Cathedral

For other uses, see Cathedral (disambiguation).

A cathedral (French: cathdrale from Latin: cathedra,

Interior of St. Marys Episcopal Cathedral, Memphis, Tennessee

with a procession.

churches, monastic churches and episcopal residences.

In respect of the church buildings in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the English word cathedral commonly
translates katholikon (sobor in Slavic languages), meaning
of assembly"; but this title is also applied to monastic
So Paulo Cathedral, a representative modern cathedral built in and other major churches without episcopal responsibilities. When the church at which an archbishop or
Neo-Gothic style.
"metropolitan" presides is specically intended, the term
kathedrikos
naos (literally: cathedral church) is used.
seat from the Greek kathedra (), seat, bench,
from kata down + hedra seat, base, chair) is a Christian Following the Protestant Reformation, the Christian
church which contains the seat of a bishop,[1] thus serv- church in several parts of Western Europe, such as
ing as the central church of a diocese, conference, or Scotland, the Netherlands, certain Swiss Cantons and
episcopate.[2] The counterpart term for such a church parts of Germany, adopted a Presbyterian polity that did
in German is Dom from Latin domus ecclesiae or do- away with bishops altogether. Where ancient cathedral
mus episcopalis; also Italian Duomo, Dutch Domkerk and buildings in these lands are still in use for congregational
cognates in many other European languages. Churches worship, they generally retain the title and dignity of
with the function of cathedral are usually specic to cathedral, maintaining and developing distinct cathethose Christian denominations with an episcopal hierar- dral functions, but void of hierarchical supremacy. From
chy, such as the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Orthodox, the 16th century onwards, but especially since the 19th
and some Lutheran and Methodist churches.[2] Church century, churches originating in Western Europe have
buildings embodying the functions of a cathedral rst ap- undertaken vigorous programmes of missionary activity,
pear in Italy, Gaul, Spain and North Africa in the 4th leading to the founding of large numbers of new diocentury, but cathedrals did not become universal within ceses with associated cathedral establishments of varythe Western Catholic Church until the 12th century, by ing forms in Asia, Africa, Australasia, Oceania and the
which time they had developed architectural forms, insti- Americas. In addition, both the Catholic Church and
tutional structures and legal identities distinct from parish Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within
1

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION

formerly Protestant lands for converts and migrant coreligionists. Consequently, it is not uncommon to nd
Christians in a single city being served by three or more
cathedrals of diering denominations.
In the Catholic tradition, the term cathedral correctly
applies only to a church that houses the seat of the
bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbacy serves the same function (that is, houses the
seat of the abbot), but does not acquire the title. In
any other jurisdiction canonically equivalent to a diocese but not canonically erected as such (prelature, vicariate, ordinariate, prefecture, apostolic administration), the
church which serves this function is correctly called the
principal church of the respective entitythough some The cathedra of the Pope as Bishop of Rome, Cathedral of St.
have coopted the term cathedral anyway. The Catholic John Lateran
Church also uses the following terms.
A pro-cathedral is a parish or other church used temporarily as a cathedral, usually while the cathedral of
a diocese is under construction, renovation, or repair. This designation applies only as long as the
temporary use continues.
A co-cathedral is a second cathedral in a diocese
that has two sees. This situation can arise in various ways such as a merger of two former dioceses,
preparation to split a diocese, or perceived need to
perform cathedral functions in a second location due
to the expanse of the diocesan territory.
A proto-cathedral is the former cathedral of a
transferred see.
The cathedral church of a metropolitan bishop is called
the metropolitan cathedral.

located facing the congregation from behind the High Altar. In the ancient world the chair, on a raised dais, was
the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishops role as teacher. A raised throne within
a basilican hall was also denitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate; and so the cathedra also symbolises the
bishops role in governing his diocese.
The episcopal throne embodies the principle that only a
bishop makes a cathedral, and this still applies even in
those churches that no longer have bishops, but retain
cathedral dignity and functions in ancient churches over
which bishops formerly presided. But the throne can also
embody the principle that a cathedral makes a bishop;
both specically, in that the bishop is elected within the
cathedral and is inaugurated by being enthroned within
the cathedral by acclamation of clergy and laity; and also
generally, in that the bishops essential qualications of
regular prayer, higher learning and musical worship were
for many centuries, primarily accessible through cathedral functions. In this there is a distinction between
those church traditions, predominantly those of Eastern
Orthodox Christianity but formerly also including Celtic
churches in Ireland, Scotland and Wales, whose bishops
came to be made in monasteries; and those church traditions whose bishops have tended predominantly to arise
through the ranks of cathedral clergy.[4]

The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to

the size or ornateness of the building. Nevertheless, most
cathedrals are particularly impressive edices. Thus, the
term cathedral is often applied colloquially to any large
and impressive church, regardless of whether it functions
as a cathedral, such as the Crystal Cathedral in California
or the Arctic Cathedral in Troms, Norway. Although the
builders of Crystal Cathedral never intended the building
to be a true cathedral, the Roman Catholic Diocese of
Orange purchased the building and the surrounding campus in February 2012 for use as a new cathedral church. 2
The building is now under renovation and restoration for
solemn dedication under the title Christ Cathedral[3] in 2.1
2018.

Denition

The word cathedral is derived from the Greek word

cathedra (seat or chair), and refers to the presence
and prominence of the bishops or archbishops chair or
throne, raised above both clergy and laity, and originally

History and organization

Origins and characteristics of the rst
cathedrals

The history of cathedrals starts in the year 313, when

the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted
Christianity and initiated the Peace of the Church. Indeed, in strict terminology, there could not have been
cathedrals before that date, as before the 4th century
there were no Christian cathedrae"; bishops were never
seated when leading congregational worship, but instead

2.1

Origins and characteristics of the rst cathedrals

presided standing on a raised platform or pulpitum. In

the third century, the phrase ascending the platform,
ad pulpitum venire, becomes the standard term for Christian ordination. During the siege of Dura Europos in 256,
a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae
was entombed in a defensive bank, surviving when excavated, in places to wall-top height. The Dura church
had been converted out of a large urban courtyard house
of standard form, in which two rooms had been knocked
together to make an assembly hall, capable of holding 6075 standing; while a tank had been inserted in a room on
the opposite side of the courtyard as a baptistery, with
rich wall paintings above it. The large room was indeed
found to have a raised pulptum at one end, big enough
for one person in turn to read, preach and preside from;
but too low to have been surmounted by a throne, and
too small to have contained an altar. Otherwise the large
room had no decoration or distinctive features at all.
In 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body
of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of
Antioch, Paul of Samosata, in the form of an open letter.
Amongst the accusations was that Paul, who had received
the civil rank of ducenarius due to contacts in the imperial
court, had improperly erected an enclosure, or secretum,
for himself in the church of Antioch; that within this enclosure he had erected a throne from which he presided
in worship; and that he had trained a female choir to sing
hymns of his own devising. These practices were all condemned as innovations, improperly importing the symbols of his secular Roman magistracy into church ritual;
while presumptuously and blasphemously asserting that
the person of the bishop in eucharistic worship is seated
in the place of Christ himself. Still in a hundred years,
all bishops in the Mediterranean world had cathedrals, all
sat on thrones within an enclosed sanctuary space, and
all had established trained choirs to enhance eucharistic
worship.
The driving principle underlying this change was the acceptance by bishops, more or less willingly, of an imperial invitation to adopt and maintain the duties, dignity
and insignia proper to a public magistrate.[5] Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a raised throne
in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall
called a basilica; and now bishops would do the same.
The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which
substantial remains are still visible (and maybe amongst
the very earliest to be built) is below the Cathedral of
Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. Dated
from a mosaic inscription between 313 and 319, the complex consisted of two parallel east-west aisled halls of
similar size; with a third smaller north-south cross-hall
connecting them, which has been interpreted as the presence hall of the episcopium or bishops residence. The
three halls create an open courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery. Surviving from both
large basilican halls are rich mosaic pavements showing
(amongst other scenes) Jonah and the Whale, and a series

3
of, mainly female, donor portraits. It appears that similar
cathedrals of double-basilica and baptistry were soon afterwards erected in Milan, Trier and Pavia; but that subsequently single-basilican churches became the more common cathedral model.
Constantines declaration of imperial favour towards
Christianity transformed all aspects of Christian life in
the Roman Empire. From being a minority religion,
largely conned to urban areas and restricted social
groupings, and subject to ocial hostility and occasional
persecution; Christianity acquired greatly expanded numbers of potential adherents of all classes, initially still
within city areas, but eventually extending out to the
pagus, the citys rural hinterland. The consequence was a
radical expansion in the buildings, funding and personnel
of associated Church establishments throughout the 4th
century. The rst cathedrals represent this expansion in
material form.

2.1.1 Buildings
The location and layout of the rst cathedrals varied substantially from city to city, although most, as at Aquileia,
tended to be sited within the city walls but away from
the urban centre; but certain elements are almost always
found.

2.1.2 Basilicas
Basilican halls had previously been characteristic of major civic complexes and military headquarters buildings;
but now became the standard structure for accommodating large Christian congregations. From now on, the term
basilica denotes any substantial church building. These
new basilicas were wholly dierent in scale from earlier Christian assembly halls, as they were also dierent
in form from any Roman non-Christian temple or religious structure. The halls were longitudinal, aisled, and
ooded with light from large clerestory windows. Floors
and walls were richly decorated with mosaic and inlay
usually in abstract or oral patterns. The two original double basilicas at Aquileia had both been about 37m
by 17m in size, but within 30 years one hall was quadrupled to 73m by 31m. This expanded basilica now demonstrated three additional features that became characteristic of early cathedrals; an enclosure at the eastern end of
the church surrounding the altar; a synthronos east of the
altar facing west, and consisting of a raised dais with a
centrally place bishops throne and benches either side for
the clergy of his familia; and a paritioned o narthex at
the western end into which catechumens would withdraw
during the central act of the Eucharistic liturgy.

Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION

alleged over-familiarity with pious women. As was common, Paul had been married when elected bishop; and
again, as was universally expected for a bishop, he had
then ceased sexual contact with his wife and no longer
cohabited with her. But his accusers charged that, by continuing to associate with other women (even without any
indication of actual impropriety) he was creating an unacceptable potential for scandal. To avoid similar such
occasions arising, it was necessary for the new cathedrals
to create male-only living quarters for the bishop and his
entire establishment; and since, in churches in the West,
all presbyters and deacons were also expected to live apart
from their wives after ordination, these living quarters,
the episcopium, were necessarily substantial in extent. In
addition to eating and sleeping quarters for ordained boys
and men, the episcopium also commonly provided private
dining halls for the hospitality expected of the bishops
enhanced social status, a private oratory or chapel for the
bishop, and often a bath house.

2.2 Finances

Cathedral Basilica of Saints Peter and Paul in Philadelphia

2.1.3

Baptisteries

The baptistery in the Dura church was about 1m square

and 1m deep; baptismal candidates could stand in it, but
could not be immersed. In the new cathedrals, as had
been the case before, only bishops baptised; and ceremonies were held not more than twice a year to allow for
suitable periods of instruction. So baptisteries needed to
be greatly increased in size, with associated accommodation to ensure privacy in undressing, anointing and redressing; and the baptismal tank, commonly octagonal,
was now fully deep enough for total immersion, and wide
enough to accommodate both the candidate and an assisting male or female deacon. Baptisteries commonly
adopted centralised plan forms derived from funerary
chapels; and are invariably separate from the congregational basilica.
2.1.4

Episcopium

Just as the episcopal residence was integral within the

complex of cathedral buildings, so too there was no distinction between episcopal, diocesan and cathedral property and endowments. In principle, all diocesan income
was paid into a common fund, and divided into four xed
shares for each main area of expenditure; the Bishop himself; the cathedral clergy; the fabric and lighting of cathedral and city churches; and charitable donations. Many
diocese already held substantial endowments, but income
increased enormously with the Peace of the Church;
partly due to imperial subsidies in kind, but mainly from
private bequests and regular private benefactions (often
called 'rst fruits); although at this date, tithe was never
paid to the church. In addition, many individual landowners supported private chapels and oratories on their own
property; and endowed independent charitable institutions, and eventually monasteries and nunneries too.
2.2.1 Bishops share
Augustine of Hippo estimated his personal income as
being 20 times that of his father, a minor civil servant;
and Augustine was by no means the wealthiest bishop in
North Africa. But in accepting from Constantine the status of civil magistrates, bishops were now also committed to substantial expenditure to maintain their new style
and status; and also to full the associated duties, for instance in employing qualied legal assessors to support
them when sitting as civil judges.

No one lived in the house church at Dura; such residential

facilities as the latrine and kitchen were removed in the 2.2.2 Clergy share
conversion. But cathedral complexes always included an
episcopal residence. Prominent amongst the charges that All ordained clerics attached to the cathedral were paid
had been directed against Paul of Samosata had been his through stipends from the general fund. This applied

2.3

Personnel

both to the clergy working directly within the cathedral

itself, and also to the clergy, called canonici attached to
churches founded by the bishop within the city. From
the end of the 4th century, as the mission of the church
extended more into rural areas, 'baptistery churches were
founded in more distant villages, so that rural populations
could receive the bishops baptism locally; and the clergy
in these churches also counted as canonici and drew a regular stipend.
2.2.3

Fabric share

Plentiful donor inscriptions show that most new church

building programmes; mosaics, roofs, furnishings, were
nanced by private donations. The costs of maintenance
and lighting, however, fell on the general fund. This also
applied to the churches, known as tituli, served directly by
the bishops clergy, generally also including any surviving
house churches from the period before the Peace of the
Church and the rural baptistery churches; but not to the
chapels, called parochiae, established by rural landowners for the convenience of their tenants. The bishop, in
respect of his civil status, was expected to contribute to
public works of general benet; aqueducts, bridges, watercourses.
2.2.4

Charitable share

In all cities, bishops dedicated substantial sums to the support of widows, orphans and the poor. Such donations
had been a strong feature of the church in earlier centuries, but tended then to be specically directed to the
Christian needy. Now the charitable compass became
general. Bishops were especially expected to take responsibility for raising ransom funds, where local persons had
fallen captive. In addition, it was expected that each diocese would support a xenodochium, a hostel for the homeless and strangers.

2.3

Personnel

Just as the status of the bishop was transfomed at the

Peace of the Church; so too was that of the male clergy.
With the bishop now resident in the episcopium the other
male clergy came to be recognised as his formal familia,
in mark of which male clergy now received the tonsure
by shaving of their heads; this being originally a Roman
badge of adoption. The early church had recognised the
orders of bishop, presbyter (priest) and deacon, but a
range of minor orders had since grown up in addition;
and all were tonsured. These orders now tended to be
understood as clerical 'ranks, equivalent to those in the
military, such that the male clergy are now often referred
to as a clerical militia. And as in the Roman military or
civil service, promotion was expected to follow the pinciple of cursus honorum, rising through the ranks, with

St.Martins cathedral in Spisk Podhradie (Slovakia).

the expectation that ideally, a minimum period would be

served in each. The female orders of virgin, widow and
(female) deacon remained explicitly outside the bishops
familia; and so they did not receive the tonsure and nor did
they progress through the cursus honorum. But all orders
of cathedral clergy, male and female, increased dramatically in numbers. Around 540 Justinian ordered that the
clerical payroll of Hagia Sophia should be strictly limited
to 60 presbyters, 100 male deacons, 90 subdeacons, 110
lectors, 25 singers, 100 doorkeepers and 40 female deacons; 525 in all.
2.3.1 Bishops
Bishops were at the head of the local church; but not explicitly within the cursus honorum, as appointment was
by election from the local clergy and people. Not surprisingly, the clergy tended to favour appointment of bishops
from within the ranks of cathedral presbyters; but local
lay choice often tended rather to outsiders, either a spectacular holy man, hermit or ascetic; or otherwise a senior
civil servant or diplomat, who might have favourable contacts to exploit at court. But most bishops came from the
curial class, that is those holding the hereditary rank of
decurion with the obligation to serve on the city council,
as only persons of this class and above would be likely to
have a full rhetorical education in Greek and Latin grammar; without which it was not possible for a boy raised
with a knowledge only of Late Antique vernacular speech
to express himself in approved classical linguistic forms.
2.3.2 Presbyters and archpriests
It was expected that the normal president at both the Eucharist and Baptism would be the bishop; who would celebrate in the cathedral and in titular churches in turn. But,
in practice, the bishop needed deputies for eucharistic
worship and also for the Divine Oce of daily prayer,
and this duty fell to the presbyters. The bishop selected
a senior presbyter as archpriest who acted as his o-

cial deputy in all ritual matters and as head of the familia. The archpriest was also responsible for the cathedral school. After the 5th century, there were no longer
state-supported secular teachers of rhetoric and grammar
in the West (other than in parts of Italy) and so the church
would have to educate its own.
2.3.3

Deacons, subdeacons and archdeacons

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION

2.3.5 Womens orders: virgins, widows and deaconesses

These orders had been of considerable importance in earlier centuries; but tended to be sidelined in cathedrals
from the 4th century onwards. So long as adult baptism
continued as a regular occurrence, female deacons would
continue to be needed for that service; but otherwise the
main factor maintaining these orders was a knock-on effect from the rule of continence applied to bishops, presbyters and deacons. When a man became ordained, and
moved into the episcopium with the rest of the bishops
familia; then there would usually also be a requirement
for support to their mothers, wives and daughters; and
the orders of widows and virgins respectively continued
largely for this purpose.

Just as the presbyters deputised for the bishop in ritual

matters, so the deacons deputised in administrative and nancial matters, especially in the raising and delivering of
charity. At the head of the diaconate was the archdeacon;
the bishops main deputy in managerial aairs. Originally
inferior in rank to the archpriest, the archdeacon by the
sixth century had established clear pre-eminence. Subdeacons assisted the deacons, but unlike them were allowed to marry after ordination; consequently many cler- 2.4 Functions
ics stopped the cursus honorum at this point, and it was
not unusual for a subdeacon to be elected bishop; and even Notwithstanding wide dierences over time in institutional structures and wider historical contexts; the key
Pope.
functions established for the rst cathedrals have tended
to remain as distinctive cathedral functions down the cen2.3.4 Doorkeepers, exorcists, lectors, acolytes and turies; a regular cycle of choral prayer; providing a forum
for civic leadership; a commitment to higher learning; and
primicerius
the promotion and dissemination of music.

The Patriarchal Cathedral of St. John Lateran, Rome.

St Johns Cathedral in Brisbane

In practice, the rst three of these orders tended to be

given together, and were typically applied to boys as
young as seven. These boy lectors were too young for
the grammar school, but were valued as choristers, and
so were included in the Schola Cantorum or choir school.
Originally under the responsibility of the deacons, the organisation of choirs was reformed by Pope Gregory the
Great, who introduced the oce of primicerius or head
cantor for this purpose. This proved a vital reform; as
without any comprehensive system of musical notation,
the only way that sacred music could be maintained and
passed on was through professional choirs of sound musical training undertaking cathedral worship and such
skills are not guaranteed to be present in high-ranking ec- Former Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams.
clesiastics.

2.6

2.5

Reformation

Rule of the clergy

The cloister of Canterbury Cathedral with monastic buildings beyond

Aachen Cathedral, Germany, founded by Charlemagne in 800
AD, coronation place of the Holy Roman Emperor.

two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of

some recognised order of monks, often the Benedictines,
while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound
2.5.1 Early Middle Ages: religious communities
by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons: hence the name
The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral of "canon". In this way arose the distinction between the
church is obscure, and in each case local considerations monastic and secular cathedral churches. Outside Great
aected its development, however the main features were Britain, monastic cathedrals are known only at Monreale
more or less common to all.
in Sicily and Downpatrick in Ireland.[6]
Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind In the case of monastic cathedral churches, the internal
of religious community, which, while not in the true government was that of the religious order to which the
sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a monas- chapter belonged and all the members kept perpetual resterium, the word not having the restricted meaning which idence.
it afterwards acquired. In this lies the reason for the
apparent anomaly that churches like York Minster and The alternative of this was the cathedral ruled by a secular
Lincoln Cathedral, which never had any monks attached chapter; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chanto them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. cellor, treasurer, etc., came into being for the regulation
In these early communities the clergy often lived apart in and good order of the church and its services, while the
their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married. non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual
residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being
In the 8th century Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz (743- performed by a body of vicars, who ociated for them
766), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathe- at the services of the church.
dral churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany
and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance
in England.
According to Chrodegangs rule, the cathedral clergy
were to live under a common roof, occupy a common
dormitory and submit to the authority of a special ocer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modication
of the Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who
was bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088, introduced it into
England, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his
cathedral church, but it was not followed for long there,
or elsewhere in England.

2.6 Reformation

Prior to the Reformation all cathedrals of Western Europe

were of the Roman Catholic Church. In England, much
of the structure of the monastic and cathedral system was
reconstituted during the English Reformation. Although
the cathedrals were retained by the now independent and
established Church of England, the monastic cathedral
chapters were dissolved by King Henry VIII and, with
the exceptions of Bath and Coventry,[7] were refounded
by him as chapters of canons with a dean as the head and
2.5.2 Late Middle Ages: monastic and secular other clergy as minor canons.
cathedrals
In Germany and other parts of Europe, with the spread
of the Lutheran Church, some ancient churches, like
During the 10th and 11th centuries, the cathedral clergy Nidaros Cathedral, Norway, and Lbeck Cathedral, Gerbecame more denitely organised and were divided into many, became the seats of Protestant bishops, as in Eng-

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION

This led, in many cases, to the institution of a new ocer

called the dean, who had charge of that portion of the
provosts duties which related to the internal discipline of
the chapter and the services of the church.
In some cases, the oce of provost was abolished, but in
others it was continued: the provost, who was occasionally an archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly followed in
Germany. In England the provost was almost unknown.
Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter
of Wells Cathedral, but the oce was afterwards subordinated to the other dignities and the provost became
simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. The
provost of the collegiate church of Beverley Minster was
Nidaros Cathedral, Norway, became Lutheran at the Reforma- the most notable instance of such an ocer in England,
tion
but at Beverley he was an external ocer with authority
in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and
land. Many new churches were built which serve the no vote in chapter.
regional administrative function of a cathedral. How- In Germany and Scandinavia, and in a few of the catheever, not all churches that function as the seat of a bishop dral churches in the south of France, the provost was the
are known as cathedral, the custom varying from place ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the oce was
to place, according to local tradition. Some are simply not common elsewhere. As regards France, of 136 cathedesignated church, as occurs at Budol Church, the dral churches existing at the Revolution, 38 only, and
Lutheran cathedral of Aalborg in Denmark.
those either on the borders of Germany or in the extreme
south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others
the provost existed as a subordinate ocer. There were
2.7 Roles
two provosts at Autun, and Lyon and Chartres had four
each, all as subordinate ocers.
2.7.1 Provosts

2.8 Secular chapter

Metz Cathedral, France, was governed by a provost.

In most of Europe, the earliest head of a secular church

seems to have been the provost (praepositus, probst, etc.),
who was charged not only with the internal regulation of
the church and oversight of the members of the chapter
and control of the services, but was also the steward or
seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The
latter often mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect
of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints
were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed
in worldly aairs, and was too frequently absent from his
spiritual duties.

Chapter House of Oulu Cathedral, Finland

The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries (there might be
more), in addition to the canons. These are the dean, the
precentor, the chancellor and the treasurer. These four
dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir,
are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church.

2.8
2.8.1

Secular chapter
Deans

The role of dean (from decanus) seems to have derived

its designation from the Benedictine dean who had ten
monks under his charge. The role of dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal
management of the church and chapter. In England every
secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was
originally elected by the chapter and conrmed in oce
by the bishop. The dean is president of the chapter, and
within the cathedral has charge of the performance of the
services, taking specied portions of them by statute on
the principal festivals. The dean sits in the chief stall in
the choir, which is usually at the west end of the south
side.

9
2.8.4 Treasurers
The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (custo, sacrisla, checier) who is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and whose duty was
to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist, and candles
and incense. The treasurer also regulated such matters as
the ringing of the bells. The treasurers stall is opposite
to that of the chancellor.
2.8.5 Other clergy

Interior of the Chapter House at Southwell Cathedral, England.

The stalls of St. Canices Cathedral, Kilkenny, Ireland, showing
the bishops throne and precentors stall.

2.8.2

Precentors

In many cathedral churches are additional dignitaries,

as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor, succentorcanonicorum, and others, whose roles came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular
churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the
monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the
ordinary canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate
prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the
common funds of the church.

Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor (primicerius,

cantor, etc.), whose special duty is that of regulating the
musical portion of the services. The precentor presides in
the deans absence, and occupies the corresponding stall
on the north side, although there are exceptions to this
rule, where, as at St Paul's, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the For the most part the canons also speedily became nonresident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and
precentors stall.
non-residentiary canons, till in most churches the number
of resident canons became denitely limited in number,
and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in
2.8.3 Chancellors
the common funds, became generally known as prebenThe third dignitary is the chancellor (scholasticus, daries only, although by their non-residence they did not
coldtre, capiscol, magistral, etc.), who must not be con- forfeit their position as canons, and retained their votes in
founded with the chancellor of the diocese. The chancel- chapter like the others.
lor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight
of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. The chancellor is often the secretary and librarian
of the chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor,
the chancellor is president of the chapter, and within the
cathedral is usually assigned the easternmost stall, on the
deans side of the choir.

This system of non-residence led also to the institution of

vicars choral, each canon having his own vicar, who sat in
his stall in his absence, and when the canon was present, in
the stall immediately below, on the second form. The vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable except for oences, were the servants of their absent
canons whose stalls they occupied, and whose duties they
performed. Outside Britain they were often called demi-

10

3 FUNCTIONS OF A CATHEDRAL

prebendaries. As time went on the vicars were themselves

often incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college,
under the supervision of the dean and chapter.

Many cathedrals are important landmarks. Cobh Cathedral, Ireland, rises up above the town.
The Palace of the Bishops of Havelberg in Wittstock, Germany.

nature, but may also be closely associated with the civil

and communal life of the city and region.

2.8.6

3.1 Symbolic functions of the building

Relationship of chapter and bishop

There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral

chapters and those of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese. In both cases the chapter
was the bishops consilium which he was bound to consult
on all important matters and without doing so he could
not act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the
conrmation of the chapter before it could be enforced.
He could not change the service books, or use of the
church or diocese, without capitular consent, and there
are episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a diocesan
chancellor, or vicar general, which still need conrmation
by the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the
bishops council in ruling the diocese has become a thing
of the past, in Europe.

The cathedral is frequently the most imposing building,

and one of the most ancient buildings in its town. The
great size and splendor of the cathedral may be out of
all proportion to the town itself. The money and talents
expended on the building are seen as honoring God, and
may also demonstrate both the devotion and the status of
the patrons.

Cathedrals are very often oriented east/west, so that the

worshipers look towards the rising sun, symbolizing the
Risen Christ. The architectural form of the building most
frequently has the ground plan of a cross. This form is
both functional and symbolic, its symbolism referring to
the cross on which Jesus was crucied. The form is liturgically functional as it allows the building to be divided
In its corporate capacity the chapter takes charge sede into sections where dierent activities take place, or that
vacante of a diocese. In England, however (except as re- are occupied by dierent people, such as the clergy, the
gards Salisbury and Durham),[8] this custom has never ob- choir and the laity.
tained, the two archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the sees of Canterbury or York is vacant the chapters of those churches
take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province
as well, and incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses
of the province which may be vacant at the same time.

Functions of a cathedral

The role of the cathedral is chiey to serve God in the

community, through its hierarchical and organisational
position in the church structure. The building itself, by
its physical presence, symbolises both the glory of God
and of the church. A cathedral, its bishop and dignitaries
have traditional functions which are mostly religious in

St. Marys Cathedral, Sydney has a typical cruciform plan.

The main body of the building, making the longer arm

of the cross, is called the nave, and is where worshipers
congregate; the term is from the Latin word for ship. The

3.2

Religious functions

cathedral is symbolically a ship bearing the people of God

through the storms of life.[9] The nave is also used for
major processions, which gather or enter at the furthest
door (liturgically generally called the West Door). The
aisles on each side of the nave facilitate the movement of
people within the building, without disrupting worshipers
in the central space.

11
portant part in the performance of the liturgy, cathedrals
generally have a pipe organ to accompany the choir.

Cathedrals always have a font or water basin at which the

rite of Baptism is performed, in which a person is formally accepted into the Christian church. The font is
often placed towards the door because the Baptism signies entry into the community of the church. In some
The arms of the cross are called the transepts and often cathedrals, most particularly in Italy, the rite of Baptism
contain a number of chapels. Farthest from the main en- is performed in a separate building.
try is the sanctuary where the Blessed Sacrament is laid
on the altar or communion table for the consecration.
Sanctuary means Holy Place. The word has passed
into modern English with an altered meaning because traditionally a criminal who could gain access to this area
without capture was thereby given the sanctuary of the
church.
Cathedral buildings of the Western European tradition
symbolize the progression of the Christian soul towards
Salvation. Many cathedrals of Eastern European tradition
are centrally planned. These churches are almost always
domed. The symbolism in these cathedral structures is of
the hierarchy of Earth and Heaven, and often reveals its
meaning through the internal decoration of the building
with frescoes or mosaics.
The baptismal font at Lbeck Cathedral, Germany

3.2

Religious functions

Music is an important part of cathedral services. Choir practice

at York Minster, England.

Apart from its organisational function as the seat of the

bishop, and the meeting place for the chapter of the diocese, the cathedral has a liturgical function in oering
daily church services. Most cathedrals have at least three
services of worship every day, often taking the form of
matins, Holy Communion and an evening service which
is often sung by the precentor and choir. There are often
additional services on Sunday. Cathedrals generally have
an area dedicated to the performance of choral services
and with seating specically for the choir and dignitories
of the church and town. This part of the building is called
the Choir or Quire, and is generally located between the
sanctuary and the nave. Because music often plays an im-

One of the functions of the cathedral is the reading and

expounding upon the Holy Scripture. The cathedral generally has a lectern from which the scripture is read. This
often takes the form of an eagle of brass or carved wood
which supports the book on its outstretched wings and is
the symbol of John the Evangelist. However, some cathedrals retain elaborate medieval structures on either side
of the church, one for the reading of the Gospel and the
other for the reading of the Epistle.
The function of expounding on the scriptures is traditionally performed from the pulpit which is generally constructed in such a way that the voice of the preacher is
projected out to the congregation. The pulpit is often
decorated with the winged gures of a man, a lion, a bull
and an eagle, representing the Gospel writers, Matthew,
Mark, Luke and John.[10]
The services that are held within the cathedral follow an
annual cycle. The designated scriptural readings for each
day of the churchs year establish a pattern which alternates periods of introspection and penitence with periods
of celebration, and is punctuated by the two great celebrations of Christmas and Easter.
Many cathedrals are places of pilgrimage to which people travel in order to worship or venerate a holy object or
the reliquary of a saint. Many cathedrals are regarded
as places that have provided rewarding religious experiences, where prayers have been answered or miracles
have taken place. Pilgrimage was particularly popular in
the late medieval period. Some cathedrals such as Santiago de Compostela continue to attract pilgrims.

12

3.3

4 BUILDINGS

Civic and social functions

The funeral of the Patriarch Alexy II in the Cathedral of Christ

the Saviour, Moscow

nounce that a service is soon to take place. They are also

used to convey information and celebration. The ringing
of peals signies a time of rejoicing, such as a wedding.
An extended ringing of peals or changes conveys a time
of great civic celebration. The slow tolling of the deepest
bell signies a death or disaster. Many cathedrals have
a clock with associated chimes which announce the time.
The bells of a cathedral are traditionally used to signal the
outbreak and the ending of war.
Cathedrals are often associated with signicant secular
organisations such as the oce of the local mayor and
council, the local court, the local regiment, schools, sporting organisations and service clubs. The cathedral often
has its own school, primarily for the education of choristers, but often including other children as well.

The cathedral, often being a large building, serves as

a meeting place for many people. The cathedral often
The formal cathedral services are linked to the cycle forms a centre of dierent activities related to commuof the year and respond to the seasons of the Northern nity service, youth activities, study, music and decorative
Hemisphere, Christmas falling in the winter and Easter arts.
in the spring. Cathedrals often hold a service of thanksgiving called Harvest Festival in the autumn.
Births, marriages and deaths are often celebrated by ser- 4 Buildings
vices at cathedrals and the cathedral often acts as a repository of local history by recording these events. The Main articles: Architecture of cathedrals and great
cathedral marks times of national and local civic celebra- churches and List of regional characteristics of European
tion and sadness with special services. The funerals of cathedral architecture
those famous within the community are invariably held Cathedral buildings, especially those dating from the Meat cathedrals. People who have served the community
or the church are often buried within the cathedral with
which they are associated. Alternatively, they may be
commemorated by a memorial. Some cathedrals, such as
Aachen and Rheims are the traditional coronation places
of monarchs.

Some cathedrals are major tourist destinations and World Heritage Sites. Pisa is one of the best known.

dieval period, are frequently the grandest of churches in

the diocese (and country). The ancient cathedrals of England, of Northern France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, GerCathedrals are important meeting places. After a service at Ss. many and Sicily, the Baroque cathedrals of South AmerPeter and Paul Cathedral, Sri Lanka
ica, and many individual cathedrals from Italy and other
parts of Europe, are among the largest and nest religious
Another civic function of the cathedral is the imparting buildings. Many are renowned for their architecture or
of signicant civil information. Announcements may be their decorative features such as sculpture, stained glass
to the populace from the steps of the cathedral, or within and frescos.
the cathedral itself.
While cathedral buildings, in general, tend to be large,
Most cathedrals have a bell or bells. These are used to an- size and grandeur have rarely been essential requirements.

13
Early Celtic and Saxon cathedrals tended to be of diminutive size, as is the Byzantine so-called Little Metropole
Cathedral of Athens. In Italy, with a few notable exceptions such as Florence Cathedral and Milan Cathedral,
cathedrals are numerous and are often similar in form
and size to monastic or large parish churches. In modern
times, where functionality is the foremost consideration,
a cathedral church may be a modest structure.

jects of both artistic and religious signicance such as

reliquaries. Moreover, the cathedral often plays a major
role in telling the story of the town, through its plaques,
inscriptions, tombs, stained glass and paintings.

For these reasons, tourists have travelled to cathedrals for

hundreds of years. Many cathedrals cater for tourists by
charging a fee to any visitors outside service times or requesting a donation or making a charge to take photos.
Cathedrals of monastic foundation, and some of secu- Cathedrals which are particularly popular tourist venues
lar clergy have cloisters which traditionally provided an sometimes provide guides, leaets, souvenirs and cafes.
open area where secular activities took place protected
from wind and rain. Some cathedrals also have a chapter
house where the chapter could meet. In England, where
these buildings have survived, they are often octagonal. 5 See also
A cathedral may front onto the main square of a town,
as in Florence, or it may be set in a walled close as
at Canterbury. There may be a number of associated
monastic or clergy buildings, a bishops palace and often
a school to educate the choristers.

Many cathedrals are pilgrimage destinations. Santiago de Compostela, Spain, is one of the most famous.

Cathedrals often contain a wealth of artworks. Tourists visiting

the interior of St. Stephens Cathedral, Vienna.

Architecture of cathedrals and great churches

Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England

4.1

Artworks, treasures and tourism

Many cathedral buildings are very famous for their architecture and have local and national signicance, both
artistically and historically. Many are listed among the
UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Many cathedrals, because of their large size and the fact
that they often have towers, spires or domes, have until the 20th century, been the major landmarks in cities
or in views across the countryside. With highrise building, civil action has been taken in some cases, such as the
Cologne Cathedral to prevent the vista of the cathedral
from being spoiled.
Because many cathedrals took centuries to build and decorate, they constitute a major artistic investment for the
city in which they stand. Not only may the building itself be architecturally signicant, but the church often
houses treasures such as stained glass, stone and wood
statues, historic tombs, richly carved furniture and ob-

Basilica
Cathedral architects in England.
Cathedral diagram
Duomo
List of basilicas
List of cathedrals
List of highest church naves
List of largest church buildings in the world
List of regional characteristics of European cathedral architecture
List of tallest churches in the world

14

7 FURTHER READING
Richard Utz. The Medieval Cathedral: From Spiritual Site to National Super-Signier. The Years
Work in Medievalism 15 (2001), 12731.
Andr Vauchez. La cathdrale. In: Pierre Nora,
ed. Les Lieux de Mmoire. Paris: Gallimard, 1997.
Vol. III. pp. 312234.

Chartres Cathedral, France, a famous landmark that draws both

pilgrims and art lovers.

References

[1] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, ISBN 0-19-860575-7

[2] New Standard Encyclopedia, 1992 by Standard Educational Corporation, Chicago, Illinois; page B-262c
[3] Desmond, Joan Frawley (August 19, 2013). The Crystal
Cathedral Becomes Christ Cathedral. National Catholic
Register. Retrieved May 15, 2014.
[4] Sterk, Andrea; Renouncing the World yet leading the
Church"; Harvard University Press; 2004; p8
[5] Eusebius. Life of Constantine. p. 4:27,2.
[6] Edwards, Kathleen (1967). The English Secular Cathedrals of the Middle Ages (2nd ed.). Manchester University
Press. p. 10.
[7] David Knowles; The Religious Orders in England Vol III;
p 389
[8] Till, Barry (1993). York Against Durham: The Guardianship of the Spiritualities in the Diocese of Durham Sede
Vacante. York: Borthwick Institute Publications. p. 31.
ISBN 0903857421.
[9] W. H. Auden, Cathedrals, Luxury liners laden with souls,
Holding to the East their hulls of stone
[10] T. Francis Bumpus, The Cathedrals and Churches of Belgium.

Further reading
Carl F. Barnes, Jr. Cathedral. In: Joseph Strayer,
ed. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. New York:
Scribners, 1938. Vol. III. pp. 19192.
Johnson, Paul. British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980. ISBN 0-297-77828-5.

15

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8.2

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File:Aachen_Germany_Imperial-Cathedral-01.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Aachen_
Germany_Imperial-Cathedral-01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CEphoto, Uwe Aranas
File:Canterbury_grass.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Canterbury_grass.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Luctor_IV' class='mwredirect' title='User:Luctor IV'>L</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Luctor_IV' class='mw-redirect'
title='User:Luctor IV'>u</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Luctor_IV' class='mw-redirect' title='User:Luctor
IV'>c</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Luctor_IV' class='mw-redirect' title='User talk:Luctor
IV'>t</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Luctor_IV' class='mw-redirect' title='User talk:Luctor
IV'>o</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Luctor_IV' class='mw-redirect' title='User talk:Luctor
IV'>r</a> 19:25, 5 July 2008 (UTC)
File:Catedral_Santiago060305_050.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Catedral_Santiago060305_
050.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Luis Miguel Bugallo Snchez (Lmbuga Commons)(Lmbuga
Galipedia)
File:Catedral_da_S_em_So_Paulo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Catedral_da_S%C3%A9_
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16

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Chartres_cathedral.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Chartres_cathedral.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:CobhCathedralAboveTheTown.jpg
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License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Allan Engelhardt
File:Funeral_of_Patriarch_Alexy_II-16.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Funeral_of_Patriarch_
Alexy_II-16.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.kremlin.ru/sdocs/news.shtml?day=9&month=12&year=2008&Submit.x=
0&Submit.y=4&value_from=&value_to=&date=&stype=&dayRequired=no&day_enable=true# Original artist: Presidential Press and Information Oce
File:Interior_Cathedral_Basilica_of_Saints_Peter_and_Paul_crop.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
a/a0/Interior_Cathedral_Basilica_of_Saints_Peter_and_Paul_crop.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
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Kilkenny_St_Canice_Cathedral_Stalls_2007_08_28.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist:
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