Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

2 observations: 1) the fit between character function

& environment 2) 1) diversity & homology of forms
Animal form and function are correlated at all
40.1
levels of multicellular organization (tissue, organ,
system) and development requires their
multicellular integration
Feedback control homeostasis is an obvious way
40.2
to maintain the internal environment.
Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation
40.3
involve system form &function e.g. behaviour
Scaling and Comparative Work Remember, energy
40.4 requirements (for example) are related to animal size,
activity, and environment and ancestry

Character of interest is the (super long) probiscus

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In the study of form and function which of

the following are we not interested in, when
our focus is form and function ?
A) Individual physiology
B) Species generalizations
C) Fitness differences between
alternative character forms
D) Phylogenetic differences in
character form or function among
related species
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Concept 40.1: Animal form and function

are correlated at all levels of organization

OBSERVATIONS
Size and shape affect the way an animal
interacts with its environment
Many different animal body plans have
evolved and species development or life
cycle expression is governed by its
shared genome, suggesting a degree of
genetic control over the expression of
form (morphological characters).

THEN Do similar forms or shapes imply the expression

Evolution of Animal Size and

of the same (homologous) genes ?

Shape
Figure 40.02

Or are they homoplasic?

Phylogenetic constraint (null
hypothesis of homology) or,
evolutionary convergence of
Form, through 1) property of
related species or 2)accident
(similar environment) and /or
parallel evolution ( shared but
ancient repurposed genes).
Nonetheless: Different species
adaptations, an independent
evolutionary process, (no recent
ancestors in common).

Cladistic test for homology

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Genetic or Cellular, Developmental

or Life History, Population or
Species.Biological Hierarchy
CLARIFY At the outset of a discussion : identify
the scale(s) we are engaging: biological
(cells.. Individual.., population etc. ) physical
(size and mass, temperature etc.)
Why ?
a) There are different causes, effects and
mechanisms in play at different scales, thus,
b) There are different constraints on form and
function on different physical and biological
scales.
Your job is sort through this
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Evolution of Animal Size and

DIFFERENT PHYSICAL SCALES
Shape
Scaling the physical constants: mass,
energy, size, temperature, time etc.
Physical laws constrain strength, diffusion,
movement, and heat exchangethus
we expect with a physical change in
mass.as animals increase in mass, their
skeletons must be proportionately larger
to support this increase, or with respect to
their environment, increase buoyancy or
streamlining.
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Exchange with the Environment

Materials such as nutrients, waste

products, and gases must be
exchanged across animal cell
membranes
Constraint - rate of exchange
proportional to cells surface area
Amount of material exchanged by
diffusion needs to be proportional to
a cells volume, but, surface area
and volume do not change in a
1:1 ratio (isometry)

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Exchange
with
Metabolic and
nutritional scaling
constraints of multicellular
organisms
Single-celled protist living in
water has sufficient surface
area to service its entire
volume of cytoplasm

the Environment
Figure 40.3

Radially symmetric multicellular

animals: saclike body plan with
body walls only two cells thickyet also have ameobocytes,
mobile cells that shuttle
metabolites across connective
tissue in the mesoderm linking
gastrodermis to to epidermis,
muscles and tentacles 2014 Pearson Education Ltd.

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Exchange with the Environment

Some bilaterian animals such as tapeworms with no
endodermis: distance between cells and environment
minimized by their shape.
More complex organisms (larger with digestive system)
have:
(1) highly folded internal (endormal) surfaces for
exchanging materials- internal environment
(2) Epidermis with a smooth integrated surface,
epidermis that by comparison to (1)restricts contact
with the external environment.
(3) ? Difference = functional question

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Internal exchange surfaces of

complex animals

Figure 40.04
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Scale Constraints on Form and Function

Multicellular organisms usually
maximize folding over absorption
surfaces because volume and area
increase at different rates:
"

Area = length squared ( )

Volume = length cubed ( # )

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Hierarchical Organization of Body

Increased size requires cell specialization, where different
shapes are correlated with different functions
Plans
Most animals composed of
specialized cells organized into
tissues that have different functions
Tissues make up organs, which
together make up organ systems
Some organs, such as the pancreas,
belong to more than one organ
system
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Form and Function

Animal Tissues LEVEL
Different tissues have different
structures suited to their functions
Tissues classified into four main
categories:
1) Epithelial and Endothelial
2) Muscle
3) Connective
4) Nervous
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Exploring: Structure and Function

in Animal Tissues- Epithelial
Figure 40.05a2

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Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers outside of
body and lines organs and
cavities within body
Contains cells that are closely
joined
Shape of epithelial cells may be
cuboidal (like dice)
columnar (like bricks on end)
squamous (like floor tiles)

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Figure 40.05a1

The arrangement
of epithelial cells
may be
A) simple (single
cell layer)
B) stratified
(multiple tiers of
cells)
C) pseudostratified
(a single layer of
cells of varying
length)

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Connective Tissue develops from

the mesoderm
Connective tissue supports, connects and
separates other tissues (and cells)
Contains: cells and matrix (ground and fibers)
1) cells (fibroblasts, macrophages etc)
scattered throughout extracellular
2) ground substance - a liquid, jellylike, or solid
matrix usually containing
3) fibers mainly collagen (binding)but also
elastic and reticular (separating).

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Connective Tissue
Three types of connective tissue
fibre, all made of protein:
Collagenous fibres provide
strength and flexibility
Elastic fibres stretch and snap
back to their original length
Reticular fibres join connective
tissue to adjacent tissues
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Connective Tissue
Connective tissue MAY contain
CHARACTERISTIC cells, including
Fibroblasts that secrete the protein of
extracellular fibres
Macrophages that are involved in the
immune system

In vertebrates, the fibers and CELL

foundation combine to form six
major types of connective tissue.

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1. Loose connective tissue

binds epithelia to underlying
tissues and holds organs in
place -

Exploring: Structure and Function in

Animal Tissues- Connective Tissue
Figure 40.05b

2. Cartilage a strong and

flexible support material

3. Fibrous connective tissue

found in tendons, (attach
muscles to bones), and
ligaments, (connect
bones at joints)
4. Adipose tissue stores fat
for insulation and fuel
5. Blood (and Lymph) fluid
ground composed of
blood cells and cell
fragments in blood
plasma,

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6. Bone mineralized (hard

ground) and forms the
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skeleton

Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue consists of long cells
called muscle fibres, which
contract in response to nerve
signals
It is divided in the vertebrate body
into three types

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Exploring: Structure and Function

in Animal Tissues- Muscle Tissue
Figure 40.05c1

1. Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, responsible

for voluntary movement
2. Smooth muscle responsible for involuntary
body activities
3. Cardiac muscle striated with intercalated
discs, responsible for contraction of the heart

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Table 40.01 Organ

Organ Systems in Mammals
Systems in Mammals

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Animal Form and Function: 5 closely

integrated systems
1) Reproductive system
2) Digestive and Excretory Systems
3)Circulatory, Respiratory and
Lymphatic Systems
4) Nervous and Endocrine Systems
5) Body wall- Integument, Muscle and
Skeleton Systems

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Concept 40.2: Multicellular organisms require

feedback control to maintain competing demands
of different systems in the internal environment in
many animals

Animals manage their internal environment

by regulating or conforming to the external
environment
Regulators use internal control mechanisms to
moderate internal change in face of external,
environmental fluctuation
Conformer allow internal condition to vary with
certain external changes

Animals may regulate some environmental

variables while conforming to others

Regulating and Conforming

Relationship
between body
and
environmental
temperatures in
aquatic
temperature
regulators and
aquatic
temperature
conformers
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Multi system, Organism Homeostasis

A property of a self regulating system,
an internal steady state or internal
dynamic balance in the face of
changes in an external environment
In humans,

body temperature,
blood pH,
glucose concentration
Osmolarity

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Mechanisms of Homeostasis

Mechanisms of
homeostasis moderate
changes in the internal
environment
For a given variable,
fluctuations above or
below a set point serve
as a stimulus; these are
detected by a sensor
and trigger a response
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The response returns the

variable to the set point

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 Dynamic equilibrium
maintained by negative
feedback, returns variable
to normal range
Most homeostatic control
systems function by
negative feedback, where
buildup of end product
shuts system off

Positive feedback amplifies

a stimulus thus does not
usually seem to contribute
to homeostasis in animals

animals

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Homeostasis can adjust to

changes in external environment,
a process called acclimatization,
See figure 40.15

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Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation

involve form, function, and behaviour

Thermoregulation is process by which

animals maintain an internal temperature
within a tolerable range
Endothermic animals generate internal heat
through metabolism e.g. birds and mammals
Ectothermic animals gain external heat from
external sources e.g. most invertebrates, most
fishes, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles
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Endothermy and Ectothermy

Figure 40.10

In general, ectotherms
tolerate greater
variation in internal
temperature
While endotherms
active at a greater
range of external
temperatures
Endothermy more
energetically expensive
than ectothermy

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Variation in Body Temperature

The body temperature of a
poikilotherm varies with its
environment
Body temperature of a homeotherm
relatively constant
Relationship between heat source
and body temperature not fixed
(that is, not all poikilotherms are
ectotherms)
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Balancing Heat Loss and Gain

Organisms exchange
heat by four physical
processes:

Figure 40.11

radiation,
evaporation,
convection
conduction

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Heat regulation
Heat regulation in mammals often
involves integumentary system: skin,
hair, and nails
Five characters help animals
thermoregulate:
1)Insulation
2)Circulatory adaptations
3) Cooling by evaporative heat loss
4) Behavioural responses
5)Adjusting metabolic heat production
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1) Insulation
Insulation a major thermoregulatory
adaptation in mammals and birds
Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber
reduce heat flow between animal
and environment
Insulation especially important in
marine mammals such as whales
and walruses
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2) Circulatory Adaptations
Regulation of blood flow near body
surface significantly affects
thermoregulation
Many endotherms and some ectotherms
can alter amount of blood flowing
between body core and skin
In vasodilation, blood flow in skin increases,
facilitating heat loss
In vasoconstriction, blood flow in skin
decreases, lowering heat loss
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Circulatory Adaptations
Arrangement of blood vessels in
many marine mammals and birds
allows for countercurrent
exchange
Countercurrent heat exchangers
transfer heat between fluids
flowing in opposite directions and
reduce heat loss
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Countercurrent heat exchangers

Figure 40.12

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3) Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss

Many types of animals lose heat through evaporation of
water from their skin
Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and many
mammals
Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool
an animal down

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4) Behavioural Responses
Figure 40.13

Both endotherms
and ectotherms
use behavioural
responses to
control body
temperature
Some terrestrial
invertebrates have
postures that
minimize or
maximize
absorption of solar
heat
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5) Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production

Thermogenesis is adjustment of metabolic
heat production to maintain body
temperature
Thermogenesis increased by muscle
activity such as moving or shivering
Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place
when hormones cause mitochondria to
increase their metabolic activity in
adipose fat cells (white brown)
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 Why does shivering increase body

temperature?
Shivering involuntary muscles
contractions, you are expending
energy (ATP hydrolysis to fuel
muscle contractions) and every
time there is energy
transformation the there is some
lost as heat.
Consumes 100 800 kcal/day
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Adjusting Metabolic Heat

Production
Some
ectotherms
can also
shiver to
increase
body
temperature

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Figure 40.14

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5b)Acclimatization in
Thermoregulation
Birds and mammals can vary their
insulation to acclimatize to
seasonal temperature changes
When temperatures subzero, some
ectotherms produce antifreeze
compounds to prevent ice
formation in their cells

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Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are related to

animal size, activity, and environment

Bioenergetics is the overall flow

and transformation of energy in
an animal
Determines how much food an
animal needs
Relates to an animals size,
activity, and environment

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Energy Allocation and Use

Animals harvest
chemical energy
from food

Energycontaining
molecules from
food usually used
to make ATP,
which powers
cellular work

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Energy Allocation and Use

After the needs of staying alive
met, remaining food molecules
can be used in biosynthesis
Biosynthesis includes
body growth and repair
synthesis of storage material such as
fat
production of gametes

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Quantifying Energy Use

Metabolic rate is amount of
energy an animal uses in a
unit of time

Figure 40.18

Metabolic rate can be

determined by
An animals heat loss
The amount of oxygen
consumed or carbon dioxide
produced

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Minimum Metabolic Rate and

Thermoregulation
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the
metabolic rate of an endotherm at
rest at a comfortable temperature
Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the
metabolic rate of an ectotherm at
rest at a specific temperature
Both rates assume a nongrowing,
fasting, and nonstressed animal

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Basal metabolic rate includes the following activities

when you are at rest and fasting for 12 hrs.

This is for women (men

have higher BMR)

1,400 kcal/day
4.22kJ=1kcal
=5,908kJ/day

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Influences on Metabolic Rate

Ectotherms have much lower
metabolic rates than endotherms of
a comparable size
Metabolic rates affected by many
factors besides whether an animal
endotherm or ectotherm
Two of these factors are size and
activity
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Size and Metabolic Rate

Metabolic rate proportional to body mass
to power of three quarters (m3/4)
Smaller animals have higher metabolic
rates per gram than larger animals
The higher metabolic rate of smaller
animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery
rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and
greater (relative) blood volume, compared
with a larger animal
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ALLOMETRY ,
Size and
Form and Function

Metabolic Rate

The relationship of BMR to body

size in: inactive, post-absorbtive,
non reproductive,.adults
Geometric surface law: area =
volume ** 2/3
Kleibers rule or law
volume** 3/4

area =

Life cycle stage?

Maximum (MMR) and field
metabolic rates (FMR) ?
Ectotherms scaling exponents
similar but 4-8 fold difference?

A.J. Hulbert 2014. Systems 2, 186-202

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Energy Budgets
Different species use energy and materials
in food in different ways, depending on
their environment
Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or
SMR), activity, thermoregulation, growth,
and reproduction

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Torpor and Energy Conservation

Torpor physiological state in which
activity low and metabolism
decreases
Torpor enables animals to save
energy while avoiding difficult and
dangerous conditions
Hibernation a long-term torpor, an
adaptation to winter cold and food
scarcity
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Torpor and Energy Conservation

Summer torpor, called estivation,
enables animals to survive long
periods of high temperatures and
scarce water
Daily torpor exhibited by many
small mammals and birds and
seems adapted to feeding
patterns
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