Biology Study Notes

2009 Preliminary Exam

A Local Ecosystem

Abiotic: temperature, light, availability of water, wind, altitude.

Biotic: competition, shelter, predation, parasitism, human activity, availability
of food.

Characteristic
Viscosity is a measure of
how hard it is to move
through a gas or a liquid
(fluid).

Strength of natural forces

Temperature variation
The main source of heat is
from the Suns radiation.
The radiation intensity
depends on latitude. It is
greater at the equator
than at the poles. Animals
and plants can survive
only within a certain
temperature range.

Light penetration
Light received is from the
Suns radiation. The light
intensity is greater at the
equator than at the poles.

Photosynthesis:

Carbon dioxide + water

In Aquatic Environments
Water has a high viscosity.
This makes it more difficult
for organisms to move through
it.
Tides, currents and waves may
vary in strength according to
the season and the weather.
Some organisms cannot
survive in moving water,
while others cannot survive in
still water.
Water heats up more slowly
than air. Temperatures in the
surface ocean layers vary from
30C at the equator to freezing
point in arctic regions.
However, the temperature in a
particular region varies only a
little from year to year. Deep
waters everywhere are cold.
Small bodies of water may
show considerable daily and
seasonal variation.
Light falling on water may be
reflected, scattered or
absorbed.
Light penetration in water
decreases rapidly with depth
Light availability affects the
distribution of organisms in
water.

light
chlorophyll

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

glucose + oxygen

In Terrestrial Environments
Air has a low viscosity. This
makes it easier for organisms
to move through it.
Winds and rain vary in
strength and duration
according to the season and
the climate. Many organisms
cannot survive exposure to
these factors in open
environments.
Surface temperatures on land
vary far more than in water.
The highest recorded is 60C,
and the lowest is less than
-80C. Daily and seasonal
variations may be very great.
Temperatures beneath the
ground do not vary so much.
The ability to avoid or tolerate
heat gain and loss is important
in land organisms.
Light can pass freely through
air.
Plenty of light is available to
land organisms. Dense plant
growth or topography may
affect light penetration to
some areas. The amount of
light received is important for
plant growth.

Respiration:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

The energy that is released as ATP is used by organisms in a number of

cellular processes:

- synthesis of complex molecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic

acids.
- growth involving the division, elongation and differentiation of cells.
- repair and maintenance of damaged or old cells.
- active transport of materials across cell membranes.
- functioning of special cells that need extra energy, such as nerves, muscles, liver
and kidney in mammals.
- transport of materials within organisms, such as in the phloem of plants and
circulatory systems of animals.

Predation: A feeding relationship in which one animal, the predator, obtains its
food by killing another animal, its prey. eg. A pack of lions circles in on a herd of
zebra picking out the slowest or weakest of the group before moving in for the kill.

Allelopathy: The production by a plant of chemicals that can be detrimental to

or enhance the growth of another plant. eg. The needles from some pine trees
decompose to release acids into the soil. This acid in the soil keeps unwanted plants
from growing near the pine tree.

Parasitism: A parasite obtains its food from a host. Although the host is
harmed in some way it does not necessarily die. Many bacteria, viruses and fungi
that cause disease are parasites. eg. A tick feeds on the blood of an animal. The
animal is harmed by the loss of blood. As well the tick can be poisonous.

Symbiosis: A type of interaction between organisms where two different

species live together in close association and at least one of them benefits without
harming the other. There are two types:
-Commensalism: A relationship that benefits one species and does not harm
the other. The organisms are not dependent on this type of relationship and could
survive without each other. eg. The clown fish lives among the tentacles of the sea
anemone and is unaffected by their stinging cells. The clown fish obtains shelter and
foods scraps from the anemone.
-Mutualism: A relationship between two organisms that are more closely
associated such that one or both organisms could not survive without the other. In
some cases this relationship allows some organisms to survive in environments that
they normally could not. eg. The cattle egrets, white birds that sit atop cows, pick
insects off the cows. The egrets get a free meal and the cows get rid of ticks.

There are several trophic niches or trophic levels in any ecosystem. These
include:
-producers green plants (autotrophs make their own food)

-herbivores plant eaters. Eg. rabbit, cow.

-carnivores animal eaters. Eg. lion, dog.
-omnivores plant and animal eaters. Eg. humans, chimpanzees.
-scavengers consumers that eat dead animals. Eg. hyenas, vultures.
-detritivores break down dead organic matter (detritus) into smaller
particles that are finally consumed by decomposers. Eg. snails, worms.
-decomposers absorb nutrients from dead organisms or waste materials and
return organic matter to the soil. Eg. bacteria, fungi.

Trophic pyramid: At each trophic level energy is lost, as much as 90% (mostly
as heat).

An adaptation may be:

structural a physical characteristic relating to the structure of an organisms
body. eg. Birds that fly have hollow bones. To reduce their body weight.
physiological related to the way the organism functions. eg. In the summer
months artic foxes are brown. In winter they are white. So that they are camouflaged.
behavioural how an organism responds to its environment. eg. Bears
hibernate in winter. Food is scarce in the winter.

Impact of Humans on Ecosystems

Land clearing, introduced species, pollution, extinction of species

Population number count

*Quadrats
Find the total area, divide area into quadrats, the number of organisms in
random quadrat, multiply average of number of organisms in a few random
quadrats by the total area. Gives number of organisms in area.

*Capture Recapture
Total population = number of animals tagged x number of animals recaptured
average number of tagged animals recaptured
Pop. = number tagged x number recaptured
av. number tagged recaptured

Patterns in Nature

Cells are the smallest units of life. (Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
1839)

All living things are made up of cells. (Schleiden and Schwann 1839)

All cells arise from pre-existing cells. (Rudolf Virchow 1858)

Cells contain the hereditary information of the organism of which they are a
part and this information is passed on from parent cell to daughter cell.

Some of these technological advances include:

-design of light microscopes
-techniques in preparing materials to be viewed (eg. staining, cutting very thin
-sections of tissue)
-the electron microscope
-laser scanning
-three-dimensional imaging software
-X-ray microscopes
-Synchrotron (supermicroscope)

Advancements in microscopes and cell theory

o Robert Hooke- coined term cell. Cork cells.
o Schwann and Schleiden- nucleus
o Ruska- first electron microsope
o Robert Brown- nucleus observed as constant component of plant cells

Even a single-lens magnifying glass is really a simple light (or optical)

microscope, and these were being used in the Middle Ages and could magnify 10-20
times.

Since cells are so small, the understanding that organisms are made up of cells
only became possible after the development of more powerful light microscopes.
The first known one was made about 1590; it contained two lenses, one mounted at
each end of a tube. One lens magnified the already enlarged image of the other.

Cells were first described by the British scientist Robert Hooke in 1665. He
made a thin slice of cork from the bark of a tree and examined it under a
microscope: he found that it was made up of hundreds of what appeared to be small
boxes, separated by walls, giving it a honeycomb appearance. Hooke called the
cavities cells but didnt realise that the most important part of the cells was
missing. Cork is dead plant tissue, so the empty shells he saw once held active,
living material.

The next development didnt occur until 1831, when Robert Brown, described
the nucleus as a small spherical structure in the centre of living plant cells.

The electron microscope has allowed for many other much smaller organelles
to be viewed and identified.

Cell Organelles

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Cell wall

Chloroplasts

Vacuoles

Forms the boundary between the cytoplasm and the

outside environment; controls the entry and exit of
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Plant and
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The fluid content of the cell it is more than 90%

water and contains ions, salts, enzymes, food
Plant and
molecules and organelles other than the nucleus; is
animal
where most cell activities are carried out.
A non-living cellulose structure outside the cell
membrane in plant cells; gives protection, support and
Plant only
shape; prevents expansion of the cells and allows water
and dissolved substances to pass freely through it.
Composed of many folded layers of membrane;
contain the green pigment chlorophyll, and are the site
of food manufacture (photosynthesis) in plants.
Plant
only

Membrane-bound structures found in most cells; store

water, food, enzymes or fluid and other substances;
plant cells typically have large fluid-filled vacuoles
that provide support.

An organelle composed of many folded layers of

Mitochondrion membrane; are involved in the energy transformations
(respiration) that take place in cells.
Ribosomes
Tiny organelles that are sites of production of proteins.

Plant
mainly

Plant and
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Plant and

animal
Golgi body

A stack of flat membrane sacs where final synthesis

and packaging of protein in membrane-bound vesicles
occurs before secretion.
A system of membranous sacs and tubules connected
to the nuclear membrane; provides an internal surface
for many chemical reactions and a series of channels
through which materials can be circulated.

Small,
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Lysosomes

Microscopes

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up to 0.0002 mm

samples prepared quickly

coloured stains can be used
living cells can be viewed

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expensive and long preparation of materials for viewing
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Li
Fats
Oils
Waxes
Steroids

used as stores of energy, eg. fat tissue; insulation in some mammals, eg.
whales and seals
used as stores of energy, eg. coconut oil
more common in plants used as waterproof coatings on leaves and
fruits, eg. the leaf cuticle
form part of membranes, e.g. cholesterol; coordinate animal functions,
e.g. cortisone and sex hormones

Another important lipid is phospholipids, which form the structural framework

of cell membranes. eg. Triglyceride

c) PROTIENS

Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and occur in all the major
regions of cells, performing a wide range of functions.

They are large molecules built up when small molecules called amino acids
join together at bonds called peptide bonds to form chains that are called
polypeptides.

Protein functions include growth and cell repair and they are used in all body
tissue, like muscle, internal organs and skin. Examples of proteins and their
functions are:
-all enzymes (proteins that speed up chemical reactions in living things).
-all hormones (chemicals that carry messages between cells).
-haemoglobin, which transports oxygen in the blood.
-collagen (in tendons and ligaments) and keratin (in skin), which help maintain
body structure.

d) Nucleic Acids

Are organic molecules which contain linked sugar molecules, nitrogen bases
and phosphate groups.

Are responsible for making proteins from amino acids found in cells.

There are two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA).

DNA and RNA are made of long chains of sub-units called nucleotides.

Each nucleotide of which contains a sugar molecule, a nitrogen base and a

phosphate group.

Nucleic acids are the genetic material of cells and control heredity.
Transport across the membrane
Diffusion

Facilitated Diffusion

Osmosis

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pe
and
pro
vide
s
prot
ecti
onD
escr
ipti
onF
unct
ion
Cut
icle
wax
y
out
er
laye
rthe
way
cell
s
tak
e in
and
rid
the
mse
lves
of
mat
eria
l

play
s a role
in
reducing
water
loss by
evaporati
on in
terrestria
l plants

diff
usion
gradient
or
concentr
ation
gradient

no
energy;

passive transport
substances moved
down concentration
gradient by carrier
proteins in cell
membrane

membrane barrier
to water-solubles such
as glucose and many
ions

fat-solubles such
as oxygen, carbon
dioxide and alcohol can
cross membrane

passive transport
diffusion of water
molecules only across permeable
membrane

water move from high

water amount to lower water
amount