= Neutral Earthing of Marine Electrical Power Systems R. Ball BSc(Eng), ACGI, AMIEE and G. W. Stephens BSc, CEng, MIEE ‘YARD Limited, Consulting Engineers SYNOPSIS Ever since 380/440 V a.c. systems were introduced into ships in the 1930s it has been general practice to leave the neutral point unearthed, whereas UK industrial practice at 415 V has been 10 earth the neutral point solidly. The reasons advanced for the different philosophies are well known and the authors review them in the light of present-day requirements. Where higher voltages are used in marine applications, generator or transformer neutral points are generally earthed through current limiting resistors, the stated reason being that unacceptable overvoltages could occur if the neutral remains unearthed. The authors argue that overvoltages should not influence the method of neutral earthing in marine systems and put forward an alternative criterion, making recommendations appropriate to specific applications. INTRODUCTION “The fist marine electrical systems were installed in 1879 for the purpose of lighting and were of a low-voltage dc. sigle-wire hulle sign. It as only when steam turbines were adopted for fener ‘niiries became electrically driven and a higher Nolte, typically 220 V d.c., was used 1 reduce conductor size and fault eurrent. Due tothe increasing importance of the electrical loads {nd to the comparatively poor levels and quay of insulation ofthe time, two-nire unearthed distribution systems were incroduced 10 prevent the immectate loss of an essential service resulting from an arth fault. “The fist introduction of 2. systems into sips was by the US. inthe 19505 anda theee-phase 440 ViG0 system was selected i with US practice. As with the 220 V dae, systems, and particularly because of the need for high-integrity supplies generally in warships, these systems were opersied without any connection tothe ships hull, ‘Alter the Second World War, a. systems operating at volages in the region of 400 V were adopted, initially by other navies and then tadually In commercial shipping generally. The majority of these ystems were operated with an unearthed neutral end only a few ‘exceptions have been identified: a (0) MV Bergersford, built in the 1980s, had a resistance earthed neutral and made extensive use of earth fault rela.! (b) The Queen Elizabeth 2, completed in 1968, had solidly earthed peuirals on domestic and hotel service supplis.? {) Several vessels of the Danish Navy have been operated with ‘peutrals earthed through Petersen coils {(@) Some small vessels of German, Yugoslav and Australi ovigin ‘re understood to operate with neutrals solidly earthed. Systems with nominal voltages in excess of | kV. teerred thereat highvetiage systems, were a intedueed Into ships by the Amer: {ede during the Second World War Elecrialraamisson sat ed tocvercome ashoriage of gearing seme ane the power requlrement ouldonly relsieall be ret with high-voltage machines, The 28 KV Stectcaloystem wat sap rom astee! mil istrbution etm and folowed what was becoming the standard US practice ofething the neuvalot high-voltage systems. his resting fom adverse experience With overvltages om transmission lines inthe 1520s Marine high voltegeelecireal systems designed since the Second World War hve general fllonedthe practice oearihingthe neural thvough a resistance to limit art ful curren toa value which does tor exceeds and may be considerably less than, the alerator of Tanstormer fullfond curent. This con be asibted to the ase Of “Strematc earth ol locaton asiocited withthe higher levels ofeseth tu arena coming fear of orroius cei oo atthe systems apd tan ineesting pressure to ae industal ely. trent whith is normally used on earthed neutral sper, 2 Insecent years, however, tankersand other ships such as emergency support and similar vessels Gesigzned for North Sea operations have tometimes uzed high-vollage systems with unearthed neutals* This approsch avoids the need fer isolating transformers to meet classifica: tion society and statutory requirements where supplies passthrough hazardous areas, At the same time that, on offshore structures in the North Seo, electrical ystems ofall voltages Frequently have solidly earthed nevtrals, even in hazstdous areas, Figure 1 shows diagrammatically some specific variations in neutral earthing methods, RULES OF CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES AND REGULATORY BODIES Table I summarizes the ype of neutral exrthing arrangements permit- ted by each authority. The absence of any explicit reztiction hae been sssumed to imply epproval. ‘All ofthe authorities considered permit unearthed neutral systems con al types of vesrel regardless of voltage. The only special requir ‘ments are those inthe IEE and LRS regulations wih regard to insula- tion levels of igh volt tankers, where earthing of the neat by some authorities, ‘neutral earthing is generally permtted—with the provisoin rome eased ‘thatthe earth fult current should be kept within certain Bounds, This provio particularly applies to electric propulsion systems where the ‘nsximum permitted fault currents typeally 20 A, although LRS and the IEE Mate that for any high-voltage system the earth fault eurent should be limited to a value not exceeding the rated current of the tant with YARD where he is responsible for the engineering of warship electrical sys> tems. Hoving graduated from Imperial College London in 1870 he completed's Thick Sandwich Course with GEC- is tors and then worked in jed out research les a Stirling University where he obtal Technological Economies. Geoff Stephens, formerly @ Consultant with YARO, is now employed by MeDermott Engineering Londen in thei ‘Aberdgan office. He gradusted from Leeds University in ined with @ number of companies under the Scottish Electrical Training Scheme prior t joining YARD. Trans 1 Mar E (TM), 1982, Vol 98, Poper 32* MV Bergenstjord ESV Jo/air Punp/ thruster? E————) propulsion £ nnolors FIG. 1 Neutral earthing ingements Table : Earthing of marine power system neutrals: summary of ‘regulations REGULATORY _ Low VOLTAGE HIGH VOLTAGE BODY” General Tankers General Tankers wee = =a Ena 488 ED) a) Fa} £3) E é 7 Et) Es) = FINA Ea) ® ena) E en E enn E E Eth E = E elke e en E enn E __Earting of neutral permite, Uns Lioyes Regster ef Shipping ABS American Bureau of Shipping Det Norste Vertos. BV Bureau Verte Resisro allan Nevale NRK Nippon Kall Kyoba TEC. Intemational Elecrotechiesl Commission. IEE _ Instution af Electrol Eng IEEE Insitute of Elerisal and Elctonies Engineers {11 Providing any possible resulting eutret does not flow through 3 hssersoue sea, (2) Ean foul currant tobe ied to a (9) Ean faut cument in electric propulsion systems 10 be limited to ‘ypially less thon 20 A. load current of argest Trans 1 Mer E (TM), 1982, Vol. 95, Paper 32 largest generator but at least three times that requited to operate the arth fault protection. ‘The IEEE (of the USA) are unique in recommending that the ‘neutral should be earthed through an impedance of init value commensurate with preventing the earth fault current from exceeding the three-phase faultcurrent t would appear that thisis to ensue that "he earth fault current is adequate 10 operate main overeuriem protec: ion. thus avoiding the cost of earth leakage protection, while atthe same time timiting generator earth feult contributions to the threes hake level to avoid excessive sitchgearfoult duty requirements, ‘The authorities are clearly divided on the issue of neutral carting in tankers. ABS, NKK and the IEEE permit earthing ofthe neu low-voltage tanker systems. ABS state that the earth fault cure propulsion systems should be limited t9 20 A while both NKK and IEEE prohibit the use of earthed neutral supplies in hazarcovs areas, ‘thigh voltage, all authorities except BV and Da permit earthing of ‘the neviralin tankers. LRS and the IEE stipulate maximum earth fault curents and LRS, RINA. NKK, IEC, the TEE and the IEEE all prohibit the use of earthed neutral supplies in hezatdous areas ‘To summarie, withthe exception of tanker systems, treatment of the neutalisleft othe discretion ofthe electialsystcin designer, Jong 25 certain requirements such a8 equipment insu imits of earth fault current are complied with, INSULATION LEVELS ‘There is no dovbr that overvoltages due to all causes on unearthed neutral systems tend to be larger than thote on earthed neutral sys ‘ems. The question is whether, on marine ystems, the commonly sed two times line voltage plus 1000 V (2Un + 1000 V) test adequately Proves the main insulation of equipment for use on unearthed neutral Systems; and whether itis necessary to supplement this test in specific applicetions with an interwura tes for equipment primary wincings. ‘The effect of overvoligges on equipment in an a. system depends ‘onthe magnitude snd frequency of the overvotage. The frequences fall into three broad categories: (2) Power frequency (©) Kitohere {e) Megahere Both power frequency and kilohertzovervolags srs the isla sion ofl parts of equipment andthe system, Sustained power fe quency overvoltages accu due to automatic votoge regulator (AVEO) talre and to earth faults on unearth an resonany earthed thee” ‘Phase epsems, Figure 2 shows the variation of sustained overvlioge Phoseie-earth lovervoltoge felted tosis >> {mati of normal) 4 3 2 + a 0 50k Capacitive neutral earthing Inductive neutral eorthing positive sequence impedance inegative sequence impedance S~40 for marine unearthed neutral systems «for perfectly tuned Petersen coll system on of sustained evervoltage with neutral teactance during a single earth faultwith copacive and inductive netral earthing reactance. Such over- Noltaget can be tstined for some time but wil not exeeed fwice norm on marine systems and are not ikely to rerlt im damage to "slain inthe shor term. Overvotage in he blohet ange result {fom interrupor or fuse current chopping and, on low-loss unearthed devia stems, ntermitenaring eat aul. The exact requeney ofthese overoltages i determined BY the natural frequency of the System on which they osu Megahertzovervolage, Le. voltage surges with rige times of 2 ivcrosecond ot ess, occur during opening and closing of nerrplors ‘These surges are due to presiike of multiple regntion between interruporconacs and they do nt penetate he primary windings of equipment, prtslry thse of rotating machine, Tis de tthe apantance between individual winging an earth and, as shown in Fig, 3,up to 10% ofthe peak volgge can appear sero the line end ois ih severly stesinginterurninulstion.* This type of over Soltage oscars on eerthed and unearthed neutral syseme ake. The ‘hareccritis of the ovevotages ely to occur on marine systems are summarized in Tale Tl. is Tecan be seen that the only really significant overvoltages which are influenced by he nestel earthing method ae those due fo the inter tnittntarcingearth aul ontonrless unearthed neural systems. Ian te shown that, if damping and ineephase capacitance sre ignored, then hese phase to-eath overvetage can reach 7.5 times the normal raied values However, even on high-vltoge tanemisson lines where dielectric losses ar smal especialy at the typical natal frequencies of tens of tera, considerston of eamping and interphoee capacitance reduces the peak overvollages fo lets than st tines normal® When marine systems are considered, dieleti loses are mich higher, pareslarly the typical natral frequencies of severl Kloherts, snd the peak vervltages are further redvced, Indeed, consideration of sable los fs slone sometimes shows that damping is greater than eval and ths onilstory overvolagesin the hlohert ange just cannot occur ‘earetherireot hopin hatin enashuldbe cried ‘outon the primary winding of al equipment, regardiess of he neta farthing method proposed. Purthermote, we tuggest hat, fs routine hose to-arth winding tet level of tie ated vltage pl 1000 Vis [equate for equipment intended for se on earthed nevtal system, them it wil also be acequate Tot equipment intended for tse 0 Unearthed neural systems. This argument is supported by the fet that, of nine regulatory bodies whose rules were seamined, only the TEE ond LRS rake any cstinevon between tet levels for eathed snd theared neural stems, and manufacturers ean ready meet the Speeal requiement for unearthed neutral system vith standard SGuipment METHODS OF NEUTRAL EARTHING “The neutral ofa three-phase ac system can deliberately be earthed by the following meses: (a) solidly: (©) through a cessto: {e) through an inductance. ‘An unearthed system i in foc effectively earthed at she neural by @ large capaciive reactance, due to the phase-to-earth capacitance of the phase conductors throughout the sytem. Table I: Characteristics of system overvoltages ° i 2 Rise time (ys) FIG. 3 Proportion of surge voltage appearing across line end, coil of machine wi FIG.4 Earth fault on system with unearthed neutral DERIVATION WAGNTTUDE TT cause Wine vols) FREQUENCY —2.3AV system BB RV system. 11 AV system Generator AVA Tao zoe Powertieg SB ine Terms Teams Solid earth fault a Powertteg. 33ime ° G6 rma iron intermittent earth fout® = BLV2. U3) ir TES peok Speak 58 peak Fuse eurent chopping 2652: Pe kee pee 23 peak 538 peat Eonar curentenopping Zi (V2UV3) ie 15 eat 21 beak Presnie Ssivzuivaio7s Me 121 peak to peak 21 peak io peak 36 peak ro peak ukiple reigition sivzuvar Nie 22 peak to peak {9 peck to peck 72 peak to peak Detinivons: Notes: Cra tine votape *Oniy applicable to insulted neutral, Peterson el snd, 1 a leer tr = Ratio of evervotage to phase vet 4 Trans 1 Mar E (TM), 1982, Vol. 95, Poper 32i .. Be be =| +48 «ran rn crt eee FIGS Earth fault on system with resistance earthed neutral 1 should be noted as s general festure that, where the neutral is solidly earthed, avervoltages during estth foulte willbe minimal but arth fault currents wil be high this may result in considerable dam- ‘ge atthe fault location. In contrast 2 high neutral earthing impedance reduces earth fault currents but sesults in higher steady-state and transient overveltages. In marine systems, these overvlioges ate never greater than those that ean occur duc fo the switching surges ‘which a system must be designed to withstand, either with adequate insulation levels or by vsing surge arrestor Unearthed neutral system ‘The principal feature ofthis system that in mast cases the earth fault current i So small thats single earth fault can be tolerated without significant damage occurring and without a fre hazard or risk of eclation to 8 phase fault arising. Providing the insulation of the Inealthy phases is sound, the magnitude of the fault corrent depends enlirely on the phase-to:earth capacitance of the two heathy phases ‘The faut eurcet path and vector diagram are shown in Fig. 4. ‘The phase-to-esrth or phate-o-hull capacitance of a marin elec- trial system arses unavoidably due to the proximity of eables and conductors to the bull structure and also of machine windings 10 eatthed stator cores. Additional capacitance is added, particularly in ‘warships, by radio frequency inesference (RFT) suppression eapac- ‘Typical values of phase-o-earth capacitance for low-salt power systems lie in the renge 1-5 pF per phas Increase by a facir often as Fesull of RFF ca sjstem voltage and frequency of 450 V/60 Ha, this gives earth (alt currents in the range 0.110 0.5 A, increasing to perhaps 5 A where lange numbers of RFT capacitors are installed, “The advantages ofthe sal earth fault current in low-capacitance systems can be considerable in certain applications, but must be offset agsinst = number of disadvantages inherent in them: (6) The earth aultcurrentistoo small to opereteconventionatearth fault relays, s0 fault location mustbe carried out manuslly. This spe marine hough this can Trans 1 Mar E (TM), 1982, Vol. 95, Paper 32 can be difficult and tedious even where special equipment is fied, airaae te (b) Fast taut location is necessary ifthe integrity of the sytern iso bbe maintained, (©) Step-down transformers and double-poe switches and fuses are equited to supply twovwie lower-voltage subieuit, High-resistance neutral earthing ‘The use of this technique became popular frst in the USA 353 means ‘of Limiting the intermittent earth fault overvoltage on unearthed weute ‘al high-voltage transmission systems. The value of neutral resistance as chosen 1 give an earth fault current equal oor greater than le, where Jeis the per-phase capacitive charging current. This prevented charge from building up on the system during an intermitent earth fait and so limited the overvotage. Such overvoltages are not a problem on marine systems, however, because oftheir higher losses and consequent heavy dampi resstance neutral earthing is used for other reasons, principally at igh cltage 10 provide level of earth fault current which makes automatic isolation ofa fault practicable. The value of resistance used lor this purpose typically limits the earth fault current oles than 20 A and is ‘dctermined by protection relay requirements, The faut current path and the associated vector diagram are shown in Fig 5 ‘Where the earth fault curren is limited wo a value athe order of Je, itissometimessmall enough toenable awamning tobe given rather than, isolating the feult automaticaly. Although this etsins one of the posible advantages ofthe unearthed neuiralsystem itis not advisable, apecially at higher voltages, becouse of the risk of escalation to's phase-tosphase fault. For equal resistive and capacitive fault current ‘Components, the energy dissipated atthe fault is twice that from the purely capacitive fault current of the unearthed neutral system. In Addition, such small fault currents ean only be detected with sensitive arth fult relays and these may operate spuiously during three-phase faults, upseting discrimination. Solid neutral earthing ‘The practice of solidly earthing» power system neutral is well este Used in Indy general and he elenely supply neusy partulr. tr domestic application. teaser a maxim ea ult Eurret wih minimam overoltages on fealny poser nd «inn Sisconection ime il st higher vapeur masa alt furtent when external zero sequence impedances sa eure, uch ae an ransmsion ines The parcuarabsniage of ep the method Shere earth loop impedances are fw that earth os eerste Shortteit protection an therefore donot requests oneal iccaion Caution must be exercised inthe use of slid neutral earthing in ceria sppiions, such a when caning generator neu poe ‘The phasetorncutal fut coment of a peacravor Hed Oy the {eteftor sero sequence reactance ad thf ca be couldersb snk fer than the positive sequence reatence wich isthe phase Base felt current. Consequently sala earthing of pengtter na {ral can result in an carth fault conrbation of ap wes times ‘onmal symmetrical thre-phase vale. Thisncests the uty oh he Switgeain the system aca cute consdeabe core damage to machine ion interalcerth fash develop, ‘A lrierpriem in said earthing pverator neta ocr it swe such machines are ru in pera. He neva earns frm a path forth harmonte dialing caten whichcan cause oretheaiagat the gerertors and spurious operation of recon equipenent mens toring the neutral connections. Ths protlemcan be chimiated ier by designing the generators to havea neler harmoncoutpt, of by ensuring hat the neta only ever earthed at ne point on i Phe ae of 5 hich gives ph ost of enctator winding artangement which gives a phase ‘oltge with nelle third harmon conten’ unfortsetely reduces the utpat of given frame sae by 12 to 15%, whieh may wake ak ¥batracive option. The second option eli ulesdrowdacks ah Elona switching equipment fequired vo ensue hatte eat sraniinedimeapectve of gensratorsvaiabily, Further the earthed generator safle an nea the cath fact eure (hich may seedy exceed the theeepase faut caren hen fae ning in pall with other geveraion Gre othe advantages of the ody earthed newralis that it isnot necessary to provide Separate ea lt protection since te oak Surcenis sully large enough oopeetehesorcire oreeatet 5protection instantaneously. Problems can arise however. where fuses fare used and where there is no means of inteerupting the supply 19 healthy phases fone phase sulers an earth fault. Firsts if the lead feo ‘tor it ay burn out if supplied with only twa phases, son such coses Single phasing protection is desirable Second iis possible thet the healthy phases can eause a hackcfeed through the load into the fault at a level of fault curtent which will not cause operation of further fuses, Such faults have resulted in large-sesle destruction of plant in the tsa. Low-resistance neutral earthing “This method of neutral earthing s normally only wsed asa compromise Jn applications where solid or high resitence earthing cannot be applied. For example, itis possible that e substantial carth fault ccrtent may be required for relaying purposes, which precludes the use fof a high resistance, and solid earthing could vest in excessive earth fault current, particularly when applied to generators. The value of resistance will typically be chosen to limit the earth fault current to bberween 200 and 400 A, 2 required forthe protection, bu in the ease ‘of penerator it may be selected to limit the earth fault curcent tothe symmetrical three-phase shortcteut value, or the follload eusrent, simply to avoid stressing the switehgea ‘The need for s larger earth foult current than is available wi bigh-resitance earthing arises where earth foult relay eurrent transfor: rers have to withstand very large phase-to-phase through fault cur- ents without eausing tripping. Where earth (ult relays withesensiiv- ity of the order of LA are specined for a high-redstonce neutrel earthed system with prospective shor-cirevit fault curents Of the order of 25 000 A or more. correct cicrimination cannot be guaran: teed and less sensitive earth fault celays may be required 10 aveid spurious operatin.! Inductive neutral earthing “The besthnown wie ofan inductive reactance for neutral earthing is the speci application of the tuned Petereen coll o high voltage {eansmision ies. This technique Was invented by W. Petertenin 1 nd Involves selecting an ering inductance ofnerideniea reac nee at power frequency to the phae-o-earth capacitance of fo Dass the ne and the asocatedequipment Tlsthenefectively Cancel the capactve fault curren of what would otherise be as Unearthed weuteal sytem “Another way of considering hisisthat, under earth foultconditon, the inductance forms a tuned efeit st power frequency withthe apacitnce of the two heslthy phases which blocks the Now of fault Eurten. Fo this reason the method is often referred to 2s resonant neutral earthing. Figote 6 shows the vestor cationship between the foul current component. ‘feature of he Petersen coll neutral earthing method whichisoften ‘overlooked. and which in fact more important than complete pression of ihe earth ful current ithe very slow transient recovery Yottge following faut clearance, Even with a de-tuned stem, the Telly phase takes several power frequency cycles o eure to ariel phaseloearh volage. This character makes this method of veut Falearthingparcslrysutoble for dealing with ansiest fouls such 2 lighning sikes. The earth fault current is suppressed to @ el xxinguishing level without interuption of the supply andthe ac path Sas considerable time to regain dlecuie sent Severe miamateh between the nesta caring reecor and the system eapactanc wl result inthe recovery volge extce formal phase over vllge: but the vera {wie the normal and it will ake one or more power euency tyeles to btsin the maximum. ‘Ashe ingoctiv resetance i reduced below the value necessary for resonance, the earth fault eutent wil rie towards thot ofthe low. tesstance earthed nettal system, The ue ofa small esctanee in hs way offer to advantages over an equivalent resistance: (6) High fout ratings ate more easly achieved where necessary. especially at high voltage, resulting im reduced bulk and cost (8) If used for earthing generator neural, three times the im- pedance is presented 10 any thtd harmonie eirulatng current, Increasing the neutral earthing reactance above the resonant value is hile, since the earth fault current becomes capackive and tends towards that ofthe unearthed neutral system, ‘With mari svstems, the use of resonant earbing rises the probe Jem of changing the inductive reactance io match ihe changing system 6 % K 4 JG sas “Olt hy = hth KR FIG, 6 Earth fault on system with resonant oF Petersen coil earthing ‘opacitance. Untike a transmission network which has a predictable if not ned capacitance, marine stems generally have many conga ions. Since the object of changing the inductive earthing reactance is to mainiain the product V(LC) approximately constont this can be schieved toa reasonable approximation by arthing gencrators indie Vidvally. As the load and hence the eapaciance insfesses,s0 more generators are requized and, in connecting these, the neural earthing, Feactors ate poraleled—this reducing the inductance. Even if the lystem is de-tuned, for example during ttar-up, where loads are ‘minimal, the earth fault current wll slways be les than the unearthed fault current without Petersen coil, BASIS FOR SELECTION OF A NEUTRAL EARTHING METHOD ‘Analysis of neutral earthing methods and of overvoltages and faults in marine power systems has led 10 the following findings (2) There slit 10 choose berween neutral earthing methods under normal steady-sate conditions. (©) Major differences become evident under transient conditions, particularly during earth foals, (6) At the Gesign stage, earth fault overvoltages and overcurrents ‘an be interchanged by variation of the neutral earthi pecance. (4) There is no evidence that enhanced insulation levels are neces- sory to cope with earth fault overvoltges inthe normal marine system voltage range (.e. less than 19 KV), {) In marine systems, switching surges are likely 10 impose the ‘moat severe siesseson insulation and these are independent of the neutral earthing method, Since insulation levels do not have te differ according tothe method of neutral earthing, there is freedom to select» partcsler method. sccording tothe desited earth fault current value, The magnitude Of the earth aultcurrentis fundamental in that, with very few exceptions. allthe diferences between neutral earthing methods in acess sucha Trans I Mar E (TM), 1982, Vol. 95, Paper 32tty and operational and commercial implications cam be described terms of the prospective earth fult current. The neuiral earthing methods hove been grouped ino thee brosd gories based on earth fault current, namely “high, “low and ttmediate' earthing impedances. The “high’ impedance category ‘prises systems with an earth fault current ofthe order oft A a less Sineludes Petersen coll, most unearthed (eapaciively earthed pw resistance earthed nevtral systems, The low" impedance cates "eovers solid and low resistance of inductance earthed neutral ss where the earth fault current is arge enough to operate short: i overcurrent protection instantaneously. The “intermediate” ‘gory comprises al designs with an earth fault current that falls in tween the ‘high’ and “iow” categories, which includes most high: istance ané inductance eanthed neutral Gesigns and also some low istance and inductance earthed neutral designs. igh’ impedance systems is type of system offers the following advantages: 2) very low Bre hazards, ') minimal earth fault Rash hazs 2) minimal earth fault protection costs, {above most be balanced spain the following disadvantages: ') Fault location isa manual job because itis not economies or in somecares even Teasble, io install earth oul relays of sufficlent sensiivity “b) Feultlacation must be carried out quickly tsvoid unpredictable protection sponte toa 4econd earth fault on another phase i) Careful design i necessary to ensure tht the potential benefits ‘ofbeing able to operate with sustained eorth foul ate relive ‘The most commonly used"high' impedance method isthe unearthed stral system, Use of a resistance to achieve rhigh" impedance cathe oud cost mate than the unearthed option and offer no advan since it neresses the earth fault current without resulting in any fault locaton. The use ofa Petersen coil uld also ental more eapital expense then the unearthed design; but ould at leat offer the minimum earth fault current, The unearthed neutral system suffers the disadvantage that at low hhage, step-down transformers are requited for contol purposes and single-phase supplies, and thatthe associated sub-circuite should be otected in both poles. However, it should be noted thatthe some ‘ssback applies fo any threewire three-phase supply (without hull urn), regardless ofthe neutral esthing metho« With’ regard to earth fault location in "high" impedance earthed tute systems, one method that seems feasible but has nat been served during thisstudy isthe use of fault akingswitch connect porary the neutral solicly to earth at 3 convenient time. This ‘sid operate the short-circuit overcurrent protection on the foulty uit(s), simplifying fault location without losing any of the advan~ ses ofthis type of system, nefits such as automat termediate” impedance systems is design offers the following advantages: () Earth four relays ean be economically provided fr the automa tic isolation of earth fault (©) Earth fault currents ates small enough to avoid significant fault damage, () The earth fault ash hazard is sil not significant. te crawbacks associated with the intermediate fault eurent are as lows (2) Earth fault protection equipment is a separste capital item which will alto require maintenance, (b) Folure of earth fault protection ean create fie risk. (6) Sustained operation with on esrh fault ie nox possible, “Intermediate' neutral earthing impedances are normally obtained “the use of a resister. although there is no teason why 9 suitable 3 used instead. Where-a system is being designed to ments of classification societies, the range of permiss- {e earth fault eurtents is often restricted but. in general the value of ‘eneviral earthing impedance i defined by the requirements of the fault protection. In’ highsresistance neutral earthed sytem, the prospective corth wft current will not normally exceed about 20 A, but shovld be at 2st three times that regu to operate earth fault relays, However, ‘likely through-faul current during three-phase faults must also be cnsidefed, so that spurious operation of eversensitive earth fault ‘tection is avoided. This ean lead to need lors considerably higher rans 1 Mor E (TM), 1982, Vol 95, Paper 32 prospective earth fault current, but the disadvantages of solid neutral farthing can sill be avoided, “Low” impedance systems ‘The tow’ impedance systems offer the advantage of automatic opera- tion of the overcurrent protection when an earth fault occurs, thus immediately eevealing the fault lestion snd minimizing the duation ‘ofthe fault. Thisis achieved atlesscostthan where separate earth fault telays are provided, but must be alfset against the following drew backs: (a) increased fire risk. particularly at low voltage: (b) increased earth fault Rosh hazerd, (6) problems with the earthing of generators: (4) sustsined operation with earth fault definitely not possible: {¢) earth fault loop impedances must be tested on 3 repular Dass: (9 fre hazard where fuses are used as the only means of protes- tion on large three-phase feeders Where ow’ impedance neutral earthing is employed, probably to obiain automatic [eult location with minimum protection coms, then the neutral shouldbe solidly earthed whenever posible since introduc ing impedance into the e2tth fault path teduces the effectiveness of short-cireuit protection in detecting earth fault. Where the benefits of solid neutral earthing are desired and itis intended to earth generator nevtrals a small impedence is sometimes inserted in the neural connection to init harmoni circulating curent ‘or to limit the phose-to-earh fault eureat tothe three-phase evel In this ease. alow reactance ean offer two advantages over a low resist= nce. Fis it presents three times the impedance to third harmonic cortent, thereby enabling a smaller impedance at power frequency. Second, at high voltage, when high foul ratings ave required Jue 10 protection delays, a reactor ean be thesper and more compact CONCLUSIONS ‘There is no "best method for neutral earthing in marine power sys° tems. Each application requires careful assessment of al safety, oper ational snd commercial aspects ‘The level of insulation required in marine systems, particulary for ‘ating electrical machines, does nat depend onthe method of neural earthing adopted. The mast onerous overvoltages are switching surges Which are independent of the neutral earthing method, ‘We propose that earth fault current isthe moet ru which to base a choice of earthing method, For simplicity, three earth fault current ranges with associated earthing impedances have been defined: "high, “intermediate” and “ow ‘High’ impedance neutral earthing is appropriate for hazardous areas and for situations where immediate continuity of supply t0 ‘unduplicated essemial loads is necessary. termediate" neutral earthing impedances enable automatic earth {aul location without excessive fault damage. ‘Low’ impedance neutral earthing offers tomatic earth fault loea- tion at minimum cost and with minimum overvoltages on healthy [Phases and is therefore appropriate for domestic and hotel leads. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘We wish to thank the Directors of YARD Limited and the Departe meat of Trade, Marine Division, for permission to publish this pape also our colleagues in YARD. and both Mr R. L. Ames and Mt D. Smith of LSE for advice and asistance, and all who responded 10 the ‘peas for information at the start ofthe study on which tis paper is bated, REFERENCES 1, W.R. Cox, ‘Three phase AC disiibution fr ships suri GEC Journel, Val. 24, No. 4 (1957), 2, M.J-Bolton, ‘The elecvial power sysemin the Queen Elizabeth 2-“design and operational experience’. Trans. I Mar E., Vol. 83 (ao). 3. KJ. Olsen, Use ofcompensating coils inelectrcal power systems cenbosrd ships’. Norwegian Petroleum Society, Offshore Corto: sion Seminar (March 1979)CHAPTER 4 SYSTEM EARTHING 41 GENERAL Offshore electrical power supply systems consist of high-voltage generators, some HV distri bution, power step-down transformers and a low-voltage distribution system. Onshore ‘systems have all these ‘except the generators. if neither the HV nor the LV systems were earthed, conductors could become charged up to any voltage above earth, with risk of breakdown of their insulation to earth, In particulay, if there were a ire of insulation between the HV and LV sides of one of the transformers, high voltage could appear on the LV ‘system, whose insulation is not. designed to withstand it. Therefore it is the practice to tie both systems to earth potential, so that neither is free to ‘float away’, and no part of the system can be at a higher voltage to earth than the nominal Voltage of that system. If the earthing point is properly chosen it can be even less, 42 UNEARTHED SYSTEMS Consider a high-voltage generator or transformer with three output terminals R, Y and B and completely unearthed, as shown in Figure 4.1(a). The voltage vector diagram is below, and the three line-to-tine voltages Vay, Vyg and Vag form a closed triangle. The ‘origin’, the point of zero potential, does not appear on the diagram because the voltages of the system are not related in any way to earth; they float quite freely. The vector diagram shows only their relationship to each other, not to earth. The above applies whether the generator or transformer is star-or delta-connected, : RIY.B) RIY:B RY BI Yer Ver 5 R ‘y J\ ty We . Ye (a) NORMAL. (b) EARTH FAULT (c) NEUTRAL VOLTAGE WITH EARTH FAULT FIGURE 4.1 UNEARTHED SYSTEM 19Suppose now a solid earth is applied, say to blue phase, as shown in Figure 4.1(b). Then the Point B of the vector diagram becomes the origin O, which is the point of zero potential (1. earth). The shape of the diagram is not altered, and the points R and Y have the same Positions relative to B as before. But since B is now at the origin, the actual voltage-to-earth Of the red phase is OR, equal to the line-to-line voltage Vag ,and the actual voltage-to-earth Of yellow phase is OY, equal to the line-to-line voltage Vig Hence, in an unearthed system, the accidental earthing of one line will cause both the other lines to take up voltages to earth equal to the line voltage of the system. This applies equally to generator-fed high-voltage and to transformer-fed low-voltage systems. If the generator or transformer feeding the system is star-connected, the voltage-to-earth ‘ON’ of the neutral point N is then, as seen in Figure 4.1(c), the phase voltage (equal to line voltage divided by 4/3) above earth when one of the lines is accidentally earthed. If the system is 4-wire (three phase and neutral), then the neutral connections of the whole system take up that voltage when a-line-earth occurs. This is sometimes referred to as ‘neutral shift”. 43 EARTHED SYSTEMS In order to ‘anchor’ the system voltage to prevent it floating free it is usual (and it is always done at Shell onshore installations and on platforms except the Drilling Packages) to tie one point of the system permanently to earth. For the sake of ‘symmetry the point chosen is the neutral of the supply element, generator or transformer. To provide such a neutral point, the element must be star-connected. Figure 4.2 shows a star-connected earthed system, which may be HV generator-fed or LV transformer-fed, Need (@) NORMAL (b) WITH EARTH FAULT FIGURE 4.2 EARTHED SYSTEM 20This arrangement has 2 further advantage. At the bottom of Figure 4.2(a) is the vector diagram for such a system, The three vectors NR, NY and NB at 120° apart represent the three phase voltages Vz, Vy and Vp relative to the neutral point N: but as the neutral point N is earthed, it is the same as the-origin O. The three line-to-line voltages Vay, Vyg and Von. are represented by the vectors RY, YB and BR. Since the origin O is at the neutral point, the voltage-to-earth of the three terminals R, Y and B can never exceed their phase voltage Vz (= Vy = Vg), which is only 1A/3 of the line-to-ine voltage. Even if one line, say blue, were accidentally earthed, this would still be the case. The situation of Figure 4.2(b) would result. Blue phase would be completely short-circuited, since both ends B and N would be at earth potential; the phase voltage Vg, would disappear and B would move to O. But the other phase voltages Vp and Vy to earth — that is, the distance of the points R and Y from the origin O — would not be affected (unlike with the unearthed system), and they would remain at lineto-line voltage divided by «/3, just as before the accidental earth, Thus, whereas in an unearthed system any line can rise to full line voltage-to-earth in the event of an earth fault on a line, in an earthed system the voltage-to-earth of the lines cannot exceed system phase voltage ~ that is, 1}/3 (or 0.58) times the system line voltage. Therefore an earthed system can use a lower level of insulation and is thus less costly than an unearthed system of the same line voltage. For example, an unearthed 6.6kV system ‘must be insulated throughout for the full 6.6KV to earth, whereas the corresponding earthed system need only be insulated for 3.8kV. This is particularly significant at the higher voltages, especially those used onshore, where insulation becomes increasingly important and costly. It should be noted that a single line-to-earth fault on an unearthed system will not cause any. ‘fault current to flow, since there isno path for it (Figure 4.1(c)). There is nothing to operate an earth-fault relay and so to trip the circuit-breaker. Therefore a single earth fault on an unearthed system will not shut down the system. (Note that two simultaneous earth faults become a line+to-line short-circuit, and the ensuing overcurrent will then trip the breaker.) 4.4 EARTH-FAULT CURRENTS A solidly earthed system is shown in Figure 4.3(a), where an earth fault has appeared on blue phase. It is clear that a short-circuit current will flow between blue phase terminal and the neutral point via the earth link. This short-circuits blue phase and produces a fault current limited only by the impedance of the generator phase winding; such a current could initially be many times the normal designed full-load current of the generator and, if allowed to continue, could permanently damage it by overheating the winding insulation or by mechani- cal strain. A further hazard is the situation at the fault point itself. The fault is most likely to take the form of an arcing earth, and the fierce short-circuit current could cause intense local heating by the arc at the fault point, with risk to personnel and likelihood of fire. This might be regarded as a disadvantage of an earthed system. It would not occur.on an unearthed machine with a single fault, as there would be no return path for the fault current (see Figure 4.1(c)). A compromise is therefore made, especially in high-voltage systems, whereby the voltage-limiting effect of an earthed system is retained, but the earth-fault Currents which result are reduced to a level which is not damaging to the generator, at least. for short periods, and which also limits the energy released by the arc at the fault point. a(2) SOLID EARTH (&) RESISTANCE EARTH FIGURE 43 NEUTRAL EARTHING 4.5 RESISTANCE EARTHING ‘This is achieved by the method shown in Figure 4.3(b). Instead of earthing the generator Reutral point solidly, it is earthed through 2 heavy-duty, short-time rated resistance of low ohmic value. It can be seen from the figure that, in the event of a line earth, the short-circuit current in the earthed phase is now limited not only by the impedance of the machine's winding, but also by the earthing resistance. Since a generator’s impedance is almost wholly reactive (X), it adds vectorially to the earthing resistance (R) to limit the current to produce an impedance (Z) to the fault current, as shown on the right of the figure. If the value of the resistance is correctly chosen, the earth-fault current can be limited so as. ot to exceed the normal full-load current of the generator, or indeed it may be chosen to limit it to half, or even a quarter or less, of the full-load current. Clearly it is desirable to limit it as much as possible, but sufficient fault current must be allowed to remain, even With less-serious earth faults, to actuate the protective gear. In the vector diagram of Figure 43(b) the reactance vector X is combined with the resistance vector R to give the total impedance Z which limits the current. If the current had to be limited yet further, the resis- tance would have to be increased as shown dotted in the figure, With the 1SMW generator sets on some Shell platforms, the resistance value chosen was 10 ohms which, with a typical generator reactance value of 0.63 ohm, gives an earth-fault current of about 400A, one-quarter of zsExample An IBMVA, 6.6kV star-connected generator is provided with a neutral earthing resistor. What must be the value of this resistor it it is to limi sbasto eh dnltunu eunnrent ononé-pnaseito ‘one-half of the fulload current? (The reactance of the generator winding may be neglected.) First calculate the full-load current J. 8 kVA _ 18000 F > Fae ~ yaxee ~ 15754 Fault current (/_) is to be limited to half this: rs =e 788A eeereeet (] {In Figure 4.3(b) the fault current /e is given from the fault circuit whose emf Is the phase voltage Vp, where Vp = “L = 3.81kV. Ignoring the generator’s phase reactance X, the fault current is given by Ohm’s Law: = ED gue = 381x10? . or = ftom (i) above = 4.84 ohms 4.6 MULTIPLE GENERATOR EARTHING Ideally a system consisting of several generators in parallel should only be earthed at one point, in order to prevent harmonic currents circulating between the generators through ‘their neutral points and so increasing their loading. This means that, if more than one set is Funning, only one link. should be closed. In practice, however, most generators are now designed to accept such currents, and links are left closed in all machines (see Figure 44). There are exceptions; sometimes the links are monitored by a logic system which gives an alarm at the control board if the correct ones have not been closed or opened as necessary. & & & ddd Ltt FIGURE 4.4 MULTIPLE EARTHING OF GENERATORS 2B