: An electrical system, A hydraulic
system, A pneumatic system, A comparison - Definition of terms: Mass and force,
Pressure, Work, energy and power, Torque - Pascals law - Gas laws.
HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND PRESSURE REGULATION:
Pressure regulation - Pump types: Gear pumps, Vane pumps - Loading valves - Filters.
AIR COMPRESSORS, AIR TREATMENT AND PRESSURE REGULATION:
Piston compressors - Air receivers and compressor control - Stages of air treatment Pressure regulation: Relief valves, Non-relieving pressure regulators and Relieving
pressure regulators - Service units.

Learning Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to

Understand the functions of industrial prime movers

Compare the various features of electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Differentiate various terms such as mass, force, pressure, power, torque and
speed

Know the various components of a typical pneumatic system and hydraulic


system

Understand governing laws of pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Distinguish positive displacement pumps and non-positive displacement pumps

Understand the construction, working and performance of gear pumps and vane
pumps

Know the various aspects of compressed air generation, air treatment and types of
compressors

Understand the function of FRL unit

Know the pressure regulation in hydraulic and pneumatic systems

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FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION
The fluids have been used to help human from ancient times. Even before man
developed an understanding of the science and knowledge of how it can be usefully used, it had
been used as an application to reduce his burden. The primitive application known is the water
wheel used in irrigation and the driving of ship with the aid of wind, using logs of wood to cross
the river etc. But once the science of fluid and industrial revolution joined hands the application
of the fluids have been wide and ever growing and now it is used in all the fields of engineering,
biomedical, space, automobile, defense, agriculture and all industrial sectors.
The greatest advantage of this system is its versatility to be controlled by a feather touch
and drive a large power (in tones) and its precision in its application when used in repeated
loading with close tolerances (in microns). In this fast growing computer/electronic world, it is
still advantageous and easy to control this powerful muscle remotely, smoothly, efficiently, safely
and precisely to accomplish useful work.
The development in the designing of a hydraulic and pneumatic system is today
integrating with recent developments namely the electronics and computers. The use of fluid
power system in industrial sectors had helped in producing quality components at less cost and
less time. Fluid power is not only used in industrial sectors but also used in household
applications. They are available in small sizes which are portable and easy to operate.
The technology of generating, controlling and transmitting power using pressurized fluids
is termed as fluid power. Fluids are either gas or liquids. They are termed hydraulics for liquids
and pneumatics for gases. Hydraulic systems use petroleum oil; water etc, while pneumatics uses
air as the most prime medium.

INDUSTRIAL PRIME MOVERS


Most industrial processes require objects or substances to be moved from one location
to another or a force to be applied to hold, shape or compress a product. Such activities are
performed by prime movers; the workhorses of manufacturing industries.
There are basically three such types of prime mover systems. They are
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

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Electrical systems
Hydraulic systems
Pneumatic systems

A Brief System Comparison


Consider a simple task of lifting of a load by a distance of 500 mm.
An Electrical system
Consider a mechanical jack driven by an AC motor controlled by a reversing starter. This setup is
shown in Figure 1.1. Auxiliary equipment comprises two limit switches, and a motor overload
protection device. There is no practical load limitation provided screw/gear box ratio; motor size
and contactor rating are correctly calculated.

Figure 1.1 Electrical solution based on three phase motor

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A hydraulic system
A solution along hydraulic lines is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Hydraulic solution


The six basic components used in a hydraulic system are;
1. A tank (reservoir) to hold the liquid, which is usually hydraulic oil.
2. A pump to force the liquid through the system.
3. An electric motor or other power source to drive the pump.
4. Valves to control liquid direction, pressure, and flow rate.
5. An actuator to convert the energy of the liquid in to mechanical force or torque to do
useful work. Cylinders (single acting & double acting) to provide linear motion. Motors
(hydraulic) to provide rotary motion.
6. Piping, which carries the liquid from one location to another.

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A pneumatic system
Figure 1.3 shows the components of a pneumatic system.

Figure 1.3 Pneumatic solution


The six basic components used in pneumatic systems are
1. An air tank to store a given volume of compressed air.
2. A compressor to compress the air that comes directly from the atmosphere.
3. An electric motor or other power source to drive the compressor.
4. Valves to control liquid direction, pressure, and flow rate.
5. An actuator to convert the energy of the air in to mechanical force or torque to do useful
work. Cylinders (single acting & double acting) to provide linear motion. Motors (air) to
provide rotary motion.
6. Piping, which carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

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Table 1.1 Comparisons of electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems

Energy source
Energy storage
Distribution system
Energy cost
Rotary actuators

Linear actuators

Controllable force

Points to note

Electrical
Usually from outside
supplier
Limited(batteries)
Excellent,
with
minimal loss

Hydraulic
Electric motor or diesel
driven
Limited(accumulator)
Limited, basically a
local facility

Lowest
AC &DC motors. Good
control on DC motors
Ac motors cheap
Short motion
via
solenoid. Otherwise
via
mechanical
conversion
Possible with solenoid
and
DC
motors.
Complicated by need
for cooling
Danger from electric
shock

Medium
Low
speed.
Good
control. can be stalled
Cylinders.
force.

Very high

Controllable high force

Controllable medium
force

Leakage,
dangerous Noise
and unsightly. Fire
hazard

ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER


1. Ease and accuracy of control.
2. Multiplication of force.
3. Constant force or torque.
4. Simplicity, safety and economy
5. High power to weight ratio
6. Automatic overload protection
7. Instantly reversible motion
8. Infinitely variable speed control
9. FP devices are much easier to install than mechanical devices
10. Removal of heat generated

DISADVANTAGES OF FUID POWER


1. Hydraulic fluids are messy.
2. Susceptible to damage by dirt or contamination
3. Physical injury from high speed particles
4. Fire or explosion hazard
5. Prolonged exposure to loud noise

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Pneumatic
Electric motor or
diesel driven
Good(reservoir)
Good, can be treated
as a plant wide
service
Highest
Wide speed range
accurate
speed
control difficult
Cylinders
medium
forces

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APPLICATIONS OF FLUID POWER
1. Fluid power drives high-wire overhead tram.
2. Fluid power is applied to harvesting corn
3. Hydraulics power brush drives
4. Fluid power is the muscle in industrial lift trucks
5. Fluid power drives excavators
6. Hydraulics power robotic dexterous arm
Primary functions of a hydraulic fluid
1. To transmit power
2. To lubricate moving parts
3. To seal clearances between mating parts
4. To dissipate heat generated.
Desirable properties of a hydraulic fluid
1. Good lubricity
2. Ideal viscosity
3. Chemical and environmental stability
4. Compatibility with system materials
5. High degree of incompressibility
6. Fire resistance
7. Good heat transfer capability
8. Low density
9. No toxicity
10. Low volatility
11. Inexpensive
12. Ready availability
Advantages of Air
1) It is inexpensive
2) Readily available
3) It is fire resistant
4) It is not messy
5) It can be exhausted back in to the atmosphere
Disadvantages of Air
a) It cant be used in an applications where accurate positioning or rigid holding is
required
b) Sluggish
c) Air can be corrosive, since it contains oxygen and water
d) A lubricant must be added to lubricate valves and actuators
e) Pressures of greater than 10-15 bar are typically not used due to explosion dangers

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Fluids: Liquids and Gases
The term fluid refers to both gases and liquids.
A liquid is a fluid that, for a given mass, will have a definite volume independent of the
shape of its container. This means that even though a liquid will assume the shape of the
container, it will fill only that part of the container whose volume equals the volume of the
quantity of the liquid. For example, if water is poured into a vessel and the volume of water is not
sufficient to fill the vessel, a free surface will be formed.
Liquids are considered to be incompressible so that their volume does not change with
pressure changes. This is not exactly true, but the change in volume due to pressure changes is so
small that it is ignored for most engineering applications.
Gases on the other hand are fluids that are readily compressible. In addition, their
volume will vary to fill the vessel containing them. If a gas is allowed to enter an empty vessel,
the gas molecules always fill the entire vessel. The volume of a given mass of a gas will increase
to fill the vessel that contains it. Gases are greatly influenced by the pressure to which they are
subjected. An increase in pressure causes the volume of the gas to decrease, and vice versa.
Table 1.2 Physical differences between liquids and gases
Parameter
Volume
Shape
Compressibility

Liquid
Has its own volume

Gas
Volume is determined by
container
Takes shape of container but Expands to completely fill and
only to its volume
take the shape of the
container
Incompressible for most Readily compressible
engineering applications

Weight, mass and force


Weight is considered as a force, arising from gravitational attraction between the mass of
an object and the earth.
=

Force is a push or a pull or more generally anything that can change an objects speed or
direction of motion. The SI unit used to measure force is the Newton (symbol N). If a force is
applied to a mass, acceleration (or deceleration) will result given by the formula
=
A Newton is defined as the force which produces an acceleration of 1 m s-2 when applied
to a mass of 1 kg. (N= kg m s-2)

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Pressure
Pressure occurs in a fluid when it is subjected to a force. As shown in figure 1.4 a force F
is applied to an enclosed fluid via a piston of area A. This results in a pressure P in the fluid.

Figure 1.4 Pressure in a fluid subjected to a force


Pressure in the fluid can therefore be defined as the force acting per unit area or
=
In metric systems, F is usually given in kgf and A in square centimeters to give pressure in
kilogram/force per square centimeter (kgf cm-2).
The SI unit of pressure is pascal (Pa). Since the Pascal is a very small unit, the bar is
commonly used. (1 bar = 105 Pa)
1 Pa = 1 Nm-2
Pressure can also arise in a fluid from the weight of a fluid. This is usually known as the
head pressure and depends on the height of the fluid. In figure 1.5 the pressure at the bottom of
the fluid is directly proportional to height h.

Figure 1.5 Head pressure in a fluid

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In SI systems head pressure is given by


=

Where = density in kg /m3


g= acceleration due to gravity ms-2
and h= height of liquid in m, P is expressed in pascal
There are three distinct ways in which pressure is measured as shown in figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Different forms of pressure measurement


The relationship between absolute and gauge pressure is illustrated in figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Relationship between absolute and gauge pressures

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Work, energy and power
Energy is defined as the ability to perform work. If a force acts on a body and moves the
body through a specified distance in the direction of its application, a work has been
done on the body.
Mathematically we can write,
Work=force (N) x distance moved (m)
The SI unit of work is the joule. (1 J= 1 Nm) A joule (J) is the work done when a
force of 1N acts through a distance of 1m. Since work equals force times distance, we
have
1J =1N x 1m = 1Nm
Thus, we have Energy (J) = F (N) x d (m)
The transfer of energy is an important consideration in the operation of fluid
power systems. Energy from a prime mover is transferred to a pump via a rotating motor
shaft and couplings. The pump converts this mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by
increasing the fluid pressure. The pressurized fluid does work on hydraulic actuators. An
actuator converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and moves the external
load.
Power is the rate at which work is performed. Thus the power input to the
hydraulic system is the rate at which an actuator delivers energy to the external load.
Similarly, the rate at which an actuator delivers energy to the external load is equal to the
power output of a hydraulic system. The power output is determined by the
requirements of the external load.
A hydraulic system is used because of its versatility in transferring power. The versatility
includes the advantages of variable speed, reversibility, overload protection, high powerto-weight ratio and immunity to damage under a stalled condition.
=

Where F is the force (N), v is the velocity (m/s) and P is the power (Nm/s or W). The SI
unit of power is the watt, defined as 1 Js-1
( )=

For hydraulic power we have,

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( )=

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Torque
The term torque is used to define a rotary force, and is simply the product of the force
and the effective radius as shown in figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8 Definition of torque


Pascals law
Blaise pascal, in about the year 1650, determined laws governing how fluids transmit power.
These are
1. Provided the effect of the weight of a fluid can be neglected, the pressure is the same
throughout an enclosed volume of fluid at rest.
2. The static pressure acts equally in all directions at the same time.
3. The static pressure always acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid.
As a consequence of these laws, when a pressure is applied to one end of an enclosed
volume of fluid, the pressure is transmitted equally and undiminished to every other part of
the fluid.

Figure 1.9 Illustration of Pascals law


=

Where, F is the force acting on the piston, A is the area of the piston, and p is the
pressure on the fluid.

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Multiplication of Force
The most useful feature of fluid power is the ease with which it is able to multiply force. This
accomplished by using an output piston that is larger than the input piston. Such a system is
shown in figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 Multiplication of force


This system consists of an input cylinder on the left and an output cylinder on the right that is
filled with oil. When the input force is Fin on the input piston, the pressure in the system is
given by
=

=
------ (1)

Here to obtain the output force, the input force is multiplied by a factor that is equal to the
ratio of the output piston area to the input piston area.
Verifying the principle of conservation of energy
The conservation of energy principle states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. Here the large piston on the right is only moved by the fluid displaced by the small
piston on left. Therefore, what has been gained in force must be sacrificed in piston travel
displacement.
Force-displacement relation
Hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence the volume displaced by the piston is
equal to the volume displaced at the output piston.
=
Since the volume of a cylinder equals the product of its cross-sectional area and its height,
we have
=
Where Sin is the downward displacement of the input piston and Sout is the upward
displacement of the output piston;
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=

-------- (2)

Comparing (1) and (2)


=

---------- (3)

Force-power relation
Hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence the quantity of oil displaced by the
input piston is equal to the quantity of oil gained and displaced at the output piston. Flow
rate is the product of area and volume of fluid displaced in a specified time;
=

=
=

---------- (4)

Comparing equations (3) and (4), we get


=

---------- (5)

From equation (5) we get


=
(Work done) in = (Work done) out
Also, we know that; Power=Force x Velocity

(Power) in = (Power) out


Example problem 1.1
An input cylinder with a diameter of 30 mm is connected to an output cylinder with a diameter of
80mm (see figure 1.11 below). A force of 1000 N is applied to the input cylinder.

Figure 1.11 Arrangement of piston cylinders for example problem 1.1


(a) What is the output force?
(b) How far do we need to move the input cylinder to move the output cylinder 1000 mm?

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Solution: since the volume of a cylinder equals the product of its cross-sectional area and its
height, we have: Ain Xin = Aout Xout, where Xin is the downward movement of the input piston
and Xout is the upward movement of the output piston. Hence we get:
=

Given that
Fin = 1000 N, Ain = /4 x 302 (mm2) =0.7854 x 302 and Aout =/4 x 802 (mm2) =0.7854 x 802,
Sout= 1000mm
(a) Force on the large piston Fout :
=

= 1000

= 7111.1

(b) Distance moved by the small or input piston Sin :


=

= 1000

= 7111.1

Example problem 1.2


A force of P=850 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of a hydraulic jack (see figure 1.12 below).
The area a of the small piston is 15 cm2 and the area A of the larger piston is 150 cm2. What load
W can be lifted on the larger piston
(a) If the pistons are at the same level,
(b) If the large piston is 0.75 m below the smaller one?

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Figure 1.12 (a) Pistons are at same level (b) Pistons are at different level
The mass density of the liquid in the jack is 103 kg/m3
Solution:
We know that:
=
If

a small force can raise a larger load W. The jack has a mechanical advantage of A/a.

(a) Now, P=850N, a=0.0015m2, A=0.015m2


Using Pascals law, we can write
=

Now mass lifted is given by


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850 0.015
= 8500
0.0015

= 866.5

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(b) If the larger piston is a distance h below the smaller, the pressure p2 is greater than p1,
due to the head h, by an amount gh, where is the mass density of the liquid:
=
=

Now

= 56.7 10

= 103

= 0.75
So,

Now,

= 56.7 10 + (103 9.81 0.75) = 56.74 10

= 56.74 10 0.015 = 8511

Therefore
Mass lifted =

= 867.6

Gas laws
During the 16th century scientists discovered the laws that determine the interactions of
pressure, volume and temperature of a gas. These laws are called the perfect gas laws.
Air can be considered to be a reasonable approximation to an ideal gas for the range of
pressures and temperatures occurring with pneumatic systems and thus obey the ideal gas
laws. These are
1. Boyles law
It states that if the temperature of a given amount of gas is held constant, the volume of
the gas will change inversely with the absolute pressure of the gas.
=

Figure 1.13 Air undergoing a constant-temperature process.

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2. Charles law
It states that if the pressure on a given amount a gas is held constant the volume of the
gas will change in direct proportion to the absolute temperature. Absolute temperatures are
measured on the Kelvin scale. (0oC=273K)
=

Figure 1.14 Air undergoing a constant pressure process


3. Gay-Lussacs law
Gay-Lussacs law states that if the volume of a given gas is held constant, the pressure
exerted by the gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature:
=

Figure 1.15 Air undergoing a constant-volume process


The combination of the three gas laws results in the gas general gas equation
=
The constant is for a particular mass of a particular gas and thus the equation can be written
for a mass m of gas as:
=
Where R termed the characteristic gas constant being the constant for 1 kg of a
particular ideal gas.

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Example problem 1.3
A container has a volume of 0.10 m3 and is filled with compressed air at a gauge pressure of 600
kPa and a temperature of 40oC. If the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa, determine the air
pressure in the container when the air cools to 20oC. Neglect any change in dimensions of the
container as a result of the temperature change.
Solution:
The volume is assumed to be constant, the following equation is used:
=
Where p1 and T1 are the initial pressure and temperature and p2 and T2 are the final pressure and
temperature. Thus;
=

(600 + 101) 10 (273 + 40)


= 749 10
273 + 20

This is a gauge pressure of 648 kPa.

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HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND PRESSURE REGULATION


A hydraulic pump takes oil from a tank and delivers it to the rest of the hydraulic circuit.
In doing so it raises oil pressure to the required level. Figure 1.16 shows the operation of such a
pump.

Figure 1.16 Operation of a hydraulic pump.


On hydraulic circuit diagrams a pump is represented by the symbol as shown in figure 1.17, in
which arrowhead showing the direction of flow.

Figure 1.17 Pump symbol


Hydraulic pumps are generally driven at constant speed by a three phase AC induction
motor typically rotating at 1200 rpm, 1500 or1800 rpm. Often pump and motor are supplied as
one combined unit. As an AC motor requires some form of starter, the compete arrangement
illustrated in figure 1.18 is needed.

Figure 1.18 Pump associated components.

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There are two broad classifications of pumps as identified by the fluid power industry.
1. Positive displacement pumps
2. Non-positive displacement pumps

Table 1.3 Distinguishing features of positive displacement pumps and non-positive


displacement pumps

Positive displacement pumps


(Hydrostatic pumps)

Non-positive
displacement pumps
(Hydro dynamic pumps)

These are used for high force requirement


applications. Universally used for fluid
power systems. (Max pressure capacity
12000 psi).

These are used for low-pressure, high


volume flow applications. Mainly used for
fluid transportation purposes. (Max
pressure capacity is limited to 250-300
psi).
A positive displacement pump ejects a fixed The impeller imparts kinetic energy to the
amount of fluid in to the hydraulic system fluid, hence the name hydro dynamic or
per revolution of pump shaft rotation.
hydro kinetic.
Self priming. (Fluid flows by gravity into the
pump inlet)
There is an internal seal against leakage
The three common types are Gear, vane
and piston pumps.
Efficiency is almost constant with head.

Priming required.

No positive internal seal against leakage


The two most common types of pumps are
centrifugal, axial flow propeller pumps.
Efficiency increases with head at first and
then decreases.
The flow rate is not much affected by the The flow rate decreases with viscosity.
viscosity of fluid.

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Hydrostatic or positive displacement pumps


This type is universally used for fluid power systems. A positive displacement pump ejects a fixed
amount of fluid in to the hydraulic system per revolution of pump shaft rotation. Such a pump is
capable overcoming the pressure resulting from the mechanical loads on the system as well as
the resistance to flow due to friction.
Advantages of positive displacement pumps
a. High-pressure capability (up to 12000 psi)
b. Self- priming (fluid flows by gravity into the pump inlet)
c. Small, compact size
d. High volumetric efficiency
e. Small changes in efficiency throughout the design pressure
f. Green flexibility of performance (can operate over a wide range of pressure requirements
and speed ranges)
There are three main types of positive displacement pumps; gear, vane and piston. Many
variations exist in the design of each of these main types of pumps.
Vane and piston pumps can be either fixed or variable displacement. A fixed displacement pump
is one in which the amount of fluid ejected per revolution (displacement) cannot be varied. In a
variable displacement pump, the displacement can be varied by changing the physical
relationships of various pump elements. This change in pump displacement produces a change in
pump flow output even though pump speed remains constant.
It should be understood that pumps do not pump pressure. Instead they produce fluid flow. The
resistance to this flow, produced by the hydraulic system is what determines the pressure.
Some pumps are made with variable displacement, pressure compensation capability. Such
pumps are designed so that as system pressure builds up, they produce less flow. Finally at some
predetermined maximum pressure level, the flow output goes to zero due to zero displacement.
Pressure relief valves are not needed when pressure-compensated pumps are used.
A hydraulic pump is specified by the flow rate it delivers (pump capacity) (LPM) and the
maximum pressure (pressure rating) the pump can withstand.
Pumping Theory
A positive displacement hydraulic pump is a device used for converting mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. It is driven by a prime mover such as an electric motor. It basically
performs two functions. First, it creates a partial vacuum at the pump inlet port. This vacuum
enables atmospheric pressure to force the fluid from the reservoir into the pump. Second, the
mechanical action of the pump traps this fluid within the pumping cavities transports it through
the pump and forces it into the hydraulic system. It is important to note that pumps create flow
not pressure. Pressure is created by the resistance to flow. All pumps operate by creating a
partial vacuum at the intake, and a mechanical force at the outlet that induces flow. This action
can be best described by reference to a simple piston pump shown in figure 1.19.

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Figure 1.19 Pumping action of a simple piston pump


1) As the piston moves to the left, a partial vacuum is created in the pump chamber that
holds the outlet valve in place against its seat and induces flow from the reservoir that is
at a higher (atmospheric) pressure. As this flow is produced, the inlet valve is temporarily
displaced by the force of fluid, permitting the flow into the pump chamber (suction
stroke).
2) When the piston moves to the right, the resistance at the valves causes an immediate
increase in the pressure that forces the inlet valve against its seat and opens the outlet
valve thereby permitting the fluid to flow into the system. If the outlet port opens
directly to the atmosphere, the only pressure developed is the one required to open the
outlet valve (delivery stroke). The volume of oil displaced by the piston during the
discharge stroke is called the displacement volume of the pump.

Pump lift
The pump shown in figure 1.20 is above the fluid in the tank. The pump creates negative
pressure (less than atmospheric) pressure at its inlet port causing fluid to be pushed up the inlet
pipe by atmospheric pressure. This action creates a fluid lift which is generally, incorrectly
described as arising from pump suction. In reality fluid is pushed into the pump. Maximum pump
lift is determined by atmospheric pressure. The lift should be as small as possible to avoid
cavitation (formation and destructive collapse of bubbles from partial vaporization of fluid). The
normal limit for pump lift is around 1m for most of the cases.

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Figure 1.20 Pump lift


Derivation of Pump power
The motor power required to drive a pump is determined by the pump capacity and
working pressure. As shown in figure 1.21, a pump forces fluid along a pipe of area A against a
pressure P, moving fluid a distance d in time T. The force is PA.; the expression for the power is
derived as under.

Figure 1.21 Derivation of pump pressure

=
=

=
=

600

Pressure regulation
Figure 1.22 shows a system in which load is raised or lowered by hydraulic cylinder. With
valve V1 open, fluid flows from the pump to the cylinder, with both pressure gauges P1 and P2
indicating a pressure of F/A. With valves V1 closed and V2 open, the load falls with fluid being
returned to the tank. With the load falling, gauge P2 will still show a pressure of F/A, but at P1
the pump is dead-ended, leading to a continual increase in pressure as the pump delivers fluid
into the pipe. Obviously some method is needed to keep P1 at a safe level. To achieve this,
pressure-regulating valve V3 has been included. This is normally closed (no connection between P
and T) while the pressure is below some preset level (called the cracking pressure). Once the
cracking pressure is reached valve V3 starts to open, bleeding fluid back to the tank. As the
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pressure increases, valve V3 opens more until, at a pressure called the full flow pressure, the
valve is fully open. With valve V1 closed, all fluid from the pump returns to the tank via the
pressure-regulating valve, and P1 settles somewhere between the cracking and full flow
pressures. Cracking pressure of a relief valve must be higher than a systems working pressure,
leading to a fall in system pressure as valve V1 opens and external work is performed. Valve
positions and consequent pressure readings are shown in figure 1.23.

Figure 1.22 Typical hydraulic circuit showing the action of pressure regulation

Figure 1.23 Pressure recording for the hydraulic circuit shown in figure 1.22
Simple Pressure relief valve
The most widely used type of pressure control valve is the pressure relief valve, since it is
found in practically every hydraulic system. It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit
the pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump back to the pump.

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Figure 1.24 Simple pressure relief valve

Figure 1.25 Symbol for a simple pressure relief valve


Figure 1.24 illustrates the operation of a simple relief valve. A poppet is held seated inside the
valve by the force of a stiff compression spring. When the system pressure reaches a high enough
value, the resulting hydraulic force exceeds the spring force and the poppet is forced off its seat.
This permits flow through the outlet to the tank as long as this high pressure level is maintained.
Figure 1.25 shows the graphical symbol of a simple pressure relief valve.

Figure 1.26 Pressure versus flow curve for simple relief valve

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Compound Pressure relief valve (balanced piston relief valve)
A compound pressure relief valve is one that operates in two stages. As shown in figure
1.27, the pilot stage is located in the upper valve body and contains a pressure-limiting poppet
that is held against a seat by an adjustable spring. Diversion of the full pump flow is accomplished
by the balanced piston in the lower body.
When fluid pressure rises, the poppet cracks and a small flow of fluid passes from the
upper chamber to the tank via the hole in the piston center. This fluid is replenished by fluid
flowing through the hole in the piston. With fluid flow there is now a pressure differential across
the piston, which is acting only against a light spring. The whole piston lifts, releasing fluid around
the valve stem until a balance condition is reached. Because of the light-restoring spring a very
small override is achieved.

Figure 1.27 Operation of a compound pressure relief valve

Pump types
There are essentially three different types of positive displacement pumps used in hydraulic
systems.
1. Gear pumps
2. Vane pumps
3. Piston pumps

Gear pumps
External gear pump
The simplest and most robust positive displacement pump, having just two moving parts
is the gear pump. (Figure 1.28) Its parts are non-reciprocating, move at constant speed and
experience a uniform force.
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Figure 1.28 Construction details of a Gear pump


It consists of just two close meshing gear wheels which rotate as shown. As the teeth
come out of mesh at the centre, a partial vacuum is formed which draws fluid into the inlet
chamber. Fluid is trapped between the outer teeth and the pump housing, causing a continual
transfer of fluid from inlet chamber to outlet chamber where it is discharged to the system.
Pump displacement is determined by; volume of fluid between each pair of teeth; number of
teeth; and speed of rotation.
Wear in a gear pump is primarily caused by dirt particles in the hydraulic fluid, so cleanliness and
filtration are particularly important.
The pressure differential between inlet and outlet port causes large side loads to be applied to
the gear shafts at 450 to the centre line as shown.
Volumetric displacement and Theoretical Flow rate
Let
Do = outside diameter of gear teeth (m)
Di = inside diameter of gear teeth (m)
L = width of gear teeth (m)
VD = displacement volume of pump (m3/rev)
N = rpm of pump
QT = theoretical pump flow-rate
The volumetric displacement of a gear pump can be found by calculating the volume of a
hollow cylinder of outside diameter Do and inside diameter D i, where the length of the cylinder is
L. There are actually two such cylinder volumes where oil could fill the inside of the pump if there
were no gear teeth. However one half of these two volumes is taken up by the gear teeth of both
gears.

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Thus the volumetric displacement can be represented by
=

The theoretical flow-rate is thus


(

)=

) (

The above equation shows that the pump flow varies directly with speed and is graphically shown
in figure 1.29. Hence theoretical flow rate is constant at a given speed as shown in figure 1.30.

Figure 1.29 Positive displacement pump Flow versus speed curve

Figure 1.30 Positive displacement pump Flow versus pressure curve at constant pump speed
Volumetric efficiency
There must be a small clearance (about 0.025 mm) between the teeth tip and pump
housing. As a result, some of the oil at the discharge port can leak directly back toward the
suction port. This means that actual flow rate QA is less than the theoretical flow rate QT, which is
based on volumetric displacement and pump speed. This internal leakage, called pump slippage,
is identified by the term volumetric efficiency v which equals about 90% for positive
displacement pumps operating at design pressure.
=
The higher the discharge pressure, the lower the volumetric efficiency because internal leakage
increases with pressure. Pump manufacturers usually specify volumetric efficiency at the pump
rated pressure.

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Example problem 1.4
A gear pump has a 75 mm outside diameter, a 50 mm inside diameter, and a 25mm width. If the
volumetric efficiency is 90% at rated pressure, what is the corresponding actual flow-rate? The
pump speed is 1000 rpm.
Solution:
The volume displacement is,

= [(0.075) (0.050) ](0.025) = 0.0000614

Since, 1L=0.001m3, VD=0.0614L


Now,
= 0.0000614
=

1000

= 0.0614

= 0.90 0.0614 = 0.0553

Since 1L=0.001m3, we have QA=55.3 LPM


Lobe pump
Another version of the gear pump is the lobe pump, illustrated in figure 1.31. This pump operates
in a fashion similar to the external gear pump. In this pump, both the lobes are driven externally
so that they do not actually contact each other. Thus they are quieter than other types of gear
pumps. Due to the smaller number of mating elements, the lobe pump output will have a
somewhat greater amount of pulsation, although its volumetric displacement is generally greater
than that for other types of gear pumps.

Figure 1.31 the Lobe pump


Figure 1.32 and Figure 1.33 shows the other variants of gear pumps.

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Figure 1.32 Internal gear pump

Figure 1.33 Gerotor pump


Figure 1.32 shows the internal gear pump; where an external driven gear wheel is connected to a
smaller internal gear, with fluid separation as gears disengage being performed by a crescentshaped moulding.
In the case of gerotor pump shown in figure 1.33, the crescent moulding is dispensed with by
using an internal gear with one less tooth than the outer gear wheel. Internal gear pumps
operate at lower capacities and pressures (typically 70 bar) than other pump types.
Vane pumps
The major source of leakage in a gear pump arises from the small gaps between teeth, and also
between teeth and pump housing. The vane pump reduces this leakage by using spring (or
hydraulic) loaded vanes slotted into a driven rotor, as illustrated in figure 1.34.

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Figure 1.34 Unbalanced vane pump


As shown in figure, each slot contains a vane designed to mate with the surface of the
cam ring as the rotor turns. Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against the surface of the cam
ring. During one-half revolution of rotor rotation, the volume increases between the rotor and
cam ring. The resulting volume expansion causes a reduction of pressure. This is the suction
process, which causes fluid to flow through the inlet port and fill the void. As the rotor rotates
through the second half revolution, the surface of the cam ring pushes the vanes back into their
slots, and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid through the
discharge port.
Analysis of Volumetric displacement
Careful observation of figure 1.34 will reveal that there is an eccentricity between the
centerline of the rotor and the centerline of the cam ring. If the eccentricity is zero, there will be
no flow.
Let

Dc = diameter of cam ring (m)


DR = diameter of rotor (m)
L = width of rotor (m)
VD = pump volumetric displacement (m3)
e = eccentricity (m)
emax = maximum possible eccentricity (m)
VDmax = maximum possible volumetric displacement (m3)

From geometry, we can find the maximum possible eccentricity;

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This maximum value of eccentricity produces a maximum possible volumetric displacement;
=

Noting that we have the difference between two squared terms yields
=

)(

Substituting the expression for emax yields


=

)(2

The actual volumetric displacement occurs when emax=e


=

Some vane pumps have provisions for mechanically varying the eccentricity. Such a
design is called a variable displacement pump. Figure 1.35 shows one such type with adjustable
capacity, set by the positional relationship between rotor and inner casing, with the inner casing
position set by an external screw.

Figure 1.35 Variable displacement vane pump


Pressure compensated Vane pump
The design shown in figure 1.36 is a pressure-compensated one in which system pressure
acts directly on the cam ring via a hydraulic piston on the right side (not shown). This forces the
cam ring against the compensator spring-loaded piston on the left side of the cam ring. If the
discharge pressure is large enough, it overcomes the compensator spring force and shifts the cam
ring to the left. This reduces the eccentricity, which is maximum when discharge pressure is zero.
As the discharge pressure continues to increase, zero eccentricity is finally achieved, and pump
flow becomes zero. Such a pump basically has its own protection against excessive pressure
buildup as shown in figure 1.37.

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Figure 1.36 Variable displacement, pressure compensated Vane pump

Figure 1.37 Pressure versus flow for pressure-compensated vane pump

Balanced vane pump


A balanced vane pump is one that has two intake and two outlet ports diametrically opposite
each other as shown in figure 1.38. Thus, pressure ports are opposite each other, and a complete
hydraulic balance is achieved. The main disadvantage of balanced vane pump is that it cannot be
designed as a variable displacement unit. Instead of having a circular cam ring, a balanced design
vane pump has an elliptical housing, which forms two separate pumping chambers on opposite
sides of rotor. This eliminates the bearing side loads and thus permits higher operating pressures.

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Figure 1.38 Balanced vane pump


Example problem 1.5
A vane pump has a rotor diameter of 50 mm, a cam ring diameter of 75 mm, and a vane width of
50 mm. if the eccentricity is 8 mm, determine the volumetric displacement.
Solution:
We know that,

= (

= (0.075 + 0.050) 0.008 0.050 = 0.0000785

Since 1L=0.001m3, VD=0.0785L

Table 1.4 gives a comparison of the various types of hydraulic pumps.


Table 1.4 Comparison of hydraulic pump types
Type
Gear
Vane
piston

Variable displacement
NO
YES
YES

Efficiency (%)
90
95
98

Pressure range (bar)


150
250
> 500

Cost
Low
Medium
high

Pump Efficiencies
Pump manufacturers run tests to determine performance data for their various types of pumps.
The overall efficiency of a pump can be computed by comparing the hydraulic power output of
the pump to the mechanical input power supplied by the prime mover. Overall efficiency can be
broken into two distinct components called volumetric efficiency and mechanical efficiency.

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Figure 1.39 Terms involving pump efficiencies


1. Volumetric efficiency (V)
Volumetric efficiency indicates the amount of leakage that takes place within the pump.
This involves considerations such as manufacturing tolerances and flexing of the pump
casing under design pressure operating conditions. For example an efficiency value of
90% would be represented by a value of 0.90.
=

100 =

100

2. Mechanical efficiency (m)


Mechanical efficiency indicates the amount of energy losses that occur for reasons other
than leakage. This includes friction in bearings and between other mating parts. It also
includes energy losses due to fluid turbulence. Mechanical efficiencies typically run from
90% to 95%.
=

100

100

Where, p= pump discharge pressure (Pa)


QT= pump theoretical flow rate (m3/s)
TA= actual torque delivered to pump (N.m)
=

N= pump speed (rad/s);

Mechanical efficiency can also be computed in terms of torques:


=

100

100

Note that the theoretical torque required to operate a pump (TT), is the torque that
would be required if there were no leakage.
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Theoretical torque
( .

) (
2

)=

Actual Torque
( .

( )

)=
(

3. Overall efficiency (o)


The overall efficiency considers all energy losses and hence defined as follows;
=
The overall efficiency can also be represented mathematically as follows;
o=v x m
=
Example problem 1.6
A pump has a displacement volume of 100 cm3. It delivers 0.0015 m3/s at 1000 rpm and
70 bars. If the prime mover input torque is 120 N.m.
(a) What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
(b) What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?
Solution:
(a)

We have

= 0.000100
= (0.000100

/
/

/
3

QT=0.00167 m /s
Now,

.
.

= 0.898 = 89.8%.
=

(b)

)(0.000167 )
2
(120 . ) 1000

60
11690 .
=
= 0.930 = 93.0%
12570 .
= 0.898 0.930 = 0.835 = 83.5%
=

(70 10

=
= (120)(0.93) = 112 . Thus, due to mechanical losses within the pump,
120 N.m of torque are required to drive the pump instead of 112 N.m.

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Loading / Unloading Valves
It is evident that allowing excess fluid from a pump to return to the tank by a pressure
relief valve is wasteful of energy and can lead to a rapid rise in temperature of the fluid as the
wasted energy is converted to heat. It is normally undesirable to start and stop the pump to
match load requirements, as this causes shock loads to pump, motor and couplings.

Figure 1.40 loading / un-loading valve


In figure 1.40, valve V1 is a normal pressure relief valve, regulating pressure and returning excess
fluid to the tank. The additional valve V2 is opened or closed by an external electrical or hydraulic
signal. With valve V2 open all the pump output flow is returned to the tank at low pressure with
minima energy cost.
When fluid is required in the system the control signal closes valve V2; pressure rises to the
setting of valve V1, and the system performs as normal. Valve V2 is called a pump loading or a
pump unloading valve according to the interpretation of the control signal sense.
Combination pumps
Many hydraulic applications are similar to Figure 1.41, where a workpiece is held in place by a
hydraulic ram. There are essentially two distinct requirements for this operation.

Figure 1.41 A clamping cylinder


As the cylinder extends or retracts a large volume of fluid is required at a low pressure (sufficient
just to overcome friction).
As the workpiece is gripped, the requirement changes to a high pressure but minimal fluid
volume. This type of operation is usually performed with two separate pumps driven by a
common electric motor as shown in Figure 1.42.

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Figure 1.42 combination pump


Pump P1 is a high-pressure low volume pump, while pump P2 is a high-volume low-pressure
pump. Associated with these are two relief valves RV1 and RV2 and a one-way check (or nonreturn) valve which allows flow from left to right, but blocks flow in the reverse direction.
A normal (high-pressure) relief valve is used at position RV1 but relief valve RV2 is operated not
by the pressure at point X, but remotely by the pressure at point Y. This could be achieved with
the balanced piston valve discussed earlier or by the use of a sequence valve.
In low-pressure mode both relief valves are closed and both pumps P1 and P2 deliver fluid to the
load, the majority coming from pump P2 because of its higher displacement. When the
workpiece is gripped, the pressure at Y rises, and relief valve RV2 opens, causing all the fluid from
pump P2 to return straight to the tank and the pressure at X to fall to a low value. Check valve
CV1 stops fluid from pump P1 passing back to the tank via relief valve RV2; consequently
pressure at Y rises to the level set by relief valve RV1. This arrangement saves energy as the large
volume of fluid from pump P2 is returned to the tank at a very low pressure, and only a small
volume of fluid from pump P1 is returned at a high pressure. Pump assemblies similar to that
shown in Figure 1.42 are called combination pumps and are manufactured as complete units with
motor, pumps, relief and check valves prefitted.
Filters and Strainers
Modern hydraulic systems must be dependable and provide high accuracy. This requires
highly precision-machined components. The worst enemy of precision-made hydraulic
component is contamination of the fluid. Essentially, contamination is any foreign material in the
fluid that results in detrimental operation of any component of the system. Contamination may
be in the form of a liquid, gas, or solid and can be caused by any of the following:
1. Built into system during component maintenance, and assembly. Examples are metal
chips, bits of pipe threads, tubing burrs, pipe dope, shreds of plastic tape, bits of seal
material, welding beads, bits of hose, and dirt.

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2. Generated within system during operation. Example are moisture due to water
condensation inside the reservoir, entrained gases, scale caused by rust, bits of worn
seal materials, particles of metal due wear, and sludges and varnishes due to oxidation
of the oil.
3. Introduced into system from external environment. The main source of contamination
here is due to the use of dirty maintenance equipment such as funnels, rags and tools.
Filters and strainers are devices for trapping contaminants.
Filter is a device whose primary function is to retain, by some porous medium, insoluble
contaminants from a fluid.
A strainer is a coarse filter. Strainers are constructed of a wire screen that rarely contains
openings less than 100 mesh. The screen is wrapped around a metal frame.
Particle sizes removed by filters measured in micrometers (microns). The smallest- sized
particle that can be normally be removed by a strainer is approximately 150 m. On the other
hand, filters can remove particles as small as 1 m.
There are three basic types of filtering methods used in hydraulic systems; mechanical,
absorbent, and adsorbent.
Mechanical; this type normally contains a metal or cloth screen or a series of metal disks
separated by thin spacers. Figure 1.43 shows one such type of filter called edge type filter.

Figure 1.43 Edge type filter


Absorbent; these filters are porous and permeable materials such as paper, wood pulp,
diatomaceous earth, cloth, cellulose, and asbestos. Paper filters are normally impregnated with a
resin to provide added strength. These filters are used for extremely small particle filtration.
Adsorbent; Adsorption is a surface phenomenon and refers to the tendency of particles to cling to
the surface of the filter. Thus, the capacity of such a filter depends on the amount of surface area
available. Adsorbent materials used include activated clay and chemically treated paper.
Filters can also be classified as full or proportional flow.
Full flow filter is shown in figure 1.44; all flow passes through the filter. This efficient in terms of
filtration, but incurs a large pressure drop. This pressure drop increases as the filter becomes
polluted.

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Figure 1.44 Full flow filter

(a) Inlet line filter


(b) Pressure line filter
(c) Return line filter
Figure 1.45 Location of filters (full flow filter) in a hydraulic circuit
Figure 1.45 shows the typical locations where filters are installed in hydraulic circuits.
Proportional flow filter is shown in figure 1.46; the main flow passes through a venturi, creating a
localized low pressure area. The pressure differential across the filter element draws a proportion
of the fluid through the filter. This design is accordingly known as proportional flow filter. Hence,
these filters are installed in a separate drain line in a hydraulic circuit.

Figure 1.46 Proportional flow filter

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Mechanical filters can usually be removed, cleaned and re-fitted, where as absorbent
filters are usually replaceable items.
Pressure drop across the filter element is an accurate indication of its cleanliness, and
many filters incorporate a differential pressure meter calibrated with a green (clear), amber
(warning), red (change overdue) indicator. Such types are called indicating filters.

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AIR COMPRESSORS, AIR TREATMENT AND PRESSURE REGULATION


The vast majority of pneumatic systems use compressed atmospheric air as the operating
medium (a small number of systems use nitrogen obtained commercially from liquid gas
suppliers). Unlike hydraulic systems, a pneumatic system is open; the fluid is obtained free, used
and then vented back to atmosphere.
The pressure of a liquid may be raised to a high level almost instantaneously, where as
pressure rise in a gas can be distinctly leisurely.
Free air is defined as air at normal atmospheric pressure, at a pressure of 101.3 kPa.
Compressors for example are specified in terms of the free air delivered (f.a.d), this being the
volume a given quantity of compressed air would occupy at atmospheric pressure and the same
temperature. This enables comparisons between compressors to be more easily made. The gas
laws can be used to convert free air to other pressures and/or temperatures or vice versa.
Example problem 1.7
A compressor has a rated output of 3 m3/min free air delivery. What will be the output at
an absolute pressure of 700 kPa and the same temperature?
Solution
Since the temperature is unchanged from the free air condition and only the pressure
changes, we can use Boyles law:
P1V1=p2V2, which gives

= 0.43

In Figure 1.47, a reservoir of volume two cubic meters is connected to a compressor which
delivers three cubic meters of air (measured at atmospheric pressure) per minute. Using Boyles
law the pressure rise is shown in Table 1.5.

Figure 1.47 Components of a typical pneumatic power source


Table1.5 pressure rise with respect to time
t (min)

Volume (at NTP)

0
1
2
3

2
5
8
11

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(bar)
1
2.5
4
5.5

Pressure gauge
(bar)
0
1.5
3
4.5

45
Behavior of a gas subjected to changes in pressure, volume and temperature is governed by the
general gas equation;
=
Where pressures are given in absolute terms and temperatures are measured in degrees Kelvin.
Figure 1.48 represents the component parts of a pneumatic system.

Figure 1.48 Component parts of a pneumatic system

Compressors
A compressor is a machine that compresses air or another type of gas from a low inlet pressure
(usually atmospheric) to higher desired pressure level. This is accomplished by reducing the
volume of the gas. Figure 1.49 shows the symbol for a compressor.

Figure 1.49 Symbol for a compressor


Compressors can be broadly classified as being in two groups;
1. Positive displacement compressors
Successive volumes of air are isolated and then compressed to a higher pressure. There
are essentially two forms of positive displacement compressor, reciprocating and rotary
type.
2. Dynamic compressors
These are rotary continuous machines in which a high-speed rotating element
accelerates the air and converts the resulting velocity head in to pressure.
Piston Compressors
Piston compressors or reciprocating compressors are positive displacement compressors
involving pistons moving in cylinders. Figure 1.50 shows the basic form of a single-acting, singlestage, vertical, reciprocating compressor.

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Figure 1.50 Singe-acting, single-stage, vertical, reciprocating compressor


On the air intake stroke, the descending piston causes air to be sucked into the chamber
through the inlet port. When the piston starts to raise again, the trapped air forces the inlet valve
to close and so becomes compressed. When the air pressure has risen sufficiently, the outlet
valve opens and the trapped air flows into the compressed air system. After the piston has
reached the top dead centre it then begins to descend and the cycle repeats itself. Both the
valves are spring loaded. The compressor shown in the above figure 1.50 is termed single-acting
because one pulse of air is produced per piston stroke; double acting compressors are designed
to produce pulses of air on both the up and down strokes of the piston. It is termed single stage
because the compressor goes directly from atmospheric pressure to the required pressure in a
singe operation.

Figure 1.51 Double acting compressor


A more even air supply can be obtained by the double acting action of the compressor shown in
figure 1.51, which uses two sets of valves and a crosshead to keep the piston rod square at all
times.
For the production of compressed air at more than a few bar, two or more stages are generally
used. Normally two stages are used for pressures up to about 10 to 15 bar and more stages for
higher pressures. Thus with a two stage compressor we might have the first stage taking air at
atmospheric pressure and compressing it to say, 2 bar and then the second stage compressing
this air to, say 7 bar. Because the temperature of the air is increased quite significantly when it is

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compressed, an intercooler is used between the two stages. Figure 1.52 shows the basic form of
a single-acting, two stage, and reciprocating compressor.

Figure 1.52 Single-acting, two-stage, reciprocating compressor


Advantage of Multistage compression
Considerable savings in power consumption can be obtained by the use of multistage
compressors with intercooling rather than just a single-stage compressor.
We know that Work done=Force x distance
=

Thus if we have, for the trapped air in a compressor, the pressure/volume graph is given
in figure 1.53.

Figure 1.53 p/V diagram


The work done in producing a volume change V at a pressure p is pV and thus the area
of the strip under the graph. Thus when the pressure is changed from p1 to p2, the work done is
the area under the pressure/volume graph between those pressures. With a two stage
compressor, cooling takes place at an intermediate pressure and thus the pressure/volume
diagram (figure 1.54) shows a drop in volume at the intermediate pressure as a result of the air
being cooled. As a consequence there is a power saving, this being indicated by the shaded part
of the diagram. Power savings of the order 15% are achievable.

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Figure 1.54 p/V diagram for a two-stage compressor


Figure 1.55 shows the basic form of a double acting, two-stage, reciprocating
compressor.

Figure 1.55 Double acting, two-stage, reciprocating compressor


Multi stage compressors can also be manufactured with a single cylinder and a double
diameter piston as shown in figure 1.56.

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Figure 1.56 Combined two-stage compressor


Air receivers and compressor control
An air receiver is used to store high pressure air from the compressor. The purposes served by
the air receiver are to store compressed air and so eliminate the need for the compressor to run
continuously, to smooth out the pulsing flow of air from the compressor, to act as an emergency
supply to the system in the event of power failure and to assist with air cooling and thus enable
condensate to drop out before the air enters the distribution system. Figure 1.57 shows an air
receiver, together with its accessories.

Figure 1.57 Air receiver and its accessories


The size of the receiver and the allowable variations in the supply pressure determine the
frequency with which the compressor switches on and off.
Air receivers are usually cylindrical in shape with a safety relief valve to guard against high
pressures, a manually operated or automatic condensate drain, isolation valves to enable the
receiver to be isolated, a pressure gauge and sometimes a temperature gauge. Figure 1.58 shows
the symbolic representation of air receiver and its accessories.
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Figure 1.58 symbolic representation of air receiver and its accessories

Air receiver sizing


Charts and formulas are available for the determination of the size of an air receiver.
Figure 1.59 shows the type of chart supplied by a manufacturer with a compressor. It is used by
first selecting the delivery volume of free air required per minute; determining the point where
the horizontal line through that delivery volume intersects the pressure drop required of the
receiver, i.e. the difference in the pressure in the receiver between when the compressor is
switched on and when it is switched off; taking the vertical line from that point to where it
intersects the allowable number of starts per hour of the compressor; then taking the horizontal
line from that point to where it intersects the receiver size axis and hence the required value for
size.

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Figure 1.59 Air receiver sizing chart


Example problem1.8
A pneumatic system requires an average delivery volume of 20 m3/min free air delivery. The air
compressor has a rated free air delivery of 25 m3/min and a working gauge pressure of 7 bar,
being controlled to switch off load when the receiver gauge pressure rises to 7 bar and back on
load when the receiver gauge pressure has dropped to 6 bar. Determine a suitable receiver
capacity if the maximum allowable number of starts per hour for the compressor is 20.
Solution:
20 starts per hour means that the average time between starts is 3 min.
In 3 min the system demand is 3 x 20 m3 free air. To supply this the compressor must run for
(3x20)/25 = 2.4 min.
Thus the compressor is off for 0.6 min. during this time the receiver has to supply the system
while the gauge pressure in the receiver falls from 7 to 6 bar.
The volume of air supplied from the receiver in this time is 0.6 x 20=12 m3 of free air.
If we assume that the temperature is constant, Boyles law gives for the volume of free air in a
receiver of volume V containing air at a gauge pressure of 7 bar.
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(7 + 1 )
1

=8

The volume of free air in the receiver containing air at a gauge pressure of 6 bar is:
=

(6 + 1 )
1

=7

Thus the volume of free air delivered from the receiver as the pressure falls from 7 bar to
6 bar is 8V-7V =1 V m3. Thus 1V=12 m3 and so the receiver volume required is 12 m3.
Compressor Volumetric efficiency
With a reciprocating compressor there has to be some clearance at the end of the
compression stroke between the piston head and the cylinder. It is also impossible to fully charge
the cylinder with air at the end of the suction stroke. In addition, there may also be some leakage
of air through the inlet valve at the changeover from suction to compression and also leakage
across the piston from the high-pressure to the low-pressure side. Because of this, the volume of
air delivered by the compressor is less than the swept volume of the cylinder. This is also true of
other forms of compressor. Thus we specify volume efficiency as;
=
Compressor control
Control of the compressor is necessary in order to maintain the pressure in the air
receiver. The simplest method of control is start/stop control where the compressor is started
when the receiver pressure falls to some minimum pressure and stopped when the pressure in
the receiver has risen to the required value. An electrical pressure switch can be used to monitor
the pressure and provide the signals to start and stop the compressor. Figure 1.60 shows such
control.

Figure 1.60 Receiver pressure control via motor start/stop


Another method is to run the compressor continuously and use an exhaust valve on the outlet
side of the compressor to vent air when the required pressure is reached. This is termed exhaust
regulation. Figure 1.61 shows such a control system. This is wasteful since the compressor is still
using power while compressing air which is just vented to the atmosphere.

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Figure 1.61 Compressor control by exhaust regulation


Another control technique termed intake regulation involves controlling the input air to
the compressor. In this method a valve is used to close the intake to the compressor when the air
receiver pressure reaches the required value. The compressor is then not compressing any air
and so the only power used is friction of the free running compressor. Figure 1.62 illustrates such
a control system.

Figure 1.62 Compressor control by intake regulation

Stages of Air treatment


Air in a pneumatic system must be clean and dry to reduce wear and extend maintenance
periods. The air leaving the compressor can be hot and contain contaminants such as oil from the
compressor, moisture and dirt particles. Thus after-coolers, dryers and filters are used to give
contaminant-free air at the ambient temperature, with lubricators to add controlled lubricants to
the air in order to lubricate pneumatic devices.

In general, this treatment falls into three distinct stages, shown in figure 1.63. First, inlet
filtering removes particles which can damage the air compressor. Next there is the need to dry
the air to reduce humidity and lower the dew point. This is normally performed between the
compressor and the receiver and is termed primary air treatment.

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Figure 1.63 Three stages of air treatment


The final treatment is performed local to the duties to be performed, and consists of further
steps to remove moisture and dirt and the introduction of a fine oil mist to aid lubrication. This is
secondary air treatment.
Filters
Inlet filters are used to remove dirt and smoke particles before the air enters a compressor.
Such filters can be dry filters with replaceable cartridges (similar to those found in motor car air
filters) or wet filters where the incoming air is bubbled through an oil bath then passed through a
wire mesh filter. Dirt particles become attached to the oil droplets during the bubbling process
and are consequently removed by the wire mesh. Both types of filter require regular servicing.
Filters are also used with the air emerging from a compressor. Here they are used to remove free
droplets of water and oil, together with particles of dirt. Figure 1.64 shows the symbol for a filter.
Figure 1.65 shows a typical air filter and water trap.

Figure 1.64 symbol for a filter

Figure 1.65 Air-line filter with manual water trap


The entering compressed air is deflected by a cone which forces the air into a swirling
motion. This causes the heavier water particles and dirt to be thrown outwards to the wall of the
filter. They then fall past the baffle and into the trap bottom where they can be drained. Smaller
particles are removed by the air passing through a filter element.
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Air filters are rated in terms of the largest size of spherical particles that will pass through
the filter. Particle sizes are measured in terms of micrometers. Dust particles are generally larger
than 10 m, while smoke and oil particles are about 1 m. Figure 1.66 shows the symbol for filter
with manual water trap.

Figure 1.66 symbol for filter with manual water trap

After- coolers
After-coolers are heat exchangers similar to intercoolers. Figure 1.67 showing the general symbol
for a cooler. They can be either air or water cooled. The air leaving the compressor will contain
water vapor and the reduction in temperature produced by the cooler condenses some of this
vapor. This condensate has to be drained. For this purpose, automatic drain valves are generally
used. These allow the liquid to escape when it reaches a particular level in the valve.

Figure 1.67 symbol for a cooler


Figure 1.68 shows the symbols for drains and a float operated drain trap, which when the
water rises above a certain level causes the float to open the valve.

Figure 1.68 Drain symbols and an automatic drain


A water cooler consists essentially of a series of pipes through which the cooling water
flows, the air moving through the space round the pipes and so becoming cooled.

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Air dryers
Water in compressed air can cause many problems, e.g. corrosion and malfunction of
pneumatic components and problems if the compressed air is used in manufacturing process.

In discussing the quantity of water vapor in air, the following terms are used.
1. Saturation
Air is said to be saturated when it contains the maximum amount of water vapor which it
can hold at a particular temperature. Figure 1.69 shows the water content needed to
saturate air at different temperatures. For example, at -20oC air is saturated by 1 g/m3
but at 40oC saturation is not achieved until there is 50 g/m3.

Figure 1.69 Saturation curve


2. Relative humidity
The relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor present in a sample of
air at a particular temperature, being defined as:

100%

If we have air at 20oC containing 5 g/m3 of water then, since saturation requires about 15
g/m3 at that temperature, the relative humidity is (5/15)x100% = 33%.
3. Dew point
The dew point is the temperature at which a sample of air becomes saturated. Thus
using figure 1.69, if we take air containing 1 g/m3 of water it will have to be cooled to 20oC before it becomes saturated and liquid starts to condensate out. Thus -20oC is the
dew point of that sample. Figure 1.69 can thus be considered to be a graph of dew point
for different amounts of water vapor. Table 1.6 gives some dew point values.

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Table 1.6 Dew point values
Water
Dew Point
content
(oC)
3
(g/m )
4.9
0
6.8
5
9.4
10
12.8
15
17.3
20
23.1
25
30.4
30
39.6
35
The amount of water vapor needed to saturate a sample of air depends on the
temperature. It also depends on the pressure because increasing the pressure on a
sample of air will reduce its volume. We can use the gas laws to determine the change in
the volume of air. Figure 1.70 shows the general symbol for an air dryer.

Figure 1.70 Symbol for an air dryer


The aim of the dryer is to reduce the amount of water vapor in the compressed air to a
level which will prevent water condensing out in the system supplied with the compressed air.
There are three main types of air dryers.
1. The chemical absorption dryer (deliquescent dryer)
2. The adsorption dryer
3. The refrigeration dryer
The Chemical absorption dryer
This involves passing the air through a chemical, the desiccant, which absorbs some of
the water vapor in the air (figure 1.71). During absorption, the chemical (such as phosphoric
pentoxide or calcium chloride) slowly liquefies and seeps to the bottom of the vessel where it is
drained off. The dryer requires periodically to be recharged with the chemical. The dew point of
air leaving this type of dryer is typically about 5oC.

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Figure 1.71 Chemical absorption dryer (Deliquescent dryer)


The adsorption dryer
Adsorption is the physical process of moisture collection on the porous surface of certain
granular materials. Gaseous molecules are attracted to certain solid surfaces by Van der Walls
forces and this causes adsorption. The degree of attraction (or adsorption) is dependent on the
properties of the gaseous molecules and the desiccant. Activated alumina, molecular sieves, and
silica gels (silicon dioxide) are the most important industrial desiccants.

Figure 1.72 Adsorption dryer


This consists of two pressure chambers containing a desiccant chemical (figure 1.72). The
air to be dried is passed through one chamber and the moisture removed while the other
chamber containing spent chemicals is being regenerated by heating and the passage of a purge
air stream. After a time the air flow is switched from one chamber to the other. Adsorption
dryers can achieve dew points of -20oC or lower.

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The refrigeration dryer
This involves cooling the wet air down to a temperature of about +2oC and so condensing
out much of the water vapor to give a dew point of that temperature. Figure 1.73 shows the basic
principle. The incoming wet air is first cooled by passing through a heat exchanger where it is
cooled by the outgoing dry air, warming that air in the process. It then passes through the
refrigerant heat exchanger where it is further cooled. Some typical temperatures at the various
points in the sequence are shown on the figure.

Figure 1.73 Refrigeration dryer


Lubricators
To ensure that sliding parts in pneumatic devices such as cylinders and valves are
lubricated, a carefully controlled amount of a specially selected lubricant is often added to
compressed air by means of a lubricator. This results in an oil fog or mist (micro fog) being carried
by the compressed air. The term oil fog and oil mist/micro fog lubricators often used. Oil mist
tends to result in smaller oil drops suspended in air. Figure 1.74 shows the basic principles of a
typical Oil mist lubricator and its symbol. It relies on the principle that when air flows through a
constriction there is a pressure drop and this causes oil to be sucked up its tube and into the air
stream. The resulting oil-laden air is sprayed onto a baffle plate which causes further oil-drop
fragmentation and then flows up to the discharge port, larger drops of oil dropping out of the air
stream.

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Figure 1.74 Oil mist lubricator and its symbol


Pressure regulation
Flow velocities in pneumatic systems can be quiet high, which can lead to significant flowdependent pressure drops between the air receiver and the load.
Generally therefore, air pressure in the receiver is set higher than the required load pressure and
pressure regulation is performed local to loads to keep pressure constant regardless of flow.
There are essentially three methods of local pressure control illustrated in figure 1.75.

Figure 1.75 Three types of local pressure regulation


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Load A vents continuously to atmosphere. Air pressure is controlled by a pressure
regulator which simply restricts air flow to the load. This type of regulator requires some
minimum flow to operate. These types of regulator in which air must pass through the load are
called non-relieving regulators.
Load B is a dead-end load and uses a pressure regulator which vents air to atmosphere to
reduce pressure. This type of regulator is called a three-port or relieving regulator.
Load C is a large capacity load whose air volume requirements are beyond the capacity of
a simple in-line regulator. Here a pressure control loop has been constructed comprising pressure
transducer, electronic controller and separate vent valve. This technique can also be used if the
pressure regulating valve cannot be mounted locally to the point at which the pressure is to be
controlled.
Relief valves
The simplest pressure regulating device is the relief valve shown on Figure 1.76. This is
employed as a back-up device which will open and vent air if the pressure in the system becomes
too high. The ball valve is held closed by the spring, the force exerted on the ball by the spring
being greater than the force exerted by the system air pressure. However, the pressure in the
system rises, the force it exerts on the ball rises and at some predetermined value it exceeds the
force exerted by the spring and the ball valve opens and vents air from the system.

Figure 1.76 Pressure relief valve


Non-relieving pressure regulators
Figure 1.77 shows construction of a typical non-relieving pressure regulator. Outlet
pressure is sensed by a diaphragm which is preloaded by a pressure setting spring. If outlet
pressure is too low, the spring forces the diaphragm and poppet down, opening the valve to
admit more air and raise outlet pressure.

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Figure 1.77 Non-relieving pressure regulator


If the outlet pressure is too high, air pressure forces the diaphragm up, reducing air flow
and causing a reduction in air pressure as air vents away through the load. In a steady state the
valve will balance with the force on the diaphragm from the outlet pressure just balancing the
preset force on the spring.
Relieving pressure regulators
A relieving pressure regulator is shown in figure 1.78. Outlet pressure is sensed by a
diaphragm preloaded with an adjustable pressure setting spring. The diaphragm rises, if the
outlet pressure is too high, and falls if the pressure is too low.

Figure 1.78 Relieving pressure regulator


If the outlet pressure falls, the inlet poppet valve is pushed open admitting more air to
raise pressure. If the outlet pressure rises the diaphragm moves down closing the inlet valve and
opening the central vent valve to allow excess air to escape from the load thereby reducing
pressure.
In a steady state the valve will balance; dithering between admitting and venting small amounts
of air to keep load pressure at the set value.

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Service units
The term service unit is used for a filter, moisture separator, pressure regulator, pressure
indicator and lubricator, such combinations frequently being required. Figure 1.79 shows the
individual component symbols and the composite symbol used for the service unit.

Figure 1.79 the service unit

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QUESTIONS, CONCEPTS, AND DEFINITIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

Define fluid power.


Differentiate oil hydraulics and pneumatics.
What is the basic law that is important in applying fluid power?
List five fields of applications of fluid power.
Why is hydraulic power especially useful with heavy work?
Where are pneumatic systems preferred?
What are the primary functions of hydraulic fluid?
Name few properties of a hydraulic fluid.
What are the undesirable results when an oil viscosity is too high?
What are the undesirable results when an oil viscosity is too low?
Why should a hydraulic fluid have good lubricating ability?
Name the basic components required in hydraulic system.
What is a positive displacement pump and how does it differ from a centrifugal pump?
What is the function of pump in a hydraulic system?
Name the three popular construction types of positive displacement pumps.
Name the different designs of gear pump
Name the different designs of vane pump.
What is the difference between fixed displacement and variable displacement pump?
Why gear pump cannot be used as a variable displacement pump?
How can the unbalanced vane pump be used as a variable displacement pump?
What is a pressure compensated vane pump and how does it work?
What is meant by a balanced design vane pump?
Define volumetric efficiency of a pump.
Define mechanical efficiency of a pump.
Define overall efficiency of a pump.
Draw the graphic symbols for the following pump types.
(i)
Fixed displacement
(ii)
Variable displacement
(iii)
Pressure compensated
(iv)
bidirectional
When is pneumatics preferred over hydraulics?
Name the three types of positive displacement compressors that are commonly used in
industry.
What is a multistage compressor?
What is the purpose of a dryer?
What is the function of an air filter?
What is the purpose of the pressure regulator?

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PROBLEMS
33. A positive displacement pump has an overall efficiency of 88% and a volumetric efficiency of
92%.What is the mechanical efficiency?
34. A gear pump has a 82.6 mm outside diameter, a 57.2 mm inside diameter, and a 25.4 mm
width. If the actual pump flow rate at 1800 rpm and rated pressure is 0.00183 m3/s, what is
the volumetric efficiency?
35. A hydraulic press has an input cylinder 1 inch in diameter and an output cylinder 6 inches in
diameter.
(a) Assuming 100% efficiency, find the force exerted by the output piston when a force of 10
pounds is applied to the input piston.
(b) If the input piston is moved through 4 inches, how far is the output piston moved?
36. A hydraulic system is said to have a mechanical advantage of 40. Mechanical advantage (MA)
is FR (output) / FE (input). If the input piston, with a 12 inch radius, has a force of 65 pounds
pushing downward a distance of 20 inches, find
(a) the volume of fluid that has been displaced
(b) the upward force on the output piston
(c) the radius of the output piston
(d) the distance the output piston moves
37. What pressure does a 130 pound woman exert on the floor when she balances on one of her
heels? Her heels have an average radius of 0.5 inch.
38. A car has a weight of 2500 pounds and rests on four tires, each having a surface area of
contact with the ground of 14 square inches. What is the pressure the ground experiences
beneath the tires that is due to the car?
39. The input and output pistons of a hydraulic jack are respectively 1 cm and 4 cm in diameter.
A lever with a mechanical advantage of 6 is used to apply force to the input piston. How
much mass can the jack lift if a force of 180 N is applied to the lever and efficiency is 80%?
40. A pump has a displacement volume of 98.4cm3. It delivers 0.0152m3/s of oil at 1000 rpm and
70 bars. If the prime mover input torque is 124.3 Nm.
(a) What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
(b) What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?
41. A compressed air tank has a volume of 0.5m3 and contains air at a gauge pressure of 1.96MPa
and a temperature of 50oC. if the atmospheric pressure is 103kPa, determine the mass of air
in the tank. The gas constant for air is 0.287kJ/kgK.

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REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS


[1] Andrew Parr, Hydraulics and Pneumatics-A Technicians and Engineers guide, 1st edition1993, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai. [ISBN 81-7224-779-6]
[2] W.Bolton, Pneumatic and Hydraulic systems, Butterworth-Heinemann, Britain-1997.
[ISBN 0-7506 3836 2].
[3] Anthony Esposito, Fluid power with Applications, Pearson Education, 2006, [ISBN 81-7758580-0]

WEB PAGE REFERENCES


1)
2)
3)
4)

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/WindTunnel/Activities/Pascals_principle.html
http://www.vickers.sh.cn/pdfs/M-SRSR-MC001-E.pdf
http://file.seekpart.com/keywordpdf/2011/3/31/20113319837232.pdf
http://www.associatedgroups.com/EATON-CAT/pdfs/i3155s.pdf

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