Term IDs

Lecture 13: March 12

Counter-Reformation
This is a term popularized in the nineteenth century that indicates the comeback of the Catholic Church after Luthers
reformation. It includes the establishment of the Jesuits, the Roman Inquisition, the publishing of a list of prohibited
books, and the convocation of the Council of Trent. It is also associated with the rise of Baroque art.
Jesuits/Society of Jesus
Founded in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola, the Jesuits were a religious society whose mission was to promote Catholicism by
re-Catholicizing Protestant areas and bringing Catholicism to far away places, such as China and Japan. They emphasized
aggressive proselytization. Their strict discipline and self control, strict obedience to Church authorities, and regular
spiritual exercises made them extremely successful. They received papal approval in 1540.
Il Gesu
This is the mother church of the Jesuits in Rome, which was completed in 1580. Known for being the first baroque
architecture, the church served as model for innumerable Jesuit churches all over the world, especially in the Americas.
Ignatius of Loyola
Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) founded the Jesuit order in 1534. Born and raised in Spain, he was a knight who fought in
the Spanish army during the Italian wars; while undergoing painful leg surgery as a result, he became a soldier of God.
His approach to religion was militaristic. He wrote Spiritual Exercises 1522-1524 and which was first printed in 1548.
Roman Inquisition
The Inquisition had existed since the 1470s. The Spanish Inquisition had existed since the 1470s, although it was run by
the Spanish church and the Spanish monarchy. The Roman Inquisition was established in 1542 and was run directly by
Rome. Its purpose was to detect heresy and to wipe it out.
Index Liborum Prohibitorum
This index, first published in 1559, was a list indicating all of the books that devout Catholics should not read. It was one
of the innovations of the Counter Reformation.
Council of Trent
The Council of Trent, held between 1545-1563, was a general church council intended to work out fundamental reforms
for the Catholic Church. Some of its reforms: prohibited selling of clerical offices; reformed indulgences; place more
emphasis on training and education of priests; ordered priests to reside in parishes; prohibited clergymen from having
concubines; and emphasized art as a religious vehicle to create a powerful religious experience.
Counter-Reformation/Baroque Art
Baroque art was used by the Counter Reformation to reach out to the people by conveying a strong, sensual religious
experience. There was an emphasis on emotional intensity and drama.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
A Baroque artist who lived from 1598-1680. He made the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa around 1650, and also crafted the square
and colonnades of St. Peters. He was a devout Catholic but occasionally made fun of the institution.
Augsburg Interim
The Augsburg Interim in 1548 was the name for a number of measures instituted with the purpose of restoring
Catholicism across the HRE. This was done by Charles V.
Peace of Augsburg
The Peace of Augsburg, in 1555, brought to an end 3 decades of religious conflict between Charles V and the Protestants
in the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace gave the individual ruler of a territory in the HRE the right to decide whether or
not the territory would adopt Protestantism.
Lus reformandi
Part of the Peace of Augsburg. This is the right of reformation; a prince had the right to order religious ideas.
Cuius regio, eius religio
He who rules a territory, determines its religion. After the Peace of Augsburg, the ruler of each territory in the HRE was
allowed to determine what religion his territory would be.
Lus emigrandi
The right to emigrate. After the Peace of Augsburg, citizens of a territory whose religion was opposite to their own had the
right to move to a different territory with their own religious views.
Confessionalization

The emergence of territories that were characterized by confessional uniformity. Potentially set in motion by the Peace of
Augsburg in 1555.

Lecture 14: March 24

Huguenots
Huguenots were French Protestants of the main strain of Protestantism. They were persecuted in France.
House of Valois/ Valois dynasty
The House of Valois was a dynasty that ruled in France from the mid-fourteenth century to 1589. Henry II and Catherine
de Medici were part of it.
Catherine de Medici
The widow of Henry II, Catherine (1519-1589) was the queen of France during the wars of religion. She was a political
pragmatist; she tried to play off the two powerful families (Guise and Bourbon) against each other. She was the suspected
mastermind behind the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre.
The House of Guise
The House of Guise was a powerful Catholic aristocratic family in Lorraine, France. They became worried that the
Protestants were getting too powerful, so they launched the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre.
The House of Bourbon
The House of Bourbon was a powerful Protestant Huguenot family in South-West France. Their leader was Henry of
Navarre.
St. Bartholomews Day Massacre
The Massacre took place on August 23, 1572 during a wedding. Because the Guise family was worried that Protestant
leaders were gaining the upper hand, they launched an attack on the wedding of Henry of Navarre and Catherines
daughter. The attacks spread through the countryside, and 10,000 Huguenots died.
Extinction of House of Valois in 1589
The House of Valois became extinct in 1589 when Catherine de Medici died after her three heirs had already died. It was
succeeded by the House of Bourbon; Henry of Navarre of the House of Bourbon became Henry IV of France in 1594,
saying that Paris vaut bien une messe (Paris is well worth a mass).
Edict of Nantes
The Edict of Nantes in 1598 was one of Henry of Navarres actions. It stated that although French was a Catholic country,
it was tolerant of Protestants. It granted Huguenots civil rights.
Abdication of Charles V in 1556/Division of the Hapsburg Empire (Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs)
Charles V, the emperor of the HRE, abdicated in 1556. His empire was divided into two parts. Austria and Hungary went
to his brother, and Spain and the Low Countries went to Philip II of Spain.
Philip II of Spain (King of Spain: 1556-1598)
Philip II became king of Spain and the Low Countries in 1556. He was ultra-Catholic and very ambitious; he wanted to
expand Spanish power and re-Catholicize the Protestant Low Countries.
El Escorial
El Escorial was a castle-monastery outside Madrid that Philip II lived in. It was dedicated to St. Lawrence and thus was
built on a grid, like the grid on which the saint was burnt.
Low Countries
The Low Countries was composed of seventeen provinces, small but flourishing territories that were well-established
Protestant communities. Holland was a principal territory. Antwerp was a city that soon replaced Venice as a hub for
trading goods. There was much resistance against the re-Catholicization efforts of Philip II, which led to the Eighty Years
War.
Leaders of the Anti-Spanish movement in the Low Countries:
Lamoral, Count Egmont (1522-1568)- was executed in 1568
Prince William of Orange (1533-1584)- founded the dynasty of the House of Orange
Eighty Years War results:
The Eighty Years War (1568-1648) was the Dutch War of independence that occurred after Philip II tried to reCatholicize the Low Countries. The result was that the Low Countries split into two: 7 northern provinces form the Dutch
Republic and 10 southern provinces remain Spanish (=Spanish Netherlands).
Dutch Golden Age (17th century)

During the 17th century, the Dutch became a functioning republic with a stellar economic rise. Amsterdam became the
leading commercial city of Europe with the first stock exchange. As a global maritime power, they pushed Spain out of
lucrative spice trade in South Asia. The establishment of the Dutch East India Company also was an important factor in
their rise.
Dutch East India Company
The Company was established in 1602. They issued stock which private citizens bought. They had strongholds across
South Asia, Indonesia, and Batavia.

Lecture 15: March 26

Seven Electors of the Holy Roman Empire:
Three Catholic Electors: the Archbishop of Mainz, the Archbishop of Trier, and the Archbishop of Cologne
Three Protestant Electors: the Count Palatine (Elector of the Palatinate), the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of
Brandenburg
King of Bohemia- traditionally the head of the House of Hapsburg
Emperor Rudolf II
Rudolf (1552-1576-1612) was emperor of Bohemia. He made Prague the capital of the Hapsburgs, as Vienna was too
close to the Ottoman Empire. He wrote the Letter of Majesty.
Letter of Majesty- 1609
The Letter of Majesty, written in 1609 by Emperor Rudolf II, granted significant civil rights to Bohemian Protestants.
Golden Age of Prague
The reign of Charles IV is known as the Golden Age of Prague.
Ferdinand Habsburg (1578-1637)
Ferdinand II was the next emperor of Bohemia and saw himself as the head of western Christendom. From 1617 onwards
he was King of Bohemia; from 1619 onwards, he was Emperor Ferdinand II. He made concessions to the Bohemian
Protestants in order to get elected, but once in power, he gave no religious tolerance for Protestants.
Defenestration of Prague: May 23 1618
After the election of Ferdinand II to King of Bohemia, he took action against the Protestants. A group of Protestants
marched to Prague Castle and threw three Hapsburg officials out of the window. Shortly after, Ferdinand was deposed as
king of Bohemia.
The Winter King: Frederick V of the Palatinate
Frederick V (1596-1632) was king of the Palatine, and then became king of Bohemia in 1619. He was a Calvinist
Protestant. He was only king for one winter, thus his nickname. He lived in exile in the Netherlands.
Gerrit van Honthorst, Triumph of the Winter Queen
A painting that was commissioned by Frederick V (the Winter King) after he was deposed by the Hapsburgs and sent into
exile in the Dutch Territories. The painting is an allegory; it shows a vision of Frederick returning in triumph to Bohemia
and the Palatinate.
Battle of White Mountain
A battle during the Thirty Years War in 1620. The Imperial troops defeated the Bohemian army, and Frederick and his
wife went into exile. He was stripped of his rights as Elector of the Palatinate and had to live in exile in the Netherlands.
After White Mountain, the house of Hapsburgs was strong and the union of Protestant princes was weakened.

Lecture 16: March 31

Albrecht von Wallenstein
Wallenstein (1583-1634) was the Habsburg emperors highest general. He was a Bohemian aristocrat who was raised as a
Protestant, although he converted to Catholicism later. As commander in chief of Ferdinands army, he had full control
over the coalition and financing and was highly efficient and powerful. He was discharged in 1629 but brought back in
1632.
Wallenstein Palace in Prague
Albrecht von Wallenstein built a palace in Prague right next to Prague Castle. Baroque
Bellum se ipsum alet

The war will feed itself. Wallensteins philosophy for the Thirty Years War. The armies would feed themselves by
plundering the land. Conquered lands were a source of revenue, and also became a reason to keep the war going.
Edict of Restitution
An edict that Ferdinand made in 1629 that attempted to re-Catholicized the HRE.
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden
Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1611-1632) was the King of Sweden. A devout Protestant, he wanted to protect his fellow
Protestants. He entered the conflict of the Thirty Years War in 1630 and eventually re-conquered Bohemia and the
palatinate.
Sack of Magdeburg
The sack of Magdeburg, a city in Eastern Germany, in 1631, led to Brandenburg and Saxony joining the war, as they saw
that violence and negotiations werent getting anywhere.
Battle of Ltzen
This battle in 1632 was one of the biggest cat-and-mouse games in the history of war. Lutzen was a city in Saxony. The
result of the battle was inconclusive, although both sides claimed victory. Gustavus Adolphus died from injuries, and the
Protestants were left without a strong leader.
Battle of Nrdlingen (1634)
A battle in 1634. The Protestants lost this major battle, weakened after the loss of Gustavus Adolphus.
Gerard Ter Borch, Man on Horseback
This painting, made in 1634, shows an exhausted warrior, illustrating how the war was very unglorious and unglamorous.
Peace of Westphalia (1648)
A treaty in 1648 signed in Munster and Osnabrck. It significantly shaped the contours of Europe. It reaffirmed the Peace
of Augsburg in that Catholics and Protestants were on equal footing and added the Calvinists. The territorial rulers of the
HRE received wide-ranging sovereignty and weakened the power of the emperor. France received land concessions in the
east; the Catholic rule of Bohemia was restored.
Periodization of the Thirty Years War
Bohemian Phase (1618-1625): Defeat of the Winter King; attempt to re-Catholicize Bohemia
Danish phase (1626-1629): Ends with sweeping Catholic victory due to Wallenstein
Swedish Phase (1630-1634): Rise of Gustavus Adolphus; Protestants turn the tide; ends with the death of Gustavus
Adolphus and the Peace of Prague
French (or International) Phase (1635-1648): The religious war becomes a political war

Lecture 17: April 2

Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (1533-1558-1603) was the last Tudor monarch. She had no heirs, and when she died, it brought the Tudor
dynasty to an end. Her nickname was the Virgin Queen.
Ascension of the House of Stuart
When Elizabeth I died in 1603, her cousin James took the throne. He was James VI of Scotland (1567-1625) and brought
the Stuart dynasty to power in England.
James I of England (James VI of Scotland)
James I (1566-1625) became king of England in 1603. As a foreigner, it was harder for him to gain the trust of the English
people. His main problems were that he believed in the divine right of kings, as seen in his work The True Law of Free
Monarchies in 1598, and his lavish court life which caused financial problems, as seen in his building Banqueting House
in London.
Charles I
Charles I (1600-1625-1649) was the son of James I. He faced financial problems in that he needed money but could only
act with the consent of Parliament. He started using forced loans to get money. He dissolved Parliament and did not call
it for eleven years. He was determined to restrain Puritanism. In 1640, he declared Parliamentary leaders were rebels, left
London, and declared Oxford the capital.
Puritanism
Puritans were very strict Calvinists who wanted the abolition of all remaining elements of the Catholic Church and a new
Presbyterian system. Since the king was the leader of the Church, they challenged the king.
Episcopal System (Anglican) vs. Presbyterian system (Puritan)

The Anglican system established by Henry VIII had the king as the leader of the church, whereas the Presbyterian system
wanted the abolition of all remaining elements of the Catholic Church, which threatened the king as leader of the Church.
Scottish rebellion against the Anglican Book of Common Prayer
Charles I was determined to restrain Puritanism, and thus introduced a new Anglican prayer book in 1637. It was met with
fierce opposition.
Long Parliament (1640-1653)
Charles I convened Parliament in 1640 in order to ask for more money, and Parliament used the situation to ask for more
rights from the king. They were not dissolved until 1653.
New Model Army
The Parliamentary army, led by Oliver Cromwell. The soldiers were iconoclasts and destroyed the icons they came across.
Execution of Charles I (1649)
The Rump Parliament tried Charles I publicly in the name of the people and sentenced him to death. He was beheaded in
1649.
Interregnum
The interregnum lasted from 1649-1660. It began when Charles I was beheaded and power moved into the hands of
Parliament. When Cromwell took power, he turned it into a Puritanical dictatorship. The interregnum ended when the
army seized control and called back the Stuarts from their exile in France.
Oliver Cromwell
Cromwell (1559-1658) was the leader of the New Model Army. He took power in 1649 when the Parliament became in
charge and ruled as Lord Protector of England from 1653 onwards. He had deeply religious beliefs and believed in
predestination; he saw himself as one of the elect. He enacted strict laws to weed out immoralities.
Stuart Restoration (1660)
After Cromwell died in 1658, the army seized control and called back the Stuarts from their exile in France. Charles II
(1630-1685) ruled from 1660 to 1685 and was succeeded by his brother James II (1633-1685-1688).
Glorious Revolution (1688)
In 1688, William, Prince of Orange, (1689-1702) and his wife Mary were invited by the English elite to become King of
England as William III. James II had to flee to France. The Revolution was no bloodshed. As monarchs, they had to accept
the English Bill of Rights (1689).
Lecture 18: April 7
Absolutism
Absolutism was a system of government under which the monarch held absolute power. Louis XIV is an example of an
absolutist monarch. This can be seen in several traditions, such as Thomas Hobbes ideas about man needing a strong ruler
and medieval ideas that the monarch was Gods proxy, ruling by the grace of God.
Louis XIV
Louis XIV, or the Sun King, ruled for more than 70 years (1638-1643-1715). An absolutist ruler, he instituted many
measures to keep France strongly under his own rule. He especially worked to keep the aristocrats under his control and
made a splendid display of royal power.
Ltat, cest moi
A phrase attributed to Louis XIV meaning I am the state. Although Louis XIV never actually said this, it encapsulates
absolutist philosophy, in that the monarch essentially was the state as he had complete control over everything that went
on in the government.
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes was a political philosopher who lived from 1588 to 1679. He wrote the Leviathan in 1651. His main philosophy
was that man in his state of nature does not coexist peacefully with his fellow man, and this state can only be overcome
with a strong government with power in the hands of one ruler. His phrase Homo homini lupus means that man is a wolf
to his fellow man.
Royal Touch/Scrofula
A medieval idea; the Royal Touch was the idea that the kings touch had healing powers: The king touches you, God
cures you. Scrofula was a disease known as the Kings Evil, since it could only be cured by the royal touch, although
in many cases it receded by its own.
Fronde

A rebellion between 1648-1653 after Louis XIV came to the throne. French aristocrats rose up against the throne to curtail
the kings power. The name of the rebellion refers to the slingshots used by street boys. Louis learned 3 important lessons
from this time: 1) a strong monarchy was only possible with a weak aristocracy 2) It was important to stay away from
Paris- so he built his palace at Versailles 3) One should not let any other political party meddle in royal decision-making
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
A skilled minister hired by Louis XIV to improve state finances. He was French Minister of Finances from 1665 to 1683.
He collected taxes much more efficiently than the past.
Louisiana- example of French colonial expansion
Louisiana is an example of French colonial expansion. It was founded in the 1680s and named after Louis XIV. It went to
Britain after the Seven Years War.
Noblesse de robe vs. Noblesse depe
Translated, Nobles of the Robe vs. Nobles of the Sword. This term shows the dichotomy between types of nobility in the
time of Louis XIV. Nobles of the Sword were old nobility; Nobles of the Robe were appointed officials that were part of
Louis XIVs meritocracy, which was one of his achievements that helped France become stronger.
Versailles
Versailles was the permanent residence of the king from 1682 onwards. Built by Louis XIV, the massive palace served to
glorify the king and help the king achieve his political goals of absolutist power. By keeping the aristocracy occupied by
frivolous activities at Versailles, he prevented them from fomenting revolution.
Domestification of the aristocracy
Louis XIV brought the aristocrats to the court and stripped them of their strongholds in order to weaken the aristocracy.
This was in contrast to previous times, in which the king traveled around and visited aristocrats in their chateaus in the
countryside.
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685. French Huguenots were no longer tolerated in France, so about 200,000
of them emigrated. They were often highly educated members of the upper classes.
Franco-Dutch War
Lasting between 1672 and 1678, the Franco-Dutch was one example of Louis XIVs costly wars that drained the budget,
as a lot of money was needed to keep a large standing army. As the Dutch Republic was a center of foreign trade and
Calvinist, it made sense to invade them.
War of the Spanish Succession
This war, which took place between 1702 and 1714, began when Charles II, ruler of Spain, died without a direct heir in
1700, naming a grandson of Louis XIV as his successor. England, the Netherlands, and the Austrian Hapsburgs did not
want a French successor the Spanish throne and so they formed an alliance to fight against the French. The war ended in
the Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714), which specified a careful compromise to prevent any European power
from becoming too powerful. The Grand Alliance gave the Spanish throne to the Bourbons on the condition that they
would only get Iberia and France and Spain would never be united. Also, the Austrian Hapsburgs received possessions in
the Southern Netherlands, Italy, and Sardinia; England received Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. This worked towards a
Balance of Power underlying diplomacy in the 18th century.

Lecture 19 Prussias Ascent

House of Hohenzollern
Royal dynasty that ruled the Electorate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in personal union (BrandenburgPrussia). The rise of the Brandenburg Hohenzollerns, who became Protestant at the Reformation, came with significant
gains in territory in the 15th-17th centuries.
Frederick William The Great Elector
Ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia from 1640 until his death. Known as The Great Elector for his military and political
prowess. Staunch supporter of Calvinism, which was associated with the rising commercial class. He promoted trade
vigorously, and his domestic reforms gave Prussia an advantage in elevating from a duchy to kingdom.
Junker
Landed nobility in Prussia who owned great estates maintained by peasants with few rights. They were a dominant factor
in Prussian military, political, and diplomatic leadership.

Admission of the French Huguenots to Prussia (from 1685 onwards)

The Edict of Nantes had granted some freedom of religion in France; however, when King Louis XIV revoked the Edict in
1685, persecution and forcible conversion of Huguenots caused thousands to flee to many Protestant states, including
Prussia, where a large number settled in Brandenburg. These highly-skilled Huguenots are thought to have contributed
significantly to the development of the textile industry there.
Kingdom of Prussia
Established in 1701, the kingdom began the common designation for Brandenburg-Prussia with the capital in Berlin.
Prussia was a great power since its foundation as a kingdom, though it became a military power as a duchy under
Frederick William The Great Elector
Frederick William I The Soldier King
Reigned from 1713-1740. His rule was absolutist and he was a firm autocrat. He practiced rigid economy, never started a
war, and at his death there was a large surplus in the royal treasury. Known as the 'Soldier-King' for his reforms to the
Prussian army's training, tactics and conscription programleaving his son Frederick the Great with a formidable army to
build Prussia's power.
Potsdam Giants were a Prussian infantry regiment with taller-than-average soldiers founded in 1675. Nicknamed Lange
Kerls (long lads).
Frederick II Frederick the Great
Reigned from 1740-1786. Greatly enlarged Prussias territories and made Prussia the foremost military power in Europe.
An enlightened absolute monarch, he favored French language and art and built a French Rococo palace, Sanssouci, near
Berlin. He also maintained correspondence with Voltaire and aspired to be a philosopher-king. Famously said I am the
first servant of the state in his essay.
Austria-Prussian rivalry (German dualism)
Austria and Prussia had a long-standing conflict and rivalry for supremacy in Central Europe during the 18th and 19th
centuries, termed Deutscher Dualismus (German dualism). While wars were a part of the rivalry, it was also a race for
prestige to be seen as the legitimate political force of the German-speaking peoples. The conflict first culminated in the
Seven Years' War; however, relations were not always hostile; sometimes, both countries were able to cooperate, such as
during the Napoleonic Wars and the Second Schleswig War.
Seven Years War (1756-1763)
The war is seen as the first global war between the great powers of Europe. Great Britain competed with both France and
Spain over trade and colonies. Meanwhile rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and
outside of the Holy Roman Empire. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris and was a great success for Britain, which
emerges as a major colonial power due to land gains in North America and the Caribbean.

Lecture 20 The New Science Part I

o
o

o
o
o

Scientific Revolution (modern concept)

No contemporary used that term, and only in the 20th century that historians began to use it. Periodization of the
revolution is disputed, but generally believed to be from Copernicus to Newton.
New Philosophy or New Science were the early modern terms, Bacon used the term new science in his New Atlantis.
Aristotelian natural philosophy
New Science critical toward Aristotles natural philosophy, popular during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Aristotles
teachings overlapped with the Christian worldview; he viewed that the celestial bodies are purer the higher up they are,
which fits with the Christian notion of the cosmos that everything on Earth is sinful.
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon is considered one of the fathers of modern science. He proposed a great reformation of all processes of
knowledge for the advancement of learning, divine and human. He called it Instauratio Magna (The Great Instauration).
His works established the inductive method for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the
scientific methodreasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for (not absolute proof of) the truth of
the conclusion. For him, science should proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to physical law.
In The New Atlantis, he portrayed science as a collaborative enterprise through Salomons House, his ideal college.
Royal Society of London (founded 1660, three decades after Bacons death)
Started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers influenced by the new science, as promoted by Bacon in his
New Atlantis, from 1645 onwards.

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o
o

Motto is Nullius in verba (Take nobodys word for it) - It was adopted to signify the societys determination to
establish facts via experiments
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society - scientific journal published by the Royal Society of London.
Humoral medicine
Theory of human health, adopted by Ancient Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers, based on how an excess or
deficiency of any of four distinct bodily fluids in a person (humors) directly influences their temperament and health.
Bloodletting based on excess humor (blood) and was practiced from antiquity until late 19 th century.
Paracelsus
Developed the idea that beneficial medical substances could be found in herbs, minerals and alchemyiatrochemistry,
seeks to provide chemical solutions to diseases. These beliefs were the foundation of mainstream Western medicine well
into the 1800s.
He is also known as a revolutionary for rejecting the humoral system, arguing that there is a specific medicine for every
disease.
Mechanical philosophy
Branch of natural philosophy arose in the period 1620-1650, an attempt to describe nature in mathematical terms.
Clockwork metaphor - compares the universe to a mechanical clock. It continues ticking along, as a perfect machine, with
its gears governed by the laws of physics, making every aspect of the machine predictable.
Geocentrism
Biblical basis in Joshua 10:12-13 (Battle of Gibeon) - And the sun stood still, until the nation had avenged themselves of
their enemies"
Ptolemaic cosmology - synthesized all Greek teachings about cosmology (Aristotle and Plato)
Musica universalis (music of the spheres)
Concept that regards proportions in the movements of celestial bodies as a form of music not audible to humans, but it is
the most divine music because the spheres produced it.
Mathematical/religious concept that appealed to scholarshumans cannot hear this music but can attempt to learn its
laws.
Heliocentrism
Copernican revolution paradigm shift from geocentrism to heliocentrism
Nicolaus Copernicus developed the heliocentric model in On the Revolutions of the Celestial Sphrers
Johannes Kepler developed laws of planetary motion, which provided one of the foundations for Newtons theory of
gravity
Lecture 21 The New Science Part II

o
o

o
o
o

o
o

Diverging views about Earths motion

Copernicus - planets moved in uniform circular motion
Kepler - all planets move in ellipses, with the sun at one focusKepler's first law of planetary motion
Galileo Galilei (15641642)
Improvements to the telescope allowed him to make astronomical observations in support of heliocentrism
His contributions to observational astronomy include the discovery of the four largest moons of Jupiter (named the
Galilean moons in his honor), and the observation and analysis of sunspots and moon craters.
Inquisition trial (1633) His outspoken defense of heliocentrism and biblical interpretations were submitted to the Roman
Inquisition, and he was put on trial. Under threat of being burned at the stake, he recanted and was under lifelong house
arrest.
Isaac Newton (16421727)
His Principia Mathematica laid foundations for classical mechanics, formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation,
which dominated scientists view of the physical universe for the next three centuries.
Scientific method
Francis Bacon proposed a new approach to scientific inquiry based on inductive reasoning, which he published in his
Instauratio Magna
Natural magic (vs. black magic)
One influence on scientists during the Scientific Revolution was natural magic, which was based on the assumption that
certain things have hidden, or occult, powers to affect other things and so result in inexplicable phenomena
Fields such as alchemy and astrology were developed, allowing them to become and the modern sciences they are today
(astronomy and chemistry)
Hermeticism

o
o

An ancient occult tradition encompassing alchemy, astrology, and theosophy. Based on the mystical and alchemical
writings arising in the first three centuries AD and attributed to Hermes Trismegitus, the purported author of Corpus
Hermeticum, a series of sacred texts that form the basis of hermeticism.
Historian Frances Yates thesis gives significant credit for the rise of modern science to the revival of hermetic philosophy
and its new image of man and our relation to nature and the cosmos.
Lecture 22 The Enlightenment

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

Enlightenment / Age of Enlightenment / Age of Reason

A cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century, emphasizing reason and individualism rather than
tradition. Purpose was to reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance
knowledge through the scientific method. It promoted skepticism and intellectual interchange.
The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought that impacted social and political spheres.
philosophe (common self-designation among Enlighteners)
Public intellectuals who applied reason to many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics,
economics, and social issues. They promoted a republic of letters that crossed nations and allowed intellectuals to
exchange books and ideas. Most were men, but some were women. They endorsed progress and tolerance, distrusted most
organized religion and feudal institutions. Faded away after the French Revolution reached its violent stage in 1793.
John Locke (16321704)
Father of classical liberalism, which emphasized securing the freedom of the individual by limiting the power of
government
Theories of religious tolerance in Letters Concerning Toleration in the aftermath of the European wars of religion were
influential
Voltaire (16941778)
French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church,
and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.
Voltaire's works, especially his private letters, frequently contain the expression "crasez l'infme", or "crush the
infamous". The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy that Voltaire saw around him, and the
superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people.
Deism
The belief that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a Creator,
accompanied with the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge.
Gained prominence during Enlightenment among intellectuals raised as Christians who believed in one god, but found
fault with organized religion and did not believe in supernatural events.
The Enlightenment as a pan-European phenomenon
Enlightenment journals
The many scientific and literary journals (predominantly composed of book reviews) that were published during this time
are also evidence of the intellectual side of the Enlightenment.
Sites of Enlightenment sociability
The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan
cities. They used many venues, including coffee houses (that acted as penny universities), salons (where women played
a central role), and masonic lodges (possible influence of Freemasonry).
Collaborative publishing projects
In France, the Enlightenment was based in the salons and culminated in the great Encyclopdie (175172) edited by Denis
Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert with contributions by hundreds of leading philosophes, notably Voltaire, Rousseau
and Montesquieu.
Two problematic aspects of the Enlightenment
Enlightened absolutism (also: Enlightened despotism)
Form of absolute monarchy or despotism in which rulers were influenced by the Enlightenment, applying its emphasis on
rationality to their territories. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, and right to hold
private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education.
Political radicalization
Political principles focused on altering social structures through revolutionary means and changing value systems in
fundamental ways.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (17121778)

The Social Contract (1762) outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical
republicanism. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning
their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the
authority of the volont gnrale (general will) of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being
subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of
the law.
Lecture 23 The French Revolution Part I

o
o

o
o

o
o

Ancien Rgime (Old Regime)

Political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king
of France as well as a member of an estate and province. All rights and status flowed from the social institutions, divided
into three orders: clergy, nobility, and others (the Third Estate). There was no national citizenship.
Fiscal crisis of the French state in the 18th century
Louis XVI inherited a financial crisis in which the state was near bankruptcy due to Frances financial obligations
stemming from involvement in the Seven Years War and American Revolutionary War.
Court spending was high, but main problem was military spending. These military failures were financed considerably
with borrowed money, 2/3 of the national budget was deficit
Concept of the Three Estates
The Ancien Regime divided society into three estates:
First Estate (clergy) upper (10%) and lower clergy (90%)
Second Estate (nobility) nobility of the robe and the sword, 2% of population exempt from taxation which led to their
reluctance to reform
Third Estate (commoners) urban (bourgeoisie and wage-laborers) and rural (free peasants and serfs)
The king was considered part of no estate.
The Estates-General (Les tats-Gnraux)
Legislative assembly of the different estates of French subjects. It had a separate assembly for each estate, which were
called and dismissed by the king. It had no true power; unlike English Parliament, it was not required to approve royal
taxation or legislation and functioned instead as an advisory body to the king.
Estates-General of 1789 was the first meeting since 1614 of the Estates-General, summoned by Louis XVI to propose
solutions to Frances financial crisis. It ended when the Third Estate formed a National Assembly, signaling the outbreak
of the French Revolution.
Louis XVI (175417741792)
Attempted to make Enlightened reforms such as abolishing serfdom, removing the taille tax, and increasing tolerance
toward non-Catholics. Nobility successfully opposed implementation of his reforms; increased discontent among common
people resulted. Also actively supported colonists against Britain.
Cahiers de dolances (Grievance lists)
Lists of grievances ordered by Louis XVI so that the estates could express their hopes and grievances directly to the king.
The documents recorded criticisms of government waste, indirect taxes, church taxes and corruption, and the hunting
rights of the aristocracy.
While the cahiers conveyed the grievances of common people, they were not meant as a direct challenge to the Old
Regime. They were instead suggestions of reforms.
Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes (17481836)
Quest-ce que le tiers-tat? (What Is the Third Estate), published January 1789
Organized around 3 hypothetical questions:
What is the Third Estate? Everything.
What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing.
What does it ask? To become something.
In the pamphlet, Sieyes argues that the Third Estate constitutes a complete nation and had no need for the dead weight of
the two other estates. The people wanted genuine representatives and equal, proportional representation in the EstatesGeneral.
Foundation of the National Assembly (Assemble nationale), 13 June 1789
Revolutionary assembly formed by members of the Third Estate after they were dissatisfied with their representation in
the Estates-General. The bodys purpose was to create a French constitution.


o
o

o
o

Tennis Court Oath, 20 June 1789

After splitting from the Estates-General, the delegates from the Third Estate (now the National Assembly) found
themselves locked out of a meeting and met on a tennis court instead. There, all but one of the members took an oath,
which stated that the group would remain indissoluble until it had created a new national constitution.
The oath was both a revolutionary act and an assertion that political authority derived from the people and their
representatives rather than from the monarch himself. Their solidarity forced Louis XVI to order the clergy and the
nobility to join with the Third Estate in the National Assembly.
Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789
The Bastille fortress and prison represented royal authority in the center of Paris. The Bastilles fall was a symbolic
victory for the revolutionaries over the Ancien Regime and conveyed that they were not to be taken lightly.
National Guard
To bolster the defense of the assembly, the Marquis de Lafayette, a nobleman, assembled a collection of citizens into the
French National Guard. It was strongly identified with the middle class and their support for constitutional monarchy.
La grande peur (The Great Fear), July/August 1789
Peasants and farmers alike, who had been suffering under high prices and unfair feudal contracts, began to wreak havoc in
rural France.
After hearing of the Third Estates mistreatment by the Estates General, the peasants amplified their attacks in the
countryside over the span of a few weeks, sparking a hysteria called the Great Fear. Peasants attacked manors and estates,
in some cases burning them down to escape their feudal obligations.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 26 August 1789.
Issued by the National Assembly, the document guaranteed due process in judicial matters and established sovereignty
among the French people. Influenced by the Enlighment doctrine of natural right, the rights of man are held to be
universal. The Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the
development of liberty in democracy in Europe and worldwide.

Lecture 24 The French Revolution Part II

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o
o
o
o

Womens March on Versailles, 5 October 1789

The march began among women in the marketplace of Paris who were rioting over the high price and scarcity of bread.
The crowd combined with revolutionaries to form a mob of thousands, besieged the palace, pressed their demands on
Louis XVI, and compelled the king, his family, and most of the French Assembly to return with them to Paris.
These events ended the independent authority of the king. The march united disparate sources of the revolution in their
largest number yet and symbolized a new balance of power that displaced the ancient privilege of the nobility.
Flight and arrest of the royal family (June 1791)
Although Louis XVI appeared supportive of the Revolution, he remained in contact with other monarchies, asking for
their help in restoring his family to power. In June 1791, he attempted to escape to the Austrian border but was caught and
brought back to Tuileries in Paris.
This escape attempt weakened the kings position and lowered his regard in the eyes of the French people. Skeptics saw
that he was reluctant and would turn his back on the constitution and system of limited monarchy given the chance.
Although he constitutionally retained some power after being returned to Paris, it was clear his days were numbered.
First Revolutionary War (1792)
France against Austria and Prussia - France declared war on Austria. The French armies lacked organization and
discipline, and many noble officers had emigrated. The allied Austrian and Prussian forces quickly crossed the frontier
and began to march on Paris. The Prussian issued a manifesto threatening to raze Paris if the royal family is harmed,
angering the French who continued to suspend the king.
Sans-culottes
The groups name without culottes, the knee breeches that the privileged woreindicated their disdain for the upper
classes. The sans-culottes consisted mainly of urban laborers, peasants, and other French poor who disdained the nobility
and wanted to see an end to privilege. Over 1792, the sans-culottes became increasingly violent and difficult to control.
Despite all their contributions to the revolutionary cause, they still found themselves with little input into the government,
which was dominated by richer bourgeoisie.
Second Revolution (1792)
On 10 August, the king was overthrown, bringing to an end three years of uneasy constitutional monarchy. For months
the legislative assembly had been locked in conflict with Louis XVI, while at the same time fighting a war against
invading Austrians and Prussians. The Parisian masses resolved that conflict by direct action, invading the Tuileries palace
and arresting the king. In response, the assembly called a general election the first election in Europe conducted under
universal adult male suffrage.
France becomes a republic, resulting in the end of the monarchy and symbolic of the resurrection of common people
against ruling class.
Execution of Louis XVI (1793)
In late 1792, the revolutionary government elected a National Convention of delegates to oversee the country. As a sign of
the republics contempt for the monarchy, the Convention ordered the execution of Louis XVI. He was found guilty of
treason and guillotined, Marie Antoinette followed months later.
Symbolically speaking, the declaration of sovereignty and the beheading of the monarch were powerful motivators within
France. Unfortunately, the moment of bliss was brief, as the governmental powers quickly realized that all of their
achievements were being threatened by internal and external fighting.
Guillotine
During the French Revolution, it became a part of popular culture and was celebrated as the people's avenger by
supporters of the Revolution and vilified as the pre-eminent symbol of the Reign of Terror by opponents.
Maximilien de Robespierre (17581794)
After the fall of the monarchy Robespierre became a central figure in the Jacobin Club, and his faction in the National
Convention, assembled in late 1792, became known as Jacobins.
Jacobin Club was the most influential political club, with 7,000 chapters throughout France and half a million members.
The most radical and egalitarian group in the revolution.
Led by Robespierre, Jacobins controlled the government from June 1793 to July 1794,
Price limits one of the new Jacobin policies was the Maximum, a decree that fixed prices in an attempt to stop the
rampant inflation that was ruining the economy; effective in short run.
Reign of Terror, 17931794

o
o

In late 1793, Robespierre and the Jacobins carried out the infamous campaign against internal opposition known as the
Reign of Terror. During the nine-month period that followed, anywhere from 15,000 to 50,000 French citizens were
beheaded at the guillotine for counterrevolutionary beliefs; merely had agendas different from Robespierres.
Cult of the Supreme Being devised by Robespierre in 1794, it was an attempt to introduce a nationalistic religion based
on deism, the Enlightenment-era belief that God existed but did not interfere or intervene in the destinies of men. The
Supreme Being cult also sought to separate religion and politics once and for all, and to eliminate the sectarianism and
self-interest that had been present in the Catholic Church. It was the fulfillment of the anti-Christian sentiment that had
started with Voltaire in the mid-1700s.
Rule of the Directory (17951799)
The National Convention in the era after Robespierres downfall was significantly more conservative than it had been
before and deeply entrenched in the values of the moderate middle class.
The Convention made a new constitution, setting up the Directory and a bicameral legislature. The rule of was marked by
corruption, economic difficulties, political infighting, and dependence on the army to maintain control. In 1799, Napoleon
Bonaparte returned from his Egyptian expedition and in a coup detat, overthrew the Directory and established the
Consulate, ruling until the Restoration of the Bourbons in 1814.

Reading IDs
Erasmus, On Free Will: 1524
God had endowed humanity with free will, valued that trait in humans, and rewarded or punished them according
to their own choices between good and evil. He argued that the vast majority of the biblical texts either implicitly
or explicitly supported this view, and that divine grace was the means by which humans became aware of God, as
well as the force which sustained and motivated humans as they sought of their own free will to follow God's
laws.

St. Ignatius Loyola, Spiritual Exercises: 1548

This text is characterized by prohibitions as to peoples actions. Ignatius sets up expectations for how one of his Soldiers
of Christ should act and how individual daily actions reflect upon holiness and the Church. Intended to help the retreatant
to discern Jesus in his life, leading him to a personal commitment to follow him. To this day, the Spiritual Exercises
remain an integral part of the training of Jesuits.
Decrees of the Council of Trent: 1545-1563
The Council of Trent was held between 1545 and 1563 and was a Catholic council intending to work out reforms for the
Church. The Decrees of the Council reflect a desire to reinforce Catholic traditions and provide punishments for people
who did not follow them. The major canons of the Catholic faith, such as transubstantiation, sacrifice of the mass, a
distinct priesthood, and the holy spirit, are firmly codified and the punishment for not believing them is anathema,
referenced by the repeated phrase let him be anathema.
Suriano, The Strength and Weakness of France: 1561
Michele Surianos The Strength and Weakness of France was written in 1561. Suriano was a Venetian ambassador in
France. It is an essay that describes France with regard to its politics, people, and religion in the context of the Wars of
Religion in the sixteenth century. He describes the three estates in great detail. As well, he argues that France was a
powerful nation because they loved being obedient to a king, although the estates could moderate the absolutist power of
the king. When speaking of the evil that has befallen France, he speaks of the Protestant Reformation and says that this
is what threatens the unity of France in several ways: it lessens fear of God, it destroys the control of government by its
lack of respect for authority, and it divides people in civil war. With regard to the specific historical context, Suriano
argues that France is weak because Catherine de Medici is a woman and the head of the house of Navarre is weak.
Mornay, A Defence of Liberty Against Tyrants: 1579

Apology of the Bohemian Estates: 1618 (Thirty Years War Chp. 2)

The Apology of the Bohemian Estates was written May 25, 1618 by the rebellious Bohemian estates to defend their
actions in going against authority. This was written after the Defenestration of Prague. The Apology lists the grievances of
the estates and provides reasons for why they are rebelling. They are careful not to place blame on the king himself,
instead citing the fault of other people who are unlawfully prosecuting the Protestants. In particular they condemn the
Jesuits. They complain at ways in which Catholics try to create disunity among Protestants and that only Catholics are
able to gain public office. After citing all of the problems and abuses Catholics have committed against Protestants, they
say that they had no choice but to form a system of defense, and they beg the king (Ferdinand II) to excuse them to the
world.
Declaration of Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate: 1619 (Thirty Years War Chp. 3)
The Declaration of Frederick V was written in November 7, 1619 after his elevation to king of Bohemia in 1619. It
justifies his acceptance of the kingship and why he believes he should be there.

Edict of Ferdinand II Annulling the Bohemian Election: 1620 (Thirty Years War, Chp. 4)
After the Bohemian rebels and Frederick V had already attempted to shape public opinion by publishing their explanation
of events, Emperor Ferdinand II followed. This document presents Ferdinands side in this struggle and is also an attempt
to convince the Protestant princes of the empire that Fredericks actions set a dangerous precedent, and that they should
not consider this a matter of religion, but of private property rights, law, and just punishment. If local estates are allowed
to depose and elect their own leaders when they wish, the emperor suggests that no prince of the empire is safe.
Hans Heberles Zeytregister: 1618-1672 (Thirty Years War, Chp. 38)
Hans Heberle was a shoemaker from the free imperial city of Ulm, who wrote Zeytregister, a chronicle of the years 16181672. He was well-placed as an observer since Ulm felt the economic upheaval of the early years of the war. It vividly
demonstrates not only the ordinary lives of people, but also the personal, social, economic, and demographic costs of the
wars, and indicates the ways in which local governments dealt with the challenges of the period. Finally, it allows an
analysis of the practical functioning of armies during the war, since Heberle records the impact of invading armies on
families and communities as well as strategic use of territory by both allied and enemy officers.
Title: Politics Derived from the Word of Holy Scripture
Author: Jacques Bossuet, court preacher to Louis XIV
Date: 1709
Summary: The work consists of several books which are divided into articles and propositions which lay out the nature,
characteristics, duties, and resources of royalty. Throughout his essay, Bossuet emphasizes the fact that royal authority
comes directly from God and that the person of the king is sacred. In the third book, Bossuet asserts that "God establishes
kings as his ministers, and reigns through them over the people." He also states that "the prince must be obeyed on
principle, as a matter of religion and of conscience." While he declares the absolute authority of rulers, he emphasizes the
fact that kings must use their power only for the public good and that the king is not above the law "for if he sins, he
destroys the laws by his example." For Bossuet, the prince was synonymous with the state, which is why, according to
him, the subjects of the prince owe the prince the same duties that they owe their country. He also states that "only public
enemies make a separation between the interest of the prince and the interest of the state." As far as the duties of royalty,
the primary goal is the preservation of the state. Bossuet describes three ways that this can be achieved: by maintaining a
good constitution, making good use of the state's resources, and protecting the state from the dangers and difficulties that
threaten it. In books nine and ten, Bossuet outlines the various resources of royalty (arms, wealth, and counsel) and how
they should be used. In regards to arms, Bossuet explains that there are just and unjust grounds for war. Unjust causes
include ambitious conquest, pillage, and jealousy. As far as wealth is concerned, he then lays out the types of expenditures
that a king has and the various sources of wealth for the kingdom. He emphasizes that the true wealth of a kingdom is its
men and says that it is important to improve the people's lot and that there would be no more poor.
This discourse on political theory is one of the purest expressions of divine right and absolute monarchy. Unlike his
contemporaries, Bossuet relied minimally on classical sources, drawing almost entirely from the Bible. He is thus able to
present his system of absolute monarchy as founded almost entirely on divine law.
Title: Memoirs
Author: Duke of Saint-Simon
Date: Published 1829
The writings of Saint-Simon provide one of the most complete accounts of the reign of Louis XIV. His accounts of daily
life at Versailles creates a portrait of Louis XIV that is largely negative, detailing how he depended on his ministers
(choosing ignorant ones for their admiration of him), personal vanity/materialism, and ignorance of how to rule. SaintSimon regards Louis XVI as having a good and just disposition with qualities to be a great king, but concludes that he is
faulted by insufficient early education and resulting ignorance of history and other knowledge required of a competent
ruler.

Title: Essay on the Forms of Government and Duties of Rulers

Author: Frederick II, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia and proponent of enlightened absolutism
Date: 1777
Summary: This essay expresses Fredericks principles as influenced by Enlightenment ideals such as rationality and
equality. A competent king should be educated and know his country, build a bureaucracy based on merit, and maintain
the welfare of his people by spending wisely and providing social services (such as a fair and streamlined legal system).
Fredericks view of absolutism is that a king is the principal servant of the state and suggests that the absolutist ruler
should govern as if he were responsible for his actions to the people.
Title: The New Atlantis
Author: Francis Bacon
Date: 1627
Summary: An unfinished utopian novel in which Bacon portrayed a vision of the future as one of human discovery and
knowledge, his ideal aspiration for humankind. The novel depicts the creation of a utopian land where "generosity and
enlightenment, dignity and splendour, piety and public spirit" are the commonly held qualities of the inhabitants of the
mythical Bensalem. The plan and organisation of his ideal college, Salomon's House, envisioned the modern research
university in both applied and pure sciences. Bacon uses imaginative fiction to advocate scientific objectivity in wellorganized cooperative research, aligning with his belief that science must work as a collaborative enterprise.
Title: The Great Instauration
Author: Francis Bacon
Date: 1620
Summary: Bacon proposed a great reformation to advance learning and knowledge and called it the Great Instauration.
Book 1 contains the general description of the sciences including their divisions as they presented themselves in Bacon's
time. Part 2 develops Bacon's new method for scientific investigation, the Novum Organum, in which he suggests an
entirely new system of logic based on induction instead of syllogism. This work contributes to Bacons name as the father
of modern science for his contribution of the scientific method based on inductive reasoning, or using evidence to draw a
conclusion.
Title: A Letter Concerning Toleration
Author: John Locke
Date: 1689
Summary: Locke supports toleration for various Christian denominations using two principles. First, more religious
groups prevent civil unrest, which is caused by any magistrates attempt to prevent different religions from being
practiced rather than tolerating them. Second, the church exists to promote internal interests (salvation) and the
government promotes external interests (life, liberty, general welfare). This relates to his central conclusion that the
government should not involve itself in religion. The work is significant as it responds to the problem of religion and
government (amidst the fear that Catholicism might be taking over England) by proposing religious toleration as the
answer. It also shows Lockes empiricist approach, taking into account practical considerations such as how the peace of
civil society will be affected by religious toleration.
Title: What is Enlightenment?
Author: Immanuel Kant
Date: 1784
Summary: According to Kant, enlightenment was mans release from self-incurred tutelage. A lack of Enlightenment is
people's inability to think for themselves, not due to their lack of intellect, but lack of courage. Kant's essay also addressed
the causes of a lack of enlightenment and the preconditions necessary to make it possible for people to enlighten
themselves. He held it necessary that all church and state paternalism be abolished and people be given the freedom to use

their own intellect. Kant praised Frederick II of Prussia for creating these preconditions. Kant focused on religious issues,
saying that "our rulers" had less interest in telling citizens what to think in regard to artistic and scientific issues.
Title: What Is the Third Estate?
Author: Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes
Date: January 1789, shortly before the outbreak of French Revolution
Summary: Sieyes argues that the Third Estate the common people of France constituted a complete nation in itself
and had no need of the "dead weight" of the two other orders, the clergy and aristocracy. Sieyes stated that the people
wanted genuine representatives in the Estates-General, equal representation to the other two orders taken together, and
votes taken by heads and not by orders. The pamphlet had a huge influence on the currents of popular thought that
contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution. Sieyes outlined the desires and frustrations of the Third Estate,
revealing the fraudulent nature of the nobility and the suffering of the overburdened French people, who he saw as victims
of aristocratic parasitism. The pamphlet was essentially the rallying cry that united a voiceless class.
Title: Declaration of the Rights of Man
Author: Emmanuel Sieyes
Date: August 1789
Summary: A fundamental document of French constitutional history, adopted by the Constituent Assembly on Aug. 26,
1789. Its framers were much influenced by the American Declaration of Independence and by the philosophes. The
declaration listed the "inalienable rights" of the individual. The rights to "liberty, property, security, and resistance to
oppression" and the rights to freedom of speech and of the press were guaranteed. The document asserted the equality of
men and the sovereignty of the people, on whom the law should rest, to whom officials should be responsible, and by
whom finances should be controlled. Many of its provisions were aimed at specific abuses of the ancien regime. Inspired
in part by the American Revolution, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the revolution and had a major
impact on the development of liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide.