Section 5.

4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

EXAMPLE: If f is a function whose graph is shown below and g(x) =

Zx

f (t)dt, find the values

of g(0), g(1), g(2), g(3), g(4), and g(5). Then sketch a rough graph of g.

Solution: First we notice that g(0) =

Z0

f (t)dt = 0. From the figure above we see that g(1) is

the area of a triangle:

g(1) =

Z1

1
f (t)dt = (1 2) = 1
2

To find g(2) we add to g(1) the area of a rectangle:

g(2) =

Z2
0

f (t)dt =

Z1

f (t)dt +

Z2

f (t)dt = 1 + (1 2) = 3

We estimate that the area under f from 2 to 3 in about 1.3, so

g(3) = g(2) +

Z3

f (t)dt 3 + 1.3 = 4.3

For t > 3, f (t) is negative and so we start subtracting areas:

g(4) = g(3) +

Z4

f (t)dt 4.3 + (1.3) = 3

g(5) = g(4) +

Z5
4

f (t)dt 3 + (1.3) = 1.7

Section 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

We use these values to sketch the graph of g:

g(0) = 0
g(1) = 1
g(2) = 3
g(3) 4.3
g(4) 3
g(5) 1.7
EXAMPLE: If g(x) =

Zx

f (t)dt, where a = 0 and f (t) = sin t, find a formula for g(x) and

calculate g (x).
Solution: By the Evaluation Theorem we have:
g(x) =

Zx

sin tdt = cos t]x0 = cos x ( cos 0) = cos x + 1

d
( cos x + 1) = sin x.
dx
REMARK: To see why this might be generally true we consider a continuous function f with
f (x) 0. Then
Zx
g(x) = f (t)dt
Then g (x) =

To compute g (x) from the definition of derivative we first observe that, for h > 0, g(x+h)g(x)
is obtained by subtracting areas, so it is the area under the graph of f from x to x + h (the
gold area). For small h you can see that this area is approximately equal to the area of the
rectangle with height f (x) and width h:
g(x + h) g(x) hf (x)

g(x + h) g(x)
f (x)
h

Intuitively, we therefore expect that

g(x + h) g(x)
= f (x)
h0
h

g (x) = lim

The fact that this is true, even when f is not necessarily positive, is the first part of the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
2

Section 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

THEOREM (The Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus, Part I): If f is continuous on [a, b], then
the function g defined by
Zx
axb
g(x) = f (t)dt
a

is an antiderivative of f, that is g (x) = f (x) for a < x < b.

Proof: If x and x + h are in the open interval (a, b), then

x
x+h
x+h
x+h
Z
Zx
Z
Z
Zx
Z
f (t)dt
f (t)dt f (t)dt =
f (t)dt f (t)dt = f (t)dt +
g(x + h) g(x) =
a

and so, for h 6= 0,

g(x + h) g(x)
1
=
h
h

x+h
Z
f (t)dt

(1)

For now lets assume that h > 0. Since f is continuous on [x, x+h], the Extreme Value Theorem
says that there are numbers u and v in [x, x + h] such that f (u) = m and f (v) = M, where
m and Mare the absolute minimum and maximum
values of f on [x, x + h]. By Property 8 of

Zb
integrals m(b a) f (x)dx M (b a) we have
a

x+h
Z
mh
f (t)dt M h

x+h
Z
f (u)h
f (t)dt f (v)h
x

Since h > 0, we can divide this inequality by h:

1
f (u)
h

x+h
Z
f (t)dt f (v)
x

Now we use (1) to replace the middle part of this inequality:

g(x + h) g(x)
f (v)
(2)
h
Inequality (2) can be proved in a similar manner for the case h < 0. Now let h 0. Then
u x and v x, since u and v lie between x and x + h. Thus
f (u)

lim f (u) = lim f (u) = f (x) and

h0

ux

lim f (v) = lim f (v) = f (x)

h0

vx

because f is continuous at x. We conclude, from (2) and the Squeeze Theorem, that
g(x + h) g(x)
= f (x)
(3)
h0
h
If x = a or b, then (3) can be interpreted as a one-sided limit. We know that if f is differentiable
at a, then f is continuous at a. If we adopt this theorem for one-sided limits, we obtain that
g is continuous on [a, b]. 
g (x) = lim

Section 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of the function g(x) =

Zx

t4 dt.

Solution: Since f (t) = t4 is continuous, Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives
g (x) = x4
EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

Zx

et dt.

1
2

Solution: Since f (t) = et is continuous, Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives
g (x) = ex

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

Zx2

et dt.

1
2

Solution: Since f (t) = et is continuous, Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives
d
dx

Zx2
1

et dt =

d
dx

Zu

et dt =

d
du

Zu

et dt

du
2 du
2 2
4
= eu
= e(x ) 2x = 2xex
dx
dx

In short,
d
dx

Zx2

et dt = e(x

2 )2

(x2 ) = 2xex

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

sin x
Z

tdt.

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

Z1

sec tdt.

x4

Section 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

sin x
Z

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

tdt.

Solution: Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives

u
sin x
Z
Z
Zu

d
d 3 du
du
d
3
3
3
= 3u
= sin x cos x
tdt =
tdt =
tdt
dx
dx
du
dx
dx
2

In short,
d
dx

sin x
Z

tdt =

sin x(sin x) =

sin x cos x

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

Z1

sec tdt.

x4

Solution: By Property 1 of the Definite Integral and Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus we have

u
Z
Z1
Zx4
Zu
d
du
du
d
d
d
= sec u
sec tdt =
sec tdt = sec tdt
sec tdt =
dx
dx
dx
du
dx
dx
1

x4

= sec(x4 ) 4x3
= 4x3 sec(x4 )

In short,
d
dx

Z1
x4

sec tdt =

d
dx

Zx4

sec tdt = sec(x4 )(x4 ) = 4x3 sec(x4 )

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

cos
Z x

t2 dt.

sin x

Section 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

EXAMPLE: Find the derivative of g(x) =

cos
Z x

t2 dt.

sin x

Solution: We have
cos
Z x

Z0

t dt =

t dt +

sin x

sin x

cos
sin x
Z x
Z
2
t2 dt
t dt +
t dt =

cos
Z x

therefore
d
dx

cos
Z x

d
t dt =
dx
2

sin x
cos
Z
Z x
d
2
t dt +
t2 dt
dx
0

sin x

= sin2 x(sin x) + cos2 x(cos x)

= sin2 x cos x + cos2 x( sin x)
= sin2 x cos x cos2 x sin x
THEOREM (The Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus, Part II): If f is continuous on [a, b], then
Zb

f (x)dx = F (b) F (a)

where F is any antiderivative of f, that is F = f.

Proof: Put
g(x) =

Zx

f (t)dt

By the Fundamental Theorem Of Calculus, Part I, g(x) is an antiderivative of f (x). Therefore

any other antiderivative F (x) of f (x) can be written as
F (x) = g(x) + C =

Zx

f (t)dt + C

It follows that
F (a) =

Za

f (t)dt + C = 0 + C = C

F (b) =

Zb

f (t)dt + C =

thus
F (b) =

Zb

f (t)dt + F (a)

F (b) F (a) =

Zb
a

f (t)dt + F (a)

Zb

f (t)dt 

Section 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

THEOREM (The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals): If f is continuous on [a, b], then there
exists a number c in [a, b] such that

f (c) = fave

1
=
ba

Zb

f (x)dx

Zb

or

f (x)dx = f (c)(b a)

EXAMPLE: Find the average value of the function f (x) =

x on the interval [1, 4].

Solution: We have
fave

1
=
41

Z4

1
xdx =
3

Z4

1/2

1 x1/2+1
dx =
3 1/2 + 1

4
1

1 2
= x3/2
3 3

4
1

1
=
3

2 3/2 2 3/2
4 1
3
3

We now find c:
f (c) = fave

14
=
9

14
c=
9

c=

14
9

2

196
142
=
2
9
81

EXAMPLE: Find the average value of the function f (x) = 1 + x2 on the interval [1, 2].

EXAMPLE: Find the average value of the function f (x) =

4 x2 on the interval [2, 2].

14
9

Section 5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

EXAMPLE: Find the average value of the function f (x) = 1 + x2 on the interval [1, 2].
Solution: We have
fave

1
=
2 (1)

Z2


2
1
x3
(1 + x )dx =
x+
=2
3
3 1
2

We now find c:
f (c) = fave = 2

1 + c2 = 2

c2 = 1

EXAMPLE: Find the average value of the function f (x) =

Solution: We have
fave

1
=
2 (2)

Z2

4 x2 dx =

c = 1

4 x2 on the interval [2, 2].

1 22

=
4
2
2

We now find c:
f (c) = fave

=
2

4 c2 =
2

2
4c =
4
2

c=

2
4
1.23798
4