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Acute respiratory distress syndrome presents as hypoxia and bilateral pulmonary inltrates on chest imaging in the
absence of heart failure sucient to account for this clinical state. Management is largely supportive, and is focused
on protective mechanical ventilation and the avoidance of uid overload. Patients with severe hypoxaemia can be
managed with early short-term use of neuromuscular blockade, prone position ventilation, or extracorporeal
membrane oxygenation. The use of inhaled nitric oxide is rarely indicated and both 2 agonists and late corticosteroids
should be avoided. Mortality remains at approximately 30%.
Introduction
Acute respiratory distress syndrome is a form of noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema, due to alveolar injury
secondary to an inammatory process, that can be either
pulmonary or systemic in origin. This syndrome presents
as acute hypoxaemia with bilateral pulmonary inltrates
on chest imaging, which are not wholly due to heart
failure. As a syndrome, it is characterised by the presence
of several criteria. Since the original description by
Ashbaugh and colleagues in 1967,1 four denitions have
been used to determine the presence of acute respiratory
distress syndrome (table).25
The American European Consensus Conference
denition,3 which was published in 1994, was the rst
agreed and widely used denition. However, it had
numerous limitations across all four diagnostic criteria
(panel), and, as a result, the European Society of Intensive
Care Medicine engaged in a consensus process to generate
an improved denition for acute respiratory distress
syndrome. The Berlin denition,5 which was published in
2012, was validated in over 4000 patients data: on the basis
of hypoxaemia, acute respiratory distress syndrome is
classied as mild (ratio of the partial pressure of arterial
oxygen to the fraction of inspired oxygen [PaO2/FiO2]
of 200300 mm Hg), moderate (PaO2/FiO2
100200 mm Hg), or severe (PaO2/FiO2 100 mm Hg).
The most important updates to the denition are the
stipulation of a minimum positive end-expiratory pressure
(PEEP) of 5 cm H2O, (PEEP can increase oxygenation,
which is a key criterion of the syndromethis update was
to establish a minimum standard for mechanical
ventilation); the acknowledgment that acute respiratory
distress syndrome can be diagnosed in the presence of
cardiac failure; a requirement for new respiratory failure, or
worsening of chronic respiratory disease, within 7 days;
and the inclusion of chest CT as an alternative form of
imaging for the demonstration of lung inltrates.
Epidemiology
The landmark ARMA study,28 which was published in
2000, demonstrated the benets of a low-tidal-volume,
low-airway-pressure ventilatory strategy in acute
respiratory distress syndrome and marked the establishment of lung protective ventilation as the standard of care.
Despite this advance, the syndrome remains highly
prevalent, with, in the lung-protective era, estimated
Published Online
April 28, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0140-6736(16)00578-X
Regional Intensive Care Unit,
Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast,
Northern Ireland, UK
(R Mac Sweeney PhD,
Prof D F McAuley MD); and
Wellcome-Wolfson Institute
for Experimental Medicine,
Queens University of Belfast,
Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
(Prof D F McAuley)
Correspondence to:
Prof Daniel F McAuley,
Wellcome-Wolfson Institute
for Experimental Medicine,
Queens University of Belfast,
97 Lisburn Road,
Belfast BT9 7AE,
Northern Ireland, UK
d.f.mcauley@qub.ac.uk
Risk factors
The development of acute respiratory distress syndrome
has been described in the setting of numerous illnesses
and injuries, which are broadly classed as being
pulmonary or systemic in origin. Pneumonia is the most
Seminar
Murray, 19882
AECC, 19943
Ferguson, 20054
Berlin, 20125
Onset
Within 72 h
Risk factor
Required
Not required
Required
Not required
Oxygenation
(mm Hg)
PaO2/FiO2 <200
5 (0)
68 (1)
911 (2)
1214 (3)
15 (4)
Not specied
10
Inltrates on
chest radiograph
No quadrants (0)
One quadrant (1)
Two quadrants (2)
Three quadrants (3)
Four quadrants (4)
Heart failure
Static compliance
(mL/cm H20)
80 (0)
6079 (1)
4059 (2)
2039 (3)
19 (4)
Removed
Severity
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Specicity for
diuse alveolar
damage
Autopsy: 69%6
Autospy: 45%13
Biopsy: 58%14
Data in parentheses in the Murray column are scores; the total number of points scored is divided by the number of categories included, giving the Murray lung injury score.
A score of 0 signies no lung injury is present, a score of 0125 signies mild to moderate lung injury, and a score greater than 25 signies severe lung injury.
AECC=American European Consensus Conference. PaO2=partial pressure of arterial oxygen. FiO2=fraction of inspired oxygen. PEEP=positive end-expiratory pressure.
ventilation with no PEEP was compared with lungprotective ventilation of 68 mL/kg tidal volume with
PEEP of 68 cm H2O plus a recruitment manoeuvre every
30 min. The lung-protective group had fewer major
complications (105% vs 275%; relative risk [RR] 040,
95% CI 024 to 068; p=0001), required less respiratory
support by day 7 (5% vs 17%; 029, 014 to 061; p=0001),
and had a shorter hospital stay (11 vs 13 days; dierence
245 days, 417 to 072; p=0006).
Genetics
The search for potential genes conferring susceptibility to
the development of, or that alter the outcome from, acute
respiratory distress syndrome is methodologically
complex. Genotype, phenotype, race, environment, injury,
and therapy interact in variable and uncertain ways to
contribute to clinical outcomes. More than 40 candidate
genes associated with the development or outcome of
acute respiratory distress syndrome have been identied,
although these investigations have either largely not been
suciently robust to provide clear answers, or have yet to
be replicated.49 Some of the more promising genes include
Seminar
Panel: Problems with the AECC denition and subsequent Berlin denition of acute respiratory distress syndrome
Acuity
AECC: not specied
Berlin: almost all patients meet criteria for acute respiratory
distress syndrome within a week15
Oxygenation
AECC: no minimum requirement for PEEP, which can
strongly modify oxygenation;16 dierences in ratio of the
PaO2 to the FiO2 across diering PEEP and FiO216
Berlin: level of PEEP not considered in determining severity17
Radiography
AECC: poor interobserver agreement on interpretation of
chest radiographs, even between experts;18,19 no
standardised set of chest radiographs for comparison or
education; dicult to dierentiate hydrostatic from
permeability pulmonary oedema on chest radiographs;20
consolidation might be visible on CT, but not by chest
radiography21
Heart failure
AECC: unvalidated use of high pulmonary artery occlusion
pressure to exclude alveolar injury as the cause of, or as a
contributor to, pulmonary oedema in acute respiratory
distress syndrome;22 poor medical and nursing knowledge of
the correct interpretation of pulmonary artery catheter
data;23,24 high interobserver variability in interpretation of
pulmonary artery catheter tracings;25 poor interobserver
Pathogenesis
After the onset of the primary illness, the inammatory
alveolar injury occurring has been described in terms of
three sequential phases (gure 1), which overlap
substantially.26 The process begins with the exudative
phase and immune-cell-mediated destruction of the
barriers of the alveolar epithelialinterstitialendothelial
complex, allowing plasma, plasma proteins, and cellular
content to successively ood the interstitium and
airspace. Classically, acute respiratory distress syndrome
is recognised to be a neutrophil-driven disease; however,
experimental data have shown that alveolar neutrophilia
Seminar
Bronchial epithelium
Alveolar airspace
Alveolar type II cell
Alveolar
basement
membrane
Surfactant layer
Lymph vessel
Interstitium
Alveolar
capillary
Red
blood cell
Endothelial glycocalyx
Endothelial cell
Capillary
basement membrane
Platelets
Cytokines
Altered
vasomotor
tone
Fibrin
Airspace
ooding
Interstitial
ooding
Thrombosis
Hyaline
membrane
Fibroblast
Red blood cell
Macrophage
Increased epithelial permeability
Increased endothelial permeability
Injured
endothelial cell
Neutrophil
Injured epithelial cell
Intra-alveolar
brosis
Drainage of
alveolar oedema
via lymphatics
Type II
epithelial cells
proliferate and
dierentiate
into type I
cells
Lymphatic
brosis
Na+ H2O
Recovery of
permeability barriers
Return of cellular integrity permits restoration
of functional alveolar ion channels (necessary
for osmotic uid absorption)
Reproduction
of surfactant
Interstitial
brosis
Fibroblasts
and
myobroblasts
Gradual resorption of
alveolar oedema, plus
autophagy of debris,
permits return of
gaseous diusion
Capillary
brosis
Capillary luminal narrowing with pulmonary hypertension
Figure 1: A normal alveolus (A), plus the sequential exudative (B), proliferative (C), and brotic (D) phases in the pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome
Seminar
Ventilation
1 Ventilatory parameters
Tidal volume
PEEP
Airway pressures
Driving pressure
Compliance
2 Oesophageal
pressure
Epithelial biomarkers
Clara cells: CC16
Type 1 cell: sRAGE
Type 2 cell: SP AD, KL6
Interstitium
biomarkers
MMP 1 and 3
Imaging
1 Chest radiography
2 Lung ultrasonography
3 CT
4 PET
5 Electrical impedence tomography
Gas exchange
1 Arterial blood gas
PaO2/FiO2
Oxygenation index
2 Pulse oximetry
SpO2/FiO2
Lung water
1 Extravascular lung water (PiCCO)
Coagulation
biomarkers
PAI-1, PC
Inflammatory biomarkers
Interleukins 1B, 6, 8,
and 10, TNF
Endothelial biomarkers
VEGF, angiopoietin 2,
vWF, s-ICAM1
Key
Dead and damaged cells
Neutrophil
Cytokines
Fibrin
Thrombosis
Macrophage
Platelets
Fibroblast
Figure 2: Clinical and research investigational modalities used in acute respiratory distress syndrome
PEEP=positive end-expiratory pressure. PaO2/FiO2=ratio of partial pressure of arterial oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen. SpO2/FiO2=ratio of peripheral arterial
oxygen saturation to fraction of inspired oxygen. PiCCO=Pulse Contour Cardiac Output. TNF-=tumour necrosis factor . vWF= von Willebrand factor.
Seminar
F
1
H
1
Low activity
High activity
Figure 3: A normal chest radiograph (A), and a chest radiograph demonstrating bilateral alveolar inltrates
consistent with acute respiratory distress syndrome (B); chest CT showing bilateral pneumonitis and
consolidation with air bronchograms consistent with acute respiratory distress syndrome (C); lung
ultrasonogram illustrating smooth pleural line, absence of horizontal A lines, and presence of vertical B lines
suggestive of acute respiratory distress syndrome (D); and PET demonstrating increased areas of metabolic
activity, reective of underlying inammation (EH)
Figures E and F are reproduced from Bellani and colleagues,59 by permission of Wolters Kluwer Health.
Seminar
Supportive management
VTE prophylaxis
Standard VTE prophylaxis
Nutrition
Initial trophic feed acceptable
No place for pharmaconutrition
Mobilisation
Early mobilisation encouraged
Sedation
Avoidance of deep sedation
Analgesia based
Titrate to comfort
Investigations
Not recommended
Recommended
Echocardiography
Ventilation
Therapy
Identies inltrates
Allows monitoring of progress
Chest CT
Investigations
Therapy
Chest radiography
+/
Lung ultrasonography
Bronchoalveolar lavage
Underlying condition
Specic management
+
Fluid balance
Neuromuscular
blockade
Prone positioning
Referral to an
ECMO centre
Figure 4: Algorithm of a suggested evidence-based approach to the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome
VTE=venous thromboembolism. PaO2=partial pressure of arterial oxygen. FiO2=fraction of inspired oxygen. ECMO=extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.
Pplat=airway plateau pressure. PEEP=positive end-expiratory pressure.
Seminar
Seminar
Neuromuscular blockade
The hypoxaemia of severe acute respiratory distress
syndrome might necessitate excessive ventilatory support,
risking the development of ventilator-induced lung injury.
Paralysis removes endogenous eort, improving
respiratory mechanics and lowering oxygen consumption.
In the ACCURSY study,113 cisatracurium-besylate-induced
Seminar
Pharmacotherapy
In the past 5 years, statins and 2 agonists have been
investigated in large placebo-controlled, phase 3
randomised studies. In addition to their cholesterollowering eects, statins have pleotropic properties,
making them an attractive potential therapy. In the Irish
Critical Care Trials Groups HARP-2 study,37 simvastatin
was assessed in 540 patients with early acute respiratory
distress syndrome. Although 80 mg simvastatin was not
associated with harm, there was no benet in ventilatorfree days (simvastatin 126 days [SD 9] vs control 115 days
[104]; p=021), days free of non-pulmonary organ failure
(194 [111] vs 178 [117]; p=011) or 28 day mortality
(220% vs 268%; p=023). The US ARDSnet group ran a
similar study, SAILS,38 exploring rosuvastatin in
745 patients with sepsis-associated acute respiratory
distress syndrome. The study was stopped for futility and
showed no signicant dierence between the rosuvastatin
Extracorporeal
1 ECMO
2 ECC02R
Ventilation
1 Low tidal volume*
2 Pplat <30 cm H2O*
3 Higher PEEP*
4 Driving pressure <15 cm H2O
5 Neuromuscular blockade*
6 Prone positioning*
7 Surfactant
8 Mucolytics
9 Bronchodilators
10 Liquid ventilation
11 Tracheal gas insuation
Vasomotor tone
1 Nitric oxide
2 Prostaglandins (inhaled
and intravenous)
3 Almetrine
Antifibrotic
1 Corticosteroids
Anti-inflammatory
1 Corticosteroids
2 Statins
3 Ketoconazole
4 Ibuprofen
5 Pentoxyfylline,
lisofylline
6 Silvelestat
7 Omega 3 fatty
acids
8 Vitamins C, D, E
9 Interferon
10 Aspirin
Reparative
1 Stem cells
2 Growth factors
Keratinocyte growth factor
GM-CSF
Anticoagulants
1 Activated protein C
2 Heparin
Fluid management
Fibrin
Neutrophil
Macrophage
Platelets
Fibroblast
Cytokines
Thrombosis
Hyaline membrane
10
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Supportive therapy
Nutrition
11
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12
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