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Unit 1
By: Science Decoder Author: A.Thompson 8/27/2011
Get more free notes at http://getyournotes.blogspot.com
Content
Topic About Sources Scalars and Vectors Vector Addition and Subtraction How to D
raw vectors Solving Vectors Resolving Vectors
Questions & Answers Newtons Laws of
Motion Reaction Force Problems Projectile Motion
Example Momentum & Collisions
Impulse Friction Moments Equilibrium Energy Centre of Mass & Gravity Circular Mo
tion Examples Simple Harmonic Motion
Examples Geostationary Orbit Wave
Types of W
aves Longitudinal and Transverse
In-phase and Out-of-phase
Progressive and Stand
ing Diffraction
Interference Refraction
Youngs Double Slit Lenses Page 2 3 4 5 6
7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-19 20 21-22 23-24 25-27 28 29-30 31-33 34 35 36-37 38-42
43-44 45-47 48 49 50 51 52-53 54-55 56 57-60 61-62 63 64-68
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About
This e-book was created to give students a well-rounded understanding on difficu
lt topics in advanced level physics. It was created based on the CAPE syllabus w
hich is also compatible with other major syllabuses such as the A-Level syllabus
. It was created mainly for students doing physics in their first year of colleg
e.
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Sources
Most of the content present in this e-book was provided by Science Decoder, you
can find us as at: http://getyournotes.blogspot.com The following articles were
taken from the internet: Youngs Double Slit taken from: http://micro.magnet.fsu.e
du/primer/java/scienceopticsu/interference/doubleslit/index.html http://vsg.quas
ihome.com/interfer.htm
Recommended Sites: BiologyMad: - A very useful site containing a lot of biology
notes that are covered in higher level biology such as A-Level and CAPE. Chemgui
de: - Another useful site which covers the hardest and less recognized topics in
chemistry. In addition it has many other features and is highly recommended by
other sites. A-Level Physics Notes: - As the name suggests it covers allot of to
pics in a-level.Allot of these topic are difficult but by just using this site a
s reference can greatly help you. They have allot of diagrams and explanations a
long with these notes
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Solving Vectors
Here is an example on how to solve a vector question: Example #1: A force of 3N
acts at an angle of 90 degrees to a force of 4N. Find the magnitude and directio
n of their resultant R.
(Note: a line similar to the 3N was drawn on right to make the vector tail to he
ad. The resultant line R was then drawn from the tail of 4N line to Head of 3N l
ine on right. Also note that direction in this case is the unknown angle.)
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Resolving Vectors
Resolving vectors means splitting vectors into two perpendicular components. Res
olving vectors can be very easy if youre focused. Here Ill be showing you how to r
esolve a vector and then solve its horizontal and vertical components. Using the
vector below F it must first be split (resolved) into its vertical and horizont
al components before it can be solved.
Vector F
Vector when resolved
1. Identify the component (line) adjacent to the given angle A (here it is the hor
izontal component). 2. Label the adjacent component as F x COS A.
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3. Identify the component opposite to the given angle A (here it is the vertical c
omponent). 4. Label opposite component as F x SIN A.
The following formulas can then be used to solve the components: Horizontal comp
onent = F x COS A Vertical component = F x SIN A Note: When resolving vectors th
e component adjacent to the given angle is ALWAYS the vector multiplied by the c
osine (COS) of the angle while the component opposite the given angle is always
the vector multiplied by the sin (SIN) of the angle.
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Now that you have identified both components the next thing that needs to be don
e is to label the components. Look at the diagram above and find out which of th
e components is adjacent to the given angle and label it Fcos, where F is the force
and is the given angle. Also find out which component is opposite to the given a
ngle and label it Fsin. In this example the component adjacent to the given angle is
the horizontal component so it is labeled 50cos 400. The component opposite to t
he given angle is the vertical component so it is labeled 50sin400.
50sin40
0
40
0
50cos40
0
Therefore your answer should be: Horizontal component = 50cos400 = 38.30N Vertica
l Component = 50sin400 = 32.14N
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Newtons third law motion Newtons 3rd law of motion states that if a body A exerts
a force on a body B, then Body B will exert an eual but opposite force on Body
A.
Applications of Newtons Laws of motion: 1st law: - When a car crashes the car sto
ps but the person on the inside continues to move because there is no external f
orce exerted on the person. 2nd Law: - Increase the force, by using gas, on the
car and the acceleration will also increase. 3rd Law: - A bouncing ball applies
a force to the ground and the ground applies an eual but opposite force on the
ball.
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a) This part of the uestion asked for the reaction force when the lift has an u
pward acceleration of 2m/s2.
Floor Lift 2m/s2 Body with mass 7kg
When forces are moving in opposite directions you must subtract the smaller from
the larger. In this uestion the reaction force is larger than the weight becau
se the lift is moving in the upward direction. Well use the formula derived from
newtons laws of motion:
Your answer should know look something like this: F = Mass acceleration R W = Ma
ss acceleration R 70 = 7 x 2 R = 14 + 70 R = 84N Weight = mass x gravity Weight
= 7 x 10 Weight = 70N
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b) This part of the uestion is very similar to the one previously done. The ue
stion asked for the reaction force when given a downward acceleration of 3m/s2.
In part a of the uestion the reaction force was larger because the lift was movin
g in an upward direction; therefore it also follows that the opposite should hap
pen in this part of the uestion since the lift is now moving in the downward di
rection. Therefore the weight is larger than the reaction force.
Floor Lift 3m/s2 Body with mass 7kg
F = mass x acceleration 70 R = Mass x acceleration 70 R= 7 x 3 70 R = 21 70 21 =
R 49N = R
c) In this part of the problem youre reuired to find the reaction force given th
at the lift is moving at a constant velocity. Since it is moving at constant vel
ocity acceleration would be zero and no motion is taking place. F=0 RW=0 R 70 = 0
R = 70N Note: Here the reaction force is eual to the weight
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by subtracting the sum of the 90 degrees and 30 degrees from 180 giving 60 degre
es. Because all angles in a triangle add up to 180. Now that we have labeled our
diagram we can now begin answering the uestion. The first part asked for the a
cceleration of the body.
Using newtons second law F = Mass x Acceleration (a) 40 W x cos60 = 5 x a 40 50 x
cos60 = 5 x a 40 50(0.5) = 5 x a 40 25 = 5 x a 15 = 5 x a 15/5 = a 3m/s2 = a
Note: Remember that forces in opposite direction must be subtracted.
The next part of the uestion asked for the force exerted on the body by the pla
ne, the force exerted is the reaction force. No motion is taking place in this d
irection therefore:
Using Newtons first law: F=0 R W x Sin60 = 0 R = W x Sin60 R = 50(0.8660) R = 43.
30N
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Projectile Motion
What is the projectile motion of a body?
- A body in projectile motion will move in two dimensions simultaneously. Bodies
that are in projectile motion are resolved (divided) into two components. A ver
tical component (Vy) and an horizontal component (Vx). These components however
are dealt with simultaneously.
Please refer to the diagram below showing projectile motion.
Formulas associated with projectile motion include:
Vy = VsinA Vx = VcosA V = Srt [Vy^2 + Vx^2] TanA = Vy / Vx => A = Tan^-1 A (Vy
/ Vx)
Where A is used as angle instead of theta in diagram
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Impulse
What is Impulse?
Impulse can be defined as the force per unit time or change in momentum. Momentu
m is changed whenever a force is applied to a body. From these definitions one c
an already see what formulas are in relation to impulse.
Formulas associated with Impulse:
Impulse = Force x Time Or Impulse = Change in momentum= mV mU Where m is Mass and
V, U is final and initial velocity respectively. Below are some calculations inv
olving impulse. Here youll be using the formulas above to find the missing variab
le. Example 1. A force of 100 N is applied for 8 seconds. What is the impulse? A
nswer: Right away you can easily solve for impulse using the first formula above
because all other variables are given. Therefore Impulse = Force x Time = 100N
x 8sec = 800Ns
Example 2. An impulse of 250Ns is applied for 10 seconds. What is the applied fo
rce. Answer: Again you can see that you have to use the first formula above, but
in this case they gave values for impulse and time, therefore all you have to d
o is transpose the formula to make Force the subject and then solve for Force.
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b) All you need to do is transpose for force and then solve. When done transposi
ng you should get:
Therefore Force = 400N
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Friction
What is Friction?
Friction can be defined as a resistance force formed from the rubbing between tw
o surfaces. Friction is a form of force that slows down motion and dampens energ
y. There are two types of friction:
Static/Moving Friction Sliding/Dynamic(movin
g) Friction
Static Friction
Static friction is the friction caused between objects that are not moving relat
ive to each other. Limiting friction is the maximum value of static friction jus
t before the object begins moving. Therefore it can also be concluded that the v
alue of the reuired force to just begin moving the object is eual to the Limit
ing Friction.
Sliding (Dynamic) Friction
Sliding friction is the friction formed between objects that are moving relative
to each other. It is important to note that static friction is always greater t
han sliding/dynamic friction.
Laws of Friction
1. The frictional force between two surfaces opposes their relative or attempted
motion in other words friction is a resistance force. 2. Frictional forces are
independent of the area of contact of the surfaces. 3. For two surfaces which ha
ve no relative motion the limiting frictional force is directly proportional to
the normal reaction force. Formula: FR F = KR R Therefore F = uR F Where
K = u =
Coefficient of sliding friction. F = Pull force
= Frictional force R = Normal re
action force Science Decoder
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Moments
What is Moments?
By definition Moments, also known as torue, is the turning effect of a force. M
oments can either be in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The unit of mom
ents is the Newton Meter (Nm).
Formula for Moments of a force
Moments (torue) = Force Perpendicular distance from the pivot
How to calculate Moments?
Example 1
Find the total moments of the system below:
4m
6m
80N Pivot Step 1
50N
Identify which force in the system is moving in the clockwise direction and whic
h is moving in an anticlockwise direction. The 50N force is the one moving in th
e clockwise direction (the same direction a clocks pointer would move) while the
80N is moving in the opposite direction (anti-clockwise direction).
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4m
6m
80N
50N
Anti-Clockwise
Clockwise
Step 2 Use the formula given above to calculate the clockwise and anti-clockwise
moments separately. Moments = Force Perpendicular distance Clockwise Moments =
Force Perpendicular Distance = 50N 6m = 300Nm
Anti-Clockwise Moments = Force Perpendicular Distance = 80N 4m = 320Nm
Step 3 Now that you have calculated both clockwise and anti-clockwise moments yo
u can now find the total moments of the system. This is found by subtracting the
smaller moments from the larger, in this case the smaller of the two is the clo
ckwise while the larger is the anti-clockwise. Total Moments = 320Nm 300Nm = 20N
m in the anti-clockwise direction Because anticlockwise is larger Science Decoder
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Euilibrium
What is Euilibrium?
When a system is said to be in euilibrium this means it is in balance and is ei
ther moving at constant velocity motion or is at rest. Situations that must exis
t for a system to be at euilibrium: 1. The resultant force in any direction mus
t be zero. 2. The total moments of the system must be zero. Meaning: Clockwise M
oments = Anti- Clockwise Moments
How to calculate euilibrium?
Example 1 If the system below is in euilibrium find the unknown force F.
6m
8m
120N
F
Step 1 In the uestion they stated that the system is in euilibrium, therefore
you can go ahead and use the euation: Clockwise Moments = Anti-Clockwise Moment
s
But remember that formula for moments is: Force Perpendicular distance from pivo
t
Therefore: Clockwise Force Perpendicular distance = Anti-clockwise Force Perpend
icular Distance 31 | P a g e Science Decoder
Step 2 Identify the forces in the system that are moving clockwise and anti-cloc
kwise with their respective perpendicular distances, and then substitute those v
alues in the above euation:
6m
8m
120N
F
Anti-Clockwise
Clockwise
After substituting the values above into the formula you should get:
Clockwise Moments = Anti-Clockwise Moments Clockwise Force Perpendicular distanc
e = Anti-clockwise Force Perpendicular Distance
F 8m = 120N 6m
Step 3 After placing the values into the formula all that is left to do is trans
pose the formula to make F the subject then solve for F. The overall calculation wou
ld then be:
Clockwise Moments = Anti-Clockwise Moments Clockwise Force Perpendicular distanc
e = Anti-clockwise Force Perpendicular Distance
F 8m = 120N 6m
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F = 90N
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Energy
What is Energy?
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work.
Types of Energy
Mechanical Energy: - By definition mechanical energy is the sum of Kinetic energ
y(K.E) and Potential energy(P.E). Mechanical energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential
Energy
Kinetic Energy: - Kinetic energy is the energy due to a bodys motion.
K.E = mass velocity2
Potential Energy: - Potential Energy is energy due to a bodys position or conditi
on.
P.E = mass gravity height
Law of Conservation of mechanical energy
In a system where only forces associated with potential energy are acting (gravi
tational/ elastic), the sum of the Kinetic and Potential energies is constant. K
.E + P.E = Constant These conditions exist for any object rising of falling abov
e the earths surface: a) For a body that is rising Loss in K.E = Gain in P.E b) F
or a boy falling towards the earth Loss in P.E = Gain in K.E
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Circular Motion
What is Circular Motion?
Circular motion refers to motion along a circular path or circular orbit. Two ty
pes of velocities take place when an object is moving in circular motion these i
nclude Scalar velocity and Angular Velocity
Scalar Velocity
Scalar velocity can be defined as the velocity occurring around the circumferenc
e of the circle formed by the path.
Angular Velocity
Angular velocity can be defined as the rate of turn of the angle present at the
center of the circle.
The formula below shows the relationship between angular and scalar velocity:
Period (T)
Period can be defined as the time taken for an object to complete one revolution
. The formula below shows the relationship between angular velocity and period:
Freuency
Freuency can be defined as the number of revolutions per second. It is said to
be the inverse of period
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To read more about angular and scalar velocity click here (ctrl + click .
Example #1
30o
1.2m T
The pendulum above has a mass of 2kg. The pendulum is moving in a horizontal cir
cle. The string is inclined at 30o to the vertical. a) b) c) d) e) Calculate the
tension in the string Calculate the centripetal force. Calculate the centripeta
l acceleration. Calculate Scalar & angular velocities. Calculate period & freque
ncy of centripetal motion.
Ansers: First before e begin ansering the question e need to make some addit
ions to the draing above. We ant to ork ith an angle besides the 30o if you
look at the diagram youll realize theres a triangle but one of the angles are miss
ing, this is the angle e ant to use. You can easily find this angle because yo
u are already given one angle (30o) and since it is a right angled triangle (ind
icated by the box formed beteen the vertical and horizontal line)it also has 90
o, therefore the remaining angle must be 60o, if e ere to add them all up e
ould get a total of 180o. So place the 60o in the missing position. The question
also stated that you ould need to calculate tension, so you ould need to spli
t the T in its horizontal and perpendicular components. This ould give T sin 60o fo
r the vertical component and T cos 60o for the horizontal component. No place the
se components in the diagram. The next thing to note is that the pendulum has a
mass 2kg therefore a donard force of eight must be acting on the body, add th
is as ell to the diagram.
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When the object is singing freely youll probably realize that it moves faster h
en passing through its equilibrium position P, this is because the bodys accelera
tion and velocity is greatest as it passes through the equilibrium position. Als
o the opposite happens as the body leaves the equilibrium position, the accelera
tion and velocity lessens as the bodys position, x, moves further aay from the e
quilibrium position. Formulas involved in simple harmonic motion: a = -2 x her
e a is acceleration, is angular velocity and x is distance from equilibrium po
sition. Where v is velocity, A is amplitude.
X = A sin t here t is period
Where
The diagram belo shos a spring in simple harmonic motion:
R P P x P
x
Q
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If you ant to ork this question in a more detailed ay, you can do this: Dista
nce from A to B to A again = 16m Distance from A to B = 8m Period (A to B to A a
gain) = 24 seconds Time (t) from A to B =???
16 = 24 8=t 824 = 16t
Cross Multiply
b) O to B O to B is quarter of the period so the anser ould be = 6 sec Or you
can follo the above pattern: Distance from A to B to A again = 16m Distance fro
m O to B = 4m Period (A to B to A again) = 24 seconds Time (t) from O to B =???
16m = 24s 4m = t 424 = 16t
6sec = t
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What is a Wave?
A ave is a means of transferring energy from one point to another ithout the t
ransfer of particles.
Waves can come in to forms, they can either be vibrating perpendicular to the d
irection in hich the energy is floing (transverse aves), or they can move par
allel to the direction of energy flo (longitudinal aves).
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2
3
4
5
6
Looking at the diagram above we are going to determine which are in hase agains
t those that are out of hase. 1. 2. 3. 4. to 3 would be inhase because the diff
erence is an even number 2. 2 to 4 would be inhase because the difference is also
an even number 2. 2 to 6 would be inhase because the difference is an even number
4. 1 to 4 would be out of hase because it is searated by an odd number 3.
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Waves formed from stringed and wind instruments are stationary waves. Oen ends
always have an antinode while closed ends have a node.
Anti-node Node Anti-node Node Anti-node Node Anti-node Node
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Diffraction
What is Diffraction?
By definition diffraction is the sreading out or scattering of waves as they a
ss through gas. However certain conditions must be resent for a wave to be dif
fracted when assing through a ga, the length of the wave and the size of the g
a has to be the same or almost the same.
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Interference
What is Interference?
Interference is what occurs when two or more waves interact with each other rod
ucing another wave.
Tyes of Interference?
There are two tyes of interference these are: 1. Constructive Interference 2. D
estructive Interference
Constructive Interference
In constructive interference, when the waves interfere a larger wave is roduced
, this is as a result of the waves meeting at in-hase oints such as a crest me
eting a crest or a trough meeting a trough.
Larger Wave Produced in constructive Interference
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Destructive Interference
In destructive interference the two original waves will meet to roduce a smalle
r wave. The final wave roduced is as a result of the original waves meeting at
out of hase oints such as a crest meeting a trough. The resulting wave can als
o be non-existent.
Smaller Wave Produced in Destructive Interference
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s1
Dark Bands / Fringes form on screen
s2
In the diagram above diffraction occurs at slits s1 and s2, the diffracted waves
then interfere roducing dark bands on the screen. This is known as destructive
interference and occurs as a result of the waves interfering at out of hase o
ints (crest to trough), the crest is reresented by the solid line while the tro
ugh is reresented by the broken line.
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Refraction
Refraction can be defined as the bending of a wave as it crosses the boundary be
tween two medium. This takes lace for all forms of waves including light.
Why refraction occurs?
Refraction occurs because there is a change in velocity between both medium.
Refractive index
Refractive index can be defined as a constant that gives the degree to which ref
raction or bending of a wave takes lace between the two medium. Here are the fo
rmulas associated with refractive index:
Snell s Law
n= sin i sin r
n = incident velocity refractive velocity n= incident wavelength refractive wave
length
n => refractive index i => angle of incidence r => angle of refraction
anb = 1 / bna
a and b are the different mediums.
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Lenses
What is a Lens?
A lens can be a lastic or a glass or formed from a combination of these two suc
h that when light asses through it the light rays get refracted. Light rays fro
m an object resent on one side of a lens, when refracted can form an image on t
he other side of the lens.
Tyes of lens
There are two known tyes of lens these are: 1. A convex/converging lens 2. A co
ncave/diverging lens
Convex Lens
A convex lens is a tye of lens that bends/converges light in, it is also known
as converging lens. The diagram below shows how light is refracted through a con
vex lens.
Princile Axis c F
f
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Concave Lens
A concave lens also known as a diverging lens is one that diverges/ bends light
outwards. The diagram below shows the effect on rays being refracted through a c
oncave lens.
Princile axis (P)
F c
f
If you look at both convex and concave lens you would notice a difference in the
ir structures. A convex lens has more thickness in its middle than at its edges;
this is what aids in converging/ bending light inward. However the concave lens
is thicker at its edges than at the middle, which hels to diverge light.
F in both diagrams reresents focal oint. This is the oint in a converging lens
where the rays converge to and this is the oint in a diverging lens such that i
f the rays where to be traced backward they would meet at this oint. P reresents
the rincile axis. This is the imaginary line through the center of the lens. C
reresents the otical center. f reresents the focal length. This is the distance
measured from the mirror to the focal oint.
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Difference
The object
refracted.
hrough the
.
U
V
ho i 2F O F c F 2F hi
In the examle above the image formed is real, magnified and inverted.
hi
ho
i
2F
F O
c
U
F
2F
V
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In the examle above the image formed is virtual, magnified and erect.
Princile of Reversibility
The rincile of reversibility states that a ray of light that takes a certain
ath from A to B will also take the same ath from B to A.
The formula below relates focal length, image distance and object distance:
The following formula is used to find ower of a lens:
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