CH 4

PART
Ordinary Differential
Equations (ODEs)
Part A p1
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER
Systems of ODEs.
Phase Plane.
Qualitative Methods
Chapter 4 p2

4 Systems of ODEs. Phase Plane. Qualitative Methods
In Sec. 4.3 we introduce a totally different way of looking at

systems of ODEs. The method consists of examining the
general behavior of whole families of solutions of ODEs in
the phase plane, and is called the phase plane method.
It gives information on the stability of solutions. (Stability of
a physical system is desirable and means roughly that a small
change at some instant causes only a small change in the
behavior of the system at later times.) This approach to
systems of ODEs is a qualitative method because it
depends only on the nature of the ODEs and does not
require the actual solutions. This can be very useful because
it is often difficult or even impossible to solve systems of
ODEs. In contrast, the approach of actually solving a system
is known as a quantitative method.
Chapter 4 p3

4.0
For Reference: Basics

of Matrices and Vectors
Section 4.0 p4

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors
Most of our linear systems will consist of two linear ODEs

in two unknown functions y1(t), y2(t),
(1) y1 = a11y1 + a12y2,
y1 = 5y1 + 2y2
for example,
y2 = a21y1 + a22y2,
y2 = 13y1 + y2
(perhaps with additional given functions g1(t), g2(t) on the
right in the two ODEs).
Similarly, a linear system of n first-order ODEs in n
unknown functions y1(t), , yn(t) is of the form
y1 = a11y1 + a12y2 + + a1nyn
(2)
y2 = a21y1 + a22y2 + + a2nyn
.........................
yn = an1y1 + an2y2 + + annyn
(perhaps with an additional given function on the right in
each ODE).
Section 4.0 p5

Some Definitions and Terms

Matrices. In (1) the (constant or variable) coefficients form a
2 x 2 matrix A, that is, an array
(3)
A a jk
a11 a12

,
a 21 a 22
fo r e x a m p le ,
5 2
A
1 .
1 3
Similarly, the coefficients in (2) form an n x n matrix
(4)
a11 a12
a 21 a 22
A a jk
an1 an 2
a1n
a2n
.
ann
The a11, a12, are called entries, the horizontal lines rows,
and the vertical lines columns.
Section 4.0 p6

Some Definitions and Terms (continued)

Vectors. A column vector x with n components x1, , xn is
of the form
x1

x2
,
x

xn
th u s if n 2 ,
x1
x
x2
Similarly, a row vector v is of the form

v v 1
Section 4.0 p7
v n ,
th u s if n 2 ,
v v 1 v 2 .

Calculations with Matrices and Vectors

Equality. Two n x n matrices are equal if and only if
corresponding entries are equal. Thus for n = 2, let
a11 a12
A
a
a
21
22
and
b11 b12
B
b 21 b 22
Then A = B if and only if

a11 = b11,
a12 = b12
a21 = b21,
a22 = b22.
Two column vectors (or two row vectors) are equal if and
only if they both have n components and corresponding
components are equal.
Section 4.0 p8

Calculations with Matrices and Vectors (continued)

Equality. (continued)
Thus, let
v1
v
v2
Then
and
x1
x
x2
v x if a n d o n ly if v 1 x 1
v2 x2.
Section 4.0 p9


Addition is performed by adding corresponding entries (or
components); here, matrices must both be n x n, and vectors
must both have the same number of components.
Thus for n = 2,
(5)
a11 b11
A B
a 21 b 21
Section 4.0 p10
a12 b12
,
a 22 b 22
v1 x1
v x
.
v2 x2


Matrix Multiplication. The product C = AB (in this order)
of two n x n matrices A = [ajk] and B = [bjk]
is the n x n matrix C = [cjk] with entries
j = 1, , n
n
c jk a jm b m k
(6)
m 1
k = 1, , n.
that is, multiply each entry in the jth row of A by the
corresponding entry in the kth column of B and then add
these n products. One says briefly that this is a
multiplication of rows into columns.
Section 4.0 p11


Matrix Multiplication. (continued)
For example,
9
4
9 1 3 2

5
2 1 0 2
15

2
9 (4) 3 5
,
( 2) (4) 0 5
21
.
8
CAUTION! Matrix multiplication is not commutative,

AB BA in general.
Section 4.0 p12

Systems of ODEs as Vector Equations

Differentiation. The derivative of a matrix (or vector) with
variable entries (or components) is obtained by
differentiating each entry (or component). Thus, if
2 t
y1 (t )
y (t )
,

y 2 (t )
s in t
th e n
2 t
2e
y 1 ( t )
y ( t )
.

y 2 ( t )
cos t
Using matrix multiplication and differentiation, we can

now write (1) as
(7)
y 1
a11 a12 y 1
y
Ay
,
y 2
a 21 a 22 y 2
Section 4.0 p13
e .g .,
5 2
y1
y
1
.
1 3
y2

Some Further Operations and Terms

Transposition is the operation of writing columns as rows
and conversely and is indicated by T. Thus the transpose AT
of the 2 x 2 matrix
5 2
a11 a12
A
1

1 3
a 21 a 22
is
5 13
a11 a 21

1 .

2
a12 a 22
The transpose of a column vector, say,

v1
v
v2
is a ro w v e c to r,
v 1 v 2 ,
and conversely.
Section 4.0 p14

Some Further Operations and Terms (continued)

Inverse of a Matrix. The n x n unit matrix I is the n x n
matrix with main diagonal 1, 1, , 1 and all other entries
zero. If, for a given n x n matrix A, there is an n x n matrix B
such that AB = BA = I, then A is called nonsingular and B is
called the inverse of A and is denoted by A1; thus
(8)
AA1 = A1A = I.
The inverse exists if the determinant det A of A is not zero.
Section 4.0 p15


Inverse of a Matrix. (continued)
If A has no inverse, it is called singular. For n = 2,
(9)
a 22 a12
,
d e t A a 21 a11
1
where the determinant of A is

(10)
det A
a11 a12
a 21 a 22
Section 4.0 p16
a11 a 22 a12 a 21 .

The following properties hold for an invertible matrix A:

(A1)1 = A;
(kA)1 = k1A1 for nonzero scalar k;
(AT)1 = (A1)T;
For any invertible n-by-n matrices A and B,
(AB)1 = B1A1.
if A1,...,Ak are invertible n-by-n matrices, then
(A1A2Ak1Ak)1 = Ak1Ak11A21A11;
det(A1) = det(A)1.
If [A} is an invertible matrix, then

[A]-1 = 1/det(A) * adj(A)
det(A) : Determinant of matrix A
Adj(A) : Adjugate t of matrix A
17
18
Then the adj(A) is the transpose of the cofactor matrix [C],

since [C} is symmetrical matrix (in this example only) then
[C]T = [C]
3
T
adj ( A ) C 6
6
12
6
3
19
If [A] is square matrix (n x n), then its determinant is defined as
20
21
22
LxM
NxL
NxM
To multiply matrices the

number of rows in X
should equal number of
Columns of Y
23
The trace of a matrix is the sum of the elements on its

principal diagonal. It is designated as
tr [A] and is computed as
24
Transpose of a matrix involves transforming its columns into

rows and its rows into columns. For example, for the 4 4 matrix
25
Although multiplication is possible, matrix division is not defined

operation.
if a matrix [A] is square and nonsingular, there is another matrix
[A]1, called the inverse of [A], for which
[A][A]1 = [A]1[A] = [I] ( identity matrix)
Thus, the multiplication of a matrix by the inverse is analogous to
division, in the sense that a number divided by itself is equal to 1.
That is, multiplication of a matrix by its inverse leads to the identity
matrix
26
i< j

27

Linear Independence. r given vectors v(1), , v(r), with n
components are called a linearly independent set or, more
briefly, linearly independent, if
(11)
c1 v(1) + + crv(r) = 0
implies that all scalars c1, , cr must be zero; here, 0
denotes the zero vector, whose n components are all zero.
If (11) also holds for scalars not all zero (so that at least one
of these scalars is not zero), then these vectors are called a
linearly dependent set or, briefly, linearly dependent, because
then at least one of them can be expressed as a linear
combination of the others; that is, if, for instance, c1 0 in
(11), then we can obtain
v
(1)
1
c1
Section 4.0 p28
(c2v
(2)
crv
(r)
).

To check for vector linear independency,

1) sort all vector in a matrix
2) Find the rank of the matrix, where matrix rank is the largest sup
matrix that has non zero determinant.
3) The number of dependent vectors equal to
matrix size the rank of the matrix
Example:
X1=[ 1 4 7], X2= [2 5 8],
X3=[3 6 9]
X3 = -1*X1+2*X2, so X3 is linearly dependent on X1 and X2
and we have only 2 independent vectors, which are X1 and X2,
using matrix rank method

Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors
Let A = [ajk] be an n x n matrix. Consider the equation
(12)
Ax = x
where is a scalar (a real or complex number) to be
determined and x is a vector to be determined. Now, for
every , a solution is x = 0. A scalar such that (12) holds
for some vector x 0 is called an eigenvalue of A (value of
that make the determinant of A equal to zero) , and this vector
is called an eigenvector of A corresponding to this
eigenvalue .
We can write (12) as Ax x = 0 or
(13)
(A I)x = 0
: can be, real distinct roots, repeated roots, complex roots
Section 4.0 p30

Eigenvalue Problem (real distinct roots)

Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
The characteristic equation is the quadratic equation
It has the solutions 1 = -2 and 2 = -0.8 . These are the

eigenvalues of A. Eigenvectors are obtained from .
These equation are linearly dependent equations, therefor

the ratio between X1/X2 can be found only
A solution of the first equation is X1 = 2, X2 =1. This also

satisfies the second equation. (Why?) Hence an
eigenvector of A corresponding to 1 = -2 is X(1) and
corresponding to 2 = -0.8 is X(2)

4.1
Systems of ODEs as Models

in Engineering Applications
Section 4.1 p33

Systems of ODEs are of practical importance

Systems of ODEs can serve as models in
various applications.
Higher order ODE (with the highest derivative
standing alone on one side) can be reduced to a
first-order system.

E X A M P L E 1 Mixing Problem Involving Two Tanks

(real distinct roots)
A mixing problem involving a single tank is modeled by a single ODE,
The model will be a system of two first-order ODEs. Tank T1 and T2 in
the Fig. contain initially 100 gal of water each. In T1 the water is pure,
whereas 150 lb of fertilizer are dissolved in T2 . By circulating liquid at
a rate of 2 gal/min and stirring (to keep the mixture uniform)
the amounts of fertilizer y1 in T1 and y2 in T2 change with time t. How
long should we let the liquid circulate so that will contain at least half
as much fertilizer as there will be left in T2?
y : rate of change in fertilizer amount

at any time, which is equal to
inflow outflow of fertilizer
y :fertilizer amount at any time

Inflow/ min = 2 gal/min * (y2 lb)/(100 gal) =2/100 y2 lb/min

Outflow/ min = 2 gal/min * (y1 lb)/(100 gal) =2/100 y1 lb/min
y 1 0 . 02

y 2 0 . 02
0 . 02 y 1

0 . 02 y 2

1 = 0.0 and 2 = -0.04

The corresponding eigenvectors will be
(-0.02 - ) x1 + 0.02 x2 = 0.0

we have linear system so the superposition principle is applicable

y1
1
2
y2
0 . 04 t
t 27 . 5 s

Repeated Eigenvalues
In this case: x1 = e1t v1 is the unique normal mode. However, a
second order system needs two independent solutions. If we
multiplied the normal solution by t only (as in the case of single
degree of freedom system), it turns out this doesnt quite work.
Recall that in the method of order reduction (Basis method) a
second independent solution is given by (X1t + C1 ) so let
x2 = e1t (tv1 + v2).
where v2 is any constant vector satisfying
(A 1 I) v2 = v1.
(check by substitution) this does give a solution, remember that [A]
v1 = 1v1
Fact. The equation for v2 is guaranteed to have a solution, provided
that the eigenvalues 1 = 2 . When solving for v2 =(b1, b2)T, try
setting b1 = 0, and solving for b2. If that does not work, try setting
b2 = 0 and solving for b1.


Complex Eigenvalues
In this case:
1 = a + bi,
2 = a - bi
x1 = e1t L1 , x2 = e2t L2
Are linearly independent normal modes.
However,
L1 and L2 are compels congregate vectors

4.1 Systems of ODEs as Models in Engineering Applications
Conversion of an nth-Order ODE to a System

An nth-order ODE of the general form (8) (see Theorem 1)
can be converted to a system of n first-order ODEs. This
is practically and theoretically important
practically because it permits the study and solution of
single ODEs by methods for systems,
and theoretically because it opens a way of including the
theory of higher order ODEs into that of first-order
systems.
This conversion is another reason for the importance of
systems, in addition to their use as models in various
basic applications. The idea of the conversion is simple
and straightforward, as follows.
Section4.1 p44

4.1 Systems of ODEs as Models in Engineering Applications
Theorem 1
Conversion of an ODE
An nth-order ODE
(8)
y(n) = F(t, y, y, , y(n1))
can be converted to a system of n first-order ODEs by setting
(9) y1 = y,
y2 = y,
y3 = y, ,
yn = y(n1).
This system is of the form
y 1 y 2
y 2 y 3
(10)
y n 1 y n
y n F ( t , y 1 , y 2 ,
Section4.1 p45
, yn)

Simple method to reduce 2nd order system of ODE
M nxn Ynx 1 C Y K Y g ( t )
add new system
as
K nxn Y nx 1 K nxn Y nx 1 0
then
M
arange
the
two
systems
as
0 Y C K Y g ( t )
K Y K 0 Y 0
[ K ] has
non zero
the new system
A X B X
the system
elements
var iabels
h ( t )
in its diagonal
cna be renamed
pre multiply
will be reduced
by A
as
1
to
X A B X A h ( t )
1
you can do this
manpulatio
n for any order

4.2
Section 4.2 p48
Basic Theory of Systems

of ODEs. Wronskian

4.2 Basic Theory of Systems of ODEs. Wronskian
The first-order systems in the last section were special cases

of the more general system
(1)
y 1 f 1 ( t , y 1 ,
, yn )
y 2 f 2 ( t , y 1 ,
, yn )
y n f n ( t , y 1 ,
, y n ).
We can write the system (1) as a vector equation by

introducing the column vectors y = [ y1 yn]T and
f = [ f1 fn]T (where T means transposition and saves us the
space that would be needed for writing y and f as columns).
This gives
(1)
y = f(t, y).
Section4.2 p49

A solution of (1) on some interval a < t < b is a set of n

differentiable functions
y1 = h1(t), , yn = hn(t)
on a < t < b that satisfy (1) throughout this interval. In vector
form, introducing the solution vector h = [h1 hn]T (a
column vector!) we can write
y = h(t).
An initial value problem for (1) consists of (1) and n given
initial conditions
(2)
y1(t0) = K1, y2(t0) = K2,
,
yn(t0) = Kn,
in vector form, y(t0) = K, where t0 is a specified value of t in
the interval considered and the components of
K = [K1 Kn]T are given numbers.
Section4.2 p50

Linear Systems
Extending the notion of a linear ODE, we call (1) a linear
system if it is linear in y1, , yn; that is, if it can be written
(3)
y 1 a 1 1 ( t ) y 1
a1n (t ) y n g 1 (t )
y 1 a n 1 ( t ) y 1
ann (t ) y n g n (t )
Section 4.2 p51

Linear Systems (continued)

As a vector equation this becomes
(3)
y = Ay + g
where
a11
a n 1
a1n
a n n
y1
y
,
y n
g1
g
.
g n
This system is called homogeneous if g = 0, so that it is
(4)
y = Ay.
If g 0, then (3) is called nonhomogeneous.
Section 4.2 p52

Theorem 3
Superposition Principle or Linearity Principle
If y(1) and y(2) are solutions of the homogeneous linear
system (4) on some interval, so is any linear combination
y = c1y(1) + c1y(2).
Section4.2 p53

Basis. General Solution. Wronskian

By a basis or a fundamental system of solutions of the
homogeneous system (4) on some interval J we mean a
linearly independent set of n solutions y(1), , y(n) of (4) on
that interval. (We write J because we need I to denote the
unit matrix.) We call a corresponding linear combination
(5)
y = c1y(1) + + cny(n)
(c1, , cn arbitrary)
We can write n solutions y(1), , y(n) of
y = Ay.
on some interval J as columns of an n x n matrix
(6)
Y = [y(1) y(n)].
Section 4.2 p54

Basis. General Solution. Wronskian (continued)

The determinant of Y is called the Wronskian
of y(1), , y(n), written
y1
(7)
W (y
(1)
,y
(n)
y2
yn
(1)
(1)
(1)
y1
(2)
y2
yn
(2)
(2)
y1
(n)
y2
yn
(n)
(n)
The columns are these solutions, each in terms of

components. These solutions form a basis on J if and only if
W is not zero at any t1in this interval.
Section 4.2 p55

On the right, the exponential function is never zero, and the

determinant is not zero because its columns are the n
linearly independent eigenvectors.
4.4 Criteria for Critical Points. Stability
Stability
Critical points may also be classified in terms of their
stability. Stability concepts are basic in engineering and
other applications. They are suggested by physics, where
stability means, roughly speaking, that a small change
(a small disturbance) of a physical system at some

instant changes the behavior of the system only
slightly at all future times t. For critical points, the
following concepts are appropriate.
Section 4.4 p57

The Phase Plane: Linear Systems

There are many differential equations, especially nonlinear
ones, that are not subject to analytical solution in any
reasonably convenient manner.
Numerical methods provide one means of dealing with these
equations.
Another approach, presented in this chapter, is geometrical in
character and leads to a qualitative understanding of the
solutions rather than to detailed quantitative information.

Solutions of Second Order Linear Systems

Consider a second order linear homogeneous system with
constant coefficients of the form x' = Ax, where A is a 2 x 2
constant matrix and x is a 2 x 1 vector.
If we assume x = ert, then x is a solution of x' = Ax provided that r is
an eigenvalue and is an eigenvector of the coefficient matrix A.
The eigenvalues are the roots of the polynomial equation
det(A-rI) = 0, and the eigenvectors are determined up to an
arbitrary constant from the equation (A-rI) = 0.

Equilibrium Solution, Phase Portrait

Solutions x for which Ax = 0 correspond to equilibrium
solutions, and are called critical points.
We assume A is nonsingular, or detA 0, and hence x = 0 is
the only critical point for the system x' = Ax.
A solution of x' = Ax is a vector function x = (t) that satisfies
the differential equation, and can be viewed as a parametric
representation for a curve in the x1 x2-plane.
This curve can be regarded as a trajectory traversed by a moving

particle whose velocity dx/dt is specified by the differential equation.
The x1x2-plane is called the phase plane, and a representative
set of trajectories is a phase portrait.
Characterizing Equation by Trajectory Pattern

In analyzing the system x' = Ax, we must consider several
cases, depending on the nature of the eigenvalues of A.
Now our main goal is to characterize the differential equation
according to the geometric pattern formed by its trajectories.
In each case we discuss the behavior of the trajectories in
general an illustrate it with an example.
It is important to become familiar with the types of behavior
that the trajectories have for each case, as they are the basic
ingredients of the qualitative theory of differential equations.

Case 1: Real Unequal Eigenvalues of the Same Sign

When the eigenvalues r1 and r2 are both positive or both negative,
the general solution for x' = Ax is
Suppose first that r1 < r2 < 0, and that the eigenvectors (1)
and (2) are as shown below.
(1) = (2)
AND
(1) = - (2)
It follows that x 0 as t
-ve rs
for all solutions x, regardless of
the values of c1 and c2.

Case 1: Nodal Sink

If the solution starts at an initial point on the line through (1), then c2 = 0
and the solution remains on this line for all t. Similarly if the initial point
is on the line through (2). The solution can be rewritten as
Since r1 - r2 < 0, for c2 0 the

term c1(1)e(r1 - r2)t is negligible
compared to c2 (2), for large t.
Thus all solutions are tangent
to (2) at the critical point
x = 0 except for solutions that
start exactly on the line
through (1). This type of
critical point is called a node
or nodal sink.

Case 1: Nodal Source (+ve rs)

The phase portrait along with several graphs of x1 versus t are given
below. The behavior of x2 versus t is similar. If 0 < r2 < r1, then the
trajectories will have the same pattern as in figure (a) below, but the
direction will be away from the critical point at the origin. In this
case the critical point is again called a node or a nodal source.

4.6
Nonhomogeneous
Linear Systems of ODEs
Section 4.6 p65

4.6 Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems of ODEs
In this section, the last one of Chap. 4, we discuss methods

for solving nonhomogeneous linear systems of ODEs
(1)
y = Ay + g
(see Sec. 4.2)
where the vector g(t) is not identically zero. We assume g(t)
and the entries of the n x n matrix A(t) to be continuous on
some interval J of the t-axis. From a general solution y(h)(t)
of the homogeneous system y = Ay on J and a particular
solution y(p)(t) of (1) on J [i.e., a solution of (1) containing no
arbitrary constants], we get a solution of (1),
(2)
y = y(h) + y(p).
y is called a general solution of (1) on J because it includes
every solution of (1) on J.
Section 4.6 p66

Method of Undetermined Coefficients

Just as for a single ODE, this method is suitable if the
entries of A are constants and the components of g are
constants, positive integer powers of t, exponential
functions, or cosines and sines. In such a case, a particular
solution y(p) is assumed in a form similar to g; for instance,
y(p) = u + vt + wt2 if g has components quadratic in t,
with u, v, w to be determined by substitution into (1). This
is similar to Sec. 2.7,
except for the Modification Rule.
Section 4.6 p67




Method of Variation of Parameters

This method can be applied to nonhomogeneous linear
systems
(6)
y = A(t)y + g(t)
with variable A = A(t) and general g(t). It yields a particular
solution y(p) of (6) on some open interval J on the t-axis if a
general solution of the homogeneous system y = A(t)y on J
is known.
Section 4.6 p71





CH 4

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CH 4

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

PART

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4 Systems of ODEs. Phase Plane. Qualitative Methods

In Sec. 4.3 we introduce a totally different way of looking at

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

For Reference: Basics

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Most of our linear systems will consist of two linear ODEs

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Some Definitions and Terms

Similarly, the coefficients in (2) form an n x n matrix

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Some Definitions and Terms (continued)

Similarly, a row vector v is of the form

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Calculations with Matrices and Vectors

Then A = B if and only if

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Calculations with Matrices and Vectors (continued)

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Calculations with Matrices and Vectors (continued)

Section 4.0 p10

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Calculations with Matrices and Vectors (continued)

Section 4.0 p11

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Calculations with Matrices and Vectors (continued)

CAUTION! Matrix multiplication is not commutative,

Section 4.0 p12

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Systems of ODEs as Vector Equations

Using matrix multiplication and differentiation, we can

Section 4.0 p13

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Some Further Operations and Terms

The transpose of a column vector, say,

Section 4.0 p14

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Some Further Operations and Terms (continued)

The inverse exists if the determinant det A of A is not zero.

Section 4.0 p15

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

4.0 For Reference: Basics of Matrices and Vectors

Some Further Operations and Terms (continued)

where the determinant of A is

Section 4.0 p16

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

The following properties hold for an invertible matrix A:

If [A} is an invertible matrix, then

Then the adj(A) is the transpose of the cofactor matrix [C],

If [A] is square matrix (n x n), then its determinant is defined as