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1.1. Introduction
Definition: A dredgers is a piece of equipment which can dig, transport and dump a
certain amount of under water laying soil in a certain time.
The quantity of soil moved per unit of time is called Production.
Dredgers can dig hydraulically or mechanically. Hydraulic digging make use of the
erosive working of a water flow. For instance, a water flow generated by a dredge
pump is lead via suction mouth over a sand bed. The flow will erode the sand bed and
forms a sand-water mixture before it enters the suction pipe. Hydraulic digging is
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mostly done with special water jets. Hydraulic digging is mostly done in cohesionless
soils such as silt, sand and gravel.
Mechanical digging by knives, teeth or cutting edges of dredging equipment is apply
to cohesive soils.
The transport of the dredged soil can be done hydraulically or mechanically too, ether
continuously or discontinuously.
Continuously
Hydraulically
Transport via pipeline
Discontinuously
Mechanically
Transport via conveyor
belts
Transport via grab, ship,
car
Deposition of soil can be done in simple ways fi by opening the grab, turning the
bucket or opening the bottom doors in a ship. Hydraulic deposition happens when the
mixture is flowing over the reclamation area. The sand will settle while the water
flows back to sea or river.
Dredging equipment can have these three functions integrated or separated.
The choice of the dredger for executing a dredging operation depends not only on the
above mentioned functions but also from other conditions such as the accessibility to
the site, weather and wave conditions, anchoring conditions, required accuracy and so
on.
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Grab dredge
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Cutter dredge
1.3.1.1.
General
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.3.1.2.
Working method
The bucket ladder dredge is positioned on 6 wires. Under working conditions the
dredge swings around her bow anchor. The bow anchor line or headline can have
length longer than 1000 m. In order to avoid dragging of the wire over the soil, which
results in a smaller radius, the wire is supported by a headline pontoon. As a result of
this long headline the cut width can be large as well (200 m or more). The sideline
winches take care of the swinging of the dredge as well as the power necessary for the
cutting process. The swing speed depends on the spoil condition, the layer thickness
cut and forward step (pawl length)
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Headwire
Forward ground anchor PS
Headwire pontoon
"Pawl" length
Swing over
Groundlevel
Dry
excavation
Dredge
profile
Spillage
Cutwidth
Stern anchor
1.3.1.3.
Area of application
A bucket dredgers can be applied in almost all soils, from soft silt and clays to soft
rock depending on the power on and the strength of the bucket chain. They are use in
blasted rock as well.
The maximum dredging depth depends on the size of the dredger. Bucket ladder
dredgers with a maximum dredging depth of over the 30 m are built.
However for such dredgers the minimum dredging depth is almost 8 m.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Nowadays they are often used for dredging contaminated mud, because the can dig the
soil under in situ density conditions.
The bucket ladder dredge can not applied under offshore conditions and is certainly an
obstruction for shipping. Compared to hydraulic dredgers he production is rather low.
1.3.2.
1.3.2.1.
General
The grab dredger is the most common used dredger in the world, especially in North
America and the Far East.
It is a rather simple and easy to understand stationary dredger with and without
propulsion. In the latter the ship has a hold (hopper) in which it can store the dredge
material, otherwise the material is transported by barges. The dredgers can be moored
by anchors or by poles (spuds)
The capacity of a grab dredger is expressed in the volume of the grab. Grab sizes
varies between less than 1 m3 up to 200 m3.
The opening of the grab is controlled by the closing and hoisting wire or by hydraulic
cylinders.
1.3.2.2.
Working method
For grab dredgers the method of anchoring and the positioning system plays an
important role for the effectiveness of the dredger.
At every pontoon position an area as wide as possible will be dredged. Looking from
the centerline the volume to be dredged at the position decreases with the angle to the
centerline.
The positioning is important to localize the bit of the grab. This helps the dredge
master to place the next bit after the fore going.
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Releasing the aft wires and pulling the fore wires does the movement of the pontoon.
When the dredgers have spud poles, this movement is done by a spud operation, which
is more accurate than executed by wires.
15 %
37 %
48 %
1* step
ste
Center line
tep
7s
0.8
0.5
30
60
Dredge pattern
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Hoist winch
Top shieves
Hoist wires
Gear segments
Closing winch
Closing wires
Bucket
Gear segments
1.3.2.3.
Area of application
The large grab dredgers are used for bulk dredging. While the smaller ones are mostly
used for special jobs, such as:
Difficult accessible places in harbors
Small quantities with strongly varying depth.
Along quay walls where the soil is spoiled by wires and debris
Borrowing sand and gravel in deep pits
Etc.
The production of a grab depends strongly on the soil. Suitable materials are soft clay,
sand and gravel. Though, boulder clay is dredged as well by this type of dredger. In
soft soils light big grabs are used while in more cohesive soils heavy small grabs are
favorable.
The dredging depth depends only on the length of the wire on the winches. However
the accuracy decreases with depth.
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1.3.3.
Hydraulic cranes are available in two models the backhoe and the front shovel. The
first is used most. The difference between those two is the working method. The
backhoe pulls the bucket to the dredger, while the front shovel pushes. The last
method is only used when the water depth is insufficient for the pontoon.
These stationary dredgers are anchored by three spud poles; two fixes to the front side
of the pontoon and one movable at the aft side. This means that the dredging depth is
limited to about 15 m. (maximum 25 m). At the front of the pontoon is normally a
standard cranes mounted. Here pontoon deck is lower to increase the dredging depth.
Bucket sizes vary from a few m3 to 20 m3.
Backhoe dredge
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Front shovel
1.3.3.1.
Working method
During dredging the pontoon is lifted a few out of the water by wires running over the
spud poles. A part of the weight of the dredger is now transferred via the spuds to the
bottom, resulting a sufficient anchoring to deliver the required reaction for the digging
forces. Besides that the dredger is in this case less sensible for waves. The bucket is
placed and filled by hydraulic cylinders on the boom and the bucket arm.
Due to the small radius of the boom and arm is the cut width limited to 10 to 20 m, see
figure below.
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The effective dredging area depends on the swing angle and the forward step per
pontoon position. A small step results in a large width and a large step in a small
width, however the total area is almost the same.
1.3.3.2.
Area of application
This is roughly the same as for the clamshell dredgers with the exception dredging
depth over the 25 m
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.4.1.1.
General
A plain suction dredger is a stationary dredger that position on one ore more wires,
with at least one dredge pump, which is connected to the suction pipe and the delivery
pipe. The suction pipe is situated in a well in front of the pontoon.
Good production can only achieved by this kind of dredgers either the soil is free
running sand or the cut or breach height is sufficient (at least 10 m)
The discharge of the soil sucked is done either by pipeline or by barges.
Most suction dredgers are equipped with jet water pump(s) to assist either the
beaching process or to improve the mixture forming process near the suction mouth.
Types of plain suction dredgers
There are different types to be distinguished.
1.
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10
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15
Used when the transport distances are too large for direct pumping
2. Standard plain suction dredger
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Chapter 1 Introduction
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2
This dredger is equipped with an underwater pump and have two appearances; the
standard or from the barge loading type. When dredging depth exceeds the 30 m this
dredgers is more appropriate than the standard one.
4.
Dustpan dredger
A suction dredger with a wide suction mouth, which makes it possible to dredge with
reasonable productions low cut heights.
1.4.1.2.
Working method
The working method is based on the breaching process and the erosion created by
the flow near the suction mouth, generated by the dredge pump.
Breaching is a process of soil shearing on a slope caused by local instabilities or by
erosion of the density current running along the slope to the suction mouth
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Instabilities
H br
Sand-water mixture
(density current)
Suction tube
Vz
Breach
This process is essential for this type of dredger and is fully determined by the soil
conditions of the slope, from which the permeability and the relative density re the
most important parameters. The dredge patron made by a plain suction dredger is
shown below.
The length of the cut depends, inside the borrow area, on the position of the anchors.
Mostly the anchors are laid down in such a way that more cuts can be made without
repositioning the anchors. However this depends not only of the length of the
anchoring wires but also from the breachebility of the soil.
1.4.1.3.
Area of application
Due to the lack of cutting devices this type of dredger is only suitable in non-cohesive
soils. Further more this method exclude accurate dredging work. Dredging under
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Chapter 1 Introduction
offshore conditions is possible with special equipment. As already said borrowing in
deep pits of over 100 m depth is possible.
These types of dredgers are frequently used in borrow pits for reclamation areas as
well as for the borrowing of sand for the concrete industry.
1.4.2.
1.4.2.1.
General
Barge unloading dredgers are used for emptying loaded barges either by suction
dredgers or by bucket ladder dredgers and cranes.
The barge-unloading dredger is a stationary special suction dredger anchored by spuds
near the shore, where the water depth is sufficient for the loading barges to come along
side the dredger.
The water for the unloading and the transport is supplied into the barge by a jet.
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1.4.3.
1.4.3.1.
General
The cutter suction dredger is a stationary dredger equipped with a cutter device (cutter
head) which excavate the soil before it is sucked up by the flow of the dredge pump(s).
During operation the dredger moves around a spud pole by pulling and slacking on the
two fore sideline wires. This type of dredger is capable to dredge all kind of material
and is accurate due to their movement around the spud. The spoil is mostly
hydraulically transported via pipeline, but some dredgers do have barge-loading
facilities as well.
Sea going cutter suction dredgers have their own propulsion, however this is only used
during (de) mobilization.
Cutter power ranges from 50 kW up to 5000 kW, depending on the type of soil to be
cut.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
The more powerful dredgers are capable to dredge rock
The small and medium size cutter suction dredgers are deliverable in a demountable
application. In that case the hull consists out of five or more pontoons. The central
pontoon contains the machinery.
The rotation direction of the cutter head; (over cutting) rotation in the direction
of the swing movement or (under cutting) opposite to that.
Ds
Ds
Under cutting mode
In the over cutting mode the cutter head tries to drag the cutter dredger in the direction
of the pulling winch. Braking with the opposite winch may be necessary.
The position of the anchors in relation to the path of the cutter head. The more
the anchor lies in the direction of the moving cutter head the less the required side
winch force will be.
External forces, such as wind, current and waves.
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The thickness of the layer, which can be cut in one swing, depends besides on the soil
conditions also on the size of the cutter head. At the end of the swing will either the
ladder be lowered and the dredger is swung in the opposite direction or the dredger
will make a step forwards.
As said earlier the dredgers swings around a pole the working spud, which is
positioned mostly in a carriage. The spud carriage can be moved over a distance of 4
to 6 m. by a hydraulic cylinder. When the working spud is set on the ground the
dredger is pushed forward when the cylinder pushes against the carriage. This forward
movement is called step and depends also on the soil conditions and the size of the
cutter head.
During a step the breach is cut in one or more cuts.
Cut width
Workspud
in carriage
Spud carriage
length
Auxilary spud
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Because the spud stays on the same spot the dredger makes concentric circles during
swinging.
Is the stroke of the hydraulic cylinder is maximum the dredger is moved to the
centerline of the cut where a second spud at the aft side of the pontoon, the step spud,
is lowered. Where after the working spud is hoisted and the carriage is pulled back, the
working spud lowered to the ground and the step spud hoisted again. The dredger can
make a new cycle again.
1.4.3.3.
Applied working area
Cutter suction dredgers are applied for dredging harbors, channels, reclamation areas
and so on. The transport distance of the mixture is limited to maximum 10 km. She is
very useful when the accuracy of the works is important. As said already the cutter
dredger can dredge all kinds of soil.
Rock Cutter
clay cutter
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1.4.4.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.4.5.
1.4.5.1.
General
A Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger (TSHD) is a self-propelled sea-going or inland
vessel equipped with a hold, called hopper, and a dredging installation by which it can
fill and/or empty the hopper.
The basic options of a THSD are:
One or more suction tubes provided with suction mouths (dragheads) which are
dragged over the seabed during dredging.
One or more dredge pumps to suck the material from the seabed.
A hopper in which the dredged material can settle.
Easy operational bottom doors or valves in the hopper to dump the dredge
material
Gantries and winches to operate the suction tubes.
A swell compensator to control the contact between the suction mouth and the
seabed when dredging in waves.
The size of a TSHD is expressed in the hopper volume and varies between a few
hundred m3 up to 33000 m3
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Working method
When arrived at the dredging area, the speed
of the vessel is reduced to about 2 to 3 knots
(1 to 1.5 m/s), where after the suction tubes
are lowered till the seabed and the dredge
pumps started. When the suction tubes reach
the seabed the swell compensator reacts, easy
to see by the movement of the hydraulic
cylinder.
Nowadays electronic charts and screens
shows where and how much there is to
dredge.
During dredging a mixture of soil and water
is dumped into the hopper. When dredging
non-settling slurries dredging is stopped when
the mixture reach the overflow; a device to
discharge fluids from the hopper above a
certain level.
When dredging settling slurries dredging is continue after the mixture has reached the
top of the overflow. Now the majority of the soil will settle in the hopper, while the
fine particles together with the water will leave the hopper via the overflow.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Overflows
After the overflow is reached, the dredging procedure depends either the overflow
level is fixed or variable.
With a fixed overflow level the loading is continued till the ship has reached the
allowed draught. The mixture volume in the hopper stays constant during this part
of the loading process. Depending on the bulk density of the settled material there
will be a certain volume of water above the settled material. (constant volume
system)
Is de THSD provided with a variable overflow system, the overflow may be
lowered when the ship has reached the allowed draught, on order to replace the
water volume by settled material. (constant tonnage system)
Rubber seal
Pivot
Bottom door
Bottom door
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When the hopper is filled, dredging is stopped and the suction tubes placed on the
deck of the ship, where after she is ready to sail to the unloading area. The THSD can
be unloaded either by opening the bottom doors or to pump the load via a pump ashore
equipment to the reclamation area.
1.4.5.3.
Applied working area
The THSD is a free sailing vessel and does not hinder other shipping during dredging
and is therefore ideal for dredging in harbors and shipping channels inshore as well as
offshore. The seagoing vessels are very suitable for borrowing sand under offshore
conditions (wind and waves) and large sailing distances. The dredged material is
dredged, transported and discharged by the vessel without any help from other
equipment.
(De)mobilization is very easy for this type of dredger. It can sail under its own power
to every place in the world.
Suitable materials for the THSD to dredge are soft clays, silt sand and gravel. Firm
and stiff clays are also possible but can give either blocking problem in the draghead
and/or track forming in the clay. In that case the draghead slips into foregoing tracks,
resulting in a very irregular clay surface. Dredging rock with a TSHD is in most cases
not profitable. It requires very heavy dragheads with rippers and the productions are
rather low.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.5. Conclusion
Summarized it can be stated that every type of dredger has its own applied working
area in which its production is optimal in a technical way as well as in an economical
way. It will be clear that the boundaries of these applied working areas are not strictly
determined, but are also determined by other working conditions, which can differ
from lob to job.
In the table below the possibilities of the different types are shortly summarized.
Bucket Grab
Backhoe
Dredger Dredger Dredger
Suction Cutter
Trailer
Hopper
Dredger Dredger Dredger Dredger
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
no
anchoring wires
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
30
> 100
20
70
25
100
50
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
no
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
yes
yes
no
limited
no
no
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Characteristics
The characteristics of the trailing suction hopper dredger are that it is a self-propelled sea or
inland waterway vessel, equipped with a hold (hopper) and a dredge installation to load and
unload itself.
In a standard design the trailing suction hopper dredger is equipped with:
One or more suction pipes with suction mouths, called dragheads that are dragged over the
seabed while dredging.
One or more dredge pumps to suck up the loosened soil by the dragheads.
A hold (hopper) in which the material sucked up is dumped.
An overflow system to discharge the redundant water.
Closable doors or valves in the hold to unload the cargo.
Suction pipe gantries to hoist the suction pipes on board.
An installation, called the swell compensator, to compensate for the vertical movement of
the ship in relation with the sea-bed.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
2.1.2
Application area
The trailing suction hopper dredger has a very wide application area and is therefore called the
workhorse of the dredging industry.
Because it needs no anchorage system to position the vessel when dredging, which can be an
obstacle for passing ships, in the early days the trailing suction hopper dredger (TSHD) was
mainly used for the deepening and maintaining of waterways. Nowadays the trailing suction
hopper dredger is also used for land reclamation. Examples of that type of jobs are the large
reclamation works executed in the Far East. Here the non-bearing soil was first removed by the
trailing suction hopper dredger, after which the same area was filled again with sand. The
reason for a preference of the trailing suction hopper dredger above other types of equipment
for this type of work is mainly the fact that the distances to the dump areas for the non-suitable
material and distance from the sand pits are too large for a direct discharge and supply with
pipelines.
The main advantages of a trailing suction hopper dredger are:
The ship does not dredge on a fixed position. It has no anchors and cables, but it moves
freely, which is especially important in harbor areas.
The trailing suction hopper dredger is quite able to work under offshore conditions.
The materials that can be sucked are mainly silt and sand. Clay is also well possible, but can
give some trouble with congestions in the draghead and rutting. Rutting is the slipping back of
the dragheads in their old rut or trail. Dredging rock with a trailing suction hopper dredger is
in most cases not economical. It requires very heavy dragheads, also called ripper-heads, and
the productions are usually very low.
2.1.3
History
The first TSHD General Moultry with a hopper size of 155 cu yard (118.5 m3) was built in
1855 in the United States. Few years later 1959 a trailing suction hopper dredger was build in
France for maintenance work in the harbor of St. Nazaire.
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The ship had two drag suction pipes, which were connected at the bottom by a tube with holes
(Figure 2.2). The dredging material, silt, was sucked through the holes in the connection tube
by a steam-driven centrifugal pump. The size of the hopper was 240 m3.
In 1962 a dredger was built according to this layout at the yard Fijenoord at Rotterdam,
Netherlands. Those types were able to dredge only very light silty material.
The real development of the trailing suction hopper dredger emanated from the stationary
suction hopper dredger, one of the few Dutch dredge inventions. This self-propelled ship has
a hopper and a forward pointing suction pipe. The dredge method is like a stationary suction
dredger, working stationary on anchors and cables. At first with a pipe in the well, but the
suction pipe was mounted on the side during the excavation of the Nieuwe Waterweg as it
appeared not the right solution in waves.
The change from an anchored to a self-propelled dredging ship was a big step ahead. At first
the suction pipe on board of a trailing suction hopper dredger was placed in a well behind the
ship, but was soon moved to the side. The trailing suction hopper dredger has mainly developed
in the USA and reintroduced in the Netherlands in the fifties and improved till it state of today.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
2.1.4
Work method
Main deck
Draghead wire
Adjustable overflow
Dredging mark
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The hopper filling is at maximum or the fill rate is 100%. Usually pumping continues for five
minutes more to remove floating water on the mixture through the overflow. When dredging
settling soils the dredging continues when the maximum level of the overflow is reached. Most
of the solids will settle and the remainder is discharged with the water through the overflow.
Fixed overflow
Fixed overflow
This water is not removable
Dredging mark
Figure 2-7
That case it is said that the ship is designed as a Constant Volume System (CVS).
Adjustable overflow
Dredging mark
Figure 2-8
When dredging stops, the suction pipes are pumped clean to prevent settling of the sand or
gravel during the hoisting of the pipes causing an extra load for the winches. When the pipes
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Be in its most simple shape a natural deepening of the seabed, the dumping area (shortly
dump), to store redundant material. If the storage capacity is large, there is no concern
about the way of dumping. This hardly happens nowadays. The client demands usually a
dump plan to fill the dump as efficiently as possible. At all times the draught on the dump
needs to be sufficient to open the bottom doors or valves (Figure 2.9).
Be a storage location for contaminated silt, like for instance the Slufter (Rotterdam harbor).
Here the material is pumped ashore using a pump ashore discharge system.
An area that has to be reclaimed.
An oil or gas pipe that has to be covered.
Rubber seal
Pivot
Bottom door
If the load is pumped ashore using the sand pumps than only these jets are available to fluidize
or erode the load.
The shore connection, being the
connection between the board pipeline
and the shore pipeline is currently
mostly positioned just above the bow
(Figure 2.10). The connection between
the ship and the shore piping is this
case a rubber pipeline. The ship
remains in position by maneuvering
with its main propellers and bow
thruster(s).
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When a dredging company wants to order a new trailing suction hopper dredger usually a
market study is performed that about the required production capacity of the new dredger.
The required production capacity is expressed in m3/week or m3/month or even cubic meters
per year. Besides that insight required about the expected average cycle time of the trailing
suction hopper dredger on the different jobs, as well as the type of soils to be dredged. Then the
production capacity can be translated to:
If the ship is used for a single purpose, for instance the maintenance of a harbor area, than the
required production capacity is usually known and therefore the above mentioned ship data.
For an international operating dredging contractor this is different and far more complicated.
Answers have to be given to the question how the average cycle and the required production
capacity will evolve in the future. For these contractors there is in fact only one requirement
and that is dredging cheaper than their competitors. This leads quickly to a demand for large
dredgers, which dredge cheaper and therefore more competitive.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
y = 3.0656Ln(x) - 19.711
R = 0.8888
Draught [m]
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Payload [ton]
The only decelerator on the building of larger vessels is the draught of the ship. When the
draught increases the usability of the ship decreases. The contractor can, dependent on the
expected amount of work as function of the (initial) dredging depth, determine the availability
of the ship for a certain draught.
Cumulative
frequency [%]
10
20
30
40
50
Unfortunately it is possible that market expectations of today are totally out-of-date in 5 years.
The management chooses for a certain production capacity and later one wills just if this choice
was right.
The design is usually made a co-operation between the builder and the client is often scaled-up
from successful ships. Of course the proper scale rules have to be obeyed when scaling-up.
At this moment five classes of trailing suction hopper dredgers can be distinguished:
Small hoppers
Medium size hoppers
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
deadweight capacity to
deadweight capacity
Pagina 17 van 109
wb3408B
Large hoppers
Jumbo hoppers
Mega hoppers
deadweight capacity
deadweight capacity
deadweight capacity
Figure 2-14 Different scales Fairway (23.347 m3) and the Sospan (700 m3)
2.2.2
When the choice for the production capacity of the trailing suction hopper dredger to be built is
made, the hopper volume is known too. The main dimensions of the trailing suction hopper
dredger are determined, as by other ships, by the required payload, draught and speed. It will be
clear that a straight correlation exists between these quantities to satisfy the shipbuilding
demands. After all a large hopper volume with a limited draught gives wide long ships with
possible disadvantages like a poor behavior in swell or problems to obtain the required speed.
Trailing suction hopper dredgers are therefore build according to certain ship ratio, such as
L/B, B/H and B/T ratio's (L=length, B=width, H=depth and T=draught). Those ratioss depend
on market requirements too and therefore change in time (Figure 2.15)
With the remark that a large B/T ratio:
With a large L/B ratio a lean ship is obtained with the advantages of:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Ships Numbers
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1965
L/B
B/H
B/T
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year of Construction
Figure 2-15
On the other hand a small L/B gives a good stability and longitude strength and demands
therefore less material, which is also cheaper.
In general a smaller B/H and a larger L/B result in less building costs. So demands for the
draught (smaller T) will cost extra money and will have to be earned with a higher usability.
T
L
Cb =
LBT
displacement
is involved too.
=
L B T
L B T
Displacement = In m3
B
= Width of ship at the main section I m
L
= Length between perpendiculars in m
T
= Draught at International mark in m
The lower Cb, the longer the ship will be with the same displacement. For trailing suction
hopper dredger Cb lies between 0,78 and 0,85.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
Also the required maximum dredging depth can have an influence on the length of the ship.
Naturally, the long suction pipe has to be stored on the deck and that requires length.
A good measure to see if the trailing suction hopper dredger is well placed in the market is to
compare its specific weight with that of its competitors. The specific weight can be defined as
the ratio between the ships weight and payload. The weight is directly related to the costs and
the payload to the profits. In Figure 2.17 the specific weight for a large number of ships is
given.
W_spec
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
Displacement [t]
Figure 2-17
Dutch term
Scheepsgewicht
1+2
3
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
English term
Ships weight
Explanation
Construction weight and necessary
equipment like: anchors, chains,
moor cables, rescue equipment,
nautical equipment and inventory of
the cabins, galley, engine-room and
tool-room of the boatswain
This is the liquid filling of all
systems on board including the
water in the inlets. Also the outside
water situated above the bottom
deck for instance under and around
the bottom doors is included.
Weights of:
Crew and their possessions,
March 2003
Weight of loaded
Vessel
Weight cargo
Ships weight ready for
Service
Figures below gives some information about light weight and dead weight of TSHDs
70,000
60,000
y = 0.6827x
R2 = 0.9929
Weight [t]
50,000
40,000
G Light weight
30,000
Dead weight
20,000
y = 0.3173x
R2 = 0.9622
10,000
0
0
Figure 2-18
Light weight as function of deadweight
25,000
20,000
15,000
y = -3E-06x 2 + 0.5586x
R2 = 0.9607
10,000
5,000
0
0
10,000
60,000 70,000
Deadweight [t[
Figure 2-19
Except that there are different names for the payload, it is also apparent that it varies in time
and often decreases. The reason is that when the ship has been in use for a while things will be
added or reinforced, which causes an increase in the ships weight. Spare parts also tend to
remain on board that should be stored onshore. In fact there is only one way to determine the
payload correctly:
1. Clear the hopper such that no remaining soil is present.
2. Determine the displacement of the ship with the draught and the trim of the ship, the
displacement is the weight of the ship including the water in the hopper.
3. Determine the weight of the water present in the hopper by determining its volume and the
specific gravity
4. Subtract the weight of this water the ships weight determined under point 2. This is the
weight of the ship ready for service.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
5. The payload is obtained by subtracting the ships mass (displacement x water density) in
tons on the maximum allowed draught with the weight of the ship ready for service.
It will b clear that the payload is never constant, but varies with the weight of the consumer
goods like fuel, lubricants, drinking water etc.
In case of light soils, such as silt and soft clay, the maximum hopper volume can be decisive
for production instead of the payload.
2.2.2.2 The hopper density.
As mentioned earlier, the production capacity of a trailing suction hopper dredger is indicated
with the quantities:
Pay-load
Maximum hopper volume
The quotient
pay load
[kg / m3 ] is called the hopper density and is a
maximum hopper volume
measure for the average density that a dredging contractor expects to dredge during the
economical lifetime of the ship. It also says something over the purpose for which the dredger
is designed. Is this for instance maintenance of a fairway in a sandy soil, than the dredges sand
in the hopper will have a density of approximately 1900 kg/m3. Unfortunately no hopper can be
filled to a 100% but approximately to maximum 90%. The maximum hopper density required
is 1900 * 0.9 = 1710 kg/m3
For a gravel trailing suction hopper dredger this is for instance: 2000 * 0,9 = 1800 kg/m3. And
for a silt trailing suction hopper dredger this could be even 1300 kg/m3. In Figure 2.20 the
hopper density of international operating dredging contractors is shown as function of time. It
stabilizes at the end of the eighties and early nineties around 1500 kg/m3, but due to the big
reclamation works it is increasing again.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Construction year
Figure 2-20
2.2.3
The design of a dredge installation includes the determination of the required main dimensions
and required powers of the following dredging components:
For the subjects the production should be corrected in a certain way from the average cycle
production of the dredger.
For instant, assume that the dredger is designed for a payload of 16000 ton and a hopper
volume of 10000 m3 and a average loading time in sand with a d50 of 200 of 90 minutes. De
density of the soil in the hopper is 1900 kg/m3. When the hopper is loaded the volume of sand
will be 8421 m3. The average load rate is in this case 8421/90=93 m3/min=1.56 m3/s.
When cumulative overflow losses of 20% are to be expected, then the dragheads should
excavate 1.56/0.8=1.95 m3/s as an average. Every m3 of sand contains (1900-1025)/(26501025)= 1-0.538=0.462 m3 water in the pores. (water=1025 kg/m3, sand is 2650 kg/m3). So a
production of 1.95 m3/s equals a sand mass of 1.95*0.538*2650=2780 kg/s
2.2.3.1 Number of suction pipes
A trailing suction hopper dredger is usually equipped with two suction pipes. For smaller and
medium size trailing suction hopper dredgers it is cheaper to use only one suction pipe. With
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
two suction pipes the total efficiency is often better because it is still possible to dredge when
one of the pipes fails.
There are also examples of large trailing suction hopper dredger with one suction pipe: the
ANTIGOON of Dredging International with a hopper volume of 8.400 m3 and the VOLVOX
TERRA NOVA of Van Oord ACZ with 18.000 m3 hopper volume. In principal it is an
economical consideration, but looking from the process technical side there are some questions.
For example: is one draghead as efficient as two dragheads with the same width?
Figure 2-21 Volvox Terra Nova and HAM 316, both with one suction pipe
1. In a particular type of soil a certain load time is demanded. (for instance 1 hour for
sand with a d50 of 200-300 m)
T
T
C0
Cin
Q0
Cin
T
vs
=
=
=
=
=
=
[-]
[-]
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[s]
[kg/m3]
For TSHDs having a constant volume system Q=Qi=Qo and the above formula
become:
T
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
CQ
CQ
ov=
0
T
Cvd =
m w
s w
so: Ci = C vd
s w
vs w
m w
and
vs w
The expected Cvd depends on the particle size, the permeability of the soil and the
available jetwater momentum. (see 2.5.5.1.3)
If the TSHD is designed as a constant tonnage dredger the incoming mass equals
the outgoing mass; so m=mi=mo.
mi = Qi mi
and mo = Qo mo so Qi mi = Qo mo or Qo = Qi
T
mi
mo
C -C mi dt= Q C (1 ov) T
i
o
i
vs i
mo
Although the formula is the same as for the constant volume system hopper
dredger it doesnt mean that the cumulative overflow losses are the same for both
types of hopper dredgers.
2.
In an ascertain type of sand the load rate in m/s or in t/s must have a minimum value.
If there would be no overflow losses than the load rate is directly proportional to the
flow rate. However, the overflow losses increase with an increasing flow rate, which
result in an increasing deviation from the linear relation. (Figure 2.22& 2.23)
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
Loadrate=F{Q} d50=.15 mm
=1100
=1200
=1300
10
12
180
160
Loadrate [m3/min]
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
14
16
18
20
Capacity [m3/s]
It can be proven that for certain particle sizes there is an optimum loadrate.
Loadrate=F{Q} d50=.1 mm
=1.1
=1.2
=1.3 [t/m3]
Load rate m /s
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
15
20
Capacity [m3/s]
Figure 2-23
The increase of a higher suction production (load rate) must be considered against the
higher sand and water pump power, larger suction pipe diameter and dragheads etc.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
When apart from the soil the cycle time is known too, than the flow rate can be
chosen such that the cycle production is maximal. The cycle production is defined as
the quotient between loading and cycle time, so: Pc =
load
tsuction + tnon suction
If there are no overflow losses than this formula can be written as:
Pc =
load
load
+ tnon suction
Q Cvd k g
Q load
load
+ Q tnon suction
Cvd k g
Pcycle [m3/c]
=1.2
=1.3 [t/m3]
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
10
15
20
Capacity [m3/s]
Figure 2-24
4.
Also the pump capacity can be scaled from existing "well working" trailing suction
hopper dredgers, by using the scale rule from Froude. However overflow losses will
not be on scale when using this scale rule.
Above mentioned criterions lead to a design flow rate and a design density.
2.2.3.3 Suction pipe diameters
Old trailing suction hopper dredgers are equipped with relatively large suction pipe diameters.
In the past the size of the diameter was mainly based on minimizing the pressure loss in the
suction pipe to avoid cavitation of the dredge pump. However it was understood that the
concentration distribution was homogeneous over the diameter, which is not always the case.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
hz
Mixture velocity vs
Mixture density m
Figure 2-25
g H + Vac
mixture = water
2
g (H k ) +
Pr = Q Cvd k = v A
mixture water
grain
grain water
This function appears to have, dependent on H, k, Vac and , an optimum for a certain suction
velocity v, which is independent of the suction pipe diameter.
can be written as = + L with;
D
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
D=750 mm
D=1000 mm
1350
1200
1300
1000
1250
800
1200
600
1150
400
1100
1050
200
1000
0
0
2
4
6
Suction velocity [m/s]
vacuum=80kPa
Production [kg/s]
rho_m
Figure 2-26
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
1.20
1.40
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
25,000
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Figure 2-27
From many researches it appears that the velocity for which all soil particles in the pipe are still
in motion is dependent on the Froude-value:
v2
. (v=velocity and D pipe diameter)
gD
Depending on the grain size and concentration the Froude-value may not become less than a
certain value FI,H. Adding the maximum average velocities for which no stationary bed is
s ( Ss S f )
1.75
8.8
D 0.7 d50
0.66
Vsm =
2
d50 + 0.11 D 0.7
0.55
In Figure 2.28 both formulas are drawn (Durant, Fl=1.4). For inclined suction pipes Vsm has to
be raised with a value D dependent of the incline. According Wilson and Tse D reaches a
maximum for approximately 30 and is then D=0.333 (Matousek, 1997).
In the design of trailing suction hopper dredgers usually Fl = 1.00 is assumed and D is not
considered. This implies that the dredger is designed for materials with a d50 between 100 and
300 m and that for coarser materials a stationary bed is accepted.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Durant
d50=.5
Practice
V_deposit [m/s]
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
Figure 2-28
May 2005
wb3408B
Fl,H, the pressure pipe diameter is chosen 50-100 mm smaller for costs reasons. Particular when
the casted elbows and valves are used. The diameter of the pump ashore installation will
generally be chosen smaller than the suction pipe. Normally the hopper is unloaded with
considerable higher concentrations than loaded. This allow for a lower flow rate when
discharge time equals the suction time.
2.2.3.5
Because the impeller diameter is approximately known ( minimum 2 times suction pipe
diameter) and there is a relation between the required manometric pressure and the peripheral
velocity of the pump impeller, also the specific pump speed is approximately known.
The dimensionless specific pump speed is defined as:
1
Ns =
2
3
With:
Q
=
Db
p
p
=
=
2
u
2 r 2
dimensionless capacity
dimensionless pressure
In these is:
Q = flow rate
p = pressure
D = diameter pump impeller
b = width pump impeller
r = D
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
[m3/s]
[Pa]
[m]
[m]
[m]
Pagina 32 van 109
March 2003
[kg/m3]
[rad/s]
Ns =
3
4
3
4
Q
p
3
4
D
4 b
(1)
Figure 2-31
The specific speed is assessed to the maximum efficiency point and is a characteristic number
to compare pumps with their dimensions like the b/D ratio, inlet and outlet diameter ratio Di/Du
and impeller shapes (Figure 2.31). Equation (1) shows that for a constant number of revolutions
() the specific number of revolutions increases with an increasing flow rate and decreasing
pressure. Since the pressure is proportional to the square of the peripheral velocity, the pressure
will decrease at a constant number of revolutions with a decreasing diameter. A higher flow
rate requires a larger diameter in the impeller, therefore a larger b/D ratio. Besides the b/D ratio
especially a wider passage in the impeller has a large influence.
Figure 2.32 shows the relation between the dimensionless capacity and pressure as function of
the number of revolutions for all types of hydraulic suction dredgers. Left in the chart are the
standard centrifugal pumps and on the right the modern half-axial or mixed flow pumps,
usually used as submerged pump in the suction pipe pump of trailing suction hopper dredgers
and cutter suction dredgers. In general the dimensionless pressure for hopper pumps is slightly
higher for the same specific flow rate than for the pressure pumps of cutter suction dredgers
and suction dredgers.
From formula (1) it follows that when Q, p, and Ns are known, the pump speed can be
determined, so that the pump and impeller type can also be chosen. (note: When the dredger
will be equipped with a pump ashore installation, there will be two pump speeds.)
For relative small trailing suction hopper dredgers and suction depths a fixed pump speed for
the dredging mode (suction) is often sufficient. When the difference between minimum and
maximum dredging depth is large, a variable pump speed may be required.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
All Dredgers
Specific Capacity
Ca p a c ity
0.8
0.14
0.7
0.12
0.6
0.1
0.5
0.08
0.4
0.06
0.3
0.04
0.2
0.02
0.1
Specific Head
Hea d
0.16
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Specific Speed
Figure 2-32
With increasing size and particular for increasing depth the question may rise if this can lead to
large flow rate variations during the dredging process. Large flow rate variations often lead to
water-hammer problems in the pipelines. If this risk exists than an adjustable pumpspeed is
necessary.
There are more factors involved in the choice of a pump, such as:
3, 4 or 5 impeller vanes. Dependent on the required minimal opening area between the
blades.
Single- or double-walled pump (wear considerations).
Inboard or submerged pump or both. If great suction depths are expected, it has to be
considered if the installation of submerged pumps is more economical. The limit where this
economical point is reached is closely connected with depth of the inboard pump below
water level under service conditions, so roughly with the draught of the ship. This break
point is therefore different for every ship.
The operation of the pump during pumping ashore (if necessary).
When the dredger is provided with a pump ashore installation attention shall be given to the
pumps working under both conditions. During pumping ashore it becomes more and more a
custom that all available power of the main engines are used. This implies that the maximum
pump speed when pumping ashore differs significantly from the pump speed during dredging.
As a consequence the best efficiency point of the pump when pumping ashore shifts to a
considerable higher flow rate than during dredging. This shift is in reality even larger because
the pump ashore capacity is usually smaller than the flow rate during dredging (why?).
It has to be realized however that a pump working under conditions far above or below the best
efficiency point, will wear faster. A good research of the position of the best efficiency points
under the different service conditions is therefore necessary to obtain the optimal installation.
Also the required pump power for both modes can now be calculated. However, the maximum
available pump power during pumping ashore is with a combined drive (one engine for pump +
propulsion) determined by the required propulsion power.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Eff/280 rpm
Eff/165 rpm
1200
120
1000
100
800
80
600
60
400
40
200
20
Efficiency [%]
Q-p/280 rpm
0
0
capacity [m3/s]
Figure 2-33
The expected range of the flow rate variation between the pumping of the water and of the
slurry. This range is larger with an increasing suction depth, provided no cavitation takes
place. Limitation of this variation can be necessary to reduce the risk of water-hammer. In
that case a constant pump speed or a stepped control is insufficient.
When a constant flow rate control is desired. The flow rate is regulated by a variation of the
pump speed. An electric drive is necessary. A constant flow rate control by varying the
number of revolutions is not suitable to prevent water-hammer (too slow).
If the ship is equipped with a pump ashore installation and the propulsion power can be
used totally or partly when pumping ashore. To use this additional power a higher pump
speed than use in the dredging mode is required.
Dependent on these demands the sand pump can be driven directly by the main engine through
a, if necessary, a stepped gearbox or directly by an electric engine through a generator. Of
course there are several intermediate solutions that are treated in the chapter "Main
arrangement".
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
Visor
M sand = I = w Qu = w Q
2 p jet
w
With:
I
Msand
pjet
Q
u
=
=
=
=
=
=
Momentum in N
Eroded sand mass in kg/s per jet
Jet pressure at the nozzle in Pa
Jet capacity in m3/s
Jet velocity at the nozzle in m/s
Coefficient depending on the particle size, jet pressure, jet capacity and trailspeed.
A reasonable assumption for alpha is =0.1
Water density in kg/m3.
When the nozzle are divided well over the width of the draghead the mass M should fulfill the
relation:
sand
= B d v trail
all jets
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
situ water
particle
particle water
Pagina 36 van 109
March 2003
=
=
=
=
=
Width draghead in m.
Eroded layer thickness in m
Trailspeed in m/s
Density soil in situ kg/m3
Particle density in kg/m3
length/width [mm]
When the trailspeed is said to 1.5 m/s, which equals 3 knots and using the relation between pipe
diameter and draghead width of Figure 2.36, d can be calculated.
In general the effective of the jet decreases somewhat with increasing pressure at constant
momentum. This means that low pressure- high capacity jets are more effective than high
pressure-low capacity jets. They use more specific energy too. On the other hand however,
much jetwater dilutes the mixture density (Figure 2.128). So the designer has to search for the
optimum solution between cost (power) en production
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
width
Length
500
1000
1500
LM
MN
1 sand C vd Q m
p=
2 w Q jet
OP
PQ
2p
w
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
Some insight in the effect of these ratios on the overflow losses is got from the Camps
Diagram (Figure 2.132)
The removal Ratio R, the percentage of the incoming material that settles in the hopper is een
function of:
R=f
FG S , S IJ = R = f FG SbBLg , SbBHgIJ
HS V K
H Q Q K
0
The following conclusion from Figure 2.132 can now be drawn when keeping the hopper
volume constant:
1. The width B is kept constant and L2L and H0.5H
1st term of the removal ratio shall increase and 2e term shall decrease. This results in
the conclusion:
More sedimentation at long shallow hoppers or less in short deep hoppers
2. The height H is kept constant and L2L and B0.5B
1st term of the removal ratio stays constant and 2e term shall decrease. This results in:
A little less sedimentation at long small hoppers or little better sedimentation
in short wide hoppers.
3. The length L is constant and H2H and B0.5B1st term of the removal ratio shall
decrease and 2e term stays constant. This results in:
Less sedimentation in small deep hoppers or better sedimentation in wide
shallow hoppers.
4. The height H and the width B are kept constant, while L0.5L and Q0.5Q
1st term of the removal ratio stays constant and 2e term shall increase. This results in:
Central intake or a TSHD with 2 hoppers is a little better.
From the theory of the overflow losses (chapter 2.5.1.3) can be derived that long, shallow
hoppers are favorable for the settlement process. Unfortunately such a shape leads to long
relatively narrow ship with a limited depth that result in certain design problems for engine
room en deckhouse. Therefore a compromise has to be found between the price and the
performance.
When scaling-up the hopper shape to larger dimensions one should be aware for an undesirable
increase of the overflow losses. After all for all new to build trailing suction hopper dredgers it
is often demanded that the load time, independent of the size of the hopper, has to be 1 hour for
a sand type with a d50 of 250 m. This implies that the flow rate will be proportional to the
volume of the hopper when the concentration is assumed constant.
Therefore the capacity scale is: Q = ( L )
b g
b g
Both the terms S BL and S BH shall decrease and this implies that the overflow loss for
larger trailing suction hopper dredgers will be higher than for smaller trailing suction hopper
dredgers, even if the hoppers are similar. Dependent on the magnitude of this increase this
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Dredging mark
Figure 2-37
For modern ships this requirement can be satisfied for a 50-60% of the maximal load.
2.2.3.10 The discharge system
From the theory of the flow of bulk material from silos follows that a plane symmetrical flow
will occur for discharge openings where length L 3B (width) and that this flow type, is
preferred above an axial symmetrical flow. Unfortunately most discharge systems, except for
the split hopper (Figure 2.38) don't satisfy this requirement, while the building of a split hopper
suction dredgers is considerably more expensive than "single hull" ships.
As a rule of thumb the following ratios between the discharge opening and the well surface are
used, dependent on the discharge material:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
for silt
for clay
average
10%
50%
30%
Instead of a large door or valve surface there are also systems that discharge the load with a
limited amount of doors or valves by partly fluidizing or eroding the load. Experience showed
that these systems function usually well for the fine sand types.
A design requirement for
discharge system may be the
necessity of dumping in shallow
water. Is this the case than sliding
doors or a splithopper are
options. Also cone valves
function well when discharging
in shallow water. With a small
opening they already provide a
good discharge. If doors are used
shallow dumping doors have to
be considered
Figure 2-39
2.2.4
Except for the propulsion there are also requirements for the maneuverability of the trailing
suction hopper dredger. For this purpose extra bow thrusters are often used.
2.2.4.1
Trailing suction hopper dredgers are real workships. They have a high block coefficient, no
high ship velocities and they often sail in shallow waters, which make them "feel" the bottom.
The velocities in knots do not exceed 1.4L (Figure 2.40).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
20
18
1.22*L^1/2
16
14
12
10
8
6
8.5
9.5
10.5
11.5
12.5
13.5
SQRT(L) [m^1/2]
Rfl
1+k
Rw
Rapp
Rb
Further is:
Rf =
1
V 2 C f S total
2
with
Cf =
0.075
log 10 R n 2
Determination of the resistance demands a lot of experience. The average sailing speed in knots
for TSHDs is 1.22Length (0.63L for v in m/s) Figure 2.40. That means that the wave
resistance part is small and the total resistance can be estimated by a polynomial of the second
order.
Nevertheless the ships resistance of a trailing suction hopper dredger is considerably higher
under sailing conditions compared to normal ships with the same block coefficient. This is
caused by the bottom valves or doors and the suction pipe guides in the hull.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
R2
Fimpuls
R3
Rship
G1
pdraghead
R1
Rpipe
Fcutting+Rfriction
G2
Rdraghead
The required propulsion power appears to be decisive under the trailing condition, in particular
when a combined drive is used. For this condition requirements are set regarding the trail
speed, expected counter current and effective cutting forces at the draghead.
For the trail speeds a normal value is 1.5 m/s with a counter current of 1 m/s. At these
velocities the resistance of the hull, as could be expected, is little. The largest resistance arises
from the dragging of the suction pipes over the seabed.
This suction pipe resistance is composed of several components:
The first, the hydro-visco components.
In the direction perpendicular of the pipe:
R pipe = C D
1
w v sin v sin LD
2
R pipe6 = C L
In which:
CD
=
CL
=
D
=
L
=
R pipe =
1
w v cos v cos LD
2
Drag coefficient
Lift coefficient
Pipe diameter
Pipe length
Drag force
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
[-]
[-]
[m]
[m]
[N]
Pagina 42 van 109
March 2003
=
=
=
=
Lift force
Relative water velocity to the ship
Pipe angle
Density water
[N]
[m/s]
[]
[kg/m3]
The dimensionless coefficients CD and CL are apart from dependent on Reynolds number, also
dependent on the appendages on the suction pipe. For a more accurate calculation it is better to
divide the pipeline in different section with different projected areas. This has the advantage
that the relative velocity of the water can be dependant of the waterdepth
Another force that the propulsion has to generate, which is often forgotten, is the force needed
to accelerate the dredge mixture to the trail velocity of the ship, this momentum force.
=
=
=
=
Momentum force
Pump capacity
Trail speed
Density mixture
[N]
[m3/s]
[m/s]
[kg/m3]
W1 D1
=
W2 D2
In conclusion the required effective trail force(s) are strongly dependent on the expected type
of the dredging work and therefore to consider in detail during design.
The above consideration can be visually clarified in the resistance-propulsion power chart:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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Thrust-Resistance Diagram
Thrust / Resistance [kN]
1000
Sailing
500
Trailing
0
0
Speed [m/s]
10
Figure 2-42
In Figure 2.42 the effective propulsion force (trust), T_sailing (corrected for wake) as the ships
resistance, R_sailing, are shown as a function of the ships speed. In the operating point
"sailing" the supplied power is equal to the ships resistance. Under this condition the main
engines are usually only driving the screws and the thrust curve is determined by the power of
the main engines. This propulsion force curve can be described by a second-order polynomial:
Tsailing = a 0 + a 1 v s + a 2 v 2s
During dredging the main engines usually drive, besides the screws, also the sand-pump
installation (sand- and water-pump) either directly or through a generator/electric motor set.
This means that less propulsion is available for the propulsion in this mode. Because the
propulsion force is proportional to the propulsion power as:
T2
= constant, the propulsion
P3
Ttrailing
FP I
=a G
H P JK
trailing
2
3
+ a 1 v s + a 2 v s2
sailing
The sum of the ships resistance (R_ship) and the suction pipe resistance (R_pipe) has to be
equal with this propulsion force curve (operating point "trailing"). Usually this condition
appears to be decisive for the to be installed power of the main engines. If no combined drive is
used than the "sailing" condition is normative for the required propulsion power.
2.2.4.2
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
However continuous use during dredging is not possible and so not economical.
Therefore this idea is abandoned and one or more bow thrusters are used. However bow
thrusters have the disadvantage of hardly any transverse force above 3 knots. There are
different types on the market.
A propeller mounted in a tunnel with a speed or pitch control, which means that the flow
direction and capacity is control by the revolutions and speed direction or by changing the pitch
of the propeller vanes. A axial flow pump by which the direction of the flow is control by
valves and the capacity by the speed of the impeller.
With the increase of the jet-pump power one could consider to use these, totally o partly, for
the bow jets.
The required bow thruster power depends strongly on the expected type of work for which the
trailing suction hopper dredger has to be designed.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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2.2.5
Power balance
From the above mentioned it shows that a lot of power is installed in a trailing suction hopper
dredger, that is:
and of course the power for the electrical circuit on board. After all the suction pipes have to be
lowered and raised. The valves and other auxiliary equipment must operate, etc. Powers of
15000 kW or more are no exception. Therefore it makes sense to take a close look to the power
balance. For instance, separate drives for the propulsion and the sand-pumps are not always
necessary or desirable. Most of the time several objects can be combined. The following will
show that this is strongly related to the suction pipe configuration.
The most common combination is to drive both the propeller as well as the dredge-pump with
one engine (Figure 2.45). The total installed power will not be much less than these units are
separate as shown in Figure 2.46 but during sailing more power is available for a higher sailing
speed and resulting in a higher production. If the units are driven directly, there will be no loss
in generators, cables and electric motors. The speed control of the sand-pump is however poor.
The engines run on constant speed, while adjustable propellers control the speed of the vessel,
while the configuration of Figure 2.46 has fixed propellers (Why?).
When the trailing suction hopper dredger needs pump ashore installation than generally an
extra transmission is installed in the gear-box to use the total available power for this
installation. The same engine supplies the jet-pump power usually. In that case the gear box is
fitted with an extra axis. The only disadvantage for this arrangement is the limitation in the
suction pipe length. Of course this is not totally black-and-white. Extending of the inboard
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
If limitation of the suction pipe length is not desired both powers can be combined with the
arrangement of Figure 2.47. In the engine room the main engines drive the adjustable screw,
but on the other side a generator is placed that supplies the dredge-pump placed in the fore ship
with energy. This is attended by an energy loss of 10 to 15 % of the power required. So for a
sand-pump power of 2000 kW times two, there is a loss of approximately 400 to 500 kW!
This also accounts for jet-pumps installed in the fore ship too. If the pump ashore installation
needs the total power of the main engines this solution will require a considerable larger
investment than the previous case. The speed control of the dredge pump can of course be well
adjusted with an electrical drive.
Between these two solutions there are of course all kinds of variants possible, which have been
built in the past too. (See chapter 2.26 Main Layout)
25000
y = 0.4641x - 510.11
2
R = 0.8741
Pp [kW]
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
Displacement [t]
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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3,500
3,000
y = 0.1758x - 19.495
R2 = 0.8036
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
30000
y = 0.5806x
25000
R = 0.8931
Pi [kW]
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
Displacement [t]
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
2.2.6
Main layout
Now the main dimensions of the ship and the dredging equipment are known, the layout of the
ship has to be determined.
2.2.6.1 Single well ships
Most currently built trailing suction hopper dredgers are of the single cargo-hold type. The
hopper, also called well, is positioned somewhat forward of the middle of the ship. This is also
the case when the bridge is on the foreship. The engine-room is always positioned in the stern.
The trailing suction hopper dredgers used by the dredging industry are usually equipped with
two adjustable screws.
The position of the pump-room, a with watertight bulkheads sealed space in which the sandpumps are located, also has a large influence on the layout of the trailing suction hopper
dredger. The simplest and most efficient layout is the one where the pump-room is positioned
just before the engine-room (Figure 2.45).
In this case the main engines drive both the adjustable screws as the sand-pumps. Adjustable
screws are necessary in this case because if the sailing velocity of the trailing suction hopper
dredger is controlled by varying the number of revolutions of the engine then also the
production of the pump changes which can lead to production loss.
Since the sand-pumps on a trailing suction hopper dredger usually run on a fixed number of
revolutions (variation of the suction depth has only a limited influence on the required head)
the ships velocity can be easily adjusted by varying the pitch angle of the adjustable screws.
Of course adjustable screws are more expensive and vulnerable than fixed screws. If fixed
screws are desired than the layout shown in Figure 2.46 is appropriate with different engines
for the sailing and dredging.
An alternative for Figure 2.46 is Figure 2.51
Figure 2-51
It will be clear that in the first solution the total installed power is better used. After all during
sailing the full power of the engines is available for the propulsion. However these solutions
are also seen with adjustable screws.
In both cases the limitation of the arrangement is the suction pipe length and therefore the
suction depth. After all the suction pipes still need to be stored on board. If large dredging
depths are also required (until 70 m) than the layout of Figure 2.47 and 2.52 are automatically
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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obtained. Figure 2.52 is called the All Electric Ship, an development of nowadays. All power
needed is delivered by the main engines via high efficient generators and motors.
Of course there are may combinations possible with of these main layouts. The number of
suction pipes may have some influence. Many smaller trailing suction hopper dredgers have
only one suction pipe. Nevertheless these small trailing suction hopper dredgers are equipped
with twin screws for two reasons:
1. The empty draught determines the maximum allowed propeller-diameter. Transferring a
certain amount of power to one screw leads to a high revolutions, heavy loaded propeller
with a relatively low efficiency.
2. A twin screw ship has a much higher maneuverability than a single screw ship
Nevertheless, special trailing suction hopper dredgers such as gravel dredgers, are equipped
with a single screw (see special applications)
2.2.6.2 Twin Hopper Trailers
In the end of the sixties and starting seventies several trailing suction hopper dredgers were
build with two separate hoppers. In these ships the engine-room and/or pump-room is
positioned between the two hoppers. The main advantage of the twin hopper type is the smaller
longitudinal ships bending moment that arises from the mid-ships connection of the engineroom and/or pump-room bulkheads.
Figure 2-53
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Figure 2-54
The disadvantage of such ships that on one hand the hopper ratios are unfavorable for the
settling process and to the other hand the total capacity is dived over both hoppers which will
improve the sedimentation process somewhat. Besides several extra valves are needed to trim
the ship sufficiently. These layouts are shown in Figure 2.53 and Figure 2.54. The
accommodation is also positioned amidships. In both cases the main engines drive propellers
and dredge-pumps. Besides the longer pipes for large dredging depth can be installed. Of
course an electrical driven dredging installation is possible too.
2.2.6.3 Single well ships with a submerged-pump
For larger suction depths, more than 50 m, the installation of a submerged-pump becomes
economical. The submerged-pump, also called the suction pipe pump, can be driven electrical
or hydraulically. The hydraulic drive exists on smaller trailing suction hopper dredgers.
On larger trailing suction hopper dredgers the pump and the electrical drive with bearings are
accommodated in a compact compartment, directly mounted in the suction pipe. The number of
revolutions of the electrical drive is chosen such that it corresponds with the required number
of revolutions of the submerged-pump. This solution provides a compact and relative light
construction.
The submerged-pump related possible layouts of the engine rooms and/or pump-rooms are
shown in Figure 2.55.
Figure 2-55 TSHD with inboard (direct driven) and submerged pumps
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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For smaller, simpler trailing suction hopper dredgers and converted barges submerged pumps
can be used to. For such ships the dredge installation is composed of modules (Figure 2.58).
The drive unit of a dredge installation is now positioned on the fore-deck. The (existing) engine
room is located in the stern. Therefore adjustable propellers are not necessary..
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Figure 2-59
Figure 2-60
With the observation that both the engine-room and the pump-room are divided in the
longitudinal direction (Figure 2.50 and 2.60).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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The engine driver has to ascend to a height higher than sea level when he wants to go from
starboard to portside.
the control and the maintenance of the pump installation can be done in a simple way by
the engine-room personnel.
with an empty ship the suction intake is submerged deeper than in the fore-ship, as a result
of the trim.
as a result of the shape of the stern the dragheads will move less frequently under the ship
base, when working in shallow waters or on slopes.
the direct drive of the sand pump by the main engine is considerable more efficient than the
transport of energy from the stern to the fore-ship.
the total propulsion power can used easily for the pump ashore installation. With a foreship pumproom this requires considerable investments.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
2.3.1
2.3.1.1
The dragheads
The draghead is the suction mouth of the trailing suction hopper dredger and is, with the sandpump, one of the most important components of the dredge installation. Looking at the amount
of patent applications on the area of dragheads the conclusion can be made that there is a lot of
knowledge of the operation of this device. Unfortunately this is not the case, the last 5 years the
remarkable progress made about the understanding of excavation process in the draghead.
Dragheads must be able to break up the coherence of varied soil types. The excavation process
is done erosive, mechanical or by both methods.
Dragheads are designed to resist the forces, needed to loosen and suck up the soil. They also
need to be strong enough to withstand collisions with unknown objects in the dredge area. This
especially gives high demands on the reliability of the equipment mounted on the draghead to
control the water supply and/or cutting blade depth.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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In general draghead consist of a fixed part that is connected to the suction pipe, sometimes
helmet mentioned and a one or two pivoting part(s), the visor, which is mounted in the fixed
part. The last part is (self) adjusting to keep in fully touch with the seabed.
In the dredging industry different types of dragheads are used. The most known dragheads are:
the Hollandse (Dutch) draghead, also called IHC draghead (Figure 2.63 and 2.65)
Figure 2-65
Figure 2-66
Both type are developed based on the principal of erosion generated by the dredge pump flow.
Nowadays these dragheads can be equipped with water jets too (Fig 2.65 and 2.66)
In addition to the excavation of the soil, the jets are also important for the forming of the
mixture in the draghead.
The dragheads rest on the seabed by means of replaceable, so-called, heel-pads of wear
resistant material.
When dredging cohesive materials the dragheads are provided with blades or cutting teeth
mounted in the visors. The position of the visor is fixed relative to the helmet corresponding
with the average dredging depth Sometimes this position is controlled by hydraulic cylinders.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Figure 2-67
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
However, if they are designed such that they fail regularly than soon the two parts are welded
together with the danger that the next link fails.
Modern dragheads have one visor with jet nozzles over full width. At the backside of the visor
replaceable teeth are fitted. The purposes of these teeth are to remove not eroded sand bands
and to guide the flow in the direction of the suction pipe. Some of those dragheads do have
movable water flaps to control the diluting water to the draghead. Visors can be adjusted either
by bars or by hydraulic cylinders.
The connection between the movable visors and the fixed helmet is usually sealed with a
rubber strip. This prevents the entering of "strange" water and it decreases the wear caused by
the sand picked up by this "strange" water.
2.3.1.1.1 Other types of dragheads
In the last 25 years a lot of experiments are performed with several types of dragheads, like:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
The silt head (Figure 2.70). A draghead specially designed for dredging silt and soft clays. The
silt is pushed in the draghead, while the propulsion delivers the required force.
The active draghead (Figure 2.71)
A draghead with a hydraulic driven roller with
cutting tools, able to cut firm clay or compact
sand.
The disadvantage of this dragheads was the
ability to pick up cables and wires
And
The venturi head (2.72). A draghead that would be
hydraulically better shaped than the Hollandse and
the Californian draghead and therefore would reach
higher productions.
The advantage of this draghead was the high trailing
force due to the pressure difference over the draghead
.
All these dragheads were not successful. Mostly the idea behind was good, but secondary
reasons. like wear, sensitive for dirt, difficult to handle, etc. etc. Resulting in lower average
productions than the earlier mentioned dragheads.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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Aside from IHC there are also other companies that supplies dragheads. Usually these draghead
are named after the company since they differ somehow from the standard dragheads.
Examples are the "Van de Graaf-heads" and VOSTA. heads
Furthermore every dredging company with self-respect has developed its own draghead,
whether or not used.
2.3.1.2
The purpose of the suction pipe (Figure 2.73) is to make a connection between the seabed and
the ship in order to make transport of dredge slurry possible. Because a fixed connection is not
possible due to a varying water depth and the forces in size and direction, they have to comply
with a number of important requirements:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
Inner pipe
Wear ring
Outer pipe
Wearing ring
Wearing ring
Inner pipe
Lip seal
Outer pipe
For large diameters (>900 mm)
If the draghead is fitted for jet-water, a jet-water pipeline is mounted along the suction pipe
(Figure 2.77).
March 2003
2.3.1.3
The three suction pipe gantries serve to move the suction pipe either inboard or outboard.
The draghead gantry and the middle gantry are carried out mostly as an A-frame, connected
with the main deck by a hinge-construction (Figure 2.81 and 2.82). A hydraulic cylinder or the
hoisting wires controls the motion when moving the suction pipe in- or outboard.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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The suction elbow gantry consists of a fixed and a moveable part. The fixed part is welded to
the main deck and is fitted with tracks for the wheels of the moveable part. (Figure 2.82). When
the moveable part has reached the lowest [position than the trunnion slide can be lowered into
the guides in the hull
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Switching relays
Draghead
winch
controller
Air-oil vessel
Swelll compensator
Suction pipe
Dragheadp
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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Table 1.
Suction depth
25 m
17.5 m
10 m
2.3.1.5
kg
bar
bar
bar
bar
kg
bar
bar
bar
bar
kg
bar
bar
bar
bar
Compensation
Mud
Sand
80% 50% 50% 20%
1800 4500 4500 7200
15.0
15.0
8.0
8.0
26.2
17.9
18.6
9.8
24.7
17.1
17.1
9.4
23.3
16.4
15.8
9.0
2080 5200 5200 8320
15.0
15.0
8.0
8.0
30.0
20.1
21.0 10.8
27.9
19.1
19.1 10.3
26.1
18.2
17.5
9.8
2190 5475 5475 8760
15.0
15.0
8.0
8.0
31.4
20.8
21.8 11.2
29.1
19.8
19.8 10.6
27.1
18.9
18.1 10.1
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
The second requirement cannot always be met because of demands for maintenance or the
accessibility for inspection or removal of debris.
There are also some practical objections concerning the third requirement. To comply with it
the direction of rotation of the starboard and port pumps has to be opposite. This means more
different spare parts like pump casings, impellers etc.
Speed control of the dredge pumps is highly dependent on the type of drive. If the main engine
directly drives the sand pump then speed regulation is not possible or only by stepwise control
using a gearbox. Is the dredgepump driven by a separate diesel engine then speed control is
possible, but the best control is obtained by an electric drive. It has to be mentioned that
currently new developments in variable transmissions come available for diesel engine driven
pumps.
In most cases the requirements regarding the cavitation properties of the dredgepump are more
important than the pressure properties. After all, even if the trailing suction hopper dredger has
a pump ashore system, operations in dredging mode are considerably more frequent than the
pump ashore mode.
Both single walled and double walled pumps (Figures 2.87 and 2.88) are used in trailing
suction hopper dredgers, dependent on the view and strategy of the dredging company. Double
walled pumps have a separate inner pump casing that can be worn out without necessary
repairs. This is achieved by pressure compensation. The pressure in a running pump is equal
inside and outside the inner pump casing. To do this the space between inner and outer pump
casing is filled with water and pressurized. Besides the advantage of a longer lifetime for the
inner pump, this type of pumps gives a higher security in case of explosions.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
doorsnede
doorsnede
FLOW
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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In
this
last
configuration it must
be possible to use both
delivery pipes with
both pumps. When one
of the suction pipes
cuts of, whatever the
cause may be, the ship
still must be loaded
equally athwart-ships
to prevent listing. This
requires more valves
than for one central
loading gully.
Figure 2-91 TSHD with 2 delivery pipes
A similar complexity of the piping system arises also when shore pumping must be possible
over starboard, port and over the bow. In a shore pumping installation the pressure pipe usually
ends in a ball on which the shore piping can be connected. The bends are usually from cast
steel for maintenance reasons.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
2.3.2
The hopper
All with several variants on which many have explored their creativity.
In the diffuser system an open
diffuser is positioned at the end
of the delivery pipe, which
discharges just under the
highest overflow level. With
such a system a good width
distribution can be achieved. A
disadvantage of the open
diffuser is the reasonable
amount of air that is taken in,
which can obstruct the settling.
Therefore closed diffusers are
used sometimes that always
discharge under the overflow
level.
The
system
is
maintenance friendly of the
system, compare to deep
loading systems
overvloei
Waterniveau
overflow
Discharge pipe
centrale Discharge
May 2005
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overvloei
In a deep loading system the mixture is discharged deep in the well, whether or not with a
vertical diffuser. The advantage of such a system is the energy reduction that is achieved as a
result of the contact of the mixture with the already settled material. Another advantage
mentioned the energy profit as a result of the siphon effect. In principle this is true, but there
are quite a number of trailing suction hopper dredgers with a deep loading system for which it
doesn't count because the delivery pipe is not airtight. Fitting of a simple kind of heavy loading
or distribution valves in the delivery line causes this. These valves are necessary dredging
coarse sand coarse or gravel. Than the settlement is that good that when these valves are not
fitted the material settles immediately at the inlet and it becomes impossible to fill the hopper
evenly (Figure 2.95). This results in a uneven trim vessel with water on their load
Diffusor
Distribution
valves
Delivery pipeline
water
Sand
Figure 2-95 Distribution valves in the delivery pipeline, necessary for coarse material
Apart from that the take-in of air largely reduces the advantage of the deep loading system.
Another disadvantage is that it is very hard to discharge the mixture evenly distributed over the
width of the hopper. This causes jets with turbulence production with as a result possible
disturbance of the already settled material.
A combination of the diffuser system and the
deep load system is the diffuser box, which is
placed half way the hopper height
Water level
March 2003
the least as possible obstructions in the well to keep the turbulence degree as low as
possible in connection with the settling.
as straight as possible side walls, preferably angling inward to improve the discharge of the
load.
easy accessible for maintenance.
sand level above outside water level at least when the ship is in maximal draught, but
preferable also at restricted draught (50-60% of maximum pay load).
The goal of the well or hopper is that the dredged material settles while the surplus water leaves
the hopper through the overflow.
These overflow losses are largely dependent on the parameter Q/(L*B)/w and less on
Q/(B*H)/w. The first parameter is the ratio between the time a particle needs to settle and the
time it stays in the hopper. The second parameter is the ratio between the horizontal velocity in
the well and settle velocity of the particle and is a measure for the turbulence degree in the
hopper. For a good settling a long narrow and shallow hopper shape is therefore favorable.
A danger is however that no equal distributed load over the length of the hopper can be
obtained which results in a need for distribution valves in the delivery pipe. These valves
decrease the settle length the final result can become worse. Besides, long small ships with a
limited depth results in small engine room(s). A compromise between price and performance
has to be found.
In the years past the obstructions in the hopper became less and less, as can be seen in the
following cross sections (Figure 2.97):
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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f
Figure 2-97 Different hopper cross sections
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
A well-shaped hopper (Figure 2.99) without any obstacle is formed by the split hopper suction
dredger. There are no bars or obstacles, because the ship has no doors or valves but splits in
two parts. The largest split hopper suction dredger built, has a deadweight of 7000 ton.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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The installation of pump ashore systems, as well as the requirement for easy maintenance have
caused that, in general, closed hoppers hardly build, although they have certain advantages.
(Figure 2.97e)
In heavy seas rolling and pitching of the ship with a open hopper causes water movements
and splashing over the deck of the mixture. A ship having with a closed hopper and a small
overpressure, the water displacements during the rolling and pitching will be much less,
which improves settling.
The free space on the deck of a closed hopper is also seen as an advantage. Especially
during mobilization, the trip from one job to another, when all kinds of equipment can be
stored on the deck. During dredging these have to be removed to increase the deadweight
of the ship.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
There are however differences in the shape and place of the overflow to in order to increase the
effective settling length (Figure 2.103 and 2.)
All kind of systems are available. Expensive conical valves (Figure 2.105a), simple bottom
doors (Figure 2.105b), horizontal sliding doors or valves (Figure 2.105c) or a ship that splits
totally in two halves (fig 2.105d). There are also several exotic systems (fig 2.105f to 2.105h)
all with their specific advantages and disadvantages. The lijster valve (Figure 2.105f) is very
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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expensive and takes a significant loss of hopper space. Recesses valves (Figure 2.105g)
influence the stability unfavorable and necessitate a larger hull.
First of all the ship has to be able to discharge the load in a short time, as completely as
possible (so without any load left) and for all types of soil. This means that the discharge
area has to be large enough. Dependent on the dredged material the discharge-area ratio
(the ratio total discharge-area/ horizontal hopper area) increases from 10% for slurries to
50% for the cohesive soil types. For general useable ships this will be about 30% of the
hopper area. As already mentioned in chapter 2.2.3.10 the discharge is better as the outflow behaves like a plane symmetrical flow. The length/width ratio of the discharge
opening has to apply to L 3B.
Furthermore as few as possible protruding parts are allowed in the hopper, they can cause
bridging of the material. Additionally they have the disadvantage of forming an obstruction
for the settling too.
An proper sealing under all circumstances. This demand increases in importance when
(polluted) silt is dredged.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
The operation of the dumping system is mainly done by a hydraulic system. For the doors and
the valves the cylinders are positioned vertical. The doors or valves in this system can be
operated in groups, usually three. In every group the hydraulic system controls both the
starboard and the corresponding port cylinder.
Hopper
Bottom plating
closed
open
Discharge apertures
The split hopper dredger has a hopper without obstacles and in opened position one large
discharge opening (plane symmetrical flow) and therefore a high discharge velocity, especially
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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useful to dump submerged dams. The split hopper dredger can under grounded conditions
discharge well. The frequently mentioned advantage of well discharging cohesive soils is
disappointing in practice. Usually the bottom plates in the hopper, even in opened position are
insufficiently steep to be assured of a good discharge (Figure 2.108).
For a split hopper dredger dumping is done
by the splitting of the ship in the longitudinal
direction. The two halves are connected with
hydraulic cylinders and hinges. Of course
the deckhouse and the accommodation
remain upright during the splitting, because
it is connected with the deck by hinges and
hinge rods.
A
The work must have a sufficient size to earn back the mobilization costs of an extra cutter
suction dredger.
This also counts for the re-handling pit, from which the cutter suction dredger pumps the
dumped sand to the reclamation area. This can be positive if such a dump can be situated
within the work.
If the work is done with more trailing suction hopper dredgers it is in many cases beneficial to
discharge directly and re-handle the sand. Because, even having two identical trailing suction
hopper dredgers on the job, the stochastic behavior of the dredging process causes that at a
certain time that the two ships arrive at the same time at the connection point for pumping
ashore, causing waiting for one of the dredgers.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Besides, there are jobs requiring controlled dumping of their load at a certain depth and in a
relative small area. Then the material is pumped back through the suction pipe. This has been
the case at the Oosterschelde works and is done too when covering pipelines.
Upper doors
Valve
Valve
Dredge pump
Flow direction
Bottum valves
The decision to equip a ship with a pump ashore system is not taken just before the work needs
it. Except for the fact that the preparation and the fitting time can be more than half a year, it is
also much more expensive than when it is fitted directly during the construction of the ship.
Ships initially not fitted with a pump ashore system dont have mostly today. Nowadays the
European dredging contractor usually chooses for a pump ashore system.
A pump ashore discharge system consists of one or two suction channels, situated at both sides
of the center-keelson (Figure 2.112 under) or a pipe centrally placed in the center-keelson
(Figure 2.112 upper). In the first case the top of this suction or self-emptying channel is fitted
with so-called top-doors, by which the sand can be supplied into the channel. Transport water is
mostly supplied in two ways, first through the channel, which is connected in some way with
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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the outside water and second by the jetpumps that fluidize or erode the sand in the surrounding
where the sand has to enter the channel.
The mixtures pumped ashore with a well-designed installation do have very high densities. For
example 7500 m3/h in a 800 mm pipe. Of course this is also dependent on the type of sand.
The rest load, the load that cannot or hardly be removed, is a measure for the design of the
shore pump discharge system. For the mono-hull ships it may not be more than 5% of the total
load.
Rubber seal
Rubber seal
Pivot
Bottom door
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Figure 2-114 Dredging wheel unloader (Left) and clamshell unloader (right)
2.3.3
The propulsion
Trailing suction hopper dredgers in general two controllable pits propellers. (see also chapter
2.25) Only in the sea mining industry trailing suction hopper dredgers with only one screw can
be found, whether or not controllable pitch. The advantage of controllable pitch propellers has
to do with the method of operation of the ships. On one hand the ship needs enough propulsion
power at relative slow speed of 2 to 3 knots to drag the suction pipes over the seabed. On the
other side the sailing speed from and to the borrow area should be as high as possible, normally
between 12 and 15 knots. TO fulfill both requirements the propellers are placed within nozzles.
Additionally the concept of double and adjustable screws strongly improves the
maneuverability.
A trailing suction hopper dredger needs surely good maneuverability. For instance dredging
along a quay wall with a ship with a length of 100m or more on a distance of less than 10m.
When maintaining harbors trailer dredgers always moves in shipping lanes. This in contrast
with merchant shipping stays in the harbor as short as possible. The maneuverability has
strongly improved over the years. Not only by installing more powerful bow thrusters and in
some cases even aft thrusters, but also by (special) rudders with large angles
2.3.4
The maneuverability
The trailing speed of trailing suction hopper dredger dredges is 2 to 3 knots (1 to 1.5 m/s). At
this velocity the maneuverability needs to be high. After all the higher the maneuverability the
less the over-dredging (outside the tolerances) and the less a chance on collisions there will be.
Therefore most trailing suction hopper dredgers are equipped with double propellers and one or
more bow thrusters. If Dynamic Positioning/Tracking (DP/DT) is stern thrusters are sometimes
installed too. To maneuver the following options are available on a trailing suction hopper
dredger:
Just rudders
Just the adjustable screws
Just the bow screw and/or stern screw
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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A combination of these
Which possibility will be used depends strongly on the direction in which the ship has to sail
and the effectiveness of the various options under certain circumstances. The thrusters are only
effective for very slow forward velocities. Above 2 to 3 knots the effect is mostly gone, the
combination of propellers and the rudders are in that case a better option. However, the
maneuverability is also strongly dependent on the center position of the rudders in relation to
the propellers. On trailing suction hopper dredgers these are usually positioned more inboard in
relation to the direction of the propeller shafts to be able to exchange the propellers without
removing the rudders. Turning with one propeller forward (port) and one backward (starboard)
with both rudders fully starboard is now less effective than the starboard propeller full ahead.
After all in the first case the port propeller will hardly exert any force on the rudder.
Is a transverse movement desired and the ship
is equipped with both a bow and stern thruster
than it is logical to use these. If there is no
stern thruster available the transverse
movement can be generated by rotating the
adjustable screws opposite (Figure 2.115).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Strength
TFW
FW
L
S
W
or:
WNA
Every seaship loaded to the International Free Board Line, has to comply with certain
demands for strength. In principal there are two demands:
1. demands of strength concerning the loading of the ship until the allowed draught on flat
water.
2. demands of strength concerning the wave forces on the ship
For this last condition a distinction is made of the working areas of the ship. The so-called
classification:
1. Deep sea ( haute mer). Is assigned to ships capable for transoceanic navigation.
2. Great coasting trade (grand cobotage). Assigned to ships deemed suitable to perform deep
sea voyages but not transoceanic navigation.
3. Small coasting trade (petit cabotage). Assigned to ships that may not sail further from the
coast than a distance from the coast that they can reach a save harbor or mooring place
within six hours.
4. sheltered waters (eaux arbitres). This class is assigned to ships that are allowed to sail,
usually under good circumstances, at most at a small distance from the coast (mostly less
than 15 miles).
Above mentioned classification, of the Bureau Veritas, is international acknowledged, as well
as those of other classification bureaus (Lloyds Register, Germanische Lloyd, Norske Veritas,
American Bureau of Shipping and others).
In the dredging industry there is a by local authorities allowed draught, known as the dredging
mark. That is the allowed draught that is usually set in the middle between the international free
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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board and the top of the main deck of the ship. The ship must of course be able to carry the
loads that can arise under such circumstances.
Trailing suction hopper dredgers that are loaded to the dredging mark are not allowed to make
international trips.
Except for classifications there are also notations that are related to the rules for building
specialty ships. Both the trailing suction hopper dredger as the stationary suction dredgers are
assigned to those rules.
2.4.2
Stability
Except demands regarding the strength, a ship has to comply too with a minimum stability. For
sea-going ships the international demands apply, dependent on the type of the ship. For trailing
suction hopper dredger in principal the same rules apply as for sea-going cargo vessels.
Definition:
The stability of a ship is determined by a lot of factors, like the shape, the weight, the weight
distribution and particular for a trailing suction hopper dredger all so-called free liquid surfaces
in relation with the "wet surface". Wind, waves, movement of the cargo, movements of liquid
cargo, sharp turns, etc can cause forces or moments that can bring the ship out of equilibrium.
When a ship tilts, the position of the mass center of gravity doesn't change as long as the cargo
doesn't move. This is in contradiction with the center of buoyancy that shifts to the side to
which the ship tilts (Figure 2.117).
M0 , N
FB
G
B
a
B
FG
The upward force remains, of course, the same but opposite to the weight, but their worklines
are now shifted apart over a distance a. They form a moment that tries to bring the ship back in
equilibrium. This moment is called the static stability. The work-line of the upward force cuts
the symmetry plane in a point that is called the meta-center M. For small angles of heel (<6)
this point can be considered as fixed (initial meta-center). The distance between the center of
gravity and the meta-center is also called meta-center height MG. For larger angles of heel
the meta-center is dependent on the angle of heel (false meta-center).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
If the arm of the static stability is set out as a function of the angle of heel than a curve is
obtained that looks globally like Figure 2.118.
B
C
A
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Figure 2-118
Every ship has to comply with the minimum stability curve (Figure 2.119).
0,30
0,20
MG = 0,15
0,10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 2-119
May 2005
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stability curves it has been assumed that the mass center of gravity does not shift but remains in
the symmetry plane.
If a fuel or water tank is not completely filled, the fluid will try to maintain a horizontal level
independent of the tilt of the ship. This so-called free water surface is the cause, however, of a
shift of the mass center of gravity outside of the symmetry plane. As a result the arm of the
raising couple becomes smaller. It is clear that the effects of a free liquid surface in all possible
storage tanks have to be taken into account in a stability calculation.
The free liquid surface is not only important for the tanks of common ships, but particular
important for ships with a relative large free liquid surface like a trailing suction hopper
dredger.
2.5.1
The loading process can be divided in excavation, the transport and the deposit of the
material in the hopper.
2.5.1.1 The excavation
Though other working methods exist, in principal the trailing suction hopper dredger deepens a
large area entirely. The different layers of soil are removed horizontally. This in contrast to the
cutter suction dredger and surely the suction dredger, that first deepen locally and than slowly
expand horizontally. This working method has consequences for the determination of the
material to be removed. Usually the horizontal variation, for instance the grain size or the
chance of soil type, is considerably less than the vertical variation. This also implies that the
mixture of the several layers is considerably less, which gives less meaning to an average
material in the dredging area.
The trailing suction hopper dredger can in principal be deployed in nearly all soil types. Only
the efficiency is strongly dependent on the soil type and the power and means to break up the
coherency of the soil type.
When excavating with dragheads the soil type is very important. In the excavating process the
following materials can be distinguished:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
0
Firm
w wp
Ip
> 0.9
100 %
LiquidWater
Plastic
Plastic limit
Liquid limit
Plasticity index
Figure 2-120
mixture water
, is almost
situ water
independent of the in situ density. Also the dimensions and type of the draghead have hardly
matters. This means that the fill rate also is almost constant. For virginal fluid silt this is around
70 to 75 %. Then the ship is loaded "until overflow". The nett suction time is totally
determined by the rheological behavior of the silt.
If there is a lot of contamination, like stones, wires, old bikes, etc. in the silt or if the length of
the dredging area is small, requiring frequently turning, the fill rate will reasonably decrease.
When debris clogs the draghead, the dredge-master will dilute the mixture. Besides that regular
stops for removing the debris in the draghead as well the restarts of the process, dilutes the
mixture too. Fill rates of 40 % or less are easily reached. When the silt gets a more consistent
behavior, thus a lower liquid-index, the fill rate to the overflow decreases. But because the silt
is more consistent it will behave less like a homogeneous fluid and more like a mixture of
pieces silt/clay in a heavy transport fluid. The loading after the overflow is reached, with a lot
of overflow losses, becomes interesting again; therefore the fill rate can still be reasonable.
However the suction time will increase.
In silt, as a result of the decay processes of organic material, gas can exist in the form of
bubbles. Besides it is possible too that this gas is dissolved in the pore-water. When dredging
silt, the gas-bubbles will grow when moving upwards caused by the pressure drop in the
suction-pipe. (p*V=constant) Regarding physics this situation is almost equal to the forming of
vapor bubbles in water during a pressure drop, however than it is called cavitation. Because
cavitation decreases the performance of the dredge pump, this will also be the case with gas
bubbles. The advantage with gas bubbles is that it happens in the pipeline system before the
pump. This creates the possibility to take away a part of the gas bubbles before they implode in
the pump. For this reasons a de-gassing installation is mounted in the pipeline just before the
pump. A well-designed de-gassings installation does not or hardly decrease the performance of
the pump. Two systems are used: a de-gassings installation with accumulator (Figure 2.121) or
a de-gassings installation with a gas-extractor tank (Figure 2.122).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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CV
Waterlevel at
empty ship
Valve
ejector
accumulator
High
Valve
low
water
pump
Water intake
filter
Gas discharge
VW = water supply pump
BT = buffertank
GA = gas-suction mouth
VA = vacum-control valve
RA = control valve
LP = drain pump
WRP = water-ring pump
MRA = mixture return-valve
MRP = mixture return-pump
WRP
BT
RA
Water discharge
to drain
MRP
MRA
VA
LP
VW
GA
max
min
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
The linear cutting theories for rock cutting and undrained clay cutting apply here. In this case
the cutting forces for the applied trail-velocities are only slightly speed-dependent. Besides the
cutting forces increase linear with the depth. This means that the specific energy is almost
constant for this cutting process. The pressure difference over the draghead plays not or hardly
a role for the cutting forces. To keep the blades pushed into the soil the pressure difference over
the draghead is usually insufficient and the visor has to be fixed to the helmet. The cutting
depth is adjusted either by placing a stopper on the helmet related to the dredging depth or by
hydraulic cylinders. As described in chapter 2.2.5.1 these cutting forces has to be provided by
the propulsion.
For the calculation of the cutting forces for design purposes it is the custom to use the specific
energy concept. The specific energy Es is the energy needed to cut one m3. In formula:
Es =
Es
Ns
Ps
=
=
=
Ns
Ps
Specific energy
cutting power
cutting production
[J]
[W]
[m3/s]
Ps = v d b
and for the power:
N s = v Fs
Fs =
with:
v
Fs
d
B
=
=
=
=
Es v d B
= Es d B
v
drag velocity
cutting force
cutting depth
draghead width
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
[m/s]
[N]
[m]
[m]
Pagina 91 van 109
May 2005
wb3408B
The specific energy of different soil types is known within the dredging companies, but can be
calculated also the linear cutting theories.
From the available thrust of the propellers the maximal available pulling force can be
determined. For the calculation of the excavation production of the draghead, however, the
average available force must be used. This depends among other things on the variation in the
cutting depth.
Fpiek
Faverage
The production is totally determined by the cutting process and is independent of the
pump flow rate, if it does not interfere too much with the mixture forming.
2.5.1.1.3 Excavating in non-cohesive soil types
In non-cohesive soils, like sand and gravel, the excavation process within the draghead is
physically complicated. If no jets are used to excavate the soil, the working of the draghead is
totally based upon the erosion by the flow underneath the rims of the draghead generated by the
dredgepump. The pressure difference over the draghead generated by this flow causes a
groundwater flow underneath the draghead (Figure 2.124 and 2.125).
Figure 2-124
1/2b
1/2b
LM
MM
MN
H
arctan
=
F x + 1 bI
F 1 IO
GG 2 JJ arctanGG x 2 b JJ PP
GH y JK
GH y JK PPQ
Figure 2-125
The vertical groundwater flow under the draghead generated by this pressure difference causes
a decrease of the effective stress in the sand. The critical hydraulic gradient for moving the
particles follows from the equilibrium of the flow force with submerged weight of the particles.
This leads to the equation:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
LM
OP
1
1
x+ b
x b
2
2
MM
PP = 100 n 1
_
MN y + FGH x + 21 bIJK y + FGH x 21 bIJK PQ 100
L
OP
d H M
b
Hb
y
H 1
1
= M
>1
>y + b
<
x=0
1 PP
dy M
b
b 4
4
y + b
N 4 Q
d
H
=
dy
For
For y = 0
d H
=
dy
b
Hb
1
>1
> x2 b2
1 2
4
x b
4
x
<
b
H 1
+
b 4
For y=0 this condition is always fulfilled. The term (100-n)/100 is the ratio sand particles over
the total volume. For Y=0 the condition is always fulfilled because X/b is always smaller than
or equal to
Critical depth
Pressure differance H/b [-]
0
0
0.2
y/b [-]
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Figure 2-126
However, by the erosive action of the water entraining into the draghead, the grains want to
move from each other (dilatancy) and a pore pressure drop, which increases the effective
stresses of the grains. Which process is dominant depends on a number of factors. The question
is if the ground water flow is able to keep up with the increase of pore volume of the sand. If
that is not the case than a further decrease of the water pressures arises, with a decreased
erosion process as a result.
The ratio between the mixture flow rate Qm and the erosion flow rate Qe as function of the Cvd
is:
With:
Qerosion Q pores
Q
+
+ sand
Qmixture Qmixture Qmixture
1=
Qerosion
n
Qsand
Q
Q
n
+ 0
+ sand 1 = erosion + 0 Cvd + Cvd
Qmixture 1 n0 Qmixture Qmixture
Qmixture 1 n0
or
Qerosion
C
= 1 vd
1 n0
Qmixture
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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Qsand
Qpores
Cvd
n0
This volume balance is shown in Figure 2.127. From a physical point of view, the
concentration will increase as well when the erosion or crack velocity underneath the draghead
increases (erosion line in the Figure 2.127) when Qmixture remains constant). From experience it
is known that for a certain type of draghead without jets, the concentration Cvd is only slightly
dependent on the mixture flow rate, which points out that the quotient
Qerosion
remains almost
Qmixture
constant. As a rule of thumb for the average erosion depth can be written: d =
k 0.3
.
vt0.9
In this k is the water permeability of the sand and vt the trail speed of the draghead, both in m/s.
The factor is dependent on the dimensions of the draghead.
Cvd
0.4
Erosion
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Qe/Qm
Figure 2-127
With increasing width of the draghead the average depth will decrease, looking to the erosion
process around the draghead. Unfortunately there is yet insufficient knowledge of this process
to determine an optimum width of the draghead. The maximum concentration Cvd for the
dragheads without jets remains limited to 15 % in loose sand. In a lot of cases however Cvd is
smaller than 10 %.
If jets are used to excavate the sand, this decreases the erosion flow rate, because the volume
balance should be fulfilled:
[m3/s]
With:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Qsand
= Cvd
Qmixture
n
Q pores =
Qsand
1 n
With:
Q jet
Cvd
Q
= erosion +
1 n Q mixture Q mixture
C
Qerosion Q jet
,
diagram for constant values of vd
Qmixture Qmixture
1 n
(Figure 2.128).
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Qjet / Qmixture
0.7
0.8
0.9
Cvd/(1-n)=0
Cvd/(1-n)=0.2
Cvd/(1-n)=0.4
Cvd/(1-n)=0.6
Cvd/(1-n)=0.8
Figure 2-128 Relation between capacities to fulfill the volume balance in the draghead
This picture shows that high concentration or mixture densities can be reached only for low
Q jet
Q
values of erosion and
Q mixture
Q mixture
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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In case of a large jetpump capacity the erosion flowrate can get negative value resulting in
spillage behind the draghead.
With jets well devided over the width
of the draghead an erosion-profile can
reached with an almost constant
depth over the full width
Figure 2-129
As said earlier, a reasonable assumption is that the jet- production is linear with the total
momentum flux of the jet system and independent of the trail speed. The momentum I=wQu.
M sand = I = w Qu = w Q
I
Msand
pjet
Q
U
=
=
=
=
=
=
2 p jet
w
Momentum in N
Eroded sand mass in kg/s per jet
Jet pressure at the nozzle in Pa
Jet capacity in m3/s
Jet velocity at the nozzle in m/s
Coefficient depending on the particle size, jet pressure, jet capacity and trailspeed.
A reasonable assumption for alpha is =0.1
Water density in kg/m3.
When the nozzle are divided well over the width of the draghead the mass M should fulfill the
relation:
sand
= B d v trail
all jets
B
D
vtrail
situ
particle
=
=
=
=
=
situ water
particle
particle water
Width draghead in m.
Eroded layer thickness in m
Trailspeed in m/s
Density soil in situ kg/m3
Particle density in kg/m3
When the trailspeed is said to 1.5 m/s, which equals 3 knots and the product B.d can be
calculated.
In general the effective of the jet decreases somewhat with increasing pressure at constant
momentum. This means that low pressure- high capacity jets are more effective than high
pressure-low capacity jets. They use more specific energy too. On the other hand however,
much jetwater dilutes the mixture density (Figure 2.128). So the designer has to search for the
optimum solution between cost (power) and production
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
1 L
p= M
2 MN
sand
w
C vd Q m
Q jet
OP
PQ
2p
w
2
1.8
10000
9000
1.6
1.4
1.2
8000
7000
6000
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
5000
4000
3000
2000
0.2
0
1000
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Cvd
p [kPa]
density
Qjet/Qm
p {kPa}
Cvd/(1-n)
Figure 2-130
Movement of slope
Figure 2-131
The disadvantage of this method is, of course, that the material has to be obtained at greater
depth. If the "horizontal" or "vertical" method is preferred depends therefore on the grain
distribution of the various layers, the suction depth and how far the pump of the trailing suction
hopper dredger is below the waterlevel.
The dredging soft rock by trailing suction hopper dredgers is only done in exceptional cases. In
fact only in those cases where the operating hours of a cutter suction dredger are so limited by
the weather conditions that it is not profitable or where the amounts to be dredged are so
limited that the mobilization of a cutter suction dredger is not profitable.
Dredging rock with a trailing suction hopper dredger is not just done. The dredger has to be
equipped for that. This means that the dragheads, the suction pipes and hull attachments able to
resist the forces that during the ripping of rock.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
If the trailing suction hopper dredger is limited for its dredging depth to a dredging depth of
30 m than one fixed pump-speed is sufficient. If the ship has to dredge over a deeper range of
depth or equipped with an additional submerged pump, than the question rises whether the flow
rate variations are not too high between the suction in shallow waters and at the maximum
dredging depth. The maximum suction depth determines the highest pump speed, if the pump is
sufficiently under water. If this pump-speed is fixed than the flow rate when dredging in
shallow water will significantly larger than dredging at the maximum depth. Since overflow
losses increase linear with the flow rate it must be considered if it is economical to equip the
dredgepump with a speed control to keep the flow rate constant at different depth.
Furthermore the pump will have to be optimized for either the dredging operations or pumping
ashore, depending on the total expected time of operations under these modes.
When no submerged pump is fitted, it might better to pursuit for straight a piping system in the
suction line, even if lead to an extra elbow in the discharge line.
2.5.1.3 The loading
In order to obtain the highest possible fill rate during the loading the hopper with nonsettling
slurries, the poor mixture (mixture with a too little density) van be pumped straight overboard.
An automated valve controller can easily do this. However, with the increase of environmental
requirements this is banned nowadays.
For settling mixtures like pieces of clay, sand and gravel, a part will settle and a part will leave
the hopper through the overflow. A rule of thumb sometimes followed is that all with a d50 < 75
m flows overboard.
A measure for the quality of the settling process is the relative cumulative overflow loss. This
is defined as the ratio between the total amount of solids that leave the hopper through the
overflow and the total amount of solids pumped in the hopper. This relative cumulative
overflow loss is, except for the material properties as grain size, the grain distribution, shape
and specific mass, also dependent on the loading conditions like the flow rate, concentration,
turbulence intensity, temperature and the hopper geometry.
These overflow losses are, like mentioned above, largely dependent on the parameter
( s Q) = s
BL
term
s0
and less of
( s Q) = s
BH
v0
Q
is called the surface load.
BL
In these:
Q
L
B
H
v0
=
=
=
=
=
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
[m3/s]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m/s]
March 2003
( s Q) = s
BH
v0
( s Q) = s
BL
s0
and
sedimentation process in the hopper is quite different as assumed by Camp. For a real
understanding of the sedimentation process the reader is referred to the thesis of Dr.Ir. C. van
Rhee .
In Figure 2.132 the settled part (removal ratio), so Rt = (1-overflow losses), is shown as
function of these two parameters.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
1,0
S
So
0,9
2,0
1,5
0,8
1,2
1,1
0,7
1,0
0,9
0,6
0,8
0,7
0,5
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,4
0,3
0,3
0,2
0,2
0,1
0,1
0
0,001
0,01
0,1
S 1
Vo
By calculating the settling process in a number of steps the relative cumulative overflow losses
can be determined as function of time or load rate. From the theory of Camp can be de derived
that the influence of the bed height is marginally. This implies that during the loading process
the overflow losses are almost constant. Although in practice loading curves are almost
straight. The overflow rate is not.
2.5.1.3.1 Loading curve
Dependent on the way of payment, in cubic meters or in Tons Dry Solids (TDS), the contractor
will like to know the development of the volume in m3 or of the TDS in the hopper during
loading. To do this it is necessary to measure the volume of the total load (sand and water).
Acoustic silo indicators usually do this. The weight of the (useful) load is measured by
determining the development of the draught as function of the time (chapter 2.2.2.1). From the
volume and the weight of the useful load the volume in m3 or the TDS can be determined if the
volume weight z of the sand and the specific weight k of the sand and the water w are
known.
March 2003
Vload ( t ) = Qi t
Gload ( t ) = Vload ( t ) i = Qi i t
i w
t
z w
w
Gsand ( t ) = Vsand ( t ) z
k t = Qi i w z w k t = Qi i w k t
k w
z w k w
k w
Vsand ( t ) = Qi
In this:
Gload and Vload, the weight and the volume of the total load, so sand and water. Vsand the
sand volume (including the pores) in the hopper and Gsand the weight of the sand (excluding
the pore water), so TDS.
Qi and Qu are the in- and out-going flow rate. i, k, z and w are the volume weights ( =
g) of the mixture, the sand grains, the sand volume with the pores and the water.
In this it is silently assumed that the hopper is totally empty before the start of the suction.
If this is not the case than volume must be increased with the value V0 and the weight with
G0.
2. When the overflow is reached tov, but the ship is not yet on its dredge mark, the hopper
volume remains constant (constant volume loading).
Qi = Qu
Gi = Qi i and Gu = Qu u with i > u > w
and therefore:
( i u ) t t
( ov )
( z w )
( )
ov
Gsand ( t ) = Gsand
+ Qi i u ( t tov )
( k w )
ov
Vsand ( t ) = Vsand
+ Qi
ov
ov
Vsand
and Gsand
are the volume of the sand and the weight of the grains at the moment the
overflow is reached.
3. The overflow is reached and the ship is on the dredge mark.
In this case the weight of the total load (water and sand) remains constant (constant
tonnage loading).
Gi = GU = Qi i = Qu u and therefore Qu = Qi
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
i
u
May 2005
wb3408B
mark
mark
Vload ( t ) = Vload
Qu ( t tmark ) = Vload
Qi
i
( t tmark )
u
i u
( t tmark )
z w
+ Qi i u k ( t tmark )
k w
mark
Vsand ( t ) = Vsand
+ Qi
mark
Gsand ( t ) = Gsand
mark
mark
Vsand
and Gsand
are the volume of the sand with pores and the weight of the sand grains
(TDS) on the moment the hopper reaches the valid dredge mark.
The total load curve is now known in mass and volume if Qi, i, u, k, h and w are known. u
can be determined from the overflow losses and v depends on the type of soil.
V_sand
Load
W_sand
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Figure 2-133
For pure constant volume hoppers the weight of the load is proportional to the draught of the
ship. This increases in time, though the mixture-volume in the hopper remains constant.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
V_sand
Load
W_sand
20000
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
20
40
60
80
Loading time [min]
100
120
140
160
Figure 2-134
This does not account for the pure constant tonnage hoppers. Then the draught remains
constant after reaching the overflow (Figure 2.135).
V_sand
Load
W_sand
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Loading time [min]
60
70
80
90
Figure 2-135
To calculate the weight of the load extra data is needed: the volume of the mixture and the
volume-weight (or density) of the sand in the hopper. The first quantity is measured with silo
indicators and the second by probing on several trips the volume of the sand.
Now the determination of the load during the dredging process is done as follows:
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
Before the start of the dredging the displacement and the weight of the water in the hopper
is determined. The displacement by measuring the draught of the vessel and the watervolume by the silo indicators.
displacement
water g
volume water in hopper
During dredging the fore and aft draught of the ship is measured continuously and so the
displacement as well as the mixture volume by means of silo indicators.
By subtracting the start values from the momentary values of the displacement and the
mixture volume, the weight of the dry load (TDS) can be determined with the following
formula.
Gload
w
Vload
kVload
TDS =
k w
Gload
= load is the volume weight of the mixture in the hopper.
Vload
Though the load nowadays usually is expressed in TDS, it does not imply that payment is also
dependent on the amount of TDS. This can be:
1. ton dry solid (TDS)
2. m3 in the hopper (means of transport)
3. m3 in the excavation
The mutual relation between these quantities is:
TDS with volume load in the hopper:
Vload =
fv =
Vload
1
=
TDS grains
grains water
load water
fTDS =
water
TDS
= grains load
grains water
Vload
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
25
1.8
1.6
20
1.2
15
1
0.8
10
m3 to TDS
TDS to m3
1.4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0
2400
2200
Figure 2-136
An aspect that also takes place during loading is the change in the volume weight of the
dredged material, the bulking, which can be positive, so more, as well as negative, so less. The
production unit in the dredging industry is the cubic meter per time unit. Unfortunately this is
not an unambiguous unit. A m3 in excavation appears to be a "different" m3 after settlement in
the well. Because sand grains in the hopper are usually stacked looser than in situ. The volume
weight in the hopper is lower than the situ volume weight. Also, as a result of overflow losses,
more fine sand particles will flow overboard than coarse particles. If these particles are located
in a matrix of coarser particles than the volume weight will decrease even if the stacking of the
matrix remains the same. If this phenomena happens in the dredged material can be simply
shown by comparing the sand curve with the Fller-distribution (Figure 2.137).
FLLER'S METHOD
FLLER'S METHOD
100
% by weight passing
overmaat fijn
overmaat grof
Fller
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
% by weight passing
overmaat fijn
overmaat grof
Fller
0
0
.1
.2
.3
.5
.6
.4
SQRT (d/dmax)
.7
.8
.9
0.01
0.1
10
1
SQRT (d/dmax)
Figure 2-137
d
d max
, is a pure
straight line. Such a distribution appears to give a maximum volume weight, which implies that
the pores are constantly filled with the smaller particles. If the gradient of the smaller particles
is above the Fller-distribution than there is a surplus of fine material and the above mentioned
phenomenon would not show. If the gradient of the fine material is below the FllerProf.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
distribution than the fine material is embedded in the coarser material and the phenomenon
shows.
The volume weight in the hopper is usually lower than in situ. Dependent on the grain
distribution, a situ m3 takes the same or more space in the hopper, caused by the increase of the
ratio, which are filled with water. So the water takes this larger volume.
Example:
Assume the in situ density of the sand 1 and the density in the hopper 2. The specific weight
of the sand is k and of the water w. The cumulative overflow losses are ov and according the
Fller distribution there is a surplus of fine material. If the situ volume is V1, then the volume
in the hopper with in-situ density (1-ov) V1. The weight of solids of this volume must be equal
to the solid weight of the volume V2.
Weight of the volume V1 for 1:
G1 = (1 ov ) V1
1 w
k with = g
k w
G2 = V2
2 w
k
k w
Since G1 = G2 :
V2
w
= (1 ov ) 1 w = (1 ov ) 1
V1
2 w
2 w
Example:
1
2
water
ov
=
=
=
=
2000 kg/m3
1900 kg/m3
1020 kg/m3
10 %
V1
2000 1020
= (1 ov )
= 0.9 1.11 = 1.0
1900 1020
V2
So the volume in the hopper occupies the same space as the in the excavation. It has been
silently assumed that the overflow losses do not flow back into the winning area. If that is the
case than the term (1-ov) is discarded and the delivery becomes 11 %.
If the fine sand particles are situated in a matrix of coarser particles than, for a similar stack of
the coarser particles, G2 = 0.9 G1 with V1 = V2. This leads to:
(1 ov ) V1
1 w
k = V2 2 w k (1 ov ) ( 1 w ) = 2 w
k w
k w
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
This can be seen directly as the new volume is only 60 % of the original.
During pumping ashore to a reclamation area, usually a negative bulking takes place, since the
volume weight of the dump material is often higher than the volume weight of the material in
the hopper and losses can occur at the reclamation.
2.5.2
It will be clear that the sailing speed determined during the sea trials, for an empty as well as
for a fully loaded ship, cannot be used as the average speed during the lifespan of the trailing
suction hopper dredger. Between the dry dock periods the hull of the ship becomes overgrown
with barnacles and seaweed and the propulsion engines and propellers are subjected to wear.
This leads to a 5 to 10 percent lower average or operational speed in deep water than the sea
trial speed. In general the trailing suction hopper dredger sails in seaways with a depth which
gives the ship extra resistance. The trailing suction hopper dredger "feels" the bottom. The
influence of the less deep seaway on the operational velocity is calculated with Lackenby's
formula (Figure 2.138).
v shallow = v deep
R| L
F A
|S1 MM01242
.
|| MM GH bd + Dg
T N
I
0.05J + 1
K
1
c
1
c+
c
c
OPU|
PP|V
PQ||W
with:
c=e
g FGH v 4 IJK
g d+D
deep
in this:
d
D
A
=
=
=
keel clearance
draught of the ship
wet cross-section of mid ship
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
[m]
[m]
[m2]
May 2005
wb3408B
Empty
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
0
10
15
20
25
keel clearance [m]
30
35
40
Figure 2-138
Tvh =
n +1
N
Tvt =
n +1
sn
sn
( vvol )n
(v )
leeg n
Another facet that has to be accounted for, are the sail-limitations in certain areas like harbors
and narrow fairways. Furthermore the fairway has always to be checked for sufficient depth. In
case of doubt it might even be wise to carry out a hydrographic survey
2.5.3
The discharge
As described in the chapter Technical Construction the trailing suction hopper dredger may be
able to discharge its load in two ways, either by direct dumping or by means of the selfemptying installation by rainbowing or pumping to the shore.
If the load can be dumped directly it has to be known if the depth of the dump area is always
sufficient to sail with opened doors or valves, even with extremely low water. The increasing
lack of dump areas it happens regularly that the depth of the dump is limited. In such a case it is
advised to make a dump plan to use the dump as efficient as possible.
For land reclamation works for which the first layer of the sand body can be dumped directly, a
dump plan has to be made too, in order to dump directly as much material as possible, so that
less material needs to be pumped ashore.
The discharge of the load through the bottom doors or valves usually costs little time. For free
flowing soils this is done within several minutes. The discharge time increases when the
material becomes finer and more cohesive. For plastic clays this can increase to half an hour.
For such a material it has to be checked that no load, the rest load, remains in the hopper.
There is a possibility that this rest load increases with the number of trips. It appears that the
longer the clay remains in the hopper the more difficult it is to flush it out.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
If the hopper is not equipped with an installation that improves the breaching by means of
water-jets, than, as a rule of thumb, the discharge time is equal to the suction time. If the
hopper is equipped with water-jets to fluidize or loosen the load, than the discharge time can be
shortened considerably.
The discharge process through the hopper self-emptying installation behaves clearly like an Scurve. The discharge process is started usually slowly, because a quick start often leads to a
blocked suction pipe. After that there is for 75 to 80 % of the time an almost constant high
production. At the end of the unloading process the decreases almost linear zero (Figure 2.140).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
Pr_ave
100
90
Prod/max. production
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
t/t_unloading
In almost all self-emptying installation a rest load remains of around 5 %. By the fluidization
process the rest loads of rocks and dirt accumulate, so that regularly the rest-load needs to be
dumped on a dump.
2.5.4
The cycle consisting of: loading, sailing to, discharging, sailing back can be optimized simply.
The cycle production is defined as:
Pcycle =
L (t )
tsuction + tsail + tdischarge
If tsuction and tdischarge are considered constant than this production is optimal when the following
is condition is met:
dPcycle
dtsuction
=0
This is the tangent to loading curve L(t) that also crosses the negative y-axis in the point tsailing +
tdischarge (Figure 2.141).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Load [m3]
max. cycle production
no loading time
This loading process can be made visible on board of the dredgers to determine the optimal
load. However it should be noticed that the overflow losses increase sufficient at the end of the
loading process to determine the optimal point.
2.5.5
The instrumentation
To support the dredge master instruments are available. Modern trailing suction hopper
dredgers are equipped with suction pipe position indicators both in the longitudinal as in the
transverse direction. Not only the position in relation to the bottom is indicated but also the
position of the suction pipe and the draghead in relation to the ship and sometimes even the
soil. Furthermore the dredge master has a direct view on the swell-compensators to judge if the
dragheads are on the bottom. If this is not the case than indicators are necessary. For the suction
process there are besides the vacuum and pressure indicators, also velocity and concentration
indicators. With the aid of these instruments the suction chief will optimize the suction process
by trial and error.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
These include:
The maneuverability. A lot of gravel suction dredgers are built to collect aggregates at
sea. These are relative wide concessions where accurate dredging is of no or small concern.
Furthermore there are long transportation distances. Therefore the requirements for the
maneuverability are less strict than for the trailing suction hopper dredger that has to
dredge frequently in busy fairways or ports.For this reason the gravel suction hopper
dredger is equipped with only one screw.
The longer dredge cycle. The longer sail distances mean that the suction time is only a
small percentage of the total cycle time. Therefore it is much more economical to equip the
ship with only one suction pipe and one dredge pump.
Since the quality of the material determines the price, these ships are equipped with a
creening installation. The "bad" material can than be put overboard. Of course it is also
possible to load all the material (called all-in or tout-venant).
A discharge installation with which it is possible to unload "dry" in every arbitrary port.
Seldom a gravel suction hopper dredger has bottom doors or valves.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Since the concessions are increasingly further away from the land and therefore in deeper
waters, submerged pumps on the suction pipe are also used on modern gravel suction hopper
dredgers.
The discharge systems are of the drag system, clamshell or excavation wheel (Figure 2.114)
principle that delivers the material from the hopper to a silo from which the material is
distributed further via a conveyor belt. The way of operation does not differ much from the
"classical" trailing suction hopper dredger. Instead of pumping the material straight into the
hopper, it is now pumped into the screening installation, where it is separated into the required
class(es). When sailing to the discharge area the drain installation is turned on to bring the load
as dry as possible ashore.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
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2.6.2
The method of operation differs significantly from the trailing suction hopper dredger and is in
principle equal to the suction dredger.
When dredging the vessel anchored in its borrow area. The amount of anchors needed depends
strongly on the operational circumstances, like current and wind velocity, current and wind
direction and shipping. If the circumstances are well than one or two front anchors are
sufficient. If the dredging takes place in a tidal area where the current change direction
depending on the tide, than also one or two aft anchors are placed. A second anchor is needed if
the ship must be hauled frequently.
As with suction dredgers the stationary hopper dredger is used in free running sand. Dependent
on the breach height the ship is slowly hauled in the direction of the suction direction. The
loading of the hopper is similar to the process of the trailing suction hopper dredger.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
Sometimes the trailing suction hopper dredger is used as a stationary dredgers" for certain
works. To do this the dragheads are removed and if not already present an aft anchor is
mounted. When arriving at the winning area first the aft anchor is placed. Dependent on the
weather conditions the front anchor is also placed. Since the pipes put backwards the trailing
suction hopper dredger works itself while dredging backwards. There are also trailing suction
hopper dredgers that have the possibility to bring their suction pipe forward and are than able to
work on the bow anchor (Figure 2.147). With well-breaching sand trailing suction hopper
dredgers can also suck profiles with the drag suction method. The embankment must than be at
all times more gentle than the suction pipes of the trailing suction hopper dredger. The trailing
suction hopper dredger forces its way into the embankment with a velocity of 0.25 to 0.5 knots.
The main advantage of this method is that no anchors are needed which gives more freedom of
movement and a quicker leave in case of an emergency.
Figure 2-148 Trailer suction hopper dredger working in a plain suction mode
2.6.3
Boom dredgers
The boom dredger (Figure 2.149) is a special design of the trailing suction hopper dredger.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
wb3408B
It is equipped with a 50 to 60 meter long construction, the boom, that makes it possible to
pump the dredged material immediately sideways back (side casting). This method of dredging
is used in silt rich fairways, where it is cheaper to spray the material to the side, a hundred
meters from the bank of the fairway instead of bringing it to a dump far away. Approach
channels at the lake of Maricaibo in Venezuela are dredged in this manner
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
March 2003
2.7 Literature
1. Trailing Suction Hopper Dredging Handbook.
Issued by The Training's Institute for Dredging.
2. Coastal and Deep Ocean Dredging, John B. Herbich, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
Texas, USA, 1975.
3. Dredging and Dredging Equipment, R.J. de Heer and Rochmanhadi, part 1 and 2, IHE,
Delft, 1989.
4. Baggertechniek, collegedictaat f14, G.L.M. van der Schrieck, TU Delft, Civiele Techniek,
1996 (in Dutch).
5. Constant Tonnage Loading System of Trailing Suction Hopper Dredgers, J. de Koning,
Proceedings International Course Modern Dredging, 1977.
6. Nassbaggertechnik, A. Welte, Institut fr Machinenwessen in Baubetrieb, Universitt
Fridericiana, Karlsruhe, 1993.
7. Proceedings of the dredging days, Europort 1980, CEDA, 1980.
8. Technical aspects of large Trailing Suction Hopper Dredgers, P.J. Koert, IHC Holland.
9. Further development of loading and unloading processes for Trailing Suction Hopper
Dredgers, S. Steinkhler, 14 World Dredging Congress, Amsterdam, 1995.
10. Several articles from Port & Dredging of IHC Holland.
P&D
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
May 2005
3.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 1 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
3.7.10.
The winches..............................................................................................55
3.7.10.1.
The ladder winch ..................................................................................55
3.7.10.2.
The side winces ....................................................................................55
3.7.10.3.
Other winces.........................................................................................56
3.7.11.
Hoisting equipment ..................................................................................56
3.7.12.
Auxiliary equipment.................................................................................56
3.8.
The dredging process.....................................................................................57
3.8.1. The spillage ..................................................................................................57
3.8.2. The production in breach-forming soils .......................................................59
3.8.3. The production by non-breach forming soils ...............................................61
3.8.4. Specific energy .............................................................................................63
3.8.5. The cutting production .................................................................................65
3.8.6. The spillage ..................................................................................................67
3.9.
Enclosures.......................................................................................................68
3.9.1. The relation between swing speed and side winch speed.............................68
3.9.2. The side winch force and power...................................................................69
3.9.3. The shape and cutting geometry of cutter heads ..........................................70
3.9.4. Cutting by teeth or chisels ............................................................................74
3.9.5. Conditions for cutting clearance...................................................................75
3.9.5.1. The effect of warping on the clearance angles .........................................77
3.10.
References.......................................................................................................79
Figure 3. 1
The Mashhour, at present the biggest cutter suction dredger in the world,
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 2 van 79
May 2003
Discharge pipe
Dredge pump
Suction pipe
Cutter ladder
Cutter head
Dredge pump
Ladder winch
Auxiliary spud
Spud carriage
Working spud
Starboard winch
Figure 3. 2 Lay-out
snijkopzuiger.
The cutter suction dredger is a stationary dredger equipped with a cutter device (cutter head)
which excavate the soil before it is sucked up by the flow of the dredge pump(s).
During operation the dredger moves around
a spud pole by pulling and slacking on the
two fore sideline wires. This type of
dredger is capable to dredge all kind of
material and is accurate due to their
movement around the spud pole. The
stationary cutter suction dredger is to
distinguished easily from the plain suction
dredger by its spud poles, which the last
dont have.
The spoil is mostly hydraulically
transported via pipeline, but some dredgers
do have barge-loading facilities as well.
Cutter power ranges from 50 kW up to
5000 kW, depending on the type of soil to
be cut.
Cut width
Workspud
in carriage
Spud carriage
length
Auxilary spud
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 3 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 4 van 79
May 2003
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 5 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Figure 3. 7 Layout
For example, in the fall of 1893 the cutter suction dredger RAM was built by the Bucyrus
Steam Shovel and dredged company for use on the lower Mississippi river. This dredger was
already equipped with an rotating cutter head. (Figure 3.7).
The cutter suction dredger became the workhorse of the dredging industry in America, as did
the bucket dredger in Europe at that time.
Ds
Ds
Over cutting mode
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 6 van 79
May 2003
In addition to the type of soil, the required side winch force also depends on:
Whether the rotation of the cutter head is in the same direction as or the opposite direction
to that of the swing movement. In the first case the reaction force of the cutter head on the
soil will pull the dredger with it, as a result of which the side winch forces are smaller
than when rotation is in the opposite direction
It is also necessary to ensure the correct pre-tensioning of the cables when the cutter head
rotates in the same direction as swing. If the cutter head forces propel the cutter head
more quickly than the hauling winch does there is a very real danger that the cable of the
hauling winch will be picked up and cut through by the cutter head.
The position of the anchors has a big influence on the force needed to swing the dredger.
The closer the path of the cutter head is to the direction of the side cable, the smaller the
required force.
Naturally the side winch force is also affected by external influences such as wind,
current and waves.
Of course, the thickness of the layer that can be removed by one swing (cut thickness
Figure3.9) depends on both the diameter of the cutter head and the type of soil. When the
required dredging depth has not been reached at the end of a swing, the ladder is set more
deeply and the ship will move in the opposite direction.
As previously mentioned, the cutter suction dredger describes an arc round a fixed point, the
spud pole or working pole. In many cutter suction dredgers this pole is mounted on a movable
carriage, the spud carriage. A second pole, the auxiliary spud, is set out of the centreline,
usually on the starboard side of the stern of the pontoon.
The spud carriage can be moved over a distance of 4 6 m by means of a hydraulic cylinder.
Because the spud is standing on the bottom, pressing the spud carriage towards the stern can
move the cutter suction dredger forward. The size of the cutter head and the hardness of the
soil determine the size of this step. During each step one or more layers of the face are cut
away by lowering the ladder one cutting thickness at the end of the swing.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 7 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
With each step the
cutter head
describes the arc
of a concentric
circle round the
spud, the radius of
which increases
with the step
length.
(Figure 3.10)
a) = step length
b) = length of
carriage
If the spud
carriage cylinder
has reached the
end of its path the
spuds must be
moved. Before
stepping, the
cutter moves to
the centre line of
the cut.
D
D
a
a = steplength
b = length of carriage
a b
The auxiliary spud is then placed on the bottom, the working spud is lifted and the spud
carriage is moved forward. After this the work spud is again lowered and the auxiliary spud is
lifted. The dredger can then resume working. The first cut made after stepping is not an arc of
a concentric circle!
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 8 van 79
May 2003
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 9 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
From the point of view of production, the suction depth determines whether an underwater
pump is needed to obtain the required production capacity. It is obvious that mounting an
underwater pump will increase the weight of the ladder.
If no underwater pump is considered, the diameter of the suction pipe and the head of the
pump must be increased and the concentration of the mixture reduced in order to avoid
creating a vacuum. This may lead to the pumping of low concentrations and thus much water,
which is uneconomic.
With the aid of the vacuum formula (see also lecture notes Dredging processes), from a
given limiting vacuum and the maximum concentration to be dredged it is possible to
determine whether or not an underwater pump is necessary, and if so how far under water it
must be placed. Whether or not an underwater pump is fitted is, of course, also a question of
economics, since cost of the fitting of an underwater pump is considerable.
8000
7000
2
y = 9.0577x - 101.29x
6000
R = 0.757
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
Figure 3. 12
Pagina 10 van 79
May 2003
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Cutterpower [kW]
Figure 3. 13
When dredging at depths, which are shallow in comparison to the draught of the vessel, the
shape of the ladder must also be adapted to avoid dragging of the ladder. To prevent dragging
the angle between the underside of the ladder and the horizontal must be at least 50 (Figure
3.14).
Removable wedge
Figure 3. 14
Figure 3. 15
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 11 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
The minimum width of the cut is determined by the line that meets the contour surface of the
cutter head at the front of the pontoon (Figure 3.16) or at the outer side of the side winch
sheaves. To reduce the minimum cutting width each side of the front of the pontoon is often
chamfered as shown in Figure 3.17 and 3.19. Figure 3.18 also shows that the further the cutter
head projects in front of the pontoon, the smaller is the minimum cutting width. Such a
solution is particularly common in American and Japanese dredgers.
Ballast tank
Lubricating
olie
Ballast tank
Fuel
ballast
tank
ballast
tank
Spare parts
Spare parts
Dry
tank
ballast
tank
Drinking
water
Engine room
Ballast tank
Ballast tank
Fuel
ballast
tank
ballast
tank
Spare parts
Spare parts
Dry
tank
ballast
tank
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 12 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 18
Figure 3. 19
The distance between the spud and the cutter head determines the maximum cutting width. To
ensure the efficiency of the side winches the maximum swing angle is restricted to 450 ; so
that the maximum width B = 2L*sin(450) +Dcutter, in which L is the distance between the spud
and the cutter head. The length L depends on the depth of the water and the position of the
spud pole.
From the point of view of
production a broad cutting
width is desirable, since per
m3 dredged the downtime for
stepping, anchoring and other
q
manoeuvres is shorter.
However long cutter suction
T
S
dredgers have a big minimum
cutting width, so the
advantages must be weighed
L=S+Tcosq
against the disadvantages.
The maximum cutwidth
depends on the maximum side
winch force too. This will be
explained in chapter 3.2.2.3
B=2Lsina+Dcutter
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 13 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
It is also possible to choose an underwater pump with a higher power than is needed for barge
loading. The surplus capacity can then be used during discharging.
The grain size and the discharge length of the pipeline determine the required pump pressure,
while this determines the number of dredgepumps required.
The maximum allowable pump pressure that a dredger can supply depends on the quality of
the shaft sealing of the last pump. Often values exceeding 25 - 30- bar are not permitted.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 14 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 22
Another point in relation
with access to the site is the
possible restriction height of
the dredger.
High ladder and spud
gantries can be a problem by
passing bridges or electrical
cables. Compare the different
designs of the dredgers in
Figure3.22 and Figure 3.23
Figure 3. 23
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 15 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
SPE =
PCutter
Q Cutter
[N/m]
[W]
When cutting soil the cutting force is seldom constant due to the inconstancy of the soil.
Therefore the terms average cutting force and peak forces are used. The peak forces for
rock may well be a factor 2 higher than the average forces (Verhoef, 1997)
The following may be used as rules of thumb:
.
for rock; depending whether the cutting process is ductile or
F peak
= 1.5 2
brittle.
Fmean
F peak
Fmean
F peak
Fmean
= 1.25 1.5
= 1.1 1.5
for sand
for clay, depending whether the cutting process is flow, tear
or shear type.
The theoretical cutting power must also be multiplied by these factors. The revolution
velocity of the cutter head is also dependent on the type of soil.
Note: This factor should be included in the work coefficient as mentioned in chapter1
Reference to be made
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 16 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 24
Vm=4 m/s
Vm=5 m/s
120
12
100
10
80
60
40
20
Vm=2.67 m/s
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Figure 3. 25
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 17 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
RELATIVE PRODUCTION
Gravel 10 mm
Gravel 15 mm
Ladder 25 deg.
Sand
80
70
60
Pr [%]
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
Figure 3. 26
If the cutter suction dredger is designed for dredging sand a speed of 20 revolutions per
minute is adequate (see also Figure 3. 26). In silt or soft clay even lower revolutions are
sufficient, provided that the cutter head does not become blocked.
3.3.2. The reaction forces on the cutter
Forces acting on the cutter suction dredge are shown in Figure 3.27. All reaction forces from
the cutter head have to be transferred in a certain way the surroundings, either by the side
winch forces or the spud poles to the soil or via the ladder wires and the pontoon to water.
Besides that these cutting forces determines the weight of the dredger, while the forces to
move the dredger through the water can have influences on the design of the dredging parts.
In a ladder related co-ordinate system he cutting forces can be decomposed in the 3
dimensions; horizontal, vertical and axial.
There is a general linear relation between the 3D-cutting forces and the cutting power
(Vlasblom, 1998). Furthermore the cutting forces in cavitating sand, clay and rock are almost
independent for the cutting speed.
Therfore:
F R
F R
Fhor.R cutter
= c h , vert cutter = c v , axial cutter = c a can be taken as constant for a specific soil
M cutter
M cutter
M cutter
type and relative cutting thickness D s .
2Rc
3.3.2.1. The horizontal and vertical cutting force
.
M cutter
is the tangential force T as
R cutter
Pagina 18 van 79
May 2003
Rsh
Gs
Mc
Fl
Fv
Wp
WL
Rs
Fa
Fpsw
Rs
Fa+Fv
Fh
Fsbw
Rw
Figure 3. 27
The horizontal component of the cutting force changes in direction when it passes the rotation
centre of the cutter head. (Figure 3. 28, Left
Center
of
Cutter
Tangential Force T
Ra
diu
s
Vertical
Force V
Cutting Force C
Tooth
Cutting Force C
Tooth
Normal Force Ncos
Path of Tooth
Horizontal Force H
Radial Force R
Normal Force Ncos
Figure 3. 28
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 19 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Nsin
Ncos
Minimum distance
= cut depth
Break out pattern
Fv
Fa
Fh
R
Break out Pattern
Figure 3. 30
Cutter heads with plain or serrated edges (Chapter 3.4.4) develop axial force by the helix.
angle of the cutter head blade, which causes the so-called snow plough effect (Miedema.
1995).
Figure 3. 31
Pagina 20 van 80
May 2003
Fvert R cutter
= c v = 0.9 the minimum weight of the ladder can
M cutter
be determined in order to fulfil the requirement that over cutting have to be possible.
0.9 Pcutter
Rewriting the condition and multiplying with the rotational speed gives Fvert =
;
Rcutter
R is in the order of 4 m/s, which means that Fvert 0.225 Pcutter
Following from de condition that
If the load on and the weight of the ladder are divided equally over the length of the ladder
than the weight of the ladder W 0.45 Pcutter
The mass of existing ladders is somewhat lower as shown in figure 3.39. This might be
caused by an uneven distribution of the load.
Mladder/Pcutter
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Figure 3. 32
Pc Fc
=
Ps Fh
Symbol
Fc
Fh
Pc
Ps
Rc
N
vh
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2 nRc
60 = Fc nRc
vw
Fh 30vw
Parameter
Tangential force
Swing force
Cutter power
Swing Power
Radius Cutter
Cutter head speed
Swing speed
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Dimension
[N]
[N]
[W]
[W]
[m]
[rpm]
[m/s]
Pagina 21 van 80
May 2003
Wb3408b
For a dredger with a cutter head of radius Rc=1 m, a swing speed v of 20 m/min (.333m/s) and
a cutter speed of 30 revolutions per minute, this gives a relation between the capacities of:
Pc Fc nRc Fc 30 1
F
P
=
=
= 9.4 c with ch=1 follows c = 9.4
Ph Fh 30vh Fh 30 0.333
Fh
Ph
For a cutter head of half this size the relation is:
Pc Fc nRc Fc 30 0.5
=
=
= 4.7 1 = 4.7
Ph Fh 30vh Fh 30 0.333
Ds
14
ratio CP/SW
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
In (Vlasblom, 1998) it is shown that the ratio of the normal force to the cutting force
influences the required ratio of cutter power over sidewinch power too. For sharp teeth this
ratio is 33 but decreases rapidly with increasing wear flat to a ratio of 5 for worn cutter teeth.
In addition to the soil type and the revolutions of the cutter head, both the side winch power
and the side winch (wire) speed depend on the dimensions of the dredger and the position of
the anchor.
It should be noted that the swing force is not equal to the side winch force and the swing
velocity not to sideline velocity. If Fh is the horizontal swing force to move the cutter with a
speed vc and the force in the sideline wire is Fw and de speed vw
It can be proven that in a horizontal plane the power needed to swing the cutter head
Pswing = Fh vh = Fw vw = Pwinch
under the assumption that the friction in the winches, blocks and motors are small.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 22 van 79
May 2003
M h = Fh Rsp M c sin + W Rw
in which Rsp and Rw are respectively the distance from the spud to the working point of Fh
and W.
Mc may be either positive or negative, depending on the direction in which the cutter head is
turning.
Therefore the swing power is: Ps = M h
vh
v
= ( Fh Rsp M c sin + W Rw ) h
Rsp
Rsp
For dredging rock the influence of the force W is in order smaller than that of the cutting
reaction forces.
The swingspeed vh should be taken in relation to the production Q, because Q = S Dc vh ,
with S the stepsize in m. and Dc the layer thickness in m.
In the position of the side winch sheave on the ladder (Figure 3. 34, Left) , the relation band
velocity Vz to warping direction of the side winch sheave Vp is equal to:
k
vz
vp
= l
sin
2
b
l
cos
k
b
cos + sin
l
l
Figure 3. 34
For the cutting of rock the maximum wire velocity is 20 tot 25 m/minute. For cutting sand
values of 30 tot 35 m/minute are taken.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 23 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Q = Q mixture
C vd
1 n
with:
Q
Qmixtur
Cvd
N
=
=
=
=
Production
Pumpcapacity
Transport concentration
Void ratio
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[-]
[-]
The mixture capacity is determined by the mixture forming process in the cutter (see
chapter 3.3.1.1)
The critical velocity required to keep the material in motion determines the minimum flow
velocity and thus the pipe diameter. v crit = Fl ,H 2 g (S s 1) D in which the value of Fl,H is
determined by the material to be pumped (see Section 2.2.3.3. Suction pipe diameters of
lecture notes Dredging Processes). Ss is the relative density of the solids and D the pipe
diameter in m
C vd
1 n
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 24 van 79
May 2003
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
The power needed for the jets depends strongly on the insight of the designer as.Figure 3. 36
shows. For more theoretical insight into this phenomena the chapter jet pumps for plain
suction dredgers should be consulted.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 25 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Figure 3. 37
The choice between hydraulic and electric drive depends primarily on the expected relation
between the average load and the peak load. Electric drives are especially suitable because
they can take overloading up to 150% without stalling (Figure 3. 39, right). This is possible
because of the considerable rotation energy of the rapidly turning electric motor. As a result a
flywheel effect is created. The long driving shaft also plays a role in this.
However, due to the strong dynamic character of the dredging process, gearboxes for cutter
drives have to resist heavier loads than gearboxes for the all drives on board of the dredge.
The dynamic cutting process and as consequence the torsion vibrations cause remarkable
increase of the torque. It is even possible that due to these vibrations negative torques occur in
the shaft and gearboxes with a result hammering of the gears. Such situation decrease the
live time of the gears. Therefore gearboxes for heavy duty cutter dredgers are designed to
resist a torque of 3.5 of the nominal torque. (Hiersig, 1981)
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 26 van 79
May 2003
Speed [%]
Speed [%]
100
100
100
Torque [%]
100
Torque [%]
150
Figure 3. 39
With hydraulic drives the torque is determined by the piston displacement of the engine and
the pressure in the system. When overloading occurs a safety valve which limits the pressure
operates, stopping the engine. This means that the average pressure c.q torque is usually
considerably lower than the maximum in the order of 60-70 % (Figure 3. 39, left). Hydraulic
drives do have the advantages of being completely watertight and of driving the cutter head
directly without a gearbox. Often several hydraulic drives are used simultaneously to provide
the cutter head with the desired power.
3.4.2. The side winch drives
Here too, the drives may be electric or hydraulic. This choice is based on the same line of
reasoning as that followed for the cutter head drive. It is not necessary that when the cutter
head drive is electric the side winch drives must also be electric. The required power for the
side winch drives is roughly a factor 5-10 smaller, so often secondary matters such a
standardisation and price play a different role
3.4.3. The ladder drive
Because the depth of the cutter head is set with the aid of the ladder winches, the drives must
be easy to regulate and must not slip when the ladder drive is not activated. The latter happens
frequently with hydraulic drives as a result of leakage of the hydraulic fluid, resulting in
changes of the cutting depth the dredging operation. To prevent this slipping the winch must
be equipped with a break or ratchet.
3.4.4. The sand pump drives
Underwater pumps are often electrically
driven. If barge loading is required with
the underwater pump, it is necessary to use
drives with speed control. With a fixed rate
of revolution, f.i. an asynchrony ac-current
motor, the variations in flow resulting from
differences in concentration and grain size
are often too big for the efficient loading
of the barges or leads to overload of the
motor.
Nowadays underwater pumps for small
dredgers can also be driven by diesel
engines via a pivoting gearbox. (Figure 3.
40)
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 27 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Diesel drives are most suitable for the discharge pumps. The choice between one or more
pumps and thus diesels depends on the total required pump pressure and the requirements in
relation to the speed control of the diesel engines. It will be clear that when only one large
pump is installed it is not so easy to control the pumping system for long and short pumping
distances. Very important when using diesel drives is the type of governor. Modern governors
limit the fuel injection at low revolution to avoid incomplete burning of the fuel. These
governors increase increases the speed control of the diesel engines.
For jet pumps diesel engines or an asynchrony ac-current motor are used often. Speed control
is less important for jet pumps than for dredge pumps, because of the almost fixed layout of
the pipeline and the constant fluid density.
3.5. Spudsytems
The choice of the spud system plays an important part in the design of the cutter suction
dredger. The spud system influences not only the layout of the pontoon, but also the
efficiency of the cutter suction dredger. The most frequently used systems are the spud
carriage system and fixed spuds (several other systems have been mentioned in the section on
technical construction).
3.5.1. The spud carriage system
With the spud carriage system the
work spud is placed in a carriage
which, with the aid of a hydraulic
cylinder, can travel over several
metres (4 - 6 m) (Figure 3. 41) in
longitudinal direction in a well at
the stern of the dredger. The
carriage is generally positioned in
the centre of the dredger (Figure 3.
42) and is support by four wheels
on rails for the vertical forces and
by guide rollers or bearing strips
for the lateral forces. The cylinder
is a double acting hydraulic ram.
Spud carriage
A second spud, the auxiliary spud is mounted at the stern of the pontoon, which is used to
move the carriage back to its start position.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 28 van 79
May 2003
Cut width
Workspud
in carriage
Spud carriage
length
Auxilary spud
Figure 3. 42
Figure 3. 43
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 29 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Spud carriage
Auxiliary spud
Figure 3. 44
Figure 3. 45
Note that the arc is not symmetrical with regards to the centre line of the cut.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 30 van 79
May 2003
As an example the difference in effective dredging time has been worked out for a spud
system with fixed spuds and one with a spud carriage. Both dredgers are the same with regard
to size and power. The following boundary conditions are taken for the work:
B
vs
Width of cut
Swing velocity
75
15
S
Lsc
Step size
Effective spud carriage
length
Distance between fixed
spud and cutter head
Distance between fixed
spuds
Number of cut layers
Number of steps per
carriage movement
1
5
Nc
Ns
[m]
[m/
s]
[m]
80
[m]
[m]
10
[m]
Time
Spud carriage travel
Spud changing
2 min.
Change in swing direction incl. lifting 2 min.
and lowering ladder minute
[-]
[-]
Fixed spuds
2 min.
=Lsc/Ns
Spud Carriage
Fixed / carriage
0.9
Efficiency [-]
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
E_fixed/E_carr
0.9
0.3
0
10
12
The above example (Figure 3. 47) clearly shows the superiority of the spud carriage system
over a fixed spud system.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 31 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Figure 3. 48
3.5.4. The walking spud system
The walking spud system is similar to the spud carriage system with regard to the movement
of the cutter head during swinging and stepping. The working spud is not in a carriage but
swivels round a horizontal axis (Figure 3. 49). The step is now taken by allowing the spud to
tilt to the requisite angle.
The disadvantage is immediately apparent; the maximum step depends on the depth of the
water and so walking spuds are difficult to use in shallow water. The disadvantage is that it is
very little or not at all cheaper than a spud carriage. The dredging pattern is similar to that
with a spud carriage, while the number of spud movements is considerably larger.
Walking spud
Figure 3. 49
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 32 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 51
From the point of view of efficiency, here defined as the actual dredging time in relation to
total time per spud cycle, the spud wagon is the best. The number of spud changes per metre
of progress is minimal. With a well-chosen cutting pattern no partly or entirely unproductive
swings (warping without cutting) are needed.
Likewise the rotor spud and tilting spud systems have advantages over the fixed spud
systems.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 33 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
SB achterzijanker
erzijd
e
zuig e
r
50
50
75
30
BB achterzijanker
achteranker
Figure 3. 52
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 34 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 53 CD EDAX
Depending on the spud system the hull may consist of a simple U-shapes pontoon (with fixed
spuds) or an H-shaped pontoon (with a spud carriage system). The main dimensions; length,
beam and draught of the pontoon derive from the requirements in relation to the above
mentioned design parameters and the associated requirements in relation to stability and
strength. Figures 3.54 and 3.55 gives design information for the pontoon.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 35 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
10,000
y = 0.4664x
R2 = 0.9597
9,000
8,000
y = 0.3485x
8,000
R = 0.925
6,000
10,000
4,000
2,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
BLD [m3]
Figure 3. 54
L/B
B/T
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Figure 3. 55
The engine room, the pump room and sometimes in larger cutter suction dredgers, also the
control room for the machinery, are located in the pontoon. In smaller cutter suction dredgers
the sand pump is sometimes located on the engine room directly in front of the engine, with
all the well-known disadvantages of such an arrangement.
Figure 3. 56
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 36 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 57
If the cutter suction dredger has been designed to work in the tropics the generators are
separated from the engine room to assist in the cooling of these machines (Figure 3. 57).
Figure 3. 58
Figure 3.56 shows a dredger with the spud carriage out of the centre line of the dredger, while
the cutter lead axes is the the centre line . This means that the teeth position is not optimal for
both sides and as a consequence this will result in more teeth wear.
Self propelled cutter suction dredgers have a more complicated layout resulting from the two
possible modes of working; dredging and sailing. The propulsion mechanism can be located
at the ladder end (CD Taurus, CD Marco Polo, CD da Vinci) or at the spud end (CD Ursa, CD
Oranje). In the second case the dredger sails with the ladder at the front and port and
starboard is the same for both sailing and dredging. Moreover the propellers are directly
driven by the main engines. This is not possible in the first case, so the propellers are powered
by electric motors. The layouts described are therefore self explanatory (Figure 3. 59).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 37 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Figure 3. 59
Small to medium sized (to 3500 kW) cutter suction dredgers are often used to make roadbeds.
To permit overland transport to the sand extraction area these dredgers are demountable.
Because of the need for strength, the main pontoon in which the pump and diesel engine are
located is usually constructed as a single unit. When designing demountable dredgers it is
necessary to consider how the parts of the dredger will be transported by road or over water.
In the first case the maximum size of the pontoons is determined by the permitted size and
weight for road transport. For smaller dredgers the pontoons are made up of 40 or 20-foot
containers, while the other parts are of such size that they can be carried in containers.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 38 van 79
May 2003
Ballast tank
Lubricating
olie
Ballast tank
Fuel
ballast
tank
ballast
tank
Spare parts
Spare parts
Dry
tank
ballast
tank
Drinking
water
Engine room
Ballast tank
Ballast tank
Fuel
ballast
tank
ballast
tank
Spare parts
Spare parts
Dry
tank
ballast
tank
Figure 3. 61
In demountable dredgers also, the pump room and the engine room are located one behind the
other in the main pontoon and the ballast tanks and storerooms are in the side pontoons
(Figure 3. 61). With containerized dredgers the entire vessel is built up out of containers. In
this case the pump and motor are often in a container on deck (Figure 3. 62).
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 39 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
It is essential that there is a separate pump room: if the pumps were located in the engine
room a leakage or an error during inspection of pumps might result in the flooding of the
engine room with a good chance of the dredger sinking. The pump room should be designed
in such a way that, when flooded, the dredger doesnt sink. Furthermore the pipeline system
must be designed in such a way that the flooding of the pump room can be kept to a
minimum.
Consider therefore:
a remote controlled valve behind the well bulkhead. This is necessary for the changing of
the rubber suction hose
a bilge alarm.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 40 van 79
May 2003
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 41 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
In small cutter suction dredgers the ladder is often built up from basic elements. The ladder is
supported by pins that are fixed to the ladder and rest in bearing houses that are rigidly fixed
to the pontoon.
The drive of the cutter head is either at the top of the ladder, thus at the hinge side or below
near the cutter head. In the first case the drive and the gearbox remain above water and the
cutter head is driven by a long shaft, sometimes tens of metres long. Because of the high
torque demanded by the cutter head this shaft has a considerable diameter. The shaft has
supported at various points and must, especially in the case of heavy cutter suction dredgers,
be on the centreline of the ship.
The end bearing, (Figure 3. 66 and Figure 3. 66) close to the cutter head is made of rubber
and lubricated by water. The axial forces are taken up by a pressure bearing that is mounted in
the gearbox.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 42 van 79
May 2003
Cutter ring
Gland water
Cutter shaft
Bearing bush
Release ring
Rubber bearing
Suction mouth
Cutter hub
Cutter blade
Figure 3. 66
General guidelines for cutter heads for various types of soil.(Figure 3. 68):
for hard soil. Suitable to withstand impact forces on one or more teeth, thus heavy and
robust. Small in contour with replaceable teeth. Can withstand extreme wear on both the
cutter head itself and on the teeth and adapters. Good, accurate tooth positions. The size
of the fragments may not exceed the minimum passage of the pump.
for non-cohesive soil. Suitable for very high production rates Good mixture formation
required. Many replaceable chisels (wide or narrow) or cutting edges. Wide though
flattened contour (little pumping action). Well able to withstand wear, especially of the
cutting elements. Here also good, accurate tooth positions are needed.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 43 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
for cohesive soil. The cutter head may not become blocked, so is ample and round in
contour. Open near the hub. Often with one less blade (thus 5 blades). Good cutting
properties in clay, small fragments. Plain or serrated edges or many small teeth.
HUB
Ring
Figure 3. 67
Sticky soils
Non sticky soils
Rock
Contours
Although it is better to use a different type of cutter head for each type of soil, cutter heads
are marketed that can be used in more than one type of soil. The so-called multipurpose
cutter is a compromise with regard to contour.
A cutter head is comprised of the following parts (Figure 3. 67).
The back ring, that is the ring on the underside of the cutter head. The inside diameter of
the ring is such that this fits the suction mouth and or the cutter shield (Figure 3.66).
The hub by which the cutter head is mounted via an Acme or three threaded screw onto
the cutter shaft. The distance between the underside of the ring and the underside of the
hub is termed the set height.
Figure 3. 69
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 44 van 79
May 2003
The cutter arms or blades, usually 5 or 6. The number is related to the required strength
and/or space between the arms. The cutter arms form a screw shape and link the ring to
the hub. The cutter head is termed a normal helical cutter head if the chosen screw shape
is such that the dredged material is transported to the ring. (Figure 3. 69 left) If the thread
of the screw runs in the other direction the cutter head is termed a reverse helical cutter
(Figure 3. 69 right).
Edges (knives) or replaceable teeth or chisels are mounted on the cutter arms. The tooth is
attached by means of a locking pin to an adapter that is fastened to one of the blades. In
hard soil a six bladed cutter head is often used with teeth on the even blades that are offset
in relation to those on the uneven blades. This is termed staggered mounting.
The turning direction of a cutter head is defined when looking from the control cabin
towards the cutter head; that is against the underside of the ring.
The passage through the cutter head increases towards the ring. This may cause blockages
in the pump if fragments that are too large for the pump can be taken up. The passage
through the cutter head is sometimes reduced by the addition of skirts, which are welded
onto the blades to extend the cutter arms(Figure 3. 70).
The passage can also be reduced by the welding of plates perpendicular to the blades
(Figure 3. 70).
Figure 3. 70
Cutter (teeth)
contour
Protection plate
Double
ACME
Tread
Hub
Cutter blade
H
Cutter ring
Inner diameter Di
Figure 3. 71
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 45 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Figure 3. 72
As shown in Figure 3. 72, there is a wide range of types of tooth and chisel.
The use of the specific type of tooth depends on the strength of the soil.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
: hard rock
Pagina 46 van 79
May 2003
chisels
long
trapezoid
narrow
wide
flared
: rock
: soft rock
:cemented sand
:sand and loose soil
: clay
A*
Cutting angle
Cutting angle
Rake angle
CONVENTIONAL
Rake angle
VOSTA D
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 47 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
The difference lies in the fitting of the tooth and the adapter (Figure 3. 73
Four types of adapter can be distinguished of both systems, these being:
From above downwards these adapters have a reduced grade of freedom in positioning. On
the other hand the chance of incorrect positioning during repairs also decreases.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 48 van 79
May 2003
ADAPTER EDGE
TOOTHED EDGE
SERRATED EDGE
PLAIN EDGE
Figure 3. 76
In addition to cutter heads with replaceable teeth or chisels there are also cutter heads with
cutting edges. The edges welded directly onto the cutter arm of the cutter head, with or
without a fitting lip (see Figure 3. 76) Such types of cutting edge are suitable for various
types of. edges.
The main shapes are :
plain edges
: for various types of soil
serrated edges
: for clay
toothed edges
: for hard clay
adapter edges
: for hard clay
These edges can also be obtained as projecting offset edges. In this case the plane of the edge
forms an angle with the cutter head arm. This prevents material such as clay from sticking to
the arm.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 49 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Figure 3. 79
Figure 3. 80
Figure 3. 79shows the sheaves on the ladder to guide the side wires to the winches on the
pontoon and Figure 3. 80hydraulic winches on a Beaver Dredger.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 50 van 79
May 2003
y
iliar
Aux
wire
Buoy wire
Ancher boom
The anchor booms are placed on the bow pontoons at the point where the chamfering starts
(Figure 3. 82) and fastened to the deck by a pivoting construction. Each anchor boom is
fastened by one or more wires to a frame or, as if often seen, to the ladder gantry.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 51 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
The anchor boom can turn on its pivoting construction by means of the anchor wires which
are fixed to the top of the anchor boom and which run via a series of sheaves to the anchor
winches. The anchor wire, which is used to pull up the anchor, runs from the anchor to the top
of the anchor boom via the anchor boom downward and then via a set of sheaves to the
anchor winch.
3.6.7. The spuds
The spuds are fastened via spud doors to
the spud carriage or the pontoon.
Because the spuds are loaded on a bending
moment the wall thickness increases with
the stress level (Figure 3. 83 right). To
obtain a good penetration into the soil, the
lower ends of the spuds are pointed. In hard
soil the spud is often dropped in free fall
and needs therefore a massive point (Figure
3. 83 left)
Figure 3. 83
In soft ground, on the other hand, the spuds are set down to prevent them from sagging too far
into the ground.
During transport the spuds must be carried horizontally, so most cutter suction dredgers have
special equipment for this purpose.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 52 van 79
May 2003
sling
a
Figure 3. 84 Spud Lifting systems
The great disadvantage is the high construction height needed to lift the spud in this way. It is
also difficult to extend the spuds, should this be necessary. In order to avoid this disadvantage
the spud can be hoisted on a wire that runs through a pulley mounted on the underside of the
spud (Figure 3. 84.b). Although this is still a simple construction it has the disadvantage that
when a wire breaks it is not easy to thread the new wire through the pulley and it is necessary
to use either a diver or a crane.
Many cutter suction dredgers lift their spuds by means of a sling, which is clamped round the
spud by the tension in the hoisting wire. The hoisting wire runs over a sheave that is attached
to a double action cylinder above and which runs down to a fixed position on deck. The spud
is then hoisted by extending the cylinder (Figure 3. 84.c). This construction has the advantage
that all the parts are easily accessible and it is not a high structure. Moreover the spud can fall
freely because the sling is self releasing. The disadvantage is that the lifting height is
restricted by the stroke of the cylinder. In that case the spud must be taken over. For this
reason the spud has holes through which pins can be pushed so that the spud remains
suspended on the auxiliary carriage.
Pagina 53 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
The connection of the suction pipe on the ladder to the pipeline in the ship must be flexible
because of the pivoting movements of the ship. Often a suction hose is used. This is a heavy
cylindrical rubber hose with steel rings embedded in the rubber to prevent it from collapsing
when under pressure occurs.
When dredging in coral or coral-like types of rock, suction hoses cannot be used owing to
the sharpness of the fragments of coral that cut the rubber. In such cases a ball joint from a
floating pipeline forms the link. The angle through which the ladder rotates is then usually
more restricted than when a suction hose is used. It is also recommended that an extra suction
pipe be placed in front of the first on board pump through the bottom of the hull. When using
long discharge pipelines this extra suction pipeline makes it possible to raise the ladder, for
example to inspect the teeth, while the pumps are still being used to clean out the discharge
pipeline.
3.6.9.2. The pumps
For cutter suction dredgers without an underwater pump the suction pipelines should be kept
as short as possible and the position of the first pump should be as low as possible under the
waterline. Where the suction pipe emerges above water the chance of air being sucked into
must be minimized. (The taking in of air has the same effect as cavitation.) Besides good
discharge characteristics the first pump must also have good suction characteristics. In other
words a high vacuum limit and/or low NPSH-value.
If the dredger is equipped with an underwater pump the layout is less critical and factors
such as accessibility for inspection and repair play a more important role. The inboard pump
requires only good discharge characteristics. If there is more than one inboard pump on board
the layout must be such that, if desired, the ladder pump and one of the inboard pump can be
used. All pumps must have an inspection hatch so that the pump and impeller can be
inspected and, if necessary, to remove debris.
3.4.4.1 The discharge pipeline
The pipeline runs from the pump room high above the deck to the stern (Figure 3.57). In the
pipeline on board are:
an expansion joint to take up possible changes in length.
a gate valve in case it is necessary to prevent water from running back from a higher-level
disposal site.
an air release valve
a suspension bracket from which lower bend can be suspended and still rotate.
a lower bend with a ball joint to which the floating pipeline can be attached. A suction
hose may be used instead of a ball joint.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 54 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 87
3.6.10.2.
The side winces
The dredging process is controlled with the aid of the side winches. To a large extent the
production of a cutter suction dredger is determined by the swing speed. The hauling winch
takes care of the feeding of the cutter head, while the paying out winch ensures that wire
remains taught. The side winches may also have electric or hydraulic drives.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 55 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Modern cutter suction dredgers are often equipped with an automated cutter control system
which controls the side winch speed on a number of values such as the cutting power, side
winch force (amps), the concentration and the velocity of the mixture.
Older cutter suction dredgers sometimes have side winches that are combined with the ladder
winch to form one central winch, thus three drums and one drive. The paying out of the side
winch then takes place by freeing it from the drive shaft. Braking is then entirely mechanical.
It will be clear that in this case the ladder winch and the side winch cannot be operated
independently of each other, which is necessary when dredging slopes.
3.6.10.3.
Other winces
If the dredger is equipped with anchor booms, it needs anchor winches and buoy line
winches. Depending on the spud hoist system there may also be spud winches and if the cutter
suction dredger must be able to work on a Christmas tree, stern winches and perhaps also a
bow winch will be needed. All these winches may be found in either electric or hydraulic
form.
3.6.11. Hoisting equipment
On board cutter suction dredgers cranes are necessary to lift heavy parts such as pump houses,
impellers and cutter heads. On large dredgers they can often travel over the length of the
pontoon.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 56 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 89
There are two reasons why such material is not recovered by the dredger
1.
The method of working is such that not all
the material comes into contact with the
cutter head and thus it cannot be taken up.
Such a situation arises when the thickness
of the material that the cutter head removes
with one cut is greater than the diameter of
the cutter head. The material which lies
above the cutter head falls behind it and
thus cannot be taken up. (Figure 3. 90).
This phenomenon occurs mainly in
cohesive soils such as clay and in rock.
spillage
Figure 3. 90
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 57 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
2.
All the dredged ground is not taken up.
The reason for this is more complex.
Owing to its shape a cutter head has some
pumping power. It pumps water in an axial
direction to the rear. When the dredge
pump is out of action the water taken in by
the cutter head leaves the pump close to
the ring. As in the case of dredge pumps,
the size of the flow that is sucked in by the
cutter head is proportional to the revolution
speed of the cutter head.
Figure 3. 91
If the dredge pump is also running, the amount of water that leaves the cutter head close to the
ring is reduced. In principle it is possible to use such a pump flow rate that no outflow takes
place near the ring.
It appears that the percentage of the material cut by the cutter head that is taken up is linearly
dependent on the relation::
Production=1-Spillage=
Q pump
Pump capacity
v
= F z =
Cutterhead capacity
RR3cutter
R
The value of the angle depends on the direction of rotation of the cutter head, swing
direction and on the material to be dredged. For sand with a d50 < 500, can be taken as
0.4. For soils such as clay and rock the process is much more complicated because the
interaction of the separate soil particles with the cutter head play an important role. As stated
in chapter 3.2.2.2. may be a factor 3 higher in that case. Often in this type of case a constant
spillage factor of 0.3 - 0.4 is used.
As mentioned earlier, the spillage also depends on the work method.
When breach-forming soil (Figure 3. 92)
that forms an angle of slope with the
horizontal is cut by a cutter head, the
spillage depends only on the above
I
mentioned relation of the velocity as long
as the underside of the slope passes
through the cutter and area I equals area II
q
The maximum cutter head filling by an
q+b
unchanging spillage factor is obtained if
II
the cutter head is at right angles to the
b
slope. That is when + = 900, in which
For no addtional spillage Arae I = Area II
is the angle that the cutter ladder makes
with the horizontal.
Figure 3. 92
If the underside of the slope runs behind the cutter ring the material will not be cut but will be
transported further from the cutter head by the action of the pump. Moreover there is now a
good chance that that part have to be shifted by the ladder. See chapter 3.2.2.2 minimum
dredging depth.
The further the underside of the ladder comes behind the slope, the greater will be the chance
of a dragging ladder. On the other hand the filling of the cutter head is better.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 58 van 79
May 2003
Whether the underside of the slope passes through the cutter ring depends on the breach
forming behaviour of the sand, the swing velocity and the size of the step of the cutter head.
3.7.2. The production in breach-forming soils
The breach-forming characteristic of a slope depends on the permeability, thus the grain size
and pore volume of the sand layer.
If a suction pipe is quickly lowered vertically
Suction Tube
into the sand, a pit with almost vertical sides
240
is formed. The dimension of the pit increases
210
Slope
180
with time because the sand grains and
150
Vz
fragments of sand slide from the slope and
120
100
0
flow to the suction pipe. The bank of the
80
15
60
slope moves away from the suction mouth at
50
20
an almost constant velocity. The velocity is
40
30
also called the bank velocity Vwal. This Vwal
is roughly 30 * the permeability.
Time in seconds
B
Figure 3. 93
In the lecture notes lecture of Wb3413, part the Breaching Process the following theoretical
k k w 1 n 1
value for Vwal is derived: v wal =
which leads to the above-mentioned
n tan
n w
value of vwal30k .
The angle of slope in
front of the suction pipe
follows directly from the
relation between the bank
velocity Vw and the
velocity Vh at which the
suction pipe moves
forward (Figure 3. 94.).
tan
v h = v w 1
tan
vh
vw
a
b
B
Figure 3. 94
(3.12)
From this relation it follows that is equal to 90 when Vh = Vw.
The maximum angle of slope , the angle at which no more soil runs down to the suction
mouth, is for small breach heights the angle of internal friction. In most cases however, and
certainly with deep extraction pits, this angle is smaller. With bank heights of 15 m or more,
angles of slope of 1:10 to 1:20 occur. The erosion of the sand flowing over the slope causes
these.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 59 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
[m]
[m]
Q b =27*10-4 *80*5=1.08
[m3/s]
For an average cutter head radius of 1 m, a cutter head speed of 30 revolutions per minute and
a suction velocity of 4 m/s in an 800 mm suction pipe, the percentage that can be taken up is:
v
4
Pf = z = 0.4 = 0.51
[-]
R
Qs =0.511.08=0.55
[m3/s]
4
= 1.02
0.5
[m3/s]
Because there is always some loss, for example due to the variation in the permeability of the
sand layer, Qs is given an upper threshold Pf = 0.9
The suction production is then:
Qs =0.91.08=0.97
[m3/s]
If a specified depth must be dredged it is always necessary to make a clean-up sweep: a final
swing, which removes all irregularities.
The question that now arises is how quickly must the cutter head swing in order to remove
this material..
If the area of the cutter contour is assumed to be Ac = 3 m2 , the cutter head must move at a
swing velocity of:
vt =
Q b 1.08
=
=0.36 m/s = 21.6 m/min
Ac
3
Whether or not the side winches are able to deliver this velocity in one way or another must
be ascertained. (see chapter 3.2.2.3)
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 60 van 79
May 2003
The area Ac that the cutter head cuts while swinging across the face also determines the step
size that the dredger must make in the corners. After all the face production must be equal to
the cutting production, thus:
A
A c v t = H S v t S = c [m/s]
H
vt = translation velocity of the cutter in [m/s]
The average production reached during a full dredging cycle, that is the time between two
movements of the spuds, is in fact lower. This is because stepping, moving the spuds and, if
necessary, raising the ladder, all take time. These factors are entirely dependent on the spud
system and the time needed to perform the various procedures.
Depending on the
type of soil, the
spud system, the
suction depth and
the insight of the
dredge master, the
breach may be cut
in various ways.
Figure 3. 95 gives
an example for a
cutter
suction
dredger with fixed
spuds.
Swing number
5+6
10
11+12
17+18
13
14
79
15
21
16
22
23+24
29+30
28
25
19
20
27
26
cut 1
cut 2
cut 3
cut 4
cleaning up
Figure 3. 95
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 61 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Swing number
11
16
17
22
21
13
18
19
10
cut 2
cut 3
15
20
cut 4
cleaning up
24
23
14
12
cut 1
Figure 3. 96
Dredging in cohesive soil
13
20
28
14
21
29
cut 3
4+
9+
15
+
22
5+
+
30
10
+
16
+
23
+
31
11
+
17
+
24
+
32
18
+
25
+
33
19
12
26
+
34
Swing number
35
27
cut 1
cut 2
cleaning up
Figure 3. 97
Dredging in cohesive soil
14+15
1+2
24
33
10
17
25
34
cut 3
39
16
30
+
37
21
+
29
+
36
20
+
28
+
13
+
19
+
27
+
6+
12
+
5+
11
+
18
+
26
+
35
38
Swing number
35
cut 2
cleaning up
Figure 3. 98
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 62 van 79
May 2003
To obtain some insight into this subject, the specific energy is calculated from a general
cutting theory or a straight cutting edge on a rotating cutter head.
With a linear movement the cutting force of a straight cutting edge can be characterised by
the following power equation:
Fc =cd vt W
in which:
c
d
Vt
W
=
=
=
[N]
[m]
[m/s]
[m]
Es =
Fc v t cd vt Wv t
=
=cd -1vt
Q
dv t W
[J/m3]
From this it follows that the specific energy is only constant if the cutting process is entirely
linear, thus when:
Fc =cdv t W
If this theory is applied to
cutting with a cutter the
chip thickness is:
2v t
d=
z
d=psin
sin
Tooth path
Ra
d iu
sr
p
d
q
-j
Tooth path
Figure 3. 99
Pagina 63 van 79
[rad/s]
[-]
May 2003
Wb3408b
2v t
is: Fc =c
z
sin ( R ) L
2v t
2v t
Pc =c
z
+1
sin ( R ) S
'
With increasing step size the average radius of the cutter head increases; thus R = f ( S) = S .
2v t
+1
From this the cutting force can be reduced to: Pc =c
sin ( S ) S
z
'
2v t
+1
' 2v t
+1
c
sin ( S ) S c
sin ( S )
z
z
Es =
=
Sv t D
v t D
'
From this equation it follows directly that the specific cutting power is constant only under
very exceptional conditions. These conditions are:
The cutting force must increase linearly with increasing chip thickness.
This gives
v t
vt
= v t 1 is constant
[sin ]
The average chip thickness must be linear with the layer thickness. Thus
is
constant
Then:
Es = c''
R
z
From this it follows that the specific cutting energy is always dependent on the type of cutter
head.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 64 van 79
May 2003
TORQUE SIGNAL
mean value
150
torque [%]
120
90
60
30
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time [s]
Figure 3. 100.
This may quickly lead to overloading of the cutter head engine, with the result that, for
example, for the torque-revolution characteristic shown below, the cutter head will stall at a
torque of 150% (Figure 3.101)
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 65 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Speed [%]
100
100
Torque [%]
150
If this occurs frequently the dredge master will reduce the swing speed of the dredger to
ensure that the peak loads do not cause the cutter to cease turning.
It will be clear that the type of drive plays a big part in this. An electric drive can take up the
variation in torque better than a hydraulic drive. (See chapter 3.4.2.)
The skill of the dredge master also plays a part. Dependence on his skill can be reduced to
some extent by the use of an automated cutter control. This regulates the swing velocity, for
example in relation to the torque of the cutter head. In many cases such an automated control
system can react more quickly than the dredge master can, certainly at times when his watch
is almost over.
It will also be clear that only rough estimates can be given for such a factor as the work
coefficient.
For rock :
w = 0.5 - 0.65
For sand :
w = 0.65 - 0.8
For clay :
w = 0.8 - 0.9
Qc =Sv t D
With
Pc =
D =
S =
Vh =
[m3/s]
cutting production
layer thickness
step size
swing velocity
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
[m3/s]
[m]
[m]
[m/s]
Pagina 66 van 79
May 2003
cut 1
10
12
13
18
19
14
15
21
22
17
20
14
79
15
21
16
22
23+24
29+30
20
26
cut 2
27
cut 3
cut 4
10
cleaning up
24
23
cut 3
3
16
25
19
cut 2
Swing number
11
13
1
6
Swing number
5+6
11+12
17+18
28
cut 4
cleaning up
Figure 3. 102
for layer 1:
for layer 2:
for layer k:
Z1 = M D
D = layer thickness
Zk = M D
Z k = M + M + M +.......... M
)
)D
Z 2 = M ( D + M D )1 = M + M 2 D
M 1 Mk
1 M
k (1 M )
The part taken up is thus:
M 1 Mk
Sk = H Z k = H1
k (1 M )
)H
Figure 3. 103
Because the suction mouth must remain sufficiently under water to prevent the taking in of
air, the dredge master must make the first cut thicker than the diameter of the cutter head.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 67 van 79
May 2003
cut 1
Wb3408b
Swing direction
Former cut
The result is that a ridge of soil is formed on the boundary between the cuts. In such a case it
is better to make the uppermost cut in the same direction as the rotation of the cutter head.
If the spillage is known the average dredging production over one spud cycles is:
Qs =
Sk W L
t s + ta
[m3/s]
in which:
Sk = the thickness of the layer which has been taken up
W = the width of the cut
L = effective advance of the spud carriage
ts = net cutting time during a spud cycle
ta =the sum of the times during the spud cycle when no cutting
occurs, such as ladder raising, stepping, spud moving ,etc.
[m]
[m]
[m]
[s]
[s]
In non-breach forming soil, if a specified depth has to be delivered a clean-up swing must also
be made. The production of this swing is calculated separately. The cutting energy that is
required in this layer can only be determined from the part that has not been cut. It is therefore
possible that because of a thin layer, the clean-up production is high.
3.8. Enclosures
3.8.1. The relation between swing speed and side winch speed.
The swing speed of the cutter head must
not be confused with the side wire speed.
The latter is the speed with which the side
wire is hauled in and which controls the
swing velocity. Although there is a clear
relation between these two velocities, they
are certainly not equal. The position of the
anchors in relation to the cut plays an
important part in this. By the correct
positioning of the anchors it is possible to
reach a high swing velocity with a small
side winch velocity.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 68 van 79
May 2003
In Figure 3.105 the distance between the work spud and the sheaves of the side winch on the
ladder is equal to L and the distance between the sheaves and the anchor is equal to S. If the
angle between the centreline of the cut and the line linking the spud-side winch sheaves is
equal to , then:
x = l cos
y = l sin
z = k x = k l cos
t = b y = b l sin
s = z2 + t2 =
( k l cos ) + ( b l sin )
2
Since l is the swing velocity, the previous equation can also be written:
ds
k sin l sin cos b cos + l sin cos
= l
dt
k 2 2 k l cos + l 2 cos 2 + b 2 2 b l sin + l 2 sin 2
of
ds
k
b
sin cos
dt =
l
l
2
2
l
k
b
cos + sin
l
l
Since the side winch force do not act on the ladder at the same distance from the spud as the
cutter head, the swingspeed have to be corrected according:
vs l
=
vc lc
sin
(3.45)
Pagina 69 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Fz =
Fh
cos
Fh R c
M c cos
Fh R c
sin
M c cos + arctan l
k cos
2
l
(3.46)
If the diameter of the side winch drum is equal to Dw, the required side winch torque is:
Dw
D
Fh Rc w
2 =
2 =
Mw =
M c cos
cos
Fh
Fh Rc
Dw
2
l sin
M c cos + arctan
k
2
cos
Both the side winch velocity and the side winch torque are now known as functions of the
position of the anchors and the position of the cutter head in the cut. Neither the necessary
side winch velocity, nor the necessary torque may exceed the maximum value of the side
winch characteristic. If this does happen, the side winch velocity must be reduced until this
condition is met.
Because during the progress of the dredger the positions of the anchors in relation to the track
of the cutter head must be continually changed, if the side winch velocity or the side winch
force is the limiting factor for the dredging process, the dredge master must continuously
adjust the side winch velocity until the point is reached where it seems wiser to move the
anchors.
From the above it will be clear that the further away the anchors are positioned from the ship,
the longer the force will be effective, thus the anchors will have to be moved less often. On
the other hand the longer the side wires, the weaker the system will be. This is a disadvantage
when dredging hard soil such as rock.
From the relation between the swing velocity vh or the angular velocity , together with
required side winch electric current, dredge master can see whether or not the anchor is
holding or dragging.
3.8.3. The shape and cutting geometry of cutter heads
Because the cutting process plays an important role in excavation, this section will give more
detailed consideration to the shape and cutting geometry of cutter heads.
Definitions:
The base plane is the plane that passes through the underside of the cutter ring.
The cutting point P may be a point on a cutting edge of a plain edge, the cutting point of a
serrated edge or the edge or point of a tooth. The position of the cutting point determined by
the cylinder coordinates Rp, Hp, and p.
Here:
Rp = the radius from the cutting point to the cutter axis.
Hp = the distance between the cutting point and the base plane.
p = the angle between the projection of the cutting point onto the base plane and the
cutting point (Rp,0,0)
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 70 van 79
May 2003
1.
By giving the tooth point and the tooth base of the tooth axis in cylinder coordinates.
2e. By giving the tooth point and two angles of the tooth axis.
These angles are defined as follows:
The pitch out angle . This is the angle between the tooth axis projection in the plane
parallel to the base plane and the tangent on the circle passing through the tooth point
projection.
The pitch up angle this is the angle between the tooth axis and its projection in the
plane parallel to the base plane..
Thus in Figure 3.77.:
P' B'
= arctan
BB'
en
PP'
= arctan
P' B'
In addition ESCO give the roll angle (rho) of a tooth. This is the position of a tooth in
relation to the tooth axis.
The roll angle is the angle between the edge of a chisel (flared or chisel leading edge) and
the line parallel to the cutter axis as seen along the tooth axis. This angle is equal to the
centreline of the locking pin and the line parallel to the base plane seen along the tooth axis.
Tooth axis direction according to FLORIDA.
FLORIDA gives the tooth axis by the giving coordinates of the tooth point with two angles.
FLORIDA defines these angles as follows:
The tooth axis angle (tooth angle).This is the angle between the tooth axis and the
tangent on the circle passing through the tooth pint. This is the tangent to the line of the
movement during rotation.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 71 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
The contour angle t (Kappa=Profile angle) of the tooth. This is the angle between the
tooth axis projection in the contour plane and the line parallel to the base plane (P'B').
FLORIDA has a fixed roll angle (rho) because the cutting edge or blade edge of the
tooth always lies in the contour plane. This makes the roll angle a function of the tooth
axis angle and the contour angle t
Florida = arctan[ tan t cos]
When working, in most cases a piece of auxiliary equipment, the so-called ALFE is used in
order to ensure that adapters are correctly positioned on the cutter head arm when these have
to be replaced owing to breakage or loss (Figure 3. 106.). The plane of the ALFE is thus a
contour plane.
In that case the FLORIDA instruction is more simple than the ESCO. With ESCO cutter
heads the angles must be recalculated to the FLORIDA instruction.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 72 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 106
sin
Roll angle
Florida = Esco mal
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 73 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
Here mal is the angle over which the adapter must be turned on its axis to get the cutting edge
in the contour plane, thus against the ALFE. _mal may be positive or negative.
3.8.4. Cutting by teeth or chisels
CUTTERAXIS
Hp
(Rp ,Hp, p)
CUTTING EDGE
R
p
(Rp,0,0)
OUTLINE OF
THE CUTTER
Hc
CUTTING EDGE
(HELIX ANGLE)
BASE
Figure 3. 107
Clearance angle
Wedge angle
In addition to a clearance angle on the rear of a chisel there are also side clearance angles.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 74 van 79
May 2003
Figure 3. 108
The path of a point on a cutter head can be described by the two following equations in
parameter form (Figure 3.81.):
x p = v h t + R p cos t
y t = R p sin t
= t
Here:
Xp, Yp = the coordinates of the point P with regard to the cutter head axis.
vh
= the swing velocity of the cutter head
= the angular velocity of the cutter head
Rp
= the radius of the cutter head
t
= the the time of passagede
The direction of the velocity is the tangent to the path:
R p cos t
dy dy dt
=
=
dx dt dx v h R p sin t
The velocity in the x-direction is zero when the deriviative is infinite, thus as:
v h R p sin t = 0
Further:
y = R p sin t
so that:
vh y = 0
y=
vh
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 75 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
p = arcsin
Rp
Now when:
l
= distance between the front of the tooth and the rear of the arm
Rv = the radius of the tooth point and Ra, the radius of the rear of the arm .
then:
vh
v = arcsin
Rv
and
a = arcsin
vh
Ra
Furthermore if l is the distance between the front of the tooth and the rear of the arm, it
follows from Figure 3.80 with =0 that the angle between the two pointy mentioned is equal
to:
( R v cos 0 R a ) 2 + ( R v sin 0 ) 2
2
2
l 2 = ( R v cos 0 R a ) + ( R v sin 0 )
l=
l 2 = R 2v + R 2a 2 R v R a cos 0
R 2 + R 2 l2
a
0 = arccos v
2 Rv Ra
The tooth and arm now run clear if the horizontal distance between the paths at the distance y
is greater than the distance the cutter head moves as a result of the following the swing
velocity round the 0 + a v .
Thus when
v
R v cos v R a cos a ( 0 + a v ) h
Example:
Rv = 1.50 m, Ra=1.45 m, l=0.7 m vh=0.3 m/s en
= (n=30 t/min)
then:
.
R v cos v = 1497
R a cos a = 1.447
v = 0.064
a = 0.066
0 = 0.478
y = 0.095
The maximum side winch velocity may then be:
vh
( R v cos v R a cos a )
0 + a v
Pagina 76 van 79
May 2003
It will be clear that when designing cutter heads this exercise must be carried out for a number
of points on the cutter head, since cutter arm length and radius are a function of the height of
the cutter head, measured from the ring.
This also determines the maximum thickness of the cut. When the rear of the arm touches the
path of the front of the tooth, the maximum cut thickness is equal to:
d max =
60 ( v h ) max
nz
in which z is the number of arms.
From the example it thus follows that:
d max =
60 ( v h ) max
nz
60 0.33
30 6
.
= 011m
A c h te rzijd e arm
T an d p u n t
1.5
1
0.5
0
-1.5
-1
-0.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
-1
-1.5
Xp
Figure 3. 109
Finally the same example, but now with n=10 t/m and Ra=1.36 m. dmax=0.30 m and
vmax=0.30 m/s.
The path of the two points is shown in Figure 3. 109..
If parts of the tooth or arm project through the line passing between the tooth point and the
rear of the arm, it is necessary to carry out a check for more points.
3.8.5.1. The effect of warping on the clearance angles
The direction of the movement of the tooth point is (see Figure 3. 110):
R p cos t
R p cos
dy
=
=
dx baan v h R p sin t v h R p sin
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 77 van 79
May 2003
Wb3408b
VH
VT
nC
corr.
RP
VH
V
A
corr.
VH
VT + VH
Figure 3. 110
The rear plane of the tooth makes an angle A with the circumference of the cutter head, thus
with the tangent on the circle:
R p cos t
R p cos
dy
1
=
=
=
dx circel R p sin t R p sin tan
The clearance angle between the path of the tooth and the back of the tooth thus varies with
the rotation.
The difference between the two tangents is the varying clearance angle:
R p cos
R p cos
1
corr = arctan
arctan
= arctan
tan
v h sin
v h sin 2
For Rp = 1.0m,
= ,
corr = arctan
= 0.0095 rad=-5.27'
0.3 0 2
In other words, the cutting angle is 5 27' smaller.
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 78 van 79
May 2003
3.9. References
1. calculation of the cutting forces when cutting in fully saturated sand, S.A. Miedema,
Thesis TU-Delft, 1987 (in Dutch)
2. Coastal and Deep Ocean Dredging, John B. Herbich, Gulf Publisching Company,
Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 1975
3. Dredging and Dredging Equipment, R.J. de Heer and Rochmanhadi, Parts 1 and 2,
IHE, Delft, 1989
4. Dredging technology, lecture notes, G.L.M. van der Schrieck, TU-Delft, Civiele
techniek, 1996 (in Dutch)
5. Concept, design and construction of the World's first self elevating offshore heavy
cutter suction dredger: "Al Wassl Bay", D.A. Gaasterland, Proceedings 3e
International Symposium on Dredging Technology, BHRA 198?
6. Nassbaggertechnik, A. Welte, Institut fr Machinenwesen in Baubetrieb, Universitt
Fridericiana, Karlsruhe, 1993.
7. Proceedings of the CEDA Dredging Days, Europort 1980, CEDA, 1980
8. Technical aspects of large cutter suction dredgers, P.J. Koert, IHC Holland
9. Dredgers of the World, 3rd edition, Oilfield Publications Ltd (OPL). England, 2001
10. Various articles from Port & Dredging from IHC Holland
ARTICLE
Spudsystemen van cutterzuigers
Demonteerbare cutterzuiger/baggerwielzuiger SCORPIO
IHC Beaver cutterzuigers
Cutterzuiger NOORDZEE
Automatisering van cutterzuigers
Zelfvarende cutterzuiger van 27000 PK
LEONARDO DA VINCI: een nieuw record
Nieuwe serie IHC Beaver cutterzuigers
The IHC Beaver container dredger
Cutter suction dredger ABU AL ABYADH for NMDC
Sensative environmental cutter dredger for Samsung
Mighty MASHHOUR for Suez Canal
Dismountabe IHC Beaver dredgers
CD Al Mirfa
CD Kattouf
Prof.Ir. W.J.Vlasblom
Pagina 79 van 79
P & D no
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108
109
118
119
119
124
126
134
145
146
147
153
154
157
May 2003
4.
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April 2003
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Pagina 4 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
In many cases these types can easily be transformed to another type. The barge loading
dredger shown in figure 4.2 can be transformed to a reclamation dredger by connecting a
booster just behind this dredger. The same might be possible with reclamation dredgers by
placing a sprayer pontoon after the dredger.
4.4 History
In 1851, more than a century after their invention, the first centrifugal pumps were used to
excavate sand with hopper dredgers. A few years later (1856) the first attempts were already
being made to transport the material onshore via pipelines. Ten years later this idea was
demonstrated in the Netherlands during the excavation of the North Sea Canal. (Figure 4.7)
Figure 4. 7 The wooden Hutton Dredger dredging the North Sea Canal
Page 5 van 35
Wb w3408b
From this history it appears clear that the development of the suction dredger was closely
linked with the development of the dredge pump. Because at that time little power was
available to drive the dredge pump, the reclamation dredger was only used when the
distances to the disposal site were short. In the other cases barges were used or the dredger
was modified. As the sand pumps became able to withstand higher pressures, the transport
distances and pump capacities were increased.
Instabilities
H br
Sand-water mixture
(density current)
Suction tube
Vz
Figure 4. 8 Breaching
This process is essential for the production of a suction dredger and is entirely determined by
the soil mechanical properties of the slope, the most important factors being its permeability
to water and relative density.
When a suction dredger starts on a new work there is no dredge pit, slope or breach and the
angle between the suction pipe and the horizontal is usually very small. The sand that is
carried towards the suction pipe lies entirely within the area influenced by the water flowing
to the suction mouth. This process causes a small pit to develop in the soil.
The dredger is now drawn forwards a little
by means of the bow winch and the suction
pipe is set deeper, after which the process is
repeated. As the small pit becomes deeper
and the angle of the suction tube becomes
steeper (more effective for the swirling up
and transporting of the sand) the production
increases. (Figure 4. 9) This process is
continued until the suction mouth is deep
enough or until the production is so high
that the pump can no longer cope with a
further increase. This slow forward
movement with the dredger, with
simultaneous lowering of the suction pipe is
termed breaking in or commencing.
Figure 4. 9 Breaking in
Pagina 6 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
The time that is needed to reach a state of equilibrium thus depends on the previously
mentioned soil mechanical properties, the height of the slope and the pump capacity of the
dredger.
When a state of equilibrium has been reached it is the task of the dredge master to maintain
this situation by letting the dredger follow the breach/bank, by regularly hauling the dredger
forwards and by continuing to lower the suction pipe for as long as this remains possible.
If the movement of the dredger is too slow, a less steep slope forms and the production is
reduced.
If, on the other hand, the forward movement is faster than the transport of the sand, the angle
of slope will increase and there is an increasing chance that large scale shearing will occur.
The sand concentration may then become so high that the pump cannot cope with it and the
mixture ceases to flow. The shearing can be so great that even the suction pipe becomes
fast/firmly embedded and, if it cannot be pulled free, another dredger must be used to free it
by using suction or must cut it free.
The dredging pattern that is made with a suction dredger generally appears like that shown in
Figure 4. 10. As long as it lies within the dredging area, the length of the cut is determined
by the positions of the anchors. The anchors are usually placed in such a way that more cuts
can be made beside each other from the same position. In addition to the length of the anchor
wires, this possibility also depends on the width over which the sand is being excavated.
This, in turn, depends on the shear characteristics of the sand layers.
For suction dredgers equipped with an underwater pump the excavation depth no longer
determines the production. This also makes it possible to exploit the dredging area in the
vertical sense. In other words, production can be maintained by continuing to lower the
suction pipe until the maximum suction depth has been reached. If the production falls below
an economic minimum, the pit is abandoned and dredging recommences to pit diameter
away from it. It will be clear that this dredging method produces a pockmarked excavation
area and that considerable amount of sand that cannot be economically excavated remain
behind in the dredging area. This is a situation that the managers of the dredging sites prefer
not to see.
Page 7 van 35
Wb w3408b
This method of dredging does provide the possibility to obtain sand from directly beneath a
clay layer, but it must be realised that the removal of the sand will cause the clay to lose its
stability. In the most favourable case the clay will fall onto the slope in fragments that will be
taken up with the sand. If the clay falls in large pieces there is a good chance that these will
become fast and block the suction pipe, with all the disadvantages that this can bring. It is
difficult for the water needed for mixture formation to flow, especially in the beginning phase
when the clay layer has not yet been penetrated.
Water must be brought to the suction pipe via the jet pipe. For the above described
excavation method the suction pipe is made in two parts, (Figure 4.11) the lowest section
being hinged onto the upper section so that the lowest part is always first suspended almost
vertically. With such a suction pipe, moments that occur during horizontal movements can be
taken up only to a small extent.
Production capacity
Suction depth
Transport distance
Type of soil
Because suction dredgers are only suitable for the dredging of non-cohesive material, the last
parameter plays an important role only in the determination of the diameters of the suction
pipe and hydraulic pipeline and the required sand pump capacity.
Pagina 8 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Cvd
1 n
(4.2)
with
Symbol
Q
Qmixture
Cvd
n
=
=
=
=
describtion
Production
Flow rate
Delivered concentration
Porosity
dimension
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[-]
[-]
The anticipated average concentration depends on the behaviour of the soil in the
breach/bank (see lecture notes Dredging Processes). The maximum suction concentration is
determined on the basis of the types of soil and the insight of the designer.
The maximum average concentration that can be transported by a pipeline depends on the
ratio maximum grain diameter/pipe diameter and the length of the pipeline. In long pipelines
aggregation (increased concentration) may occur as a result of density variations during
dredging (Matousek, 1995).
As rule of thumb, a maximum average density of 1500 kg/m3 (Cvd = 30%) is often used for
sand. On the basis of this assumption the flow rate is now fixed because the production
capacity is taken as a given value.
Page 9 van 35
Wb w3408b
k
rw
H
rm
hz
rp
hp
L
1
w g (H h p ) + p gh p p pomp = m ghz + m v 2 1 + +
D
2
with
w = density water
p = density suspended sand in the pit
m = mixture density in the suction tube
H = waterdepth
hp = depth of pit
hx = suction height
ppump = pressure in front of the pump
v
= mixture velocity
[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[N/m2]
[m/s]
[-]
[-]
[m]
[m]
1
L
w g (H h p ) + p ghp p pomp = m g (H k ) + m v 2 1 + +
2
D
m =
w g (H hp ) + p gh p p pomp
L
1
g (H k ) + v 2 1 + +
D
2
For the boundaries given in Figure 4.13 the maximum dredgeable mixture density is
calculated for different depth of the dredge pump below thw waterlevel
Pagina 10 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
1800
1700
1600
1500
k=0 m
1400
k=5 m
1300
k=10 m
1200
1100
1000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 4. 13
Q0 5 w 1500 1000
=
=
= 4.17 as great.
Q5 0 w 1120 1000
With the same pumping velocity this leads to a suction pipe of a diameter that is 2 times as
big.
For a given decisive vacuum and a maximum suction concentration it is possible to determine
whether an underwater pump is necessary and, if so, how far under water this pump must be
positioned, as a function of the required suction depth.
Rho_mixutre=1500 kg/m3
hp=0 m, Vac=75 kPa, Vz=5 m/s, rho_water=1000 km/m3, G_p=1600 km/m3, Zeta=2 , Lambda=0.02, L/(H-k)=1.5, D=0.8 m
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Figure 4. 14
From the above graph (Figure 4.14) it appears that to pump a mixture density of 1500 kg/m3
at a depth of 50 metres the pump must be positioned 17 metres under water.
Page 11 van 35
Wb w3408b
Thus: v kritiek = Fl ,h + Fl ,v
material to be pumped. (See lecture notes Dredging Processes) Fl,v is the correction for
sloping transport and has a maximum value of .333
(See also the relevant Section 2.2.4.3. of Hopper dredgers).
If both the critical velocity and the average concentration have been determined, the relation
between pipeline diameters and production is:
Q = Qmixture
Cvd
D 2 Cvd
D 2 Cvd
C
= vkrit
= Fl 2 g ( S s 1) D
1.5 D 2.5 vd [m/s]
1 n
4 1 n
4 1 n
1 n
with
Pagina 12 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Symbol
describtion
Q
Qmixture
D
Cvd
Ss
n
g
vcr
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Production
Flow rate
Pipe diameter
Delivered concentration
Relative density of the solids=s/w
Porosity
Gravity
Critical velocity
dimensio
n
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[m]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[m/s2]
[m/s]
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
Production [m3/s]
4.6.5
ns =
( gH )
3
4
4 Q
( p)
3
4
For discharge pumps the specific speed ns is in the interval between 0.25 and 0.50 (Figure
4.16). With the aid of this figure the type of pump and impeller can be chosen.
Page 13 van 35
Wb w3408b
0.08
0.8
0.07
0.7
0.06
0.6
0.05
0.5
0.04
0.4
0.03
0.3
0.02
0.2
0.01
0.1
0
0
0.15
Specific Head
Specific Capacity
Inboard Pumps
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Specific Speed
Figure 4. 16
For the underwater pump usually a higher specific speed is taken than for the discharge
pumps, but for the sake of standardisation the same pump is often selected. One should ask
oneself whether the position of the maximum efficiency point could still reasonably satisfy
the stipulated demands with regard to the flow. This is also valid when no underwater pump
is fitted. In such a case stipulations must be made with regard to the suction properties
(NPSH value) of the inboard pump.
Other factors also play a part in the selection of a pump and impeller:
A three, four or five blade impeller. Depending on the required minimum passage
between the blades.
Single or double walled pump. (considerations relating to wear.)
If long transport distances have to be covered the question arises of whether one large pump
or two smaller ones will be needed. In addition to the specific revolution speed the peripheral
velocity of the impeller also plays a part. To limit wear, the peripheral velocity of the
impeller is limited to 35 to 40 m/s. This also limits the maximum manometric pressure.
Whether or not one or more delivery pumps are needed depends on the total require delivery
pressure and delivery pump power.
4.6.6
Jetpumps
April 2003
vL =
6D
v
L 0
See Figure 4. 17
Here:
Vr
r
D
Jet
VL
V0
L
Example.
If the pressure at the nozzle is 500 kPa and the jet nozzle has a diameter of 0.3 m e and a
minimum velocity in the centre of the jet **at the breach/bank of 3 m/s is needed to activate
the breach/bank, the maximum distance to the breach/bank is:
v0
L = 6D
= 6D
vL
2p
vL
0.6
= 60.3
2500
1
= 11 m
3
r 2
90
vr
The decrease in velocity towards the edge of the jet can be calculated with:
= e L .
vL
Here v r = the velocity of the jet at distance r from the centre.
Page 15 van 35
Wb w3408b
v_r=v_L*exp(-90*(r/L)^2)
0.25
r/L
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
V_r/V_L
Figure 4. 18 jet velocity as function of the radius r.
At a distance of 11 m and with a relation of vr = 0.4 the diameter of the jet is as shown in the
vL
r
graph below D = 2 L = 201
. 11 = 2.2 m
L
In other words, the influence of the water jet is only very local.
D 2
0.32
18.9 = 134
. m/s
v0 =
4
4
Qj p
134
. 500
= 838 KWatt
.8
Qj
Qm
= 1
Cvd
1 n
Here:
Pagina 16 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Cvd
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.5
1.5
Qj/Qm
Figure 4. 19
Example:
If Cvd = 0.25 and n=0.5 (loose packed sand), then
Qj
Qm
=.5
The area of influence by the jet is now less important, as long as the water that is added
benefits mixture formation.
The water pumps are chosen in the same way as the sand pump
4.6.6.2 Jetpump drives.
In case of activation the breaching process required pressure and capacity will always be
constant. So separate diesel engines are frequently used.
In the other case, the mixture forming process a speed control engine is required to control
the density.
Page 17 van 35
Wb w3408b
3,000
3000
2,500
2500
The hull consists of a simple U-shape pontoon. De width of the pontoon is determined by
stability and sometimes by the distribution of the loads. (Figure 3.1.7) The length of the
pontoon is in certain way determined by the length of the suction pipe, the number dredge
inboard pumps or by the requirements for mooring barges along side.
Loads on the suction pipe resulting from the dredging process are relatively small, so are the
loads on the pontoon. For small plain suction dredgers the dredgepump is situated in the
engine-room, however a separate pump room is certainly advisable from safety point of view,
in particular for the bigger dredgers. Nowadays even small dredgers do have a submerged
pump.
2,000
1,500
y = 0.2712x
1,000
R = 0.712
y = 0.4074x
2
2000
R = 0.8715
1500
1000
500
500
0
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
LBD [m3]
Figure 4. 21
Figure 4. 20
The lightweight of the plain suction dredgers depend on the total power installed. (Figure
4.20), while the volume of the pontoon is 2.5 times the light weight (Figure 4.21).
The main ships parameters vary widely; L/B between 3 and 8 and B/T between 7 and 3.5,
because the length is mainly determined by the factors mentioned above. (Figure 4.22)
L/B
B/T
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Figure 4. 22
Figure 4.23 shows the dredger Seeland, with a total installed power of 3200 kW and a
maximum dredging depth of 40 m. The dredger is build under the classification of the
Germanische Lloyd GL + 100 A 4 dredger.
The length of the suction pipe often determines the length of the well. With very long suction
pipes or two-part suction pipes the catamaran principle is often used. The suction pipe is then
hinged onto the stern of the pontoon (Figure 4.2) This is certainly not essential.
Sometimes special gantries are designed to carry the long suction tube (figure 2.23).
Pagina 18 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Figure 4. 23
In deep dredgers with an articulated pipe, the lower pipe is fastened to the upper pipe by
hydraulic cylinders, in which case it is not necessary to have a long well (Figure 4.24).
Page 19 van 35
Wb w3408b
Figure 4. 25
Figure 4.25 shows an offshore plain suction dredgers designed for significant wave heights of
2.75 m and a total installed power of 7425 kW. The coupling with the floating pipeline is in
the middle of the port side where the movements of the pontoon are minimum when working
in waves. This is in contradiction with dredgers for inland waters. They do have the
connection on the aft of the pontoon.
Pagina 20 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Figure 4. 27
4.8.2
The dredging equipment
The dredging equipment will be discussed according the flow o f the mixture.
4.8.2.1 The suction mouth
Suction mouths of plain suction dredgers are in many cases very simple. The end of the pipe
is just covered by a screen to avoid pump blockage by boulders and debris (Figure 4.1, 4.28
and 4.29)
Figure 4. 28
Figure 4. 29
In many cases jet nozzle are situated around the suction mouth to activated either the
breaching process and/or the mixture forming (Figure 4.30)
When the suction mouth is fully penetrated in the sand, water jets are necessary the fulfil the
requirements for the mixture forming. In that case jets are situated around the suction mouth
(figure 4.31)
Page 21 van 35
Wb w3408b
Figure 4. 30
Figure 4. 32
Figure 4. 33
Pagina 22 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Valve open
Valve closed
Cylinder
to pump
Figure 4. 34
To ensure good control it is advisable to provide the valve with two openings, a big one for
sudden emergencies and a second smaller valve that can be used for fine control with a
continuously high vacuum.
A rubber suction hose forms the link between the suction pipe and the pipelines on board.
This rubber hose is equipped with vulcanised steel rings, which prevent it from collapsing
when under pressure occurs in it. The centreline of the suction hose is at the same height as
the hinge and often lies beneath the waterline (Figure 4.35).
Figure 4. 35
To prevent water from flowing in during pump inspections a so-called outboard valve must
be fitted onboard before the pump
PSDs without a submerged pumps have to be designed in such away that the suction pipeline
is as short as possible. Where the suction pipeline comes above water, the chance of taking in
air must be reduced to the minimum. (Taking in air has the same effect as cavitation.)
4.8.2.3 The sand pumps
Barge-loading suction dredgers usually have only one pump, even when the dredger is
equipped with an underwater pump, while reclamation dredgers have one or more inboard
pumps independent if provided with an underwater pump.
Page 23 van 35
Wb w3408b
When suction dredgers do not have an underwater pump, efforts must be made the position of
the first pump must be as deep as possible below the water line. This means on the base of
the pontoon. As well as good discharge characteristics, the first pump must also have good
suction characteristics, thus a high decisive vacuum and/or a low NPSH value.
If the dredger is equipped with an underwater pump the layout is less critical. In that case
aspects such as accessibility for inspection and repairs play a more important role. The
onboard pump is then only required to possess discharge characteristics. For the required
specific speed for these pumps referred is to chapter 2.2.3.5 Dredge pump.
Submerged pumps have mainly a single
wall, while inboard pumps have either a
single or a double wall.
If there is more than one inboard pump the
layout must be chosen in such a way that,
if desired, it is also possible to work with
the ladder pump and one inboard pump.
An inspection hatch must be provided for
every pump, so that the pump and the
impeller can be inspected and, if
necessary, debris can be removed.
.
Pagina 24 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Figure 4. 38 Ths sea-going PSD AURORA with the discharge pipeline connected on starboard
4.8.2.6 Sprayers
If the dredged material has to be loaded into barges alongside because the transport distance
is too long for pipeline transport to be economic, sprayers which are connected to the
discharge pipeline are fitted on both sides of the dredger. The number of sprayers that is
fitted on each side of the dredger depends on the capacity of the dredger and the size of the
barges and varies between one and four per side.
Page 25 van 35
Wb w3408b
To prevent barges from being unevenly loaded, the sprayers must be positioned as closely as
possible to the centreline of the barge (Figure 4.39). Sometimes extra measures are necessary
for this. For example, when it is necessary that to satisfy the demand that free fall of the
dredged material must be prevented, the sprayers must be positioned as low as possible.
The capacity of the pump and the pipeline plan must be designed in such a way that on each
side a barge can be loaded simultaneously. The sprayers are moved by means of winches or
by a hydraulic system.
April 2003
Rod
Figure 4. 41
Page 27 van 35
Wb w3408b
Fairlead
guide
Side wire
Figure 4. 42 Fairlead
Pagina 28 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Suction tube
240
210
180
vwall
Slope
150
vs
120
100
0
80
Time in seconds
15
60
50
20
40
30
Figure 4. 43
Detailed information about this process can be found in the lecture note wb3413 the
Breaching process .
vh
vw
a
b
B
Figure 4. 44
The relation between vw and vz follows from the similarity of shape after a time t.
Page 29 van 35
Wb w3408b
vw t =
H
and vh t =
tan
H
1
1
tan tan
tan
v h = v w 1
tan
Production per metre wide:
tan
Qsand = vh H = vw H 1
tan
Here H is the height of the breach/bank.
The cause of the steeper slope is cause by the dilantancy (an increase of porosity) due to the
shearing of the sand matrix. When the porosity increases pore water has to flow to the these
large pores. When this happens slowly a decrease in pore pressure will occur and a increase
in the effective stresses causing an more stability. When sufficient water has flowed into the
pores the under pressure and additional stability will vanish.
When a 3D suction pipe is moved
forward horizontally at a constant
speed a pit forms the slope of which is
at its steepest directly in front of the
suction pipe (Figure 4.45). The slope
decreasing at the sides to a value that
is determined by the eroding effect of
the density current flowing towards the
suction mouth. The angle between
the slope just in front of the suction
pipe and the horizontal can be derived
according above. If all the material is
removed, the production will be:
Q =W
H
tan
a)
FG 1 1 JI
H tan tan K
H
tan
Symmetry plane
H
tan
Vh
H
H2
vh = vh
2
tan
b)
Figure 4. 45
This spillage can be calculated with the following production balance can be set up:
(H S) v
H S
2S S
Hvh
vw =
h
tan
2 tan
tan
2
with:
Symbol
Declaration
Dimension
Pagina 30 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
H
S
vh
Vw
M
M
m/s
m/s
The first term is the volume per unit of time passing through area of the plane TAR, the
second term is the production from the face BAT and BRA with S being the average height
retrogressive erosion or wall over the area considered and the term on right side of the
equation is the volume per unit of time passing through a plane with the final cross section.
0.5b
H
tan
H
H
tan tan
S
tan
0.5b
H
S
Figure 4. 46
Page 31 van 35
Wb w3408b
H 2 HS
S 2 vw H 2 2 HS + S 2
=
tan
tan vh
tan
H 2 HS S 2
tan vw
= H 2 2 HS + S 2
tan vh
S = 0 and S =
H
tan vw
1+
tan vh
H2
,
tan
v
H
v
w
the real production Q = h
tan
, and
tan
vh + vw
tan
tan
v
vh H 2 tan h
=
tan tan v + v
h
w
tan
vh H 2 vw
vh H 2 1
Q=
=
tan vh + vw
tan vh + 1
vw
More sand flows to the suction mouth than the pumps can handle. The pump is the limiting
factor and this criterion can be subdivided as follows:
The under-pressure/vacuum in front of the pump is the limiting factor. The under
pressure in front of the pump is so high that cavitation occurs, resulting in the loss of the
discharge pressure. The pump then cuts out. The only good remedy is to position the
underwater pump deeper.
The discharge pressure is the limiting factor. The discharge distance is so long that the
pressure required for the critical velocity of the mixture is higher than the pump can
deliver. A stationary deposit will be formed in the pipeline, with the chance of a totally
blocked pipeline. Depending on the loading on the engine, consideration can be given to
the installation of a pump with a larger impeller or to changing the transmission ratio in
the gearbox. If the loading of the engine is already maximal the maximum concentration
has been reached.
The pump torque is the limiting factor. This is the contrary situation to the above
mentioned limiting pressure situation. The remedy is to use a smaller impeller.
Pagina 32 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
n=
P( 1 ov )
P( 1 ov )
P( 1 ov )
=
=
t cyclus
Lbak
Pbak
Lbak
t cyclus
(4.24)
Here:
N
P
Ov
Lbarge
Tcycle
= number of barges
= pump production
= overflow loss [-]
= bulking factor
= load of barge [m]
= cycle time
[-]
[m/s]
[-]
[s]
As a rule of thumb the percentage smaller than 100 m can be taken as overflow losses.
The bulking is determined by the difference volume weight in situ and in the barge. With
strongly graded material the volume weight in the barge is 19 kN/m and with uniform
material this can decrease to 18 kN/m. For the calculation of the bulking reference should
be made to Section 2.6.3.1.
The cycle time of the barge is composed of:
the loading time
the sailing time
the discharge time
the return sailing time
waiting times for bridges, locks etc.
In addition to the fact that the pit or the pump can be *maatgevend, with a barge-loading
dredger, a situation may occur in which the barges are *maatgevend. In other words there are
not enough barges. A situation that may have a variety of causes such as:
weather and wave conditions
shipping
Bridges and lock
Unequal speeds of the barges
Loss of time by the barge
Delays on the dredger
Loss of time at the discharge site
It will be clear that when using a barge-loading dredger there is always a chance of delays
due to the absence of a barge.
Page 33 van 35
Wb w3408b
Because the above mentioned delays can be reasonably well estimated with regard to their
average values and standard deviations, the Monte Carlo Simulation can provide insight into
the probability of delay resulting from the absence of barges.
4.10
zuigmond
Dustpan dredgers are now only used for small projects or on special dredgers such as the
Cardium. The Cardium is equipped with 6 suction pipes and suction pumps, each with
two suction mouths, in order to ensure that the bottom is at the correct depth (the foremost
suction mouth is in dustpan mode) and is flat and clean immediately before a block mattress
is laid down (clean up model).
Pagina 34 van 35
prof. W.J.Vlasblom
April 2003
Figure 4. 48 Dustpan haed with pump and pipel ine sceme of the matress laying vessel CARDIUM
4.11
References
Page 35 van 35
A specialized dredging tool that can be categorized in the section of stationary plane suction
dredgers is the barge unloading/reclamation suction dredger.
Page 1 of 1
Wb3408b
5.1.
General considerations
Barges that are used for the transport of dredged material can be divided in self-unloading and
non-self-unloading. The self-unloading barges, called hopper dump barges or bottom unloaders,
are usually equipped with doors (valves) that one way or the other can be opened to dump the
dredged material under water.
Non-self-unloading barges need to be unloaded either mechanically or hydraulically. Mechanical
unloading can be done with a grab, backhoe, excavating wheel or bucket elevator. Non-selfunloading barges are therefore often called elevator barges.
Hydraulic unloading can be done using a shore pump discharge system, usually installed in
trailing suction hopper dredgers or by means of a barge unloading suction dredger.
For the last 20 years the transport with barges is strongly reduced and because, as mentioned, the
barge unloader is a specialized dredge tool, it is hard to use the tool for other purposes. Hence the
amount of barge unloading suction dredgers has decreased considerably in this period. At present
many barge unloading suction dredgers are in service that can also be used as plain suction
dredger or cutter suction dredger.
Page 2 of 2
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
5.1.1.
Characteristics
28
28
13a
15
17
14
22
18
8
20
22
4
3
16
2
13
12
6
13a
10
11
6
3
9
25
19
13
10
24
13
11
9
9
25
25
7
8
13a
16
13
19
15
14
17
30
31
31
18
21
20
13
3
13a
18
29
30
22
31
31
23
Figure 5-3
The barge unloading suction dredger is a stationary dredge tool, moored along mooring piles or
anchored with spuds. (Figure 5-3) The barges are moored along the tool for unloading. The tool
is equipped with one or more sand pumps and a jet pump. The suction pipe sticks out at the side
of the tool and can be lowered in the barge lying next to the dredger. The water needed for the
mixture and the transport is jetted into the barge using one or more nozzles.
Page 3 of 3
Wb3408b
Page 4 of 4
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
Jet pjpe
Suction pipe
During the exchange of the barges the pressure side of the jet pump is connected with the suction
side of the sand pump. This keeps the sand pump moving in the discharge line. The more the
sand-water mixture is exchanged for clean water in the discharge pipeline, the velocity increases
and if necessary the number of revolutions of the sand pump can be reduced. Apart from the
continuation of the dredging process, this construction is necessary to prevent the suction in of air
through the suction mouth of the suction pipe, with all consequences (think of submerged
pipelines).
When the next barge is moored along the barge unloading suction dredger, the number of
revolutions of the sand pump is decreased such that it just can handle the flow rate of the jet
pump. The surplus water is run away through the jet piping and the suction pipe and a new dredge
cycle can start.
Page 5 of 5
Wb3408b
5.2.
The design
The barge unloading suction dredger has to fulfill in principal two functions:
1. the material in the barges must be diluted such that a mixture develops that can be sucked up
in high concentrations.
2. the dredge pumps in the dredger have to take care that the sucked up material can be pumped
to the reclamation area with enough velocity and production.
5.2.1.
The production capacity
Like with the other tools the required production capacity plays a crucial role in the design. The
production capacity is however determined by the supply of the sand by barges and therefore by
the tool that loads the barges. This can be, for instance, a barge loading plain suction dredger, a
backhoe dredger or a bucket dredger.
For the design of the barge unloading suction dredger the required production for each barge is
the criterion, so the required discharge time for each barge. After all the non-presence of barges
by external causes has nothing to do with the required production capacity. Besides that the size
of the barges is of course of influence on the required production capacity.
5.2.2.
The transport distance
The transport distance gives requirements for the installed dredge pump power and the necessity
for the installation of one or more pumps. For further details with regard to the choice of the
pumps see Chapter 4 Plain suction dredgers.
Page 6 of 6
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
5.2.3.
5.1.1.1 General
When the dredge capacity is known, this requirement, like with the plain suction dredger, is
translated in:
1. a sand flow rate Q
2. a sand concentration Cvd
After all:
P = Q
Cvd
1 n
with:
=
=
=
=
production
flow rate
transport concentration
porosity
P
Q
Cvd
n
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[-]
[-]
The minimum flow rate is determined by the critical velocity that is required to keep the material
in motion. So vcritical = Fl , h 2 g ( S s 1) D in which the value of Fl,h is determined by the to be
pumped material (see wb3414, Dredging processes).
The maximum concentration that can be sucked depends on many factors, like:
This last factor can be checked with the vacuum formula (see also Figure 5-7):
H + k v2
H b g + vac = +
+ H + k m g
D sin 2 g
H b g + vac
m =
H + k v2
+
+ H + kg
D sin 2 g
In which:
H
k
vac
w
m
Page 7 of 7
[m]
[m]
[kPa]
[k/m3]
[k/m3]
Wb3408b
[k/m3]
[]
[-]
[-]
[m]
[m/s]
[m/s2]
D
v
g
Figure 5-7
H +k
D sin
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
0
Figure 5-8
This graph shows (Figure 5-8) that the upper side of the suction pipe may lay hardly more than 3
m above the water level in the barge to meet the earlier mentioned requirement of m=1400
[kN/m3]. This height needs than to be sufficient to haul the barge underneath the suction pipe.
Page 8 of 8
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
The expected average concentration during the suction of the barge is dependent on:
the time necessary to start the process, see the chapter the dredging process 5.4.
the availability of a barge hauling installation. The production is mainly determined by the
haul speed of the barge.
the whether or not present of additional bulkheads in the barge, for which extra breaking in
necessary.
When both the critical velocity as the average and maximal concentration are determined, both
the pump flow rate and the diameter of the pressure piping are also fixed (see chapter 4.2.1).
5.1.1.2 The suction mouth and pipe
Nowadays the suction mouth of a BUD is
provided with jets to improve the mixture
forming and to hindered the settling of
material behind the suction mouth (Figure
5-9)
The width of the suction mouth is based on
the smallest hopper width of the barge. Are
barges used with different sizes it is
advisable to design a flexible suction pipe
(Figure 5-9).
Sometimes the suction mouth is provided
with bars to avoid debris and boulders
entering the suction mouth.
Qj
Qm
= 1
Cvd
1 n
In this:
Qj
Qm
Cvd
n
=
=
=
=
Page 9 of 9
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[-]
[-]
Wb3408b
n=.
0.
0.
n=.
0.
n=.
0.
n=.
0.
0
0
0.
0.
0.
0.
Qj/Q
Figure 5-10
Looking at the above mentioned boundary conditions (Figure 5-10) the flow rate of the jet pump
needs to be 0.4 to 0.5 times the flow rate of the sand pump. With a decrease in the concentration,
like when the suction mouth reaches the end of the barge, the flow rate of the jet pump will have
to increase to maintain the desired velocity in the pressure piping. If this is not possible the water
level in the barge will drop. If there is however enough water in the barge to maintain the velocity
there is no problem. If this is not the case water have be supplied in another way to maintain the
velocity in the discharge line. F.i. an additional water inlet connected to the suction side of the
discharge pump
Jetpump
suction
strainer
jetpump engine
2
1
Nozzle
3
4
dredgepump engine
Dredgepump
Turning gland
Suction mouth
valve
This is possible by installing a pipe from the suction side of the pump to the bottom of the
pontoon or the suction strainer or weed box (Figure 5-11). In such a design enough water can be
sucked up at all times to maintain the dredge pump process , also when the unloading of the barge
is stopped completely.
Page 10 of 10
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
Page 11 of 11
Wb3408b
May 2003
Page 13 of 13
Wb3408b
Figure Figure 5-17 shows the top view of the BUD Sliedrecht 14 and Figure 5-18 the side view
of the same dredger.
Figure Figure 5-19 shows a barge unloading dredger that can be used as a plain suction dredger
too.
Page 14 of 14
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
Page 15 of 15
Wb3408b
1400
y = 0.2496x
R2 = 0.7486
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
3000
R = 0.8951
2500
BLD [m3]
5.4.1.
The hull
The main dimensions length,
width and depth of the pontoon
depend
totally
on
the
requirements for the above
mentioned design parameters
and the from these following
demands for stability and
strength.
The light weight of the pontoon
in tons is roughly 25 % of the
total power installed (Figure
5.12)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
B/T
7
6
L/B and B/T
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Figure 5-22
Page 16 of 16
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
Page 17 of 17
Wb3408b
The supply of the necessary dilution water to the barge is done with one or two water nozzles. In
case of one nozzle the suction mouth is usually equipped with jets, while the movability of the
main nozzle is than so large that it can also spray behind the suction mouth. To present sand well
to the suction mouth it is necessary to have moveable water nozzles. This is done using hydraulic
cylinders.
For the dredging process the pressure side of the jet pump is, except for the water nozzles, also
connected with suction side of the dredge pump.
Page 18 of 18
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
The shore connection must therefore consist of enough hinges. A flexible hose can also possibly
give enough flexibility, if this doesn't get stuck on the slope of the embankment. For large
differences extra attention must be paid to this movement (Figure 5-26).
5.5.
Conc.
Time
Speed
dredge pump
Time
Qjet
To
dredge pump
To jet nozzle
To
dredge pump
Time
Figure 5-27
This phase is lengthened if the barge have to be cleaned. (The barge is pulled back and the
remaining sand is dredged.) Such a process might be necessary when the barge is relative wide
compare to the suction mouth and the suction mouth cant swing in the horizontal plane.
Page 19 of 19
Wb3408b
The production is determined by the breachebility of the sand in the barge and the erosion by the
jet water. This dredging process is mainly determined by the minimum NPSH value on top of the
suction pipeline and the time necessary to change the barge and to start the dredging process
again, as mentioned above.
A complication however is that during the emptying of the barge the sand pump flow rate
corresponds to the jet pump flow rate and the amount of sucked up sand. If this is not the case
than the flow rate in the barge will raise or drop. In a good tuned up process the suction operator
maintains the water level in the barge by hauling the barge slower or faster underneath the suction
mouth. If there is a continuous increase or decrease of the water level in the barge than the
number of revolutions of the sand pump must be adjusted. To obtain the highest possible
concentration the water level in the barge must be as high as possible. Unfortunately the
breaching of the sand behaves different under water than above water. If the water level in the
barge is high the dredge master cant see if sand flows behind the suction mouth and prefers a low
water level in the barge.
During the exchange of the barges the velocity in the pressure piping needs to be maintained to
avoid sanding up. For this the suction side of the sand pump can be connected to the weed box
(figure 5.7). This is not directly necessary. Since the pressure side of the jet pump is in
connection with the suction side of the dredge pump a situation with two pumps in series is
obtained. The required sand pump flow rate can now be reached by the control of the number of
revolutions of the sand pump engine.
pressure
Pipeline resistance
for mixture
W
D
E
Jet pump curve II
QC
QA QB
Capacity
Page 20 of 20
Prof.Ir. W.J. Vlasblom
May 2003
In Figure 5-28 the pipe and pump characteristics are drawn for the pumping of water and mixture.
If it is desired to maintain the minimal flow rate QA during the exchange of the barges, than this is
possible, when the suction side of the sand pump is connected with the weed box, by reducing the
number of revolutions regularly. This makes the operating point W shift to A. Without a
reduction of the number of revolutions of the sand pump, in the last phase of the emptying
process, the operating point W will shift over the dotted line to point E, so to a reasonable higher
flow rate. If the suction side of the sand pump is connected to the pressure side of the jet pump
than the operating point will be in A or B for the same low number of revolutions of the sand
pump and dependent on the pump characteristics of the jet pump.
For the calculation of the hydraulic process one can refer to the course Wb3414 Dredging
Processes 2.
Page 21 of 21
Figure 6- 1
6.1.
General Considerations
5.1
Figure 6- 2
Since 1960, bucket dredgers ( also called bucket line dredge(r) or bucket chain dredge(r)) that were
much used before the Second World War, have been almost entirely replaced by Backhoe dredgers or
trailing suction hopper dredgers and cutter suction dredgers. The reason for this is that the bucket
dredger, with its six anchors, is a big obstacle to shipping. Moreover maintenance costs are high and
the bucket dredger requires many highly skilled operatives. But above all, their production has not
kept pace with the increase in scale that has taken place in the suction dredgers.
Figure 6- 3
5.2
Figure 6- 4
The maximum dredging depth is highly dependent on the size of the dredger. There are dredgers with
a maximum dredging depth of more than 30 metres. Such large dredgers the minimum dredging depth
is often 8 metres. Dredging in shallow water is certainly not the strongest point of the bucket dredger.
Bucket dredgers can be used in almost every type of soil, from mud to soft rock. When rock has been
fragmented by blasting, bucket dredgers are often used, because of their relative lack of sensitivity to
variations in the size of the stones.
Bucket dredgers cannot be used in areas with waves and swell. Furthermore, because of the amount of
noise they produce, in urban areas they are often subject to restrictions in relation to the working time
or the permitted number of decibels measured at a specific distance from them.
The capacity of a bucket dredger is expressed in terms of the content of the buckets. The capacity of a
bucket can vary between 50 and 1200 litres. Rock bucket dredgers often have a double set of buckets,
the small rock buckets and the large mud buckets. This is in order to make better use of the power of
the dredger and to widen the range of its use.
5.3
Still, it was not until the second half of the century that steam dredgers had replaced those powered by
horses. Over the course of the years preceding 1915, both the power of the dredgers and the capacity
of the buckets increased. There was no further increase after that time. The great advantage of the
bucket dredger is that it can attain a reasonable production in most types of soil from soft clay to soft
rock.
For this reason, by about 1900 the bucket dredger had grown to be the most important type of dredger
in Europe; a position that it maintained until just after the Second World War. The two last steam
powered bucket dredgers were built in the Netherlands in 1956. At the end of the fifties and beginning
of the sixties, because of the big increase in the tonnage of oil and ore tankers, large deep-water ports
were needed. This led to large dredging contracts, which created a need for bigger production units
that, moreover, could dredge to a greater depth. Increasing the capacity of bucket dredgers is no
longer the solution because deeper dredging with larger buckets leads to a very heavy bucket chain.
Stationary suction dredgers and cutter suction dredgers could solve this problem in a considerably less
expensive way. Besides their bigger production capacity, these suction dredgers also have the
advantage that their maintenance costs are much lower. For these reasons buckets dredgers are now
only used for the types of work mentioned above.
5.4
5.5
When swinging round the bow anchor the swing angle () that the dredger makes with the swing
circle (Figure 6- 6), must be kept as constant as possible. The choice of the swing angle is related to
the clearance between the buckets on the lower part of the chain over the bottom or the slope. If this is
not done it is possible that the bucket chain will run off the bottom tumbler as a result of the lateral
forces that act on it. At the beginning of a new cut the swing angle is brought to the desired value as
quickly s possible. If there is a current in the dredging area the swing angle must be kept as large as
possible, that is at 90. The stern winch controls the swing angle. The stern anchor is used to obtain
the required tension in the bow wire. When dredging in tidal waters the stern anchor is usually used as
a flood anchor if the winch and the wire are strong enough for this.
The step length, the cut thickness and the swing velocity along the cut determine the amount of soil
that is cut per unit of time. This amount must be at least in balance with the number of buckets per
unit of time multiplied by the capacity of the buckets. In other words the bucket capacity and the
bucket speed are related to the factors mentioned above, Some dredgers have more than one type of
bucket, so that, depending on the soil type, the capacity can be adapted to the expected production.
Because with high excavation forces the dredger will not be able to completely fill the buckets, so that
they are partly filled with water. This is of course not economical.
The position of the ladder, particular the ladder angle, also affects the maximum filling degree of the
buckets. If the bucket rim is not horizontal, fluid soil will partly flow out of the bucket.
After being carried upwards, the buckets are turned upside-down as they pass over the upper tumbler
or the pentagon and, depending on the time, the material will fall out of the buckets. In order to
accommodate to this time effect the discharge chute into which the dredged material falls, is
adjustable in relation to the upper tumbler. Depending on the type of soil, extra measures may be
necessary to promote the emptying of the buckets.
From the discharge chute the material slides directly into the barge that is moored alongside the
dredger or it is transported to it via conveyor belts. To obtain the most even possible filling of the
barge it must be frequently warped along the side of the dredger.
Production capacity
Soil type
As previously mentioned, the bucket dredger can be used in all types of soil from clay to soft rock
which has not been blasted and hard rock which has been fragmented by blasting. The type of soil to
be dredged has a big influence on the design and the construction of the dredger. Considerable forces
arise during the dredging of rock. For all types of soil it is necessary to know the required cutting
capacity and the energy that is needed to transport the dredged material via the bucket chain to the
upper tumbler.
6.5.1.
The production capacity of a bucket dredger cannot be increased indefinitely. Increasing the
production capacity of bucket dredgers implies increasing the bucket capacity. This means that the
forces in the bucket chain resulting from the weight of the buckets and links themselves is also greatly
increased. This in turn demands an even heavier construction. The production capacity of bucket
dredgers therefore seldom rises above 100.000 m/week. The same goes, to an even greater degree,
for the dredging depth, because greater dredging depths demand longer bucket ladders and thus more
buckets.
5.6
In principle, the product of the bucket capacity and the bucket velocity determines the production
capacity, thus: Qb = I b vb ; with: Q the production capacity in m3/s, Ib the effective volume of the
bucket and vb the bucket speed in buckets per second.
The maximum bucket size is 1200 litres and the maximum bucket velocity approximately 30 buckets
per minute or .5 buckets per second. Often this bucket velocity can only be reached with empty
buckets. With full buckets and when some excavation force is needed, the bucket velocity is quickly
reduced to values of 15 to 20 buckets per minute. Moreover factors such as the filling rate of the
bucket and the bulking factor of the soil play a part.
For a bank height h [m], a step size s [m] and a lateral or swing speed vs [m/s], the insitu production
Qs dredged is:
Qs = h s vs [m/s]
This insitu production must be in balance with the bucket production Qb corrected for the filling
degree FDb and the bulking factor B, thus:
Qs = h s vz =
I b FDb vb
B
6.5.2.
Bulking factor
1.05
1.3-1.5
1.05- 1.25
1.3-1.4
As with other dredgers both the maximum and minimum dredging depths are very important in
relation to the use of the dredger. Requirements in relation to these values are closely related to
market demands. The difference between the maximum and minimum dredging depth determine the
change of the angle of the bucket rim with the horizon.
6.5.2.1.
For large bucket dredgers the maximum dredging depth is about 25 m. and exceptional 30 m. By
adjusting the height of the mounting of the ladder on the ladder gantry or by lengthening the ladder, it
is possible to dredge to a maximum depth of 35 m (see 5.4.3). It will be apparent that by adjusting the
setting of the ladder or lengthening it, the number of buckets will increase. The figure below gives a
general view of the dredging depths used. For the smaller bucket dredgers the dredging depth is
around 10 m.
5.7
Dredging depth
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Normal
extended
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
5.8
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Bu c ke t c a p ac ity [m 3 ]
5. 1
With small dredging depths, depending on the ladder angle, because the buckets are tilted so far back
*the filling degree may well be so low so that dredging in this situation becomes uneconomic.
In the figure below (Figure 5.5), the *filling degree of the buckets is given as a function of the
maximum dredging depths. The shape of the buckets is such that the maximum filling degree is
obtained at the maximum dredging depth. Naturally the buckets can also be designed for the average
dredging depth.
5. 2
5.9
5. 3
Conveyor belts are frequently used to discharge the dredged material when excavating sand and
gravel for the cement industry. This type of discharge system can be easily fitted to the normal bucket
dredger.
The conveyor belts are mounted on floats that are attached to the stern of the dredge. Because no
discharge chutes are used the main gantry can be lower.
5.2.5. The main drive
The choice of the source of power for the drive of the bucket chain is now limited to a diesel with a
direct belt drive, a diesel-electric drive or a diesel-hydraulic drive. When electricity can be obtained
from landlines, for example during sand or gravel dredging, it is also possible to use an electric drive.
The power/energy needed for the excavation, lifting of the soil, the friction of the buckets over the
guiding rollers and the tumblers, the friction of the tumblers, resulting from tension in the bucket
chain are transferred to the upper tumbler via the bucket chain.
The required cutting power can be determined in a way similar to that described for the cutter suction
dredger. Thus with the aid of the specific energy. If the desired cutting production is Qs and the
specific cutting energy Es, the required cutting power is:
Ps = Q s E s
(5.1)
The required cutting power must be multiplied by a factor the represents the relation between the
average and peak loads.
When lifting the soil the number of buckets under or above water plays a role. Since:
P0 = Q e g ( e w )H bw + z H ow
(5.2)
With:
5.10
Qe
g
e
How
Haw
=
=
=
=
=
[m3/s]
[m/s2]
[kg/m3]
[m]
[m]
In principle, the cutting production cannot exceed the production of the bucket chain, thus:
I E v
Qs e v e = Qe
(5.3)
B
Here:
Ev = the bucket *filling
ve = the bucket velocity
Ie = the bucket capacity
B = the bulking factor
If it is assumed that the quotient Ev is equal to 1 and Qs=Qe, the power required to lift the soil, is
known. With a filling degree lower than 1 the weight of the water above the soil must also be
included.
Because the number of buckets that goes upwards is equal to the number of buckets that goes
downwards it is not necessary to take into account lifting the weight of the buckets themselves.
Naturally the friction of the guide rollers over which the buckets slide must be taken into account.
The effect of the tensile forces also makes an extra contribution to the required drive power, with the
exception of the friction in the bearings of the lower tumblers.
To calculate the reactions and the tensile forces see Section 5.7
The total power required is thus:
Pt = Ps + Po + Pwl + PwT
Pt
Ps
Po
Pwl
PwT
=
=
=
=
=
(5.4)
The friction forces that, as described above, can arise are the cause of the fact that the gross energy
requirement to lift the soil with a ladder angle of 45, are roughly two times as high as the nett energy
requirement. At small dredging depths this can increase to a factor 4!
So the relation between the length of the lower/under-bend of the bucket chain and the length of the
ladder has a big influence on the horizontal force (Figure 5.7).
For small dredging depths this may increase to a factor 4!
Thus the relation between the length of the lower bend and the ladder S/L a big influence upon the
horizontal tensile force (Figure 5. 4)
5.11
5. 4
As a guideline it can be assumed that the installed power in kW for the drive of the chain in soft soil
is roughly 1/2 and for heavy soil at 2/3 of the bucket capacity in litres. (Figure 5. 5)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Bu c ke t c a p a c ity [m 3 ]
5. 5
5.12
1.2
1.4
5.13
.
5.2.6.3 The stern side winches
The stern side winches have a secondary function and do not determine the production. The stern
winches control the dredger with regard to the cut (swing angle , (see Figure 5.2). The requirements
relating to the control and force are thus considerably less than for the bow side winches. The power
is roughly half that of the bow side winches. The nominal side winch velocities are of course equal.
The stern side winches are usually mounted on the afterdeck. To avoid hindering the arrival and
departure of barges, as well as the warping of the barges alongside the dredger, the side wires are led
down to a sufficient depth directly beside the dredger in vertical guides, also called wire spuds
(Figure 5. 7).
5.14
6.6.
5. 8
The hull consists of a U-shaped pontoon with long forward pontoons. The dimensions of the pontoon
are primarily determined by the required dredging depth and the necessary stability. The well is rather
long compared to that of a cutter suction dredger, roughly 60 % *of the length of the dredger.
The pontoon is divided into a number of compartments for the engine room, crew accommodation,
stores, and fuel and ballast tanks. The latter are often located for and aft in the pontoon. The engine
room is located in the pontoon aft of the main gantry and its layout depends on the type of main drive.
To satisfy the need for longitudinal stability the bottom of the dredger slopes upward at the stern or
the forward end may be wider (Figure
5. 8.). The main gantry is roughly in the middle of the pontoon. Although formerly the crew quarters
were often located in the pontoon, in modern dredgers they are now often situated on deck.
5. 9 Tekening IHC
6.7.
5.15
5.16
5. 11
The weight of the full buckets is transferred to the ladder by rollers. These rollers are mounted at a
distance of twice the link length apart. To guide the buckets these rollers are fitted with flanges, hence
the name *ladder rollers/guide rollers
De bucket *chain/leiding is driven by the upper tumbler (often five-sided) and pulled round the
underside by the lower tumbler (often six-sided). As a rule of thumb the total tensile force exercised
by the upper tumbler on the bucket chain is 700 kN per 100 litre bucket capacity. The weight of the
descending buckets that form a chain provides the tensile force in the tumblers. *These tensile forces,
are dependent not only on the ladder angle, but also on the relation between the arc and the chord,
which generally amount to 1.1 to 1.15 and if necessary can be changed by adding or removing
buckets. /These tensile forces, excepting the ladder angle are dependent on the relation between the
arc and the chord, which generally amount to 1.1 to 1.15 and if necessary can be changed by adding
or removing buckets. See Section 5.7. **NB not included in Dutch version).
Summarising, the following forces act on the ladder:
1. The weight of the ladder itself, including the guide rollers.
2.
The weight of the bucket chain, including the links and bolts.
3.
4.
5.
The excavation forces in both longitudinal and transverse directions if necessary multiplied by a
factor for impact loading.
5.17
The shape of the buckets is also determined by the required swing force (Figure 5. 12).
The theoretical filling degree, the amount of water that the bucket can contain in relation to the
total bucket capacity, is highly dependent on the dredging depth (Figure 5. 4).
A bucket shape from which the soil readily falls is equally difficult to combine with a good
excavation shape.
5. 12
Rock buckets are small heavy buckets, somewhat egg-shaped, which must be able to resist impact
loads. Soft soil buckets, termed mud buckets, are much bigger and lighter. The relation rock bucket
capacity to mud bucket capacity lies between 60 and 70 %.
The so-called *pan buckets have good soil discharging properties; their disadvantage is that the
*filling degree is very sensitive to the angle of the bucket.
5.18
5. 13
The links are fastened to each other by bucket bolts. The holes in the links, through which the
bucket bolts pass are equipped with wearing bushes, termed, bucket bushes. These are forged steel
*bushes/sleeves that are hydraulically pressed into the link. This simple means of attachment makes
these bucket bushes very prone to wear and so they must be frequently replaced. (Figure). *The
lubrication of the guide rollers and tumblers is now carried out centrally. Nowadays *caterpillar tracks
are sometimes used instead of links and bushes (Figure 5. 14).
5.19
The control cabin of the dredge master. From this it is now possible to operate all the winches.
The crane.
The free height of the ladder gantry is determined by the height required to rotate the entire ladder
above water.
Because of the large well, in order to give sufficient stiffness to the dredger the ladder gantry
construction must be very heavy.
5.4.6 The main drive
Although in the past many steam powered dredgers were built, nowadays the choice is limited to:
Diesel-electric drives.
Diesel-hydraulic drive.
Direct power supplies from the shore; sometimes used for sand and gravel extraction.
This means that the upper tumbler may be electric or driven by a hydraulic engine.
In steam powered dredgers or those powered by diesel engines with a direct drive the energy is
transferred to the upper tumbler by driving belts.
The control of the revolutions of the upper tumbler and thus of the bucket velocity is simple when
using the above mentioned modern control systems. With an upper tumbler that is directly driven by a
diesel engine control is limited and switchable or hydrodynamic gears are needed.
The drives of auxiliary equipment such as winches and chutes present no problems when modern
drives are used.
5.20
5. 15
6.8.
5.5 The stability
Under working conditions the stability of the bucket dredger is seldom in question. After all, the
greatest weight is always under water.
If the ladder is raised, however, the situation is entirely different. The great weight of the ladder is
then entirely above water.
For this reason, when a bucket dredger is being towed at sea it must be unrigged. The entire bucket
chain must be dismantled and, if possible, stowed below deck.
6.9.
5.6. The dredging process
The dredging process of the bucket dredger includes only the excavation and lifting of the dredged
material. Barges carry out the transport.
5.21
As previously mentioned, the bucket dredger swings on the bow anchor along the arc of a circle
*following a curving path. The axis of the dredger makes an angle , the swing angle with the
tangent to this arcuate path. The size of the swing angle depends primarily on the clearance between
the lower bend and the bottom and on the slope of the breach/bank.
At the end of the cut the dredge master will allow the swing angle to slowly increase to 90. After this
a step will be taken or, if necessary, the cutting of the following layer will be started.
By means of this movement back and forth, the bucket dredger makes concentric arcs/curves that lie
at a distance of one step length from each other. During this swinging back and forth the dredge
master closely observes/keeps an eye on the tension in the bow wire and the loading of the bucket
chain. The tension of the bow wire is controlled with the aid of the stern winch.
The amount of soil that is cut per unit of time depends on:
The thickness of the cut. This is the thickness of the layer that can be dredged in one swing.
The step length; the forward motion of the dredger during one swing.
To prevent spillage, the cutting production must be less than or equal to the product of the bucket
velocity and the bucket capacity.
The cutting thickness depends on the total thickness of the layer to be dredged. If this is not too thick,
generally less than 5 m, the dredge master will try to dredge it in a single cut. If the layer exceeds 5 m
thick the entire breach/bank will be dredged by making several cuts. In any case the first cut must be
so thick that the dredger can create sufficient draught for itself.
The step length is roughly equal to the length of the links. As rule of thumb, 0.6 to 0.8 times the cube
root of the bucket capacity may also be taken. For both cases the swing velocity must be sufficiently
high (> 5m/min).
The warping velocity selected is such that either the buckets are full with a minimum spillage or that
the loading on the bucket chain is the limiting factor.
If possible, a width of the cut is selected that is so wide that the total width of the work can be covered
in one swing. The wider the cut the fewer the anchor movements. If that is not possible the total width
is divided into a number of equal cutting widths.
There is also a minimum cutting width for every bucket dredger. The required depth for the dredger
and the space for manoeuvring the barges play a role in determining this (Figure 5.2). This is roughly
1.5 times the length of the bucket dredger.
The dredging depth also determines the position of the buckets on the ladder and thus for the *filling
degree.
The available excavation energy of a bucket dredger is highly dependent on the energy needed to
carry/lift up the dredged material. This depends on:
1. The nett weight of the bucket contents. Part of this is under water and part is above water. The
weight of the buckets themselves plays no role because there is an equal number of buckets
under and above the ladder.
2.
The friction resistance in the ladder/guide rollers results from the weight of the buckets and their
contents.
3.
The friction resistance in the axles of the tumblers results from the tensile forces of the bucket
chain.
4.
The impact loads that develop as a result of the bumping of the buckets.
5.22
Qs = h s v
[m/s]
with:
h = cutting thickness usually < 5m
s
= step length
v = swinging velocity
(5.5)
[m]
[m]
[m/s]
The cutting production must balance with the amount that can be transported by the buckets per unit
of time thus:
I E v
Q
Q s = hsv = e v e = e
[m3/s]
(5.6)
60 B
B
Ie = bucket capacity
[m]
ve = bucket velocity ev
[buckets/min]
Ev = filling degree
[-]
B = bulking factor
[-]
[m/s]
Qe = bucket production
On the basis of the specific energy concept, the cutting energy for this production is:
I E v
Psnij = Q s E sp = e v e E sp
(5.7)
60 B
The energy needed to lift sand and water is:
I E v
Popv = e v e g ( e w )H ow + e + (1 E v ) w ) H bw
60B
e
w
Ee
How
Hbw
=
=
=
=
=
(5.8)
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[-]
[m]
[m]
If the friction in the ladder/guide rollers and tumblers is assumed to be a linear function of the weight
and the velocity then:
Pwr =
Q e A( n e , )v e
60
IeE vve
v
A( n e , ) e
60B
60
(5.9)
Here A( n e , ) is the influence of the friction force on the ladder/guide rollers and the tumblers. Thus
here the influence of the tensions is *taken into account /verdisconteerd.
Ptot =
Ie E v ve
60B
(5.10)
ve
E sp + gB ( e w )H b + e + (1 E v ) w ) H o + BA( n e , )
60
(5.11)
Because the installed power must be higher than the average required power, it must be true that:
5.23
Ptot = Pinst w
(5.12)
Here w is the relation between the average and the peak power.
The relation between installed power and production is therefore:
ve
E sp + gB ( e w )H b + e + (1 E v ) w ) H o + BA( n e , )
60
(5.13)
If the bucket chain is driven by a top tumbler the relation between and ve is:
Pinst =
IeE v ve
60wB
v e = 5n = 5
M = M
M=
60 150
=
2
(5.14)
ve Ie E v ve
ve
=
E sp B + g ( e w )H b + e + (1 E v ) w ) H o + A( n e , )
150
60B
60
2.5I e E v
B
ve
E sp B + g ( e w )H b + e + (1 E v ) w ) H o + A( n e , )
60
(5.15)
This is the machine characteristic.
When the drive characteristic is known, the bucket velocity and the associated torque are known and
thus the production.
5. 16
(5.16)
So, for a given step length and cutting thickness the desired warping velocity is also known.
As long as Qe>=Qs is valid the spillage during cutting will be limited. The spillage that occurs during
the turning of the buckets is an entirely different question. Here factors such as cohesion, adhesion,
the shape of the buckets and the position of the fixed chute all play a part.
5.24
Cohesive soil and also fine sands can give great problems on this point. In principle, this is a problem
of timing. Although the fixed chute is indeed adjustable, the range over which it is adjustable is
closely linked with the dredging depth and the shape of the lower bend. With soil that is not easily
loosened the bucket velocity must be reduced, as otherwise there will be too much spillage behind the
dredger. Measures are also taken to get rid of the under-pressure, which develop in the buckets when
discharging cohesive soils.
As with the barge-loading dredger/reclamation dredger, a situation may also arise in which the supply
of barges is the limiting factor. This situation may be caused by many different factors, such as:
Shipping movement
Clearly, with a bucket dredger, there is always a chance that sometimes there will be no barge
available.
Because the above mentioned delays can be reasonably well estimated with regard to their average
values and standard deviations, the Monte Carlo Simulation can provide insight into the probability of
delay resulting from the absence of barges. Clearly, when using a barge-loading dredger there is
always a chance of delays due to the absence of a barge.
5.25
7.1. General
The grab dredger is the most common used dredger in the world, especially in North
America and the Far East. It is a rather simple and easy to understand stationary dredger
with and without propulsion.
m
m
0
1
In the latter the ship has a hold (Figure 7- 2) in which it stores the dredge material,
otherwise barges transport the material. The dredgers can be moored by anchors or by
poles (spuds)
The most common types are boom type clamshell dredgers with a boom that can swing
around a vertical axis. Beside these, but considerably less in number, are the overhead
cranes (Figure 7- 3), with the trolleys, like the ones used for the transshipment of bulk
goods in ports.
The capacity of a grab dredger is expressed in the volume of the grab. Grab sizes varies
between less than 1 m3 up to 200 m3.(Figure 7- 1)
25
120
20
100
80
15
60
10
40
20
Cumulative frequency
[%]
Frequency [%]
Frequency grabsizes
0
200
20
14
12
10
Grabsize [m3]
Figure 7- 4
Figure 7- 4 shows a rough overview of the most common grab sizes.
The opening of the grab is controlled by the closing and hoisting wires or by hydraulic
cylinders. To ensure that the grab does not spin during hoisting and lowering many crane
are equipped with a tag line, running from half way the boom straight to the grab.
A eff = R sin L =
Step
2
RL
360
L=S
Effective Area
L'
Cut projection
R
2
In figure 8.5 a top view and a projection of the dredging area area is shown. The width of
the dredging area is R sin V and the width of the cut is L, so the surface of the effective
dredging area is Aeff = L R sin V which equals: Aeff
p
= V 2 R L .
90
The mean dredging efficiency as function of the swing angle of the crane being
follows from equalization of both equations:
L sin V 90
. See Fig.8.6
=
L
V p
2
L
L
1.2
Efficiency
1.0
0.8
0.6
L sin 360
=
2
L
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
It is important to localize every bite of the grab by means of a positioning system. This
helps the dredge master to place the next bit after the foregoing.
The dredging process is discontinuously and cyclic.
Lowering of the grab to the bottom
Closing of the grab by pulling the hoisting wire
Hoisting starts when the bucket is complete closed
Swinging to the barge or hopper
Lowering the filled bucket into the barge or hopper
Opening the bucket by releasing the closing wire.
Releasing the aft wires and pulling the fore wires does the movement of the pontoon.
When the dredgers have spud poles, this movement is done by a spud operation, which is
more accurate than executed by wires.
The principle of this hoisting operation is given in the Figure 7- 7 below.
For a good crane-working behavior the cable cranes have two motors:
The hoisting motor, which drives the hoisting winch and
The closing motor, which controls the closing and the opening the grab.
In order to avoid spinning of the clamshell a so-called tag wire is connected to the
clamshell.
Hoist winch
Top shieves
Hoist wires
Gear segments
Closing winch
Closing wires
Bucket
Gear segments
Cycle part
ease
dig
hoist
swing
ease
dump
hoist
swing
position yaws
open
closing
closed
closed
closed
opening
open
open
Hoisting winch
eases
hoists
hoists
rest
eases
eases
hoists
rest
Closing winch
eases
hoists
hoists
rest
eases
rest
hoists
rest
The clamshell most common and is used in silty, clayey and sandy materials. In mud
the yaws in general have flat plates without teeth. In sand, clay and gravel, the yaws
are fitted with in each other grabbing teeth.
The two halves, shells, rotate around a hinge in the lower sheave block and are
connected with the upper sheave block by rods. The closure/hoist cable is reefed
several times between the head and the disc block to generate enough closing force.
In mud the yaws in general have flat plates without teeth. In sand, clay and gravel,
the yaws are fitted with in each other grabbing teeth. For the removal of
contaminated soil closed clamshells are used to avoid spillage.
The orange peel grab (Figure 7- 9) is often used for the removal of large irregular
pieces of rock and other irregular pieces. This type of grab has 8 yaws that in general
do not close very well.
The cactus bucket (Figure 7- 10) is used in the occurrence of both coarse and fine
material at the same time. This grab has 3 or 4 yaws that close well in the closed
position and form a proper bucket.
The size of the bucket depends on the required production capacity of the crane.
7.4.2. Size and weight of the clamshell
The size of the grab depends on the capacity of the crane. The construction weight is
determined, besides by the size also by the required strength and therefore by the type
of soil to be dredged. So a grab suitable for the dredging of silt will be relatively
large in volume and light in weight, while for the dredging of heavy clay or rocks a
relative small but heavy bucket will be used. However, because the hoist force
remains constant, with increasing weight of the grab the load weight must decrease.
For this reason the efficiency of the grab is expressed as:
Research done in Japan has found the following relation between the ratio of the
B
.Figure 7- 11
2M bucket
[m]
[kg]
[m]
[kg]
2
san d
Sand
G rav e
Mf
Mg
1
G ra vel
C lay
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Kg
7.4.3.
Speed
2 1
34
Torque
An idea about the lightweight in relation to grab size is given in (Figure 7- 14) and is in
the order of 100 times the grabsize.
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
The lightweight of the pontoon is low compared to that of the other dredgers. The
relation between light weight and pontoon volume is shown in Figure 7- 1
2500
2000
1500
y = 0.3259x
2
R = 0.6118
1000
500
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
BLD [m3]
The L/B and B/T ratios f the pontoons are respectively between 2 and 3 and 4 to 6. ()
L/B ; B/T
L/B
B/T
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Special attention needs the stability of the dredge because of the varying and eccentrics
loads. Free fluid levels should be avoided.
7.6. The theory of excavation
The most interesting part of the dredging process takes place during the digging in the
soil of the closing grab.
When the grab falls on the soil the yaws penetrate vertically into the soil. This is called
the initial penetration.
If the closing cable is pulled up, the lower sheave block and the upper sheave block are
pulled together and as a result the grab closes. During this process the hoisting cable is
kept slack to allow the grab penetrate deeper into the soil. In very soft soil, like silt or soft
clay, the hoisting cable is kept tight to prevent a too large penetration.
The movement and the accompanying forces are described in the proceedings of the
Wodcon 1992 in India of Steven Becker: The Closing Process of Clamshell Dredgers in
Water-Saturated Sand.
The calculation of the path of the grab and the occurring forces is done by solving the
equations of motion with the aid of the cutting theory for sand and/or clay. The friction
forces on the sides of the yaws must however be taken into account.
During the excavation the cutting edge follows a certain path through the soil (the
digging curve) due to the weight of the grab. During this movement the lower sheave
block moves upward and the upper sheave block downward (see also figure 7.8).
If the cable grab is outlined as shown in figure 7.9, than the closing curve of the grab, not
being the digging curve, can be determined as function of the opening angle .
and
xa = xc + b sin
ya = yc + b cos
Furthermore, xc = e , with which the relation between and can be determined:
The closing curve shows the path of the grab yaws compared to the grab head.()
Yc [m]
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Yc [m]
Fie [graden]
fie [grad]
80
Lambda [graden]
Closing curve
Xa [m]
Ya [m]
0.2
0.4
0.6
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
0.8
Xa [m]
1.5
2.5
3.5
2
C
Ya [m]
0.5
Y_closed
Y_open
Y_halfway
wire_curve
4
E
Figure 7- 20
comment: wire curve is closing curve
Y [m]
0
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
0.2
0.4
Y_A
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Y_E
.
For grabs where the rods are replaced with hydraulic cylinders the closing curve is like
the one in the below picture.(Figure 7- 22)
Closing curve for hydraulic clamshell
Xa [m]
Ya [m]
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Figure 7- 22
The cutting edge of the grab continues a downward motion when the grab hangs in the
hoist cable.
The closing curve is very important when dredging contaminated soils. Storage of these
soils is very expensive, so digging uncontaminated soils have to be avoided as much as
possible. There for grab dredgers dredging these soil types use horizontal closing grabs as
shown in
For production purposes the determination of the closing curve is insufficient. For this the
excavating of digging curve is necessary. This is determined by calculating the forces on
the grab yaws and the disc blocks at every moment of the closing process.
Therefore the following forces have to be known, both in magnitude and size.
ad 1.
The determination of the weights and the inertia forces of the different grab parts will not
give many problems.
ad 2.
For the determination of the cutting forces the linear cutting theories can be used, with
the remark that the cutting angles change during the closing. By dividing the excavating
process in a large number of discrete steps these theories can be used well.
ad 3.
This problem is the most difficult one. As long as the soil is shoved backwards in the
grab shell, the forces can be calculated with the passive soil theory, dependent on the way
the shear planes run. If however, except for backwards, the soil is also pushed above than
this happens from two sides. As far as is known there has not been any research of the
than acting deformations and therefore there has not been developed (yet) a theory. For
the calculation of the excavation curve can be referred to the earlier mentioned article of
Steven Becker that is realized in cooperation with the section dredging technology.
The calculation of the excavation curve is as follows:
Due to the weight and the drop speed the grab will penetrate initially into the soil.
To calculate this penetration the empirical formula of Gebhart can be used:
in which:
dm
=
Kf
=
B
=
h
=
s
=
Pc =
Vg SPE
F w Tc
= Fc vc
With Fc and vc the closing force and the closing speed of the closing wire.
The closing force Fc should be smaller than the closing force that can be
delivered by the closing winch.
7.7.2.
7.7.3.
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
50
100
150
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
200
Grab
T1 =volume
40sec. 10 m^3
Hoisting
speed
100 m/min.
Production [m3/hr]
H_time
Production
The maximum dredge depth also determines of course the size of the winch
drums for the hoist and closing cables of the grab.
The minimal dredge depth
The minimal dredge depth is determined by the required draught of the pontoon
and the related keel clearance. However it could well be that the minimal
dredging depth is not determined by the pontoon, but by the barges that transport
the dredged material.
7.7.4.
8.
8.
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.6.
Due to the anchoring by spud poles and the fixed boom and stick the dredging depth is limited
(maximum 25 m).
Some of these type of dredgers are self propelled.
In 1999, the biggest Backhoe dredger in the world was delivered by Shipyard "De Donge" to
"Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co". This dredger is equipped with a Liebherr P996 excavator
and can dredge with a 13 m3 bucket till an approx. 17 m. depth. The dredge can however
dredge till a maximum depth of 30 m. in case the boom / stick configuration is changed. The
maximum penetration/ breakout capacity is 170 tons! The weight of the excavator 470 tons!
During dredging the pontoon is lifted partly out of the water to create sufficient anchoring.
Besides that the dredger is in that case less sensible for waves. The bucket is positioned and
excavates the soil by means hydraulic cylinders on the boom and stick (Figure 8. 4).
The effective dredging area depends on the swing angle and the forward step per pontoon
position, which on his turn depends on the length of the boom and stick. On the mooring side
for the barges the swing angle is restricted. Swinging over the other side is mostly restricted
60 Larger angles are less effective (Figure 8. 5). The method is the same as for cable cranes.
Rsin
A eff = R sin L =
Step
2
RL
360
L=S
Effective Area
L'
Effective Width
Cut projection
R
2
Volume V
Width
Step
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
heaped capacity (SAE volume (SAE = Society of Automotive Engineers)): in this an extra
amount of soil with embankment slopes of 1:1 is calculated in.
heaped capacity CECE volume (CECE = Committee of European Construction Equipment):
same as above but with embankment slopes of 1:2.
afstrijkhoogte
Water Capacity
1
1
SAE Capacity
CECE Capacity
Figure 8. 8 Different capacities
Mainly the type of soil determines the filling degree of the bucket. In soft and sticky soils the
bucket is heaped, while in rock due to the shape of the boulders only a part of the bucket is
filled. Besides, the bulking (volume increase) from the soil plays a role too.
Soil type
Soft clay
Hard clay
Sand & Gravel
Rock; well blasted
Rock, unblasted
Filling degree
1.5
1.1
1
0.7
0.5
Bulking factor
1.1
1.3
1.05
1.5
1.7
The backhoe dredge IJzeren Hein is equipped with a Liebherr P 984 crane and is build under
the classification of Burea Veritas I 3/3 (-) Pontoon NP/Deep Sea.
The BHD Rocky, one of the most powerful backhoes, is provided with a DEMAG H 286S
excavator with 1230 kW and can be equipped with bucket varying in size between3 and 16
m3. She has a dredging depth of 25 m. The aft spud is executed as a walking spud.
Data from existing backhoe dredgers shows that there is hardly a relation between bucket size
and installed diesel power as well as between diesel power and lightweight (Figure 8. 12 and
Figure 8. 13).
1200.00
1800
1600
1400
800.00
1000.00
600.00
400.00
1200
1000
800
600
400
200.00
200
0.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
0
0
250
500
750
1,000
1,250
Lightweight of the pontoon is some what related to the total power installed (, while
lightweight is roughly 47 % of the pontoon volume (Figure 8. 16 and Figure 8. 17).
30
2
2500
R = 0.9778
20
2000
Power [kW]
25
15
10
5
1500
y = 4.4679x
R2 = 0.9936
1000
500
100
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
300
400
500
600
Figure 8. 14
Figure 8. 15
y = 0.4713x
1400
R = 0.6122
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
LBD [m3]
Length-width ratio and width-draught ratio are almost the same as for the pontoons of the
grab dredgers (Figure 8. 17).
L/B
B/T
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
Fc v c SPE = Qs =
With:
Qs
Vbucket
Tdigging
dlayer
Step
Wbucket
Production
Bucket capacity
Excavating time
Thickness layer
Step size
Width of bucket
m3/s
m3
s
m
m
m
The cutting speed can be calculated either by rotating the bucket or the stick.
Cycle times of the bucket depends on the dredging depth and soil type, but are in the order
between 20 and 40 seconds.
The cycle consists of:
Digging
Lifting and swinging
Dumping
Swinging and lowering
Positioning.
The step procedure takes more time, 5 to 10 minutes.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Points 6, 7 and 8 for the spud carriage system are only necessary when the stroke of the
cylinder to move the carriage is used.
Fcylinder =
l
a
zboom
Wboom
zstick
Wstick
zbucket
Wbucket
Finally, the moments and shear forces can be calculated in the boom and stick to depend the
dimensions of the boom and stick under dynamic conditions.