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Author
Makwerere David
Master of Science in Peace and Governance (Africa University)
Bachelor of Science in Counselling (ZOU)
Diploma in Education (Secondary) (UZ)
Certificate in Conflict Analysis and Intervention (IPLG)
Certificate in Family Health and Life Studies (MTC)

Muropa B. C
Masters in Education Curriculum Studies
Graduate Certificate in Education
Bachelor of Arts History Honours

Overview of the Module

The turbulent times that Zimbabwe and the rest of the world continue to
experience are a major cause for concern. Violent conflicts and let alone
wars are a serious threat to development and human security. The
experiences of the last decade or so calls for a robust and proactive approach
towards addressing conflict so that the nation and the world at large can
enjoy the much elusive durable peace.
PC108: Conflict Transformation is a general module aimed at introducing
Undergraduate students to studies in conflict transformation. The module is
divided into six chapters
Chapter one addresses the conceptual issues on conflict, violence, peace and
conflict transformation. Chapter two looks at some selected theories of the
causes of conflict. Chapter three deals with the dynamics in Conflict
Analysis. Chapter four deals with listening skills.
Conflict Transformation is a holistic and multifaceted process of engaging
with conflict. It aims to reduce and to protect and promote social justice and
sustainable peace. It requires work in all spheres, at all levels and with all
stakeholders.

Conflict Transformation needs to be accountable to those directly affected

by conflict but crucially it requires networks and linkages to sustain it.
Conflict Transformation is an ongoing process of changing relationships,
behaviours, attitudes and structures, from the negative to the positive. It
requires timely interventions, respect for cultural context, patience and
persistence and a comprehensive understanding of the conflict.
As conflict is dynamic and conflict transformation is an ongoing process,
learning is a vital component.
Most importantly, it begins with us.
General Aims
The module aims to:
Introduce students to the study of conflict transformation
To familiarize students with techniques and procedures in conflict
transformation

Objectives
By the end of the course students should be able to:
Define terms such as conflict, peace, violence, conflict management,
resolution and transformation etc.
Understand the different theories that explain conflicts and to apply
them in their understanding of conflicts
Distinguish between micro and macro causes of conflict
Relate Africas colonial past to contemporary conflicts that are being
experienced on the continent
Apply the conflict mapping and analysis tools when dealing with
conflicts
Use the listening skills to improve on communication and interaction
with others

 Critique the adequacy of the different theories in conflict

transformation

CHAPTER 1: Defining Conflict

1.1 Introduction
This chapter offers a robust conceptualization of the term conflict, its
typology as well as its broad stages.
1.2Unit Objectives
0bjectives:
Understand the concept of conflict
Discuss the different types of conflict
Distinguish conflict from violence
Plot the different stages of conflict and identify the characteristics of
each stage

1.3 What is conflict?

The word conflict is a very broad and often ubiquitous term. The definition
is therefore relative depending on the focus and context of discussion.
Simply put, conflict is defined as incompatibility of goals. Conflict is an
expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive
incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from the other party
in achieving their goals.

Fulford (2006) define conflict as a clash of thoughts, opinions or ideals and

this is usually the result of confused false expectations especially in the area
of unmet emotional needs.
Paul Wehr in Miall, Ramsbotham and Woodhouse (1999) view conflict as
the pursuit of incompatible goals by different groups or persons and this is
usually generated by the structure and nature of society. He goes on to say
conflict is a result of misperceptions, miscalculation and poor
communication and that if not properly handled, it becomes dysfunctional
and degenerates into violence. It becomes a negative force when it
degenerates into faultfinding, belittling, demeaning level, let alone when it
leads to violence.
1.4 The contextual definitions
1.4.1 Social conflict
Refers to an expressed struggle between two or more interdependent parties
who perceive scarce resources and incompatible goals
1.4.2 Interest-based conflict
Conflict is present when two or more parties perceive their interests as
incompatible, express hostile attitudes, or pursue their interests through
actions that damage the other parties. According to Lund (1997), interests
can differ over:
Access to and distribution of resources (e.g. territory, money, energy
sources, land, food and how they should be distributed
Control of power and participation on political decision making
Identity, concerning cultural, social and political communities to
which people feel associated
Statue, particularly those embodied in systems of government,
religion or ideology

1.4.3 Political conflict

According to Laue (2003) conflict is and escalated competition at any
system level between groups whose aim is to gain advantage in the area of
power, resources, interests, and needs and at least one of the groups believes
that this dimension of the relationship is mutually incompatible.
1.4.4 Relational conflict
This type of conflict involves strong emotions as well as misconceptions or
stereotypes. It is also a result of poor or miscommunication and leading to
negative behaviour
1.4.5 Structural conflict
This is conflict caused or perpetuated by structural and institutional
configurations in a given society. The structures and institutions usually lead
to power asymmetries and unequal control of resources. Those in power or
in control of the structures and the institutions are usually the beneficiaries.
Vb
1.5 Stages of conflict
Conflicts are not homogenous and thus they take different forms and go
through different stages. As J.P Lederach (1997) points out, conflict is not a
static phenomenon, but is expressive, dynamic and dialectical. Fisher et al
(2008) identified five broad phases/stage of a conflict as follows:

Pre conflict phase/stage

Confrontation phase/stage
Crisis phase/stage
Outcome phase/ stage
Post conflict phase/stage

a) Pre-conflict Phase
At this stage the conflict is not well known because parties try to hide it
from the public domain. Usually the tale-tale signs are the breaking down of
communication, development of attitudes and contradictions against each
other and signs of aggressiveness in the behaviour of the conflicting parties.
Goals are evidently incompatible and this could lead to open conflict.
b) confrontation
The conflict becomes open or manifest. This is characterized by occasional
fighting, low levels of violence, and search for allies by parties, mobilization
of resources, strained relations and polarization.
c) crisis
This represents the peak of the conflict. In violent conflict, this is the stage
of war and intense fighting leading to killings, injuries, large scale
population displacements, and the use of small arms and light weapons etc
d) Outcome
There is an assumption that all conflicts will pass through this stage, one
way or the other, one side wins and another loses, or a ceasefire maybe
declared in the case of armed conflicts, one may surrender, or the
government or other third party intervening forces stronger than the warring
parties intervene to impose a solution and stop the fighting. The critical issue
at this stage is that the violence is decreased, which allows room for some
discussion to commence, or alternative means of settling the conflict.
e) Post-conflict
At this stage, violence has either ended or significantly reduced, and the
parties have gone past the crisis stage. This is the stage to address the

underlying causes of the conflict, those incompatible goals which created the
conflict in the first instance, such as the needs and fears of the parties. If
they are not tackled at this stage, the conflict cycle may be re-enacted and a
return to the pre-conflict stage, with consequent re-eruption of violence, is a
possibility.
These conflict stages are also referred to by other names, such as conflict
process or conflict progression. They nevertheless represent useful
points of conflict analysis

Activity 1
1. Discuss the different definitions of conflict and how they
help us to understand the day to day conflicts that
people encounter in life.
2. Why is it important to fully understand the stages of
conflict?

Chapter 2: Understanding Conflict Transformation

2.1 Introduction
Chapter Two focuses on the concept of conflict transformation. The chapter
also focuses on the other closely related concepts such as conflict
management and conflict resolution. Conflict transformation is the broader
concept.

2.2 Unit Objectives

Objectives:
Understand conflict transformation
Distinguish conflict transformation from other concepts like conflict
management and conflict resolution
Apply the different assumptions of conflict transformation in real life
situations

2.3Understanding conflict Transformation

The field of conflict transformation is a relatively new field which is
believed to be the best route towards achieving sustainable peace. Lederach
(1997, 1998) say conflict transformation signifies specific approaches to
practice and training
Kriegsberg, Northup and Thorson (1989) describe conflict transformation as
a fundamental change in the relationship between parties and a change in
recognizing each others ethnic and national aspirations.
Harrington and Merry (1988) posits that societies are transformed when
fundamental social and political changes are made to make to correct
inequalities and injustices and to provide all groups with their fundamental
human needs. They look at conflict transformation as the restructuring of
social institutions and structures so that people can realize their potential.

2.3.1 John Galtung on Conflict Transformation

Galtung came up with a robust conceptual framework on conflict,

violence and peace.

The conflict triangle

the violence triangle

Attitude

Behavior

direct violence

contradiction

cultural violence

structural violence

Peacemaking triangle
Peace making

Peace building
Peace keeping

2.3.2 Lederach on conflict transformation

The ideas of Lederach have heavily informed peace practice over the years.
He questioned the idea of the idea of quick solutions to deep social-political
problems. To him this was going to produce cosmetic solutions at the
expense of more durable peace. Lederach propounded a holistic approach to
peace building based on justice, the building of right relationships and social
structures that allow expression of divergent social thinking whilst
encouraging group cohesion.
Burton (1990), Azar (1991) and Lederach (1997) argue that approaches that
take a human needs approach are likely to be more effective than those
processes that stress negotiation, which is often depended on compromise.

Lederach (1997) further stresses the need to move away from traditional
modes of statist diplomacy.
Lederach (1997, 25) maintains that .Contemporary conflict thus demands
innovation, the development of ideas and practices that go beyond the
negotiation of substantive interests and issues. This innovation, I believe,
pushes us to probe into the realm of the subjective-generationally
accumulated perceptions and deep rooted hatred and fear.
He further argues that conflict is normal in human relationships and conflict
is a motor of change. Transformation is vital because it brings into focus the
horizon toward which we journey, namely the building of healthy
relationships and structural transformation both nationally and globally,
(Lederach and Maiese2003).
The lenses of conflict transformation
Lederach posits that there are three lenses that bring varying aspects of
conflict complexity into focus. These are:
First, we need to see the immediate situation
Second, we need a lens to see past the immediate problems and view
the deeper relationship patterns that form the conflict. This goes
beyond finding a quick solution to the problem at hand, and seeks to
address what is happening at a deeper level
Third, we need a lens that helps us envision a framework that holds
these together and creates a platform to address the context, and the
structure of the relationship and from this platform parties can begin
to find creative responses
2.4 Concepts of Conflict Transformation
Lederach and Maiese (2003) highlighted some important concepts that
inform the practice in conflict transformation. Together, these components

attempt to capture the attitudes and orientations we bring to creative conflict

transformation
a) to envision and respond
According to Lederach a transformational approach begins with two proactive foundations:
i)
a positive orientation and
ii)
a willingness to engage in the conflict in an effort to produce
constructive change or growth.
Whilst conflict often produces cycles of hurt and destruction, the key to
transformation is the capacity to envision conflict as having the potential to
change things for the better. Response on the other hand, suggests a bias
toward direct involvement and an increased understanding that conflict is a
part of life. Both envision and respond represent the ways we orient
ourselves toward the presence of conflict in our relationships and
communities.
b) Ebb and Flow
Conflict is a natural part of relationships. While relationships are sometimes
calm and predictable, they sometimes generate tensions and instability. A
transformational view, rather than looking at isolated conflict episodes rather
than looking at isolated conflict episodes to understand how these particular
episodes are embedded in the greater pattern of human relationships is more
appropriate. Change is understood at the level of immediate issues and the
broader patterns of interaction.
c) Life giving opportunities
The transformative view sees conflict as a valuable opportunity to grow and
increases our understanding of ourselves and others. Conflict helps us stop,
assess and take notice. Without it, life becomes monotonous and our
relationships would be woefully superficial. It can be viewed as a motor of

change that keeps relationships structures dynamically responsive to human

needs.
d) Constructive Change Processes
It emphasizes the capacity of the transformational approach to build new
relationships. By focusing on the underlying relationships and social
structures, constructive changes can be brought about. The key here is to
move conflict5 from destructive processes and toward constructive
processes. The primary task of conflict transformation is not to find quick
solutions to problems, but rather to generate creative platforms that can
simultaneously address surface issues and change the underlying
structures and relationship patterns.
e) Reduce violence and increase justice
According to Lederach (2003), transformation must be able to respond to
lifes on-the-ground challenges, needs and expectations. It is important to
consider questions like how to address conflict in ways that reduce violence
and increase justice in human relationships. Conflict transformation at this
phase must work towards addressing both the obvious issues and content of
any given dispute and also their underlying patterns and causes. Conflict
transformation sees peace as centred and rooted in the quality of
relationships. This includes both face to face relationships as well as the
ways in which we structure our social, political, economic and cultural
relationships.
f) Direct interaction and social structures
We need to develop and engage in change processes at the interpersonal,
inter-group, and social-structural levels. A change of structures from a
family level to a global level is necessary for constructive relationships to
be developed and maintained. Communicative capacities must be
developed.

g) Human Relationships
According to Lederach (2003), relationships are at the heart of conflict
transformation. Rather than concentrating exclusively on the content and
substance of the dispute, the transformational approach suggests that
understanding conflict and developing creative change processes lies in
seeing the less visible aspects of relationship.
2.5 Conflict and change
Conflict and change are a normal part of human life. Conflict is
continuously present in human relationships, and the relationships are
constantly adopting and changing.
There are four central modes in which conflict impacts
situations and changes things:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

the personal
the relational
the structural, and
The cultural.

2.5.1 The personal dimension

This refers to changes effected in and desired for the individual. This
includes the cognitive, emotional, perceptual, and spiritual aspects of human
experience over the course of conflict. From a descriptive perspective,
transformation suggests that individuals are affected by conflict in both
negative and positive ways. Conflict affects our physical well-being, selfesteem and emotional stability.
Prescriptively, (i.e., relating to what one should do) transformation
represents deliberate intervention to minimize the destructive effects of
social conflict and maximize its potential for individual growth at physical,
emotional, and spiritual levels.

2.5.2 The relational dimension

This depicts the changes affected in and desired for the face-to-face
relationships. Issues of emotion, power, and interdependence, and the
communicative and interactive aspects of conflict are central.
Descriptively, transformation refers to how patterns of communication and
interaction in relationships are affected by conflict. It looks beyond visible
issues to the underlying changes produced by conflict in how people
perceive, what they pursue, and how they structure their relationships. Most
significantly, social conflict makes explicit how close or distant people wish
to be, and how they will use and share power, (Lederach, 2003).
Prescriptively, transformation represents intentional intervention to minimize
poorly functioning communication and maximize mutual understanding.
This includes efforts to bring to the surface in a more explicit manner the
relational fears, hopes and goals of the people involved.
2.5.3 The structural dimension
This highlights the underlying causes of conflict, and stresses the ways in
which social structures, organisations, and institutions are built, sustained,
and changed by conflict. It is about the ways people build and organize
social, economic, and institutional relationships to meet basic human needs
and provide access to resources and decision making.
At the descriptive Level, transformation refers to the analysis of social
conditions that give rise to conflict and the way that conflict affects social
structural change in existing social, political and economic institutions.
Prescriptively, transformation represents efforts to provide insight into
underlying causes and social conditions that create and foster violent
expressions of conflict, and to promote non-violent mechanisms that reduce
adversarial interaction and minimize violence. Lederach and Maiese (2003)

contend that the pursuit of this change fosters structures that meet basic
human needs (substantive justice) and maximize peoples participation in
decisions that affect them (procedural justice).
2.5.4 The cultural dimension
This refers to the ways that conflict changes the patterns of group life as well
as the ways that culture affects the development of processes to handle and
respond to conflict. Therefore transformation at this level, seeks to
understand how conflict affects and changes cultural patterns of a group and
how those accumulated and shared patterns affect the way people in a given
context understand and respond to conflict.
Prescriptively, transformation seeks to uncover the cultural patterns that
contribute to violence in a given context, and to identify and build on
existing cultural resources and mechanisms for handling conflict.

2.6 Differentiating resolution and transformation

So far the chapter has focused mainly on the broad conceptual framework of
conflict and conflict transformation. Quite often the term resolution and
transformation are often used interchangeably although they are not
synonymous.
Resolution and transformation: a brief comparison (Adapted from Lederach
and Maiese 2003)
Conflict
Resolution Conflict
Transformation
Perspective
Perspective
The
key How do we end something How
to
end
something
question
not desired?
destructive and build something
constructive
The focus
It is content centered
It is relationship-centred
The purpose To achieve an agreement To promote constructive change
and
solution
to
the processes, and to open up life
presenting problem creating opportunities
and
new
the crisis
opportunities for everyone
The
It is embedded and built Concerned with responding to
developmen around the immediacy of symptoms and the institutional
t of the the relationship where the and structural causes of conflict
process
presenting problems appear and how to transform them so
that they serve the needs of the
people
Time frame The horizon is short-term
The horizon is mid- to longrange
View
of It envisions the need to de- It envisions conflict as ebb and
conflict
escalate conflict processes as
a
natural
part
of
relationships.
Advocate
a
transitional approach

In a nutshell, conflict transformation aims to bring change to relationships

within and between individuals, organisations, communities and nations. It
also seeks to bring change in attitudes and behaviors including physical
violence, discrimination, prejudice, humiliation, subordination and

domination. Conflict transformation also strives to transform structures in

particular economic, social, political, cultural and religious so that structural
violence is minimized.
2.7 Goals of conflict transformation then
To create societies that are built on JUST PEACE
To reduce violence and to protect and promote social justice and
sustainable peace
To transform social, political, economic and religious structures so
that they serve the aspirations of people
Activity
1. Distinguish between conflict resolution and conflict transformation
2. Discuss the four pillars of conflict transformation
3. Compare and contrast John Paul Lederach and Johan Galtungs
perceptions on conflict transformation
4. Using case studies from across Africa, make an assessment of the
challenges and opportunities in conflict transformation

Conflict Analysis
Introduction
This chapter covers key concepts informing the process of conflict analysis.
The section also covers the tools used in conflict analysis.
Objectives
Define conflict transformation
Discuss the process of conflict analysis
Apply the different conflict analysis tools in real life situations

Conflict mapping and analysis is an indispensable stage in

the process of conflict transformation. For many of those
who are engaged in practical work on conflict analysis it is
important to fully grasp the dynamics in mapping and
analysis. According to Paul Wehr (1979), the first step in
intervening to manage a particular conflict Paul Wehr
(1979:18). It is crucial in that gives both the intervener and
conflict parties a clearer understanding of the origins,
nature, dynamics and possibilities for the resolution of the
conflict. It also gives a quick profile of a conflict situation.
Elicit from participants a snapshot of their view of the
conflict.
Conflict analysis is a rigorous process of examining and
understanding the reality of a conflict from a variety of
perspectives. This understanding will then be the basis on
which strategies can be developed and actions be planned.
Participatory analysis that is undertaken by groups that
include participants from different sides in a conflict can also
become part of how the other side perceives the situation.
Analysis becomes a way of reducing misconceptions and
building trust and a common understanding between groups.
Goals for conflict analysis
To understand the background and history of the
situation as well as the current events
To identify all the relevant groups involved, not just the
main or obvious ones
To understand the perspectives of all these groups and
to know more about how they relate to each other
To identify factors and trends that underpin conflicts
To build a common understanding and reduce
misconceptions between opposing groups in a conflict
situation

 To learn from mistakes as well as successes

Classification of mapping
Mapping Needs-based Conflict
Identify the 'satisfiers' for the needs in your selected community. Be
aware of the gendered nature of needs. Food, Shelter, Clothing, work
may be common to all societies. There may be changes in the other
'satisfiers' based on the society.
Discuss whether these satisfiers are adequately available to men,
women and children...
Discuss whether the means of access (whether limited or not) are
available for all members of society including men and women or
controlled by a privileged few. The latter may be conflict generating.

Mapping Relational Conflict

Identify the groups involved in the conflict you are monitoring.
What is the history of their relationship?
What is their geographical proximity to each other?
What resource(s) do they share?
How is access to the resource(s) controlled?
Assess the level of prejudice between the groups. Is it intense
or socially acceptable? What has been the trend of prejudice
intensification?
What is the pattern of communication among the groups?
Whose language is used?
Mapping Political Conflict
There are several political factors that generate conflicts:Failed state, lack of regime legitimacy, poor governance, and
competition between states as core factors behind political

conflicts. These factors manifest themselves in the political, social,

economic, and security realm of society.
Identify and list the political, social, economic, security
manifestations of failed state, lack of regime legitimacy, poor
governance, and interstate rivalry.
Mapping Transformative Conflict
Discuss the role of change and structures in the conflict you are
reviewing:
Identify the political, economic, social, religious, and security
structures of the society
Are the structures effective for peace generation? If not, what is
leading to their weakness?
Which of the structures are under pressure for change?
Is there resistance to change? Is it in policy, structures, beliefs, values,
etc.?
Where is the pressure for change coming from? Is the demanded
change endogenous or exogenous?
It is important to note that conflict analysis is not a one-time
exercise, it must be an on-going process, as the situation
develops, so that you can adapt your actions to changing
factors, dynamics and circumstances

Conflict Analysis Tools

Mapping
Mapping is a technique used to represent the conflict
graphically, placing the parties in relation to the problem and
in relation to each other. If people with different viewpoints
map their own situation together, they may learn about each
others experiences and perceptions.
In order to map a conflict situation, the following must be
critically considered

1. Decide what you want to map, when, and from what

point of view
It is not possible to try and map the whole history of a
conflict at once; this is not only time-consuming but
also very cumbersome. It also becomes complex. It is
often very useful to map the same situation from a
variety of viewpoints, as this is how the parties to it do
actually do experience it. Tying to reconcile these
different viewpoints is the reality of working on the
conflict
2. Dont forget to place yourself on the map
Putting yourself on the map is a good reminder that you
are part of the situation, not above it, even when you
analyse it. You and your organization are perceived in
certain ways by others. You may have contacts and
relationships that offer opportunities and openings for
work with parties involved in the conflict.
3. Mapping is dynamic-it reflects a changing situation, and
points towards action
This type of mapping and analysis should offer new
possibilities of what can be done in order to transform
the conflict. The approach will also provide pointers as
to what groundwork needs to be laid beforehand so as
to create the necessary pathways for transforming the
conflict.
4. In addition to the objective aspects, it is useful to map
perceptions, needs or fears
Mapping example
Below is an example of what a conflict map might look like
C
B

Issue

Party A

Party F
P
A

Outside party
Questions when doing conflict mapping Key
Who are the main parties in this conflict?
What other parties are involved or connected in some
way, including marginalized groups and external
parties?
What are the relationships between all the parties and
how can these be represented on the map? Alliances?
Close
contacts?
Broken
relationships?
Power
asymmetries? Confrontation?
Are there any key issues between the parties that
should be mentioned on the map?

 Do you have any special relationships that might offer

openings for working on this situation?

The ABC Triangle

Behaviour
Basic Needs/Fears

Attitudes
Context

This analysis is based on the premise that conflicts have

three major components: the context or the situation, the
behavior of those involved, and their attitudes. The ABC

triangle borrows from John Galtungs (1969) model of

conflict, violence and peace. It is an analysis of factors
related to attitude, behavior and context for each of the
major parties.
When using the ABC triangle the purpose is to identify these
three sets of factors for each of the major parties
a) To analyse how these influence each other
b) To relate These to the needs and fears of each party
and
c) To identify a starting point for intervention in the
situation
The three factors, that is attitudes, behavior and context
influence each other. The behavior of one group might
actually influence the attitude of the other group. Attitude
has an effect an effect on the context and ultimately the
behavior and if the conflict is to be transformed all these
must be addressed.
The ABC model is best utilized early in the conflict so as to
gain a greater insight into what motivates the different
parties and later on to identify factors that must be
addressed by the intervention
How to Use this tool
1. Make a separate ABC triangle for each of the major
parties in a given conflict situation
2. On each triangle, list the key issues related to attitude,
behavior and context from the viewpoint of that party.
(If the parties are participating in this analysis, then
they can each make a triangle from their own
perspective.)
3. Indicate for each party what you think are the most
important needs and/or fears in the middle of their own
triangle.

4. Compare the triangles, noticing similarities and

differences between perceptions of the parties
Adopted from Fisher (2007) Responding to Conflict
Time Lines

The Onion
Helps us to understand needs ,positions and interests

POSITIONS
INTERESTS

INTERESTS

NEEDS

The Pyramid

LEVEL 3

The Tree
Leaves,branches, fruits(outcomes of the
conflict i.e desirable and undesirable)

Trunk(Issues
sustaining the conflict)
Humus (regeneration of the conflict because of unresolved
issues)
Root causes of the conflict

Conflict and violence

Conflict and violence are often used interchangeably in
ordinary cycles but the two concepts are totally different.

Simply defined, conflict is a relationship between two or

more parties (individuals or groups) who have, or think they
have, incompatible goals.
Violence occurs when an individual or a group is avoidably
prevented from reaching their full potential.
Conflicts are a fact of life, inevitable and often creative.
Conflicts occur when people pursue goals which clash.
Disagreements and conflicts are usually resolved without
violence, and often lead to an improved situation for most of
those involved. From the micro-level, interpersonal level
through to groups, organisations, communities and nations,
all human relations-social relations, economic relations and
relations of power- experience growth, change and conflict.
Conflict arise from imbalances in these relations- i.e. unequal
social status, unequal wealth and access to resources, and
unequal power- leading to problems such as discrimination,
unemployment , poverty, oppression, and crime. Each level
connects to the others, forming a potentially powerful chain
of forces either for constructive force.
If it is clear that conflict is with us whether we like it or not, it
is only another step to seeing that we actually need it. Some
of the beneficial effects of conflict include; making people

aware of their problems, promoting necessary change,

improving solutions, raising morale, fostering personal
development,
increasing
self-awareness,
enhancing
psychological maturity and fun.

STYLES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

high Problem-solving
Lets tofor
resolve this together.
concern
Strategies:
information gathering,
personal goals

Controlling
contro
Do it my way.
Strategies: control, compete, force, coerce,
and fight
Impatient with information gathering and
dialogue
Prefers others to avoid or accommodate

dialogue, looking for alternatives,

seeking win-win solution
Prefers others to:
Problem solves or compromise

Compromising
I will give a little, if you do the same.
Reduce expectations, bargaining, give and
take,
Split the difference
Cautious but open
Prefers others to:
High concern for Compromise or accommodate

Low
relationship
Relationships

AVOIDING
Conflict? What conflict?,
Strategies; flee, avoid, deny etc
Refuses to dialogue

concern

Low concern for

for

Accommodating
Whatever you say would be fine with me
Strategies:
agree, appease,
Personal
goals smooth over
differences, ignore or give in
Interested in others information and
approval
Accommodating
Conflict mapping and analysis is an indispensible component
in conflict
Whatever you say would be fine with me
transformation. It can make or break the whole process.
It is
therefore
Strategies:
agree,
appease, smooth over
differences, ignore
critical to understand the importance of mapping and transformation.
Theor give in
Interested in others information and
approval

purpose of this chapter is to provide students with a detailed presentation on

mapping and analysis. The chapter also provides students with the different
conflict mapping tools that can be used in analyzing conflicts.
Objectives:
Define conflict mapping and analysis
Apply the different conflict mapping tools in different life situations
Conflict analysis
Conflict analysis is a practical process of examining and understanding the
reality of the conflict from a variety of perspectives or worldviews. This
grounded understanding of issues informing the conflict will then form the
basis on which strategies can be developed and actions be planned in a bid to
transform the conflict (Fisher, 2007).
Conflict analysis serves the following objectives
To understand the background and history of the situation as well as
current events
To identify all the relevant groups involved, not just the obvious ones
To understand the perspectives of all these groups and to know more
about how to relate to each other
To identify factors and trends that underpin conflicts
To build a common understanding and reduce misconceptions
between opposing groups in a conflict situation
To learn from mistakes as well as successes

Chapter 3
Theories of conflict/Causes of conflict
Introduction
Chapter 3 moves into the theories of the causes of conflict. It is important to
note that the theories are numerous and therefore only some selected theories

which are considered to be comprehensive enough were considered in this

module.

Objectives:
appreciation of the theoretical explanations of the causes of conflict
Apply the different theories of the causes of conflict in explaining
conflicts across the world
Critique the various theories on their strengths and weaknesses

Human needs theory

Conflict is a consequence of competition over scarce resources available to
satisfy the basic human needs of individuals and communities
Or:
The deprivation of individuals and communities of the available satisfiers
for the basic human needs
Basic Human Needs:

Subsistence
Protection
Freedom
Privacy
Creativity
Identity
Participation
Understanding etc

Key points of the needs theory

Basic human needs are physical, psychological, social and spiritual
needs without which existence is impossible
Recognition, identity, security, autonomy and bonding are what John
Burton(1990) calls non-negotiable human needs
Human needs are not transmitted by a particular culture or implanted
or taught by local institutions- they just are
Human needs are irrepressible, demanding satisfaction no matter how
a societys regime may seek to suppress or manipulate them
Basic human needs can be satisfied differently; their satisfiers differ from
context to context and from person to person. In actual fact human needs
must be understood as a system because all needs are inter-related. It must
also be noted that besides physical needs no hierarchies exist within the need
system. Simultaneities, complementarities and tradeoffs are characteristics
of the process of needs satisfaction. Lack of access and not necessarily the
unavailability of satisfiers of need is a major catalyst to violent expression of
a need based conflict.
Relational theory
According to the relational theory, conflict is a result of an interaction of
different individual/ groups with differing cultural orientations, values, and
interests.
Key points
Conflict is innate the nature of human beings and therefore
characterizes the way they behave while interacting with others
Conflict is a consequence of poor communication or
miscommunication and misconception

 Otherness resulting from the natural discomfort of encountering

people or groups different from self or ones group
According to this theory, power which is perceived to be a critical currency
for the gratification of dignity, recognition, freedom, etc is often contested
for by groups. In this context conflict is a struggle over values or claims to
status, power, and scarce resources, in which the aims of the conflicting
groups are not only to gain the desired values but also to neutralize, injure or
eliminate rivals.
Groups tend to protect their boundaries for fear of losing their identity or
being invaded by other groups (trans-boundary conflicts across Africa are
ample examples). Conflict can also arise as a result of one group perceiving
one or several of their inter-relationships with other groups as illegitimate.
Conflict can also emanate from history or shared memory of groups which
usually influences the way the people perceive and interact with others
Political theory
According to the political theory the state is the sole context where various
groups or individuals are competing to take advantage of others. They often
believe that they will only gain access to the state when others are
eliminated or disabled. Power is at the core of all conflicts. Individuals,
groups or nations contest for it. It is assumed to be an act of dominating
others. This conception of power as a force to dominate others informs the
attitudes of individuals, groups and states.
Key assumptions
Conflict is a consequence of:
Failed or weak state
The scramble for the state
The absence of regime legitimacy

 Poor governance
Self determination
Territorial claims
The theory seem to hold value especially in post independence Africa
The transformative theory
According to the theory, conflict is caused by systemic and structural
injustice and inequality expressed by competing social, cultural, economic,
religious, and political frameworks
Assumptions
Conflict is a consequence of the way some societies are structured
Economic and political systems tend to favour one group over the
other
Cultures to be exclusive and unwelcoming to others and new ideas
Political and economic structures are alien to the context where they
are applied
Attitudes develop over a long period of time is resistant to change
Key Points of Transformation
Transformation occurs at the
Personal
Relational
Cultural
Structural/institutional/systemic levels
Questions
How do underlying beliefs, values, and world views contribute to the
cycle of conflict?
What are the most important aspects of how people create and define

their identity in reference to conflict?

Are the existing structures for peace generation functional?
How can the visible conflict around issues be used as an opportunity
for pursuing relational, community and structural change?
Where is the pressure for change coming from? i.e. Is the demanded
change endogenous or exogenous?

The conflict theory

This was propounded by Karl Marx. According to this theory individuals
needs are explained in a material world of threat and violence
Key assumptions
Social order is seen as being founded on organized coercion
There is an ideological realm of belief (religion and Law), and an
underlying world of struggles over power
Ideas and morals are not prior to interaction but are created
These serve the interests and parties to the conflict
Karl Marx
According to Karl Marx class societies and the need to maintain the
status quo by the powers that be is a major source of conflict
Material contributions determine the extent to which social classes
can organize effectively to fight for their interests; such conditions of
mobilization are a set of intervening variables between class and
political power.
Material circumstances of making a living are the main determinants
of ones life style
Material
conditions
for
mobilization
as
a
coherent,
intercommunication group also vary among social classes

 Classes differ in their control of the means of mental and material

production
For the conflict theory the basic insight is that human beings are
sociable but conflict-prone animals.
Coercive power as represented by the state can be used to bring one
goods and emotional gratification whilst denying others and this can
ramify conflicts throughout the world.
Emotional solidarity will add to group solidarity and tactical resources
to be used in these conflicts
According to Karl Marx, conflict engenders interaction at a level more
intense than that of competition. Although, as Schelling notes, conflict,
competition, and co-operation are inherently independent, conflict occurs
when competing groups goals, objectives, needs or values clash and
aggression although not necessarily violence is a result.
Behaviorist school and conflict
Assumptions
Causes of war/conflict lie in human nature and human behaviour
An important relationship exists between interpersonal conflict and
conflict that pervades the external social order
Believe in the centrality of the stimulus-response theory-meaning
that for there to be a conflict it would have been stimulated by
something
Seek to establish whether humans possess either biological or
psychological characteristics that would predispose us towards
aggression and conflict
Seek to explore the relationship between the individual and the
environment in which she/he lives in

Causes of conflicts in Africa

Often referred to \as the cradle of mankind, Africa is indeed a vast and
varied continent. The many different African countries have different and
sometimes unfavorable histories and geographical conditions, different
stages of social and economic development as well as diverse sets of social
and public policies which go a long way in determining and dictating the
internal and international dynamics of the countries. Interestingly, the
sources, progression and impact of conflicts across Africa reflect this
diversity and complexity.
Annan (1998) noted that some sources of conflict in Africa are purely
internal, some reflect the dynamics of a particular sub region, and some have
important international dimensions.
a) Colonial legacies
One of the greatest causes of conflicts in Africa is the legacy of colonialism.
The Berlin colonial congress of 1884-1885 saw the arbitrary demarcation of
the continent into colonial spheres of influence. Kingdoms, states, and
communities were inevitably dispersed and in the process unrelated areas
and peoples were inadvently joined together to constitute colonial states.
This was in the interest of the colonial masters and at the expense of the
African communities as these created states which were ethnic divers
(Banfer, 2007)
The then Organization of African Unity (OAU) resolved during its 1963
convention, to uphold the colonial boundaries as Africa was experiencing a
wave of political independence during the 1960s to the 1970s. The challenge
was to ensure that the state-building and nation building was a priority in all
the newly liberated countries.
This proved problematic for the many African states across the continent.
The challenge was compounded by the fact that the framework of colonial
laws and institutions which most of the new states inherited had been
designed to exploit local division and not to overcome them.

As a result political hegemonies emerged across the continent and these

were mainly defined along ethnicity and political cronyism. Predictably,
these political monopolies led to corruption, nepotism, complacency and the
abuse of power. Conflicts over boundaries also emerged, e.g.

The conflict in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia

Ethiopia-Eritrea boundary
Cabindas secessionist insurgencies in Angola
Sudan- the North versus the South etc
b) External forces

The period of the cold war had a devastating impact on Africa. In fact Africa
was at the messy end of the ensuing rivalry between the Capitalist Bloc
(West) and the Communist Bloc (East). During this difficult era, both the
Capitalist and communist blocs placed a premium on maintaining order and
stability among friendly states and allies.
Undemocratic and friendly regimes were supported and sustained by
competing super-powers in the name of their broader goals. For example the
civil wars that were experienced in countries like Somalia, Angola,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Mozambique
were attributed to the cold war forces.
Whilst the cold war might have officially ended with the collapse of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics around 1990, external influences
continue to be a central factor in African conflicts. For example the
protracted conflict in Sudan has an external dimension, so is the conflict in
Uganda, featuring the government of Yoweri Museveni and the Lords
Resistance Army of Joseph Kony. The same goes for the Democratic
Republic of Congo.
Communication skills

Objectives
Understand the importance of communication in
transformation
Identify barriers to communication
Appreciate the principles underpinning effective listening

conflict

Communication is the simple exchange of meaning- the giving and receiving

of feelings, opinions, ideas or beliefs. Communication lies at the heart of all
interactions. It is especially important in conflict transformation especially
when considering the fact that all conflict transformation processes are
communication based.
Therefore it is central to all conflict because it:
Causes conflict through miscommunication and misunderstanding
Basis for all successful negotiations
One of the deepest needs of all human beings is to feel understood and be
accepted by others. Offering understanding to another person is a potent
form of empowerment. We need to agree with others to empower them in
this way; we need only to make it clear through our eyes, body posture and
tone of voice that we want to see the world from their perspective. Our
interactions with others must come from a point of deep, non-judgmental
interest.
The key is to grasp the why behind what is being said or done in order to
gain insight into the deeper interests and needs of the person with whom we
are communicating. From the moment that people feel someone is truly
seeking to understand, they begin dealing with problems and other people
more constructively. Good listening is, perhaps, the most significant skill a
mediator or facilitator brings too assist parties to a conflict.

Types of communication

Empathetic listening listening with understanding. Feeling for the person

who is speaking.
Paraphrasing- listening and restating in your own words what the other
person said
Reframing- shifting the focus from a given position to the underlying
interests
Communicating openness- perceptions and needs
Barriers to communication

Language vocabulary
Stereotyping/prejudice
Attitude/body language
Status
Tradition
Emotions
Confidence
Distance

Active listening
Active listening is a communication skill used by mediators and facilitators
to aid communication by helping parties deliver clear messages and know
that their messages are understood correctly. It is also an indispensable skill
interest-based negotiators.
Objectives of active listening

 To show the speaker that his/her message has been had

To help the listener gain clarity on both the content and emotion of the
message
To help speakers to express themselves and to encourage them to
explain, in greater detail, their understanding of the situation and their
feelings
To encourage the understanding that expression of emotion is
acceptable and that it is useful in understanding the depth of feelings
To create an environment in which the speaker feels free and safe to
talk about a situation
Procedures for effective listening
Acknowledge that you are listening, through verbal and non-verbal
cues
Listen at all four levels and reflect your impressions through using the
various active listening skills
Let the speaker acknowledge whether or not you have reflected their
communication and its intensity correctly. If it is not correct, ask
questions to clarify
Principles underpinning effective listening
Ensure that the environment created for the speaker to express
herself or himself is safe, especially in terms of reducing the risk of
future negative consequences for messages delivered
That the listener is very focused on what the speaker is trying to
communicate to him/her
Ensure that the listener is patient and does not jump to conclusions
about the message
Ability to show genuine empathy to the speaker
Ability to use techniques which permit the speaker to verify or
correct the emotion and content of the message

 Do not judge or make value statements about what the speaker is

feeling
Achieving the goals of active listening
Be attentive
Be alert and non-distracted
Be interested in the needs of the other persons and let them know you
care about what is being said
Be non-judgmental and non-criticizing
The donts
No to use of stock phrases like its not so bad, just calm down etc
Do not get emotionally hooked, angry, upset, argumentative
Dont let your biases and values interfere with what you understand is
being said
Do not rehearse in your own head
Dont jump to conclusions or judgments
Interrogate or give advice
The four levels of listening
Active listening is not a one way process. It takes place four levels:
a) the head
Listening for facts and other forms of information
b) the heart
this relates to feelings as conflict is often associated with strong feelings
such as anger, fear, frustration, disappointment, etc. strong feelings often

block the way to rational discussions and therefore have to be identified and
dealt with before proceeding to substantive matters
The stomach
As a facilitator one must be able to listen for basic human needs. There is
need to identify what basic needs are driving the conflict and distinguish
between needs and satisfiers
The feet
Listening for intention or will. Identify in which direction the person/group
is moving and how strong their comments are.

Skills in conflict transfomation

Third
Party
Intervention
in
Conflict
Transformation
Objectives
list the different types of third party intervention
analyze the strengths and weaknesses of each type
differentiate interests from needs in negotiation
processes

One of the most viable routes in conflict transformation is through third

party intervention. The approach comes in different dimensions. Some of the
third party intervention approaches include:
negotiation
arbitration
conciliation
Negotiation
it is a process of talks between conflicting parties discussing ideas and
options for a mutually agreeable agreement. Negotiation can take place in a
face to face set up or through teleconferencing.
People usually decide to go for negotiations when all the other options are
not in their interests and when the situation is ripe for example when the
warring parties are exhausted.
Negotiation can also be a culmination of regional pressure and in
circumstances were leaders have authority to speak for their constituencies.
Types of negotiation
a) Hard Negotiation
The approach tends to use coercive techniques. For example using hostages
in war situations to force the other party to come to the negotiating table and
at times to make concessions.
This is sometimes referred to as the win-lose approach to conflict
transformation

b) soft negotiations
This refers to negotiation without using forcing. It is also referred to as
principled negotiation. It attempts to decide things on merits and to consider
mutual gains.
This is also referred to as value-based or needs based negotiation. It is also
referred to as the win-win approach to conflict transformation.
It is negotiation without conditions and uses agreed norms and values for
example the observance of international law and standards. It is premised on
collaboration and seeks to build long time relationships.
Stages of negotiation
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

preparation
opening for negotiations
developing strategies
implementation
monitoring/evaluation

a) Preparing
The preparation phase is usually the most cumbersome because this is the
stage to pick all the relevant dimensions to the conflict. The stage involves a
thorough mapping of the conflict. This is done in order to avoid irreversible
and damaging mistakes to the whole process as negotiators you must prepare
yourself to understand the situation at hand. Emphasis must be on more
detailed assessment of the history of the conflict, relationships and
contextual issues.
b) Opening for negotiations
At this stage the focus is on the establishment of issues to be discussed. It is
also the phase were the antagonists must reach an agreement on the process

and substance of the negotiations and to set the tone for the whole process.
As a negotiator you must share your perspectives on the conflict and to agree
on the problems to be solved first.
c) Developing strategies
There is need at this stage to think through needs, interests and potential
solutions. The process must not be focused on problems but on causes and
needs. It is also equally important to separate people from the problem as
well as interests from positions. Also consider bargaining power for each
party.

d) Problem solving and decision making

As a negotiator the main challenge is to be creative and inventive whilst
bearing in mind the fact that the protagonists must own the process as well
as the outcomes. It is the duty of the negotiator to design and assign duties
and to formulate agreements, seeking approval and ratification. It is also
important to note that you cannot solve all the problems at one go. Decisions
must not be final but preliminary leaving room for them to be fine tuned
later
Pre-conditions for a successful Negotiation process
Belief that negotiation is the best option out of the problem
Adhere to mutually accepted ground rules
Understanding and acknowledgment of differences and areas of
common ground in a relationship
Clear mandate from constituents
Sufficient resources to ensure that outcomes do not discredit
either the use of the bargaining process or those who seek to use
it
Intention by all parties to achieve a settlement

 Sufficient power to persuade or make it too costly not to change

Willingness to explore options and move away from the stated
positions
Pointers to a successful negotiation process
The agreement must be a workable solution and all parties can be able
to live with it and implement it
Does not damage relationships between parties
Meets the legitimate interests of all sides as much as possible and
resolves conflicting interests fairly
Ownership by the parties- not imposed or manipulated by outsiders
Achieved within reasonable and acceptable timelines
Unambiguous, sustainable and complete
Acceptability- accepted by constituencies of all parties and has no
adverse political ramifications for the leaders
d) Evaluation/monitoring
Look for guarantors of the agreement for example the Southern African
Development Community was elected guarantor of the Global Political
Agreement in Zimbabwe. Outstanding issues are always referred to SADC
as the guarantor.
Arbitration
Arbitration refers to intervention by a third party who makes a decision for
the conflicting parties. The decision by the Arbitrator can be binding or nonbinding depending on who referred the case for arbitration.
In most cases however arbitration is a binding procedure and is often
administered by a private organization that maintains lists of available
arbitrators and provides rules under which the arbitration will be conducted.

Such organisations can also manage the arbitration in whole or in part.

Parties often select arbitrators on the basis of substantive expertise.
The arbitration process
By agreeing to arbitration, the parties, perhaps among other things, are
waiving their fundamental, constitutional right to a trial by a jury of their
peers. They can have no de novo (second trial) after they have gone to
arbitration. Unless otherwise agreed, the decision is legally binding and
non-appealable, except in extremely limited circumstances.
The arbitrator reads briefs and documentary evidence, hears testimony,
examines evidence and renders an opinion on liability and damages in the
form of an award of the arbitrator after the hearing.
Once confirmed by a court of appropriate jurisdiction, the award can be
subsequently entered as a judgment.
Types of arbitration

High-low arbitration
Baseball arbitration
Night baseball arbitration
Non-binding arbitration
Mandatory arbitration

In periods of political transition that means during the change from

authoritarian dictatorial regimes or from civil conflicts to a democracy, from
violence and repression to societal stability it is essential to provide the
possibility to follow up abuses of human rights by criminal and legal
prosecution. The origins of Transitional Justice dating back to the post World
War II period (International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg), these
approaches are in the meantime clearly determined by international human

rights law. Transitional Justice is now highlighted by the many efforts to

bring perpetrators to justice both under national and international law. These
processes are important not only from a legal point of view, but have
important repercussions on (mental) health and coping after periods of
unrest, injustice and violence.
It is widely recognized that women (and so far also young people) are often
primary victims of conflict. During war, women are displaced, subjected to
sexual violence, and assume the caretaking role for children and the elderly.
They are vulnerable to exploitation, abuse, sexual slavery, disease, and
forced recruitment into armed groups. Yet as the survivors of violent
conflict, women also bear the burden of reconstruction. They return to
destroyed communities and begin the process of rebuilding infrastructure,
restoring and developing traditions, laws, and customs, and repairing
relationships. They hold in a way the leadership in a transitional period.
hold in a way the leadership in a transitional period. Therefore it is just
important to have a special focus on women when discussing transitional
justice.