Topic 2

Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

Content

An evolutionary overview
Overview of meiosis
How meiosis puts variation in traits
From gamete to offsprings.

Why Sex?
Sex mixes up the genes of two parents, so offspring of sexual
reproducers have unique combinations of traits
Diversity offers sexual reproducers as a group a better
chance of surviving environmental change than clones
sexual reproduction
Reproductive mode by which offspring arise from two
parents and inherit genes from both

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

In flowering plants, pollen tubes with male gametes grow

down into the ovary, containing female gametes

Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis

Asexual reproduction produces clones

Sexual reproduction mixes up alleles from two parents
Meiosis, the basis of sexual reproduction, is a nuclear
division mechanism that occurs in reproductive cells of
eukaryotes

 In asexual reproduction, one parent transmits its genes

to offspring
In sexual reproduction, offspring inherit genes from two
parents who usually differ in some number of alleles
Differences in alleles are the basis of differences in traits

Introducing Alleles
Somatic cells of sexually-reproducing multicelled organisms
contain pairs of chromosomes: one from the mother and one
from the father
2 chromosomes of every pair carry the same set of genes,
except for the nonidentical sex chromosomes.
somatic
Relating to the body

Introducing Alleles (cont.)

The 2 genes of a pair are often not identical: Maternal and
paternal genes can encode slightly different forms (alleles) of
the same genes product
alleles
Forms of a gene that encode slightly different versions of
the genes product

Introducing Alleles (cont.)

Most genes have multiple alleles one reason individuals of a

sexually reproducing species do not look exactly the same
Offspring of sexual reproducers inherit new combinations of
alleles, which is the basis of new combinations of traits

Homologous Chromosomes
One chromosome in a homologous pair is inherited from the
mother, one from the father different forms are alleles

What Meiosis Does

Sexual reproduction involves fusion of reproductive cells from
two parents
Meiosis halves the chromosome number in reproductive cells
so offspring have the same number of chromosomes as the
parents
meiosis
Nuclear division process that halves the chromosome
number
Basis of sexual reproduction

Sexual Reproduction
The process of sexual reproduction begins with meiosis in
germ cells, which produces gametes
germ cell
Diploid reproductive cell that gives rise to haploid gametes
by meiosis
gamete
Mature, haploid reproductive cell (egg or sperm)
Gametes usually form inside special male and female
reproductive structures

Maintaining Chromosome Number

Gametes have a single set of chromosomes, so they are
haploid (n): Their chromosome number is half of the diploid
(2n) number
Diploid number is restored at fertilization, when two haploid
gametes fuse to form a zygote, the first cell of a new
individual

Key Terms
haploid
Having one of each type of chromosome characteristic of
the species
fertilization
Fusion of two gametes to form a zygote
zygote
Cell formed by fusion of two gametes
The first cell of a new individual

Diploid cells vs haploid cells

Diploid cells
Characteristic number of
chromosome pairs per cell
Homologous chromosomes
Similar in length, shape, other
features, and carry similar
attributes
Haploid cells
Contain only one member of each
homologous chromosome pair

The Process of Meiosis

Meiosis starts like mitosis, but sorts chromosomes into new
nuclei twice, forming 4 haploid nuclei
DNA replication occurs prior to meiosis the nucleus is
diploid (2n) with two sets of chromosomes, one from each
parent

During meiosis, chromosomes of a diploid nucleus become

distributed into four haploid nuclei

Consist meiosis I and meiosis II stages

Stages of
Meiosis

Meiosis I: Prophase I
Homologous chromosomes condense, pair up, and swap
segments
Spindle microtubules attach to chromosomes as the nuclear
envelope breaks up

Meiosis I: Metaphase I
The homologous chromosome pairs are aligned midway
between spindle poles

Meiosis I: Anaphase I
The homologous chromosome separate and begin
heading toward the spindle poles

Meiosis I: Telophase I
Two clusters of chromosomes reach the spindle poles
A new nuclear envelope forms around each cluster, so 2
haploid (n) nuclei form

Meiosis II: Prophase II

The chromosomes condense
Spindle microtubules attach to each sister chromatid as the
nuclear envelope breaks up

Meiosis II: Metaphase II

The (still duplicated) chromosomes are aligned midway
between poles of the spindle

Meiosis II: Anaphase II

All sister chromatids separate
The now unduplicated chromosomes head to the spindle
poles

Meiosis II: Telophase II

A cluster of chromosomes reaches each spindle pole
A new nuclear envelope encloses each cluster, 4 haploid
(n) nuclei form

How Meiosis Introduces

Variations in Traits
2 events in meiosis introduce novel combinations of alleles
into gametes:
Crossing over in prophase I
Segregation of chromosomes into gametes
Along with fertilization, these events contribute to the variation
in combinations of traits among the offspring of sexually
reproducing species

Crossing Over in Prophase I

In prophase I, chromatids of homologous chromosomes align
along their length and exchange segments (crossing over)
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange
corresponding segments during prophase I of meiosis
Introduces novel combinations of traits among offspring

Segregation of Chromosomes
Into Gametes
When homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I, one
of each chromosome pair goes to each of the two new nuclei
For each chromosome pair, the maternal or paternal version
is equally likely to end up in either nucleus
Each time a human germ cell undergoes meiosis, the 4
gametes that form end up with one of 8,388,608 (or 223)
possible combinations of homologous chromosomes

MITOSIS vs MEIOSIS

Mitosis vs meiosis

Key Concepts

Recombinations and Shufflings

During meiosis, homologous chromosomes come together
and swap segments
Then they are randomly sorted into separate nuclei
Both processes lead to novel combinations of alleles
among offspring

12.6 Mitosis and Meiosis:

An Ancestral Connection?
Mitosis makes exact copies of chromosomes; meiosis mixes
genes up and halves the chromosome number
Though their end results differ, the four stages of mitosis and
meiosis II are similar
Sexual reproduction probably originated by mutations that
affected processes of mitosis

Key Concepts

Mitosis and Meiosis Compared

Similarities between mitosis and meiosis suggest that
meiosis may have originated by evolutionary remodeling
of mechanisms that already existed for mitosis and, before
that, for repairing damaged DNA

From Gametes to Offspring

Gametes (eggs and sperm) are specialized cells that are the
basis of sexual reproduction
All gametes are haploid, but they differ in other details
Gamete formation differs among plants and animals

Gamete Formation in Plants

Two kinds of multicelled bodies form during the life cycle of a
plant: sporophytes and gametophytes
sporophyte
Diploid, spore-producing stage of a plant life cycle
gametophyte
Haploid, multicelled body in which gametes form during
the life cycle of plants

(c) Plants, some algae, and some fungi

Gametophyte (n)
(multicellular
haploid organism)
Mitosis

Mitosis

Spores (n)

Gametes (n)

Fertilization

Meiosis

Zygote (2n)

Mitosis
Sporophyte (2n)
(multicellular
diploid organism)

Gamete Formation in Animals

In animals, a zygote matures as a multicelled body that
produces gametes by meiosis of diploid germ cells
In male animals, the germ cell develops into a primary
spermatocyte, which undergoes meiosis to form four sperm
In female animals, a germ cell becomes a primary oocyte,
which undergoes meiosis to form one egg and three polar
bodies, which degenerate

(a) Animals

Gametes (n)

Meiosis

Fertilization

Zygote (2n)

Mitosis

Multicellular diploid
organism (2n)

Unicellular or
multicellular haploid
organism (2n)

(b) Simple eukaryotes

Mitosis

Mitosis

Gametes (n)

Meiosis

Fertilization

Zygote (2n)

Key Terms
sperm
Mature male gamete
Haploid product of meiosis
egg
Mature female gamete, or ovum
Haploid product of meiosis

Sperm Formation in Animals

1. A diploid male germ cell develops into a diploid primary
spermatocyte as it replicates its DNA
2. Meiosis I in the primary spermatocyte results in two haploid
secondary spermatocytes
3. Four haploid spermatids form when secondary spermatocytes
undergo meiosis II
4. Spermatids mature as sperm (haploid male gametes)

Egg Formation in Animals

1. A diploid female germ cell (oogonium) develops into a diploid
primary oocyte as it replicates its DNA
2. Meiosis I in the primary oocyte results in a haploid secondary
oocyte and a haploid polar body
Unequal cytoplasmic division makes the polar body much
smaller than the oocyte
3. Meiosis II, followed by unequal cytoplasmic division in the
secondary oocyte, results in a polar body and ovum (egg)

Key Concepts

Sexual Reproduction in the Context of Life Cycles

Gametes form by different mechanisms in males and
females, but meiosis is part of both processes
In most plants, spore formation and other events intervene
between meiosis and gamete formation

Fertilization
Two gametes fuse at fertilization, resulting in a diploid
zygote
Human sperm surrounding an egg during fertilization