Resonant Induction Heater PDF

A NEW UNITY POWER FACTOR QUASI-RESONANT
INDUCTION
HEATER
by
Bekir Sami SAZAK
A dissertationsubmitted to the University of Glamorganin support of an application for

the degreeof Doctor of Philosophy in Electrical Engineering.
Department of Electronics and Information Technology
University of Glamorgan
November 1997
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis has not been, nor is currently being, submitted for the award of
degree
or similar qualification.
other
any
Signed:
Bekir Sami SAZAK
10
This thesis is
dedicated to my wife Semra and
my daughterBuket Gizem, whose unfaltering supportwas

the principle factor which enablesme to
completethis work.
Abstract
This thesis reports an investigation into the design of converters for induction heating
systemsbasedupon resonantswitch mode power convertertechniques.
The proposed three phaseunity power factor induction heating system consists of two
important
for
The
each stage of the power
conversions.
requirements
stagesof power
conversionof a typical induction heating systemworking from a three-phasesupply are
identified. A wide range of power converters which fulfil
these requirements are
From
the evaluation, the most applicable converter topologies
and
evaluated.
compared
is
investigated
in
detail
to outline their
Each
class
selected
converter
great
are selected.
advantagesand disadvantages.
The first stageconsistsof a push-pull buck converterconnectedto a unity power factor

rectifier stage.This stage converts the three phaseAC mains supply to a required DC
value. The second stage, which converters the DC into AC is a single ended resonant
inverter system.
Analysis of the converters has been made and the design procedure has been
formulated. The design procedureallows a strenuousdesign of eachresonantconverter
for particular converterapplications.
The final converter design has been simulated using the circuit simulation
software
packages Design Architect and Accusim to verify the results of analysis. The most
important design and constructionachievementscan be summarisedas follows:

I
A novel push-pull buck quasi-resonant converter with a three-phase rectifier stage has
been built and tested. At its maximum operating frequency of 40kHz, the prototype
converter delivers an output power of 500W. The converter draws nearly sinusoidal
currents from the three-phase mains supply and has an input power factor approaching
unity.
A secondarystage resonantconverter provides AC for the induction heater coil. This

AC current flowing in the induction coil createsan alternating electromagneticfield for
the workpiece. An induction heating coil has been designed and built by using electrical
equivalent coil design method.
A novel control strategy was developed to provide output power control. Both
converter and inverter stage of the system are operated in the zero-current switching
condition. The use of this technique allows higher switching frequenciesand provides
low switching losses.
The full design details are presentedalong with simulation and practical results. The
simulation and practical performance results presented show good correlation with
theoretical predictions.
II
Acknowledgements
I am most grateful for the continuous help, discussions and interest of my Director of
Studies, Dr. M. G. Jayne during the period of research to which this thesis is related.
I am also thankful to Prof. L. Hobson and Mr. I. Ludtke for their support and
in
Great
different
the
this
support was also received
stages
of
research.
encouragement
from the late Dr. S. Hadjivassilev.
Great appreciation is also expressed to Mr. J. Owen and Mr. J. Martin of Newelco for
the discussions which took place during the research work.
I would also like to thank the technical staff of the Department of Electronics and
Information Technology for their assistancethroughout the project.
I would also like to expressmy gratitude to the Turkish Government,particularly to the

University of Pamukkalefor their financial support.
Last but not least is my heartfelt appreciation of the unequivocal support and help from
daughter,
Semra
Buket Gizem, who made the completion of the
my
and
my wife,
investigation and this thesispossible.
III
Table Of Contents
Abstract
Acknowledgements
III
Table Of Contents
IV
List Of Figures
VIII
List Of Tables
XIII
List Of Principal Symbols
XIV
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Proposed Overall System
1.1.1 Three-Phase Quasi Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter
1.1.2 Single Ended Resonant Inverter
5
5
6
1.2 Organization
Of The Thesis
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS

2.1 The Background To Induction Heating
2.1.1 Principles of Induction Heating
2.1.2 Transformer Action
2.1.3 Skin Effect
2.1.4 Heat Transfer
9
10
11
15
17
2.2 Induction Heating Applications

2.2.1 Through-Heating
19
20
2.2.2 SurfaceHeating
21
2.2.3 Localized Heating
22
2.2.4 MiscellaneousApplications
23
2.3 Power Systems For Induction Heating

2.3.1 Supply Systems:
2.3.2 Medium-Frequency Converter Systems
2.3.3 High Frequency Systems
24
24
26
28
2.4 Interim Conclusion
29
IV
CHAPTER 3: REVIEW AND COMPARISON OF BASIC POWER

CONVERTER STRUCTURES
-'
3.1 Introduction
31
3.2 Three Phase Rectifier Arrangements

3.2.1 Standard Three-Phase Mains Rectifier
3.2.2 Unity Power Factor Three-Phase Rectifier
32
32
3S
3.3 Basic Converter Topologies

3.3.1 PWM Switched Mode DC/DC Converters
3.3.2 Quasi-Resonant Switched Mode DC/DC Converters
3.3.3 Load Resonant Converters(LRC)-
37
37
40
43
50
CHAPTER 4: THREE PHASE UNITY POWER FACTOR CONVERTERS

.
FOR INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS
4.1 Introduction
51
4.2 Input Power Factor Correction
54
4.3 General Description Of The Three Phase Unity Power Factor'Induction

Heating System Converter Stage
4.3.1 Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Rectifier
4.3.2 Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter
4.3.3 Principles of Operation
56
62
64
65
4.4 Analysis Of The Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Converter Stage

4.4.1 Mode B 1: Resonant Capacitor Discharging Mode
4.4.2 Mode B2: Freewheeling Mode
4.4.3 Mode B3: Equal Currents Mode
4.4.4 Mode B4: Resonant Capacitor Charging Mode
4.4.5 Voltage Conversion Ratio Characteristic of the Three Phase QR Push-Pull
Buck Converter
71
73
75
76
79
83
81
CHAPTER 5: INVERTER STAGE FOR THREE PHASE UNITY POWER

FACTOR INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM
5.1 Introduction
84
5.2 Principle Of Operation Of The Single Ended Resonant Inverter
86
5.3 Analysis Of The Three Phase Unity Power Factor Induction

Inverter Stage
5.3.1 Resonant Capacitor Discharging Mode (Mode 1)
5.3.2 Diode Conduction Mode (Mode 2)
5.3.3 Resonant Capacitor Charging Mode (Mode 3)
Heating System
88
89
91
94
5.4 Induction Heater Coil

5.4.1 Induction Heater Coil Configurations
96
96
5.5 Equivalent Circuit Coil-Design Method
100
102
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR THE COMPLETE INDUCTION

,.,
HEATING SYSTEM
6.1 Introduction
103
6.2 Component Selection

6.2.1 Resonant Capacitor
6.2.2 Resonant Inductor
104
105
106
6.2.3 Controlled Switches

6.3 Design Procedure For The 500w Converter Based On Three-Phase Input
Rectifier Stage And Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter
6.3.1 Minimum Voltage Conversion Ratio VB
108
113
114
6.3.2 Normalised Switching Frequency Ratio FB
116
6.3.3 Normalised Load Resistance Ratio RB

6.3.4 Maximum Average Switch Current IS
4
6.3.5 Converter Output Resistance R.
6.3.6 Resonant Components C,,, and LR,, of the Single Phase Model
6.3.7 Resonant Components of Three Phase Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck
Converter
117
117
6.4 Design Procedure For The 500 W Single Ended Resonant Inverter
6.4.1 Resistivity and Skin Depth
6.4.2 Equivalent Circuit Components:
6.4.3 Coil Efficiency, Power Factor, Apparent Power
6.4.4 Coil Ampere-turns and Volts per turn
6.4.5 Resonant Components
118
118
120
122
124
128
131
132
134
6.5 Design And Construction Results For The Complete Induction Heating
System
136
6.5.1 Overview Of The Computer Program
136
6.5.2 Simulation Of The Complete Induction Heating System
144
6.5.3 Design and Construction Results For The 500W Complete Induction Heating
System
148
VI
6.6 Interim Conclusion and Comparison of Simulated and Experimental

Results
156
CHAPTER 7: CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS

7.1 Introduction
158
7.2 Control System Requirements

7.2.1 Three Phase Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter:
7.2.2 Single Ended Resonant Inverter For Induction Heater Stage
7.2.3 Voltage Regulation In Resonant Converters
159
159
160
161
7.3 Protection Systems

7.3.1 Determination of Snubber Components Values
7.3.2 Determination of Heatsink Rating
161
163
166
7.4 Overall Control System Of The Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter

170
Stage
7.4.1 Control Circuit of the Three Phase Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck
170
Converter
173
7.4.2 Isolated IGBTs Driver Circuit
7.5 Overall Control System For The Single Ended Resonant Inverter
176
178
CHAPTER
8: CONCLUSIONS
AND AREAS FOR FURTHER
RESEARCH
8.1 Conclusions
179
8.2 Recommendation For Further Research

8.2.1 Three Phase Unity Input Power Factor Converter Stage
8.2.2 Resonant Inverter Stage
182
182
183
185
References
Appendices
Appendix A: Circuit Diagrams

Appendix
B: Transient Analysis Of The Proposed Inverter
VII
List Of Figures
Figure 1-1 General structure of an induction heating system.'
Figure 1-2 Block diagram of the proposed Three Phase unity input power factor
induction heating system.
Figure 2-1 A transformer.
12
Figure 2-2 Basic concept of induction-heating coil and load.
14
Figure 2-3 Induction heatingcoil and load
15
Figure 2-4 Distribution of current.
16
Figure 2-5 The effect of frequency f
at the coil on the temperature difference Ovo,
between surface vo and core vv of billet.
19
Figure 2-6 Basic supply-frequency system.
25
Figure 3-1 Circuit diagram of a standard Three-Phase Bridge Rectifier circuit..
32
Figure 3-2 Circuit diagram of a Three-Phase Controlled Bridge Rectifier circuit
with input filter.

Figure 3-3 Phasevoltagesof the standardthree-phasebridge rectifier circuit.
33
34
Figure 3-4 Circuit diagram of a Boost Power Factor Corrector for Three Phase
Diode Rectifier.
35
Figure 3-5 Circuit diagramof a Single-EndedResonantConverter tivith a ThreePhase Input.

Figure 3-6 Three basic topologies of switched mode power supply.
36
39
Figure 3-7 Circuit diagram of a Buck Converter based on Resonant Switching

Technique.
42
Figure 3-8 Typical voltage and current waveforms for a converter based on the
Resonant Switching Technique.
43
Figure 3-9 Class-E DC/DC resonant converter circuit diagram.
44
Figure 3-10 General circuit diagram of series resonant converter
46
Figure 3-11 General circuit diagram of parallel resonant converter.
47
Figure 3-12 Circuit diagram of series-parallel resonant converter.
49
VIII
Figure 4-1 Principal circuit diagram of the overall Three Phase Unity Power
Factor Converter and Quasi-Resonant DC Converter. '
52
Factor Rectifier.
56
.
Figure 4-2 Input voltage waveforms of the Three-Phase Buck Unity Power
Figure 4-3 An ideal line to neutral voltage VLF and line current 1
for one
L,
period of the mainsfrequency.

Figure 4-4 Equivalent modes of single phase converter model operation.
57
58
Figure 4-5 Mains input phase voltage and filter inductor current waveforms
for the Three-Phase Buck Unity Power Factor Rectifier for one period
of the mains frequency.
60
Figure 4-6 Circuit diagram of the Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Buck Rectifier
Stage.
63
Figure 4-7 Typical voltages and currents waveforms of the Quasi Resonant PushPull Buck Converter with three-phase input during one switching cycle..
65
Figure 4-8 One of the phase input current iLF; and capacitor voltage VCRifor a
Stage.
Rectifier
Three
Phase
the
cycle
of
switching
66
Figure 4-9 Typical waveforms obtained from the Three-Phase Unity Power
Factor Buck Rectifier Stage
70
Figure 4-10 Single phase converter model of the three-phase QRW Push-Pull Buck
Converter.
72,
Figure 4-11 Circuit diagram of Mode B 1.
73
Figure 4-12 Waveforms of the single-phase model during Mode B 1.
74
Figure 4-13 Circuit diagram of Mode B2.
76
Figure 4-14 Waveforms of the single-phase model during Mode B2.
76
77
Figure 4-16 Voltage and current waveforms for Mode B3.
78
80
Figure 4-18 Voltage and current waveforms for Mode B4.80

Figure 5-1 Circuit diagram of the Three-Phase input Unity Power Factor
85
Figure 5-2 Resonant current i, in a) A Continuous Conduction Mode(CCM)

and b)A Discontinuous Conduction Mode(DCM).
86
ix
Figure 5-3 Operational waveforms for the single ended resonant inverter
87
Figure 5-4 Switch voltage Vs and current IS, waveforms during turn-off.
88
Figure 5-5 Equivalent modesof the three-phaseunity power factor induction

heating system inverter stage.
89
Figure 5-6 Circuit diagram of Mode 1
90
Figure 5-7 Waveforms during Mode 1.
91
Figure 5-8 Circuit diagramof Mode 2.
92
93
Figure 5-10 Circuit diagram of Mode 3.
94
95
Figure 5-12 A typical coil construction for through-heating application
97
Figure 5-13 A curved hairpin coil for surfaceheating.
98
Figure 5-14 Pancake coil for induction heating.
99
Figure 5-15 An induction furnace for melting.
99
Figure 5-16 Flux and current path for proposed coil.
101
Figure 5-17 Equivalent circuit of the coil.
101
Figure 6-1 The circuit diagram of the complete system prototype..
104
Figure 6-2 The equivalent circuit of an electrolytic capacitor.
105
Figure 6-3 Voltage conversionratio characteristicof the Three-PhaseQuasi

Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter.
115
Figure 6-4 p and q functions for a solid cylinder.
127
Figure 6-5. Electrical equivalent circuit of an induction heater coil.
128
Figure 6-6 Design flow using Mentor Graphics.
137
Figure 6-7 Design Architect default windows.
141
Figure 6-8 Accusim default Windows.
142
Figure 6-9 Simulatedvoltage acrossthe input resonantcapacitors
146
Figure 6-10 Simulated switch voltage vs, and switch current is, of the QRW
Push-PullBuck Converter
146
Figure 6-11 Simulated output DC line voltage of the QRW Push-Pull Buck
Converter
147
Figure 6-12 Simulated current and voltage waveforms of the load resonant
capacitor
147
Figure 6-13 Simulated load voltagevL and load current 'L
148
Figure 6-14 A 500W three phase unity input power factor induction heating
149
system.
Figure 6-15 Measured voltage across the input capacitors CR, CRZ, at maximum
,
150
power
Figure 6-16 Measured switch voltage vs, and switch current is, at maximum
150
output power
Figure 6-17 Output DC line voltage and current of the QRW'VPush-Pull Buck
Converter
151
Figure 6-18 Current and voltage waveforms of the load resonant capacitor
151
Figure 6-19 Load voltagevL and load current 'L at maximum output power
152
Figure 6-20 Supply voltage and current of one phase of the three-phase supply
153
at maximum output power

Figure 6-21 Variation of the input power factor with output power.
154
Figure 6-22 Variation of the output voltage of the Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck
Converter systemwith input voltage at different switching frequency-levels.
154
Figure 6-23 Output power of the induction heating system at different input
voltage levels.
155
Figure 6-24 Output power of the induction heatingsystemat constantconverter

frequency.
(FS,=40kHz)
operation
155
Figure 7-1 Circuit diagram of the complete induction heating system..
159
Figure 7-2 Frequency variation control methods for resonant converters.
162
Figure 7-3 The snubber circuit placed across IGBTs and the thyristor to reduce
the switching overvoltage and improve the switching locus.
164
Figure 7-4 Voltage and current waveforms across IGBT with proposed
166
overvoltage snubber.
Figure 7-5 Typical voltage, current and dissipation waveforms for a power
167
- semiconductor switch.
Figure 7-6 Thermal resistance model
--
169
Figure 7-7 Block diagram of the complete control system of the quasi-resonant
push-pull buck converter.
171
Figure 7-8 Measured input(A) and output(B) waveforms of the voltage to

XI
frequencyconverter
172
Figure 7-9 Measured input(B) and output( C) voltage of the flip flop
172
Figure 7-10 Measured output voltages of the monostable multi-vibrator
173
Figure 7-11 Practical input signalsof the isolated driver transformer
174
Figure 7-12 Practical input(D) and output signals(E) of the flip/flop
175
Figure 7-13 Practical gate signals for the controlled IGBTs
175
Figure 7-14 Practical gate signal for IGBT and resonant current
176
Figure 7-15 Simplified block diagramof the thyristor gate drive circuit.
177
Figure 7-16 Measured thyristor gate pulse and thyristor current.
178
Figure 8-1 Three module induction heating system.
184
XII
List Of Tables
Table 6-1 Relative properties of semiconductor devices.
112
Table 6-2 Switching devices used in proposed three phase unity input power
factor induction heating system.
112
Table 6-3 Design target specificationof the converter basedon the Three Phase
Push-Pull Buck Rectifier Stage and the Quasi Resonant Buck
Converter.
1.13
Table 6-4 Design target specifications of the parallel resonant inverter.
123
Table 6-5 Recommended air gaps between coil and workpiece for throughheating coils.
124
XIII
List Of Principal Symbols
Symbol
Description
Unit
CR
Resonant Capacitor(Converter stage)
[F]
C,
L
Resonant Capacitor(Inverter stage)
[F]
CFO
Filter capacitor
[F]
LR
ResonantInductor(Converterstage)
[H]
LIL
Resonant Inductor(Inverter stage)
[H]
LF
Input filter inductor
[H]
ILR
Current through resonant inductor(Converter stage)
[A]
'LrL
Current through resonant inductor(Inverter stage)
[A]
I SAVG
Average value of current flowing through the active switch
[A]
ILF
Current through filter inductor
[A]
IDC
DC line current
[A]
IC
Coil current rms
[A]
VCRI
Voltage acrossresonantcapacitor CR(Converter stage)
[V]
Vc,
L
Voltage across resonant capacitorC, (Inverter stage)

L
[V]
VL
Converter input voltage
[V]
VO
Converteroutput voltage
[V]
Ec
Coil voltage rms.
[V]
Ro
Load resistance seen by a converter
[S2]
Po
Output power
[W]
Apparent Power
[VA]
XIV
VB
Voltage conversionratio Vo / VIN
[-]
FB
Normalised switching frequency Fsw / FN
[']
RB
Normalised converter output resistance Rol ZN
[-]
k,
Coil correction factor
[-]
Angular frequency
[1/s]
Flux
[Wb]
Fsw
Switching frequency (Converter stage)
[Hz]
FswL
Switching frequency(Inverter stage)
[Hz]
FB
Normalised switching frequency
[Hz]
FN
Resonant frequency(Converter stage)
[Hz]
FOL
Resonant frequency(Inverter stage)
[Hz]
Number of turns
turn
Magnetic field strength
A.m-'
Rc
Coil resistance
[S2]
Rx,
Working piece resistance
[92]
X,
Coil reactance
[SZ]
X.
Working piece reactance
[S2]
Xg
Air gap reactance
[0]
P.
Integratedresistivity
gnm
d,,
Cylindrical load diameter
mm
1w
Working piece length
mm
Effective depth of current penetration
Electrical resistivity
Qm
xv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The technique of heating by electromagnetic induction is a well established and an
invaluable tool for industries engagedin the heat treatment or hot working of metals.
When a conductor is inserted into a varying magnetic field, currents are setup in the
influence
induced
induction
is
by
Electromagnetic
the
the
of
voltage.
which
conductor
the bases of all induction heating systems was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831.
Heaviside, however, published the first article dealing with the transfer of energy from
Since
has
been
[Heaviside
0.,
1884].
induction
heating
then,
to
core
a
solid
a coil
it
to
a
wide
variety
of
applications
as
successfully
offers significant process
applied
in
industry
fossil-fuel
J.,
1979].
furnaces
[Davies
modem
compared
with
advantages
Some of the benefits associatedwith the induction heating process are: short heating
times, the precise control of the temperature of the workpiece, a good working
low
space requirements, rapid availability
environment,
efficiency
and high energy conversion
[Harvey I. G., 1977]. Consequently induction heating is widely used in
industry for many applications including
forming, melting, joining
and hardening
[Prevett P.D., 1970], [ChatterjeeK., 1993].
The use of static power supplies using solid-state devices in the induction heating
industry has increased greatly. It eliminates many of the shortcomings of
motor
feature
frequency
[Greve
J.
E.,
1969].
The
of these supplies
variable
generator sets
opens new areas for application.
In the literature a number of switching devices have been employed in induction

heating systems [Eckhardt H. J., 1989], [Fujita H., 1996]. Because of their obvious
frequency
inverters
have
become
the
thyristor
primary
source
of
medium
advantages,
Such
inverters
[Golde
E.,
1967].
have
the
machine
systems
rotating
power, replacing
been extensively applied for frequencies up to 10kHz [Dawson F.P., 1991]. For the
high frequency power supplies in the range 50kHz to 10 MHz, which is advisable in
many
cases, vacuum
tubes have been replaced with
high
speed
switching
field
in
devices
MetalSome
this
the
are
widely
used
switching
of
semiconductors.
Oxide-Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs),
Transistors(IGBTs),
Gate-Turn-Off
Thristors(GTOs),
Insulated Gate Bipolar

and - Bipolar
Junction
Transistors(BJTs). These devices offer higher overall efficiency and their operation
frequencies go up to several hundred kilohertz [Fujita H., 1996], [Cho J.G., 1996].
Basically an induction heating system consists of two stages of power conversion as

first
The
in
1-1.
Figure
stage converts the three phase AC mains supply to a
seen
link
link
DC
DC
the
this
value
and
second
stage
value to arequired
converts
required
AC voltage of specified frequency. In most induction
heating applications
the
field
is
by
the
the
and which is
magnetic
surrounded
coil which produces
workpiece
supplied from the DC/AC inverter. In the literature a number of coil configuration
including single turn and multi layered have been reported [Swart S.M., 1993], [Harvey
I., 1976].
MAINS
AC/DC
DC/AC
HEATER
SUPPLY
CONVERTER
INVERTER
COIL
Figure 1-1 General structure of an induction heating system.
As a result of the increase in the use of power electronic converters, concern over low
harmonic
high
factors,
currents and accurate control strategies for switching
power
devices has increased considerably [Jayne M. G., 1988]. One of the major problems
induction
is
heating
day
that the power drawn from the mains
system,
with present
low
factor
is
of
power
and the current of high harmonic distortion [Nuns
often
supply
J., 1993]. This aspect of the project is particularly important because of the present day
imposed
by
Nationally
Internationally
[Marshman
C.,
supply
authorities
and
regulation
1992]. Operating induction heating systems at low power factor results in additional
voltage drops throughout the power supply system yielding a lower system voltage on
the plant bus lines. Accordingly low system voltages increases the heating or melting
time of the workpiece and will add to the overall plant operating costs [Andrews D.,
1996]. Operating at low power factor can also result in additional costs in the form of
penalties from the electric-utility company.
In -the past, however, a considerable amount of literature has been published dealing
with methods of power factor improvement of the converters. When a converter is
operated at fixed frequency and fixed duty ratio in the discontinuous conduction
mode(DCM),
the low frequency component of the input current is approximately
is
input
factor
to
the
that
the
automatically close to one
voltage,
so
power
proportional
[Hobson L. (1), 1992]. Active power factor control methods include many alternatives,
such as constant-frequency peak current control [Nalbant M. K., 1989], clamped-current
boundary
between
[Maximovic
D.,
1995],
the
the continuous
and
operation
at
control
[Lai
J.
S.,
1993].
Although
discontinuous
the requirement of a
mode
conduction
and
large number of switching devices and drivers leads to a very expensivesystem, three
factor
input
boost
and
sinusoidal
operated
with
unity
power
ac
are
rectifiers
phase
P.,
1993].
[Bialoskrski
current
A second aspect of the present day power converters is that it should be small, very
losing
In
to
an
without
attempt
make
power
supplies
cheap.
more
compact
and
reliable
in
interest
been
has
-great
shown the more sophisticatedmethods of power
efficiency,
by
based
the
transfer
the
on
of
and
energy
principles
control
of
electric
conditioning
means of resonant circuit techniques [Witulski A., 1991]. Unlike conventional Pulse
Width
Modulated
(PWM)
switching
power supplies, resonant converters utilize
for
energy storage, which enables semiconductor switching at zero
circuits
resonant
currents [Jain P., 1992] or zero voltages [Hsieh G. C., 1994]. Such operation reduces
[Hua
G.,
losses
1993],
frequency
the
and
snubber
of
switching
requirements whilst
increased,
be
allowing a reduction in the rating of the passivecomponents
operation can
aswell [Habetler T., 1989].
--
This report outlines investigations into the possibility of replacing the power supplies of
the induction heating units, by a resonant switched mode converter system. The report
looks at power converter topologies which are suited to this application and identifies
Input
Rectifier
Push-Pull
Buck
Converter
Energy
Storage
Resonant
Inverter
Figure 1-2 Block diagram of the proposed Three Phase unity input power factor
its simplest configuration
requires an unsophisticated control system. A pair of
in
in
devices
configuration
employed
push-pull
order to reduce the peak
are
switching
devices.
the
switching
across
stress
voltage
1.1.2 Single Ended Resonant Inverter
The proposed Single Ended Resonant Inverter supplies AC current to the induction
heater coil. This AC current flowing
in the turns of the induction coil creates an
field
for
inverter
is
The
the
workpiece.
electromagnetic
proposed
operated
alternating
frequency
by
half
frequency.
DCM
The
the
to
the
setting
switching
resonant
of
under
is
topology
that the turn-off of the switching action takes place at zero
this
of
advantage
losses
the
therefore,
switching
are much reduced. An additional advantage of
current,
the proposed inverter topology is that it requires a small number of components and is
of lower cost when compared with the push-pull inverter and the bridge inverter.
1.2 Organization
Of The Thesis
The thesis describes the implementation of a unity input power factor induction heating
into
is
It
eight chapters that starts with the basic principles, variations,
split
system.
through a detailed discussionof the chosentopology, to the realization and discussion

of the chosentopology:
Chapter 1 is a general introduction to induction heating, power factor, power devices

is
introduced.
devices.
The
overall
project
specification
and switching
Chapter 2 discusses the different induction heating systems and their applications are
background
direction
development
The
technology,
theoretical
and
current
of
grouped.
are summarized.
Chapter
3 discusses the various power converter systems and discusses their
disadvantages.
and
advantages
Chapter 4 includes analysis of the first power conversion stage of the proposed system.
It includes the discussion of the input power factor correction technique.
Chapter 5 discussesthe secondpower conversion stageof the proposed system which

is investigated.An analysis is presentedfor each of the operating modes. Additionally,
various configurations
and the design methods of the induction
heater coils are
discussed.
Chapter
6 specifically deals with the design of the power circuit of the proposed
The
choices of components, computer simulation and practical results are
system.
given.
Chapter 7 discusses the control strategies and protection devices for the proposed
developed.
how
they
are
systemand
Chapter 8 devoted to the advantagesand disadvantagesof the chosen topology and

than relevance to the practical converters. Areas for possible future work are also
discussed.
and
proposed
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS
2.1 The Background To Induction Heating
Electromagnetic induction which is the bases of all induction heating systems was
discovered by Michael Faraday(1791-1867) in 1831. By showing that currents could be
induced in a closed or secondary circuit as a result of varying the current in the primary
induced
is
to
the
the
the
He
that
of
magnitude
current
proportional
showed
also
circuit.
hundred
is
flux
For
through
the
the
a
coil
varied.
nearly
passing
magnetic
rate at which
in
this
was
used
motors, generators,transformers,radio communication
principle
years
in
heating
either current or magnetic circuit was considered an
effect
any
and
in
Eddy
1868
The
by
Foucault
theory
currents
effect.
of
was
and
side
given
undesirable
Heaviside published the first article dealing with the transfer of energy from a coil to a
1884].
[0.
Heaviside,
core
solid
Early this century, proposalswere made for medium-frequency melting using coreless
induction furnaces in France, Sweden, and Italy and ideas were emerging on the use of
for
to
the reactive power. In the early days of induction heating,
compensate
capacitors
the developments were held back by the lack of suitable motor-alternators
and
capacitors of suitable size and reliability. By 1927, the Electric Furnace Company had
installed the first medium-frequency furnace at Sheffield and, since then, the number
installations
have
heating
grown steadily.
of
size
and
Further developments during the Second World War showed that the advantages of
induction heating included very accurately heated depths and surface areas.As there
in
for
heat
low
heat
losses
this
resulted
external
sources,
and clean
requirement
no
was
low
No
induction
the
physical
contact
and
space
requirement.
with
conditions
operation
high
densities
heat
times were readily
with
short
and
power
coil was necessary
ideally
factors
These
to
a
process
suited to automation.
combined
produce
available.
Important industrial applications of induction heating are for forming and joining,
induction
[Okeke
S.
[Annen
hardening,
N.,
1978],
W.
1975].
melting
and
surface
Additionally induction heating can be economically applied for home cooking
[
Chatterjee
K.,
1992].
applications
2.1.1 Principles of Induction Heating
Induction heating is based on the conversion of electrical energy. The heat is produced
inside the material by currents flowing in it. From this, it follows that the material must
be a conductor, as currents do not flow in insulators. Additionally, whatever the

induction
heating
always involves a varying magnetic field. The metal to
configuration,
be heated has become the secondary circuit of a transformer. Main principles
of
induction heating can be classified as electromagnetic induction, "skin effect", and heat
transfer.
10
The alternating current flowing in the turns of the induction coil creates an alternating
electromagnetic field [Smith M., 1988]. An A. C. voltage is induced in any metal inside
this coil on the same principle as the secondary winding of a transformer. A short-
is
circuit current, which directly dependenton both resistivity and relative permeability
in
is
flows
be
heated.
It
the
to
the
metal
not evenly distributed over the
material,
of
is
is
but
The
the
temperature
concentrated
mainly
at
surface.
rise
section
cross
in
boundary
layer
below
the surface,referred to as depth
the
accordingly
concentrated
frequency
Suitable
choice
of
ensures that the temperature difference
of penetration.
between the surface boundary layer and the core zone is rapidly compensated in
accordance with the thermal conductivity properties of the material.
Investigation of thesethree fundamentalprinciples gives a clearer understandingof the

heating
induction
process.
proposed
2.1.2 Transformer
Action
Transformers are inductors that are coupled through a shared magnetic circuit, that is,
two or more windings that link some common flux. Figure 2.1 shows the general
A
transformer.
steel core C consists of laminated sheets,about 0.35
a
of
arrangement
from
insulated
thick,
one another. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce
mm
the loss due to eddy currents induced by the alternating magnetic field. In fact, the
magnetic reaction field generatedby eddy currents in a transformer would prevent the
core from carrying enough flux to operate if the core was not constructed of these
laminationsto control theseeddy currents [Kriezis, 1992]. Similarly, eddy currents lead
ii
Figure 2-1 A transformer.
to a nonuniform current distribution in conductors, which produces higher ohmic

losses.Coil P is connectedto the supply and is therefore termed the primary; coil S is
is
load
to
the
and termed the secondary.
connected
An alternating voltage applied to P circulates an alternating current through P and this

flux
in
the steel core, the mean path of this flux being
an
alternating
produces
current
dotted
by
line
D.
When
its
is
the
the
terminal
secondary
represented
an open circuit,
induced
is
force(e.
is
the
f).
The
the
as
electromotive
same
m.
primary
current
voltage
then very small, so that the applied voltage V, is practically equal and opposite to the
induced in P. Hence:
VV
Vi
N2
Ni
Eq 2-1
12
When a load is connected across the secondary terminals, the secondary current
by
be
Lenz's
Law.
Lenz's
Law
demagnetizing
can
effect
expressed as: The
produces a
direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing
the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m. f. This can be
expressedas:
Y, =vR-eL
di
Y =iR+Ld
Eq2-2
where;
drop
the
coil resistance
across
vR-voltage
in
f
the primary.
eL-induced e.m.
Consequently, the flux and the e.m. f. induced in the primary are reduced slightly. But
this small change can increase the difference between the applied voltage and the e.m. f.
induced in the primary and the new primary current would be many times higher then
the no-load current. The demagnetizing ampere-turns of the secondary are thus nearly
increase
in
by
the primary ampere-turns; and since the primary amperethe
neutralized
turns on no load are very small compared with the full-load ampere-turns,
Full load primary ampere turn = Full load secondaryampere_turn
thus;
13
I2 = I1N1
I1
Ni
Load
Figure 2-2 Basic concept of induction-heating coil and load.
V2
_
_
V,
IZ N,
I,
N2
Eq 2-3
It will be seen that the magnetic flux forms the connecting link between the primary and
is
by
the
that
and
any
variation
of
secondary
accompanied
a
current
secondary circuits
flux
the
and therefore of the e.m.f. induced in the primary, thereby
of
small variation
primary
the
current to vary approximately proportionally
enabling
to the secondary
current
If the secondary is now considered as a single-turn, short circuited winding, the

be
high
losses
develop.
Figure
2-2
and
considerable
will
current
shows
will
secondary
this effect, and the power from the source will be equal to the primary and secondary
losses. Taking this concept a stage further Figure 2-3 show a cylindrical heating load
by
represented a corelesstransformer with multi-turn primary and a single-turn, short
circuited secondary. Energy is transferred from the coil to the workpiece, via the
field.
induced
The
magnetic
e.m. f. produces a circulation current which, in
alternating
turn, generates heat. Coupling between the coil and the workpiece is influenced by the
reluctance of the air gap, associated with the flux through the gap. In practice, a gap is
14
r-
--"o
\/
ti
I
ry
Current Density
Aigh
T;
Low
/\
Figure 2-3 Induction heating coil and load
necessaryto accommodatepositioning of the workpiece and to permit a range of work

At
it
is
heated
be
this
the
to
coil.
point,
changing
necessaryto mention the
without
sizes
heat,
is
because
the
the
therefore
generation
concentratedat
current,
and
of
skin effect
the surfaceof the workpiece.
2.1.3 Skin Effect
A short circuit current, which is induced by the transformer action, flows in the
is
is
distributed
but
It
the
concentrated mainly
not evenly
over
workpiece.
cross section
Current
density
falls
the
surface.
at
off from the surface to the center of workpiece and
the rate of decreaseis higher at higher frequency [RossN., 1970]. It is also depend on
15
1.0-
\6,
0.9-
Distance from surface
0.8-
(x 0.7Skin
t'
.
IX
dePth
0.5
0I
Current at X
Current at surface
0.4
0.30.2-
-:.
123
X/5
Figure 2-4 Distribution of current.
two properties of the material. These are resistivity and relative permeability of the
workpiece.
The current in the workpiece sets up a magnetic field which opposes the field created by
the current in the conductors and the resultant field inside the workpiece is attenuated as
the depth increases. This, in turn, affects the current distribution in the workpiece so that
the current density also attenuateswith depth.
Figure 2-4 shows the current distribution with depth. Skin depth is roughly where the
current density has fallen to about one third its surface value and can be found from the
following equation:
16
Skin depth 8=
Eq 2-4
is
free
load,
is
the
the
permeability
of
space, u, permeability
resistivity
of
p0
where, p
frequency.
is
the
the
co
angular
workpiece,
of
Approximately 87 percent of the heat is generatedwithin this skin depth [Ross, N. V.,
1970]. Heat will then flow toward the core of the workpiece.
The systems for surface hardening, where skin depths need to be shallow, are based on
high frequencies.A number of switching devicesand systemshave been investigatedin

the literature to reduce switching lossesand improve system efficiency [Eckhardt, H. J.,
1989], [Ogiwara H., 1990].
2.1.4 Heat Transfer
During the heating period, the temperature distribution in the workpiece is not uniform.
The temperature rise is concentrated accordingly in the boundary layer below the surface
depth.
Suitable
to
as
skin
choice of frequency ensures that the temperature
referred
difference between the surface boundary layer and the core zone is rapidly compensated
in accordance with the thermal conductivity properties of the material. A detailed
simulationof heat dissipationhasbeenpresentedin the literature [JanssenH., 1993]. For
17
frequency,
is
inversely
depth
the
the
to
the
of
root
proportional
skin
a given material,
distribution
has
deciding
the
the
temperature
cross
over
effect
on
a
consequently
and
is
heat
frequencies
different
The
transfer
the
shown
the
on
effect of
material.
section of
in Figure 2-5. In this figure, the author [Annen W., 1975] shows that the higher the
frequency, the greater the temperature difference between surface and core, and
balance
be
for
is
to
temperature
time
reached.
required
therefore correspondinglymore
Temperaturedistribution through the workpiece can be divided into three stages;
is
When
the
temperature
the
to
the
Transient
will start
surface
applied
power
stage:
a)
to rise immediately, but none of the rest of the metal will heat until thermal gradient
is established to force the energy through the material. Before each layer can
it
layer,
to
transfer
to
the
temperature
must
energy
next
rise needed
produce the
The
layer
in
its
transient
to
the
temperature
rise.
proportional
own
energy
store
is
the
the
at
energy
part
of
material
receiving
every
continue
until
will
condition
finite
takes
time.
rate
which
same
b) Steady temperature rise: The mean temperaturerises linearly with time, whatever
is
finished,
in
distribution
When
the
the
transient
temperature
and
the actual
material.
i.
into
flowing
is
the
the
e. the watts per cubic
at
same
rate
whole
volume,
energy
Conraths
then
the
constant
rate.
at
a
whole
constant,
volume
rise
will
meter are
[Conraths H. J., 1993] in his numerical simulation and comparison study shows that
the temperatureacrossthe material is shown to be parabolic.
18
600
500
400
f2
i-500
-103Hz.
f3
Hz.
=10
=104HZ
.
CI-_-i
300
ZSrh
ft
200'
100
Deg
OC
Figure 2-5 The effect of frequency f
betweensurface v and core
_v,
300
200
100
'6 -
at the coil on the temperature difference ivo,
of billet.
difference
between
Often,
Soaking
time:
the
temperature
center and surface are
c)
too high for some workpiece to be used immediately and a short soaking period
is needed to get approximately uniform temperatures throughout the volume.
The changes are exponential and uniform heating is obtained after infinite time,
therefore decisions have to be made about the allowable temperature difference
betweenthe surfaceand the center.
2:2 Induction Heating Applications
Induction heating is a convenient method for heating metal to a set temperature. It

replaces furnaces, which tend to be large and which have the disadvantage of long start19
up and shut-down times and lower efficiency. By contrast, the induction heater is
in
relatively small
size and is immediately available for use. It is clean and relatively
efficient. The power goes directly into the workpiece, therefore, the heating times are
future,
fossil
fuels
likely
In
the
to become increasingly scarce, and
short.
are
usually
electricity could become the major source of industrial energy. Induction heating will
becomeevenmore important in the next few decades.
Becauseof theseadvantagesover the existing fossil-fuel furnaces,induction heatingwill

be used in even more heating applications. During this century, three major types of
induction heating have emerged, as well as some miscellaneous applications. These
methods are based on the available power supplies and frequencies and utilize the
natural advantages of each frequency. The major applications can be classified as:
"
Through-heating for forming and annealing.
"
Surface heating for hardening.
"
Localized heating for joining.
Additionally, induction heatingis often suitable for other applicationsincluding melting,

semiconductorprocessing,shrinking and straightening.
2.2.1 Through-Heating
Through-heating requires low-frequency power sources of considerable magnitude as

the current depth is inversely proportional to the square root of the frequency(Eq. 2.4).
20
Supply frequency (50/60 Hz) is attractive because no conversion is involved; medium

frequencies(1 to 10 kHz) are also extensively used. They also posses the advantages of
being relatively cheap in terms of price per kilowatt for initial and running costs, and of
being simple to maintain. Dual frequency is often used for steel because of the change of
heats
lower
frequency
Curie
Curie
The
to
the
the
steel
up
point.
permeability at
becomes
for
At
the
this
temperature,
steel
nonmagnetic(=1) and at
steel).
point(760
is
higher
frequency
Therefore,
flux
frequency,
lower
a
the
cancellation would occur.
Curie
point.
used above
Nearly all through-heating systems can be divided into two types, depending on the
first
is
heat
based
This
The
type
time-controlled
on
a
cycle.
control.
method of power
is
feeding
is
there
and
a
constant
production
rate,
automatic
using
method useful where
for
chosen
is
is
the
the
material at correct temperature
so that
ejection; the time cycle
next operation.
In the secondtype, the temperatureitself is monitored and used to control the power
input. This method is used where the final billet temperatureis more critical but where
the billet may not be required when it is up to temperature.
2.2.2 Surface Heating
Induction hardening has been one of the most widely utilized methods of induction
heating. The main reason is the advantage of using heat generated in the same locality as
the required hardness. Induction
hardening heats a localized region to a high

21
temperature without affecting the rest of the material, saving energy and allowing
selective hardening. This type of application primarily requires the higher frequency, as
hardened skin depths and therefore current- penetration depths are usually small. Powerlevel control and accuracy requirements are very important. It is easy to automate most
induction-hardening equipment, and automatic or semi-automatic arrangements can be
incorporated in a continuous production line. Once set up, the induction method
for
high
the
same
conditions
accurately
each
work-piece,
giving
quality
reproduces
products.
2.2.3 Localized Heating
Joining operation such as brazing, soft soldering, and welding-usually requires a highly
in
heating
type
of
as heating for hardening.Becauseof very
concentratedand accurate
fast heating rates in induction heating, oxidation and distortion are minimal and costs are
be
being
The
instantaneously
power
source
should
capable
of
reduced.
and repeatedly
switched, as well as closely controlled and regulated, as the heat times for manyjoining
applications are short. The techniquesof both through-heating and surface-heatingare
and
depending
location
the
on
work
size
of the joint. Most joining applications
used,
because
frequency
high
high
the
of
rate of power input and the localized heat at
used
that frequency. Usually, non-ferrous soldering and brazing are only possible at high
frequency. Large ferrous brazing applications are carried out at 3-10 kHz, particularly
high
production rates are needed. The author predicted that the use of two or
where
frequencies
different
during a heating operation for joining gives higher production
more
rates [Prevett, P.D., 1970].
22
2.2.4 Miscellaneous
Applications
Besideshaving the three major usesdescribedabove, induction heating is often suitable

for applications requiring a high degree of power control and accuracy.
Melting was one of the first applications of induction heating and is still a very active
field [Fujita H., 1996]. Furnaces are either the pot hearted, used for high frequency
melting, or the submerged-resistor type, powered from
low frequency sources.
Basically, the system employs a cylindrical refractory container, which contains the
by
be
heated,
to
surrounded
a copper coil. The low-resistivity metals will not
metal
result in sufficient I2R
losses alone and are often indirectly heated by a graphite
container.
The use of gas or oil heating could not be tolerated in some chemical engineering
applications such as preparation of paints, becausea flame would be dangerousin the
presence of inflammable vapors, therefore, induction heating is one of the best choices
for these areas because of the absence of flame.
Thermosetting plastics are formed by press molding, injection molding, or extrusion.

Heat and pressure are necessary for curing. In this area, induction heating gives greater
efficiency and more rapid generation of heat. The heat is generatedin the metal parts
deeply and evenly
There are negligible
temperature
unacceptable
gradients.
-without
temperaturechangesat the molding surface. This results in better and more accurately
controlled heating of the material and, consequently, more consistent polymerization.
23
2.3 Power Systems For Induction Heating
Induction heating has been used for a variety of applications, because of the obvious
furnaces.
Therefore
the
the
power supply specifications and
gas
over
advantages
different.
The
for
use of static power supplies
are
each application
switching elements
increased greatly over the
has
industry
induction
heating
in
devices
the
using solid-state
R.,
[Bonert
1994].
S.
N.,
1978],
[Okeke
investigated
has
been
well
past years and
firstly,
by
is
the
two
constrains:
Basically the choice of power supply
major
governed
into
has
been
both
taken
account and
running
costs
capital charges and
true cost when
heat
in
According
heat
the
to
the
pattern
workpiece.
pattern
secondly the required
These
divided
into
be
three
are:
categories.
type
main
the
can
of power source
required
Supply frequency system
"
Medium frequency system
"
High frequency system
2.3.1 Supply Systems:
Some induction heating loads are directly supplied by 50/60 Hz AC voltage. Because of
the absence of either rotating or complex electronic equipment, power losses are
is
basic
is
Capital
the
the
cost of
equipment
system
greatly simplified.
reduced and
generally less then that of medium or high frequency systems.
24
Mains Contactors
Supply
PowerFactor
Correction
Capacitors
Transformer
(If Required}
FH
Coil
[-H
Workpiece
Figure 2-6 Basic supply-frequency system.
From the application viewpoint, the main use of supply or mains frequencies of 50/60
Hz is for through heating applications [Simpson P. G., 1960]. As most application
in
through-heating
requirements
include maximum temperature uniformity,
these
frequencies are more convenient than the higher values. If the method called stage
heating apply, even better temperature uniformity can be obtained for a large steel slab
[Ross V. N., 1970]. In this method, there are three stages, each consists of a separate
heating coil with individual power supplies. Melting furnaces also use supply frequency
extensively.
Figure 2-6 illustrates the major components of a typical supply-frequency system. In

this figure the contactors are generally used for turning on and off the applied power to
the system.Most coils at 50/60 Hz have relatively low power factor. Therefore, to
maintain the supply authority
requirement
power
factor
correction
capacitors are
input
the
at
placed
of the system. The transformers are usually included for
usually
matching low-impedance, low-voltage
coils to high-voltage supplies. As coils are
sometimes operated from low-voltage supplies, such as 230/440V, transformers may be

eliminated. The coil parameters such as dimension, number of layer, number of turns are
determined
by the production requirements. Some of these requirements are size
usually
of workpiece and rate of throughput. The coil must be adequatelycooled. The author
25
predicted that the use of multi-layered windings improves the energytransfer efficiency
of the induction heating process [Harvey, I. G., 1976].
Although there are not many power electronic components in the system, these systems
disturbances.
Some serious problems always take place in
bring
about serious
would
factor
Each
time a capacitor is
capacitor
switching.
power
correction
connectionwith
in
be
high
this
to
the
an
over
current
case
switched
mains
supply,
can
as
or
as
energized,
10.0 per-unit of the normal rated value. Consequently,the transient voltage oscillation
inductance,
between
the
capacitor and power system
which is one of the most
occurs
disturbing sources to neighbor computer system or digital equipment. Although it
increasesthe total cost of the system, adding a harmonic choke in serieswith all the
[Nuns
J.,
1993].
the
overcurrent
problem
can
reduce
capacitor
2.3.2 Medium-Frequency
Converter Systems
Medium frequency induction heating applications require low-frequency power sources

of considerable magnitude. Most of these systems operate at a 10-1000kW power and
400-800V voltage range. They are applied in many areas such as through-heating,
melting and, welding.
Most medium-frequency(1 to 10kHz) induction heaters installed over the last 50 years
inherent
The
disadvantages of rotating machines include
systems.
motor-alternator
used
fixed frequencies,somewhatlower efficiencies and, consequently,higher operating cost
26
[Greve 7.E., 1969]. The use of static power supplies using solid-state devices in the
induction heating industry has increased greatly over the past years.
For an efficient performance of the system during heating or melting operations, the
design of the system must fulfill some of the following requirements:
"
The systemmust be able to operate in any load condition. Empty, full, cold, full hot
or any situation in between.
The harmonic currents drawn from the mains supply must be low.
The system must have sufficient tolerance to accommodate disturbances or

fluctuation of the input power supply.
Very frequent starting and stopping should be possible without any detrimental
effect on the system.
Termination of firing signals should result in an instantaneousshutdown of the

system.
Suddenchangesin loaded coil impedancevaluesmust be tolerated, such as removal

load
insertion
the
or changesin its shapeand size.
of
or
In the literature a number of switching element have been applied to the mediumfrequency induction heating system which are capable of fulfilling
requirements. The use of Gate Turn Off Thyristors(GTOs)
most of these
or Isolated Gate Bipolar
27
transistors (IGBTs) as switching element gives higher operation frequency and good
efficiency, but limited output power [Malesani L., 1987], [Yins J., 1994]. Although the
cost per ampere is higher than the cost per ampere for the high frequency thyristor, it is
design
in
frequency
lOkHz
25kHz
the
to
to
range using high frequency
also possible
Darlington transistor modules as the switching devices [Mauch K., 1986], [Dede E.,
1991]. The power MOSFET frequency converter has already got a small share in the
induction
lower
heating
frequencies
and
equipment
at
power
ratings
at
of
market
up to
250 kHz. The comparisonstudy shows that the MOSFET is one of the best choicesfor
the frequency range between 30kHz and 80 kHz [Eckhardt H. J., 1989].
Over the past 20 years, however, the thyristor resonant inverter has become the primary
frequency
for
induction
heating applications, replacing the
power
source of medium
extensively
been
has
for
between
It
frequency
the
set.
applied
ranges
motor-alternator
1kHz and 10 kHz [Chudnovsky V., 1996], because of its high current handling
capability.
2.3.3 High Frequency Systems
The major purpose of frequency conversion from supply frequencies to high frequencies
in the range 50 kHz to 10 MHz is to heat materialswith shallow skin depths(0,1to 1

mm), in short times. High frequency systems are widely used for surface heating for
hardening, melting, and localized heating for welding.
28
Over the past 50 years, the high voltage vacuum tube was the only device availablefor
high frequency power generation. Unfortunately, a vacuum tube is short in life, needs
replacement at regular intervals and is of low efficiency (approximately 50%-60%).
Semiconductors,such as thyristors are not suitablefor the operationabove 10 kHz. This

is due mainly to the recovery time needed,which is very short and the thyristor basic
does
not allow such short recovery times.
operationprinciple
In this field, therefore, a number of researchinvestigations have been carried out to

replace vacuum tubes with high switching speed semiconductors. The use of power
MOSFETs gives high operating frequency and high efficiency but provides only
[Esteve
inverter
[Zhang
V.,
1992],
J.
F.,
A
450kHz
1994].
4kW
restricted output power
for
induction
has
been
MOSFETs
the
as
switching
element
melting
application
using
[Fujita
Static
H.,
However,
1996].
Induction Transistor(SIT)
recently reported
can
[Ogiwara
larger
by
MOSFETs
times
than
that
power
several
obtained
output
provide
H., 1990]. The Bipolar Mode Static Induction Transistors (B-SIT) for induction heating
in
frequency
the
are
capable
of
operating
power supplies
ranges from 20 kHz to 2MHz
[Ogiwara H., 1993]. The use of Static Induction (SI)Thyristor has also been reported
[Nishizawa J., 1987].
This chapter has introduced the fundamental basis of induction heating power systems
knowledge
The
their
applications.
and
outlined in this section is essential to design a
for
induction
heating system.
supply
an
power
29
Induction heating is now being widely used in many industrial heating applications. One
is
day
induction
heating,
that the power drawn from
the
of
major problems with present
the mains supply is often of low power factor and the current of high harmonic
distortion. Consequently, this aspect of the project is particularly important because of
the present day regulations imposed by supply authorities. The proposed novel
induction
heating
the
these
effects
and
presents
system to
converter, which eliminates
the mainssupply as a linear load, is introduced in chapter4.
30
CHAPTER 3
REVIEW AND COMPARISON OF BASIC POWER

CONVERTER STRUCTURES
3.1 Introduction
Power processing has always been an essential feature of most electrical equipment.
The differences in voltage and current requirements for different applications have led
to the design of dedicated power converters to meet their specific requirements.
In general, power conversion involves the process of either converting alternating

direct
(DC)
(AC)
to
current
or converting DC of one voltage level to DC of
current
level.
The
DC
is
AC,
however
to
converting
process
of
voltage
necessary for
another
induction heating applications. In this chapter a brief comparison is made between

different rectifier and convertertopologies to determine thosewhich are suitable for use
in both the primary stage (converting three phase AC to DC) and in the induction heater
AC)
DC
to
of the proposed system.
stage(converting
This review chapter starts by considering a range of input rectifier topologies.

Following this, a brief review is made of the many possible DC/DC converters and
DC/AC inverter topologies which may be used to transform rectified mains to required
level.
voltage
31
Dl
D2
D3
[]RL
L&
3
D6
D5
D4
Figure 3-1 Circuit diagram of a standard Three-Phase Bridge Rectifier circuit.
3.2 Three Phase Rectifier-Arrangements
In most applicationsthe choice of rectifier arrangementsis straight forward, however,in

this case when unity power factor resistive input currents must be drawn from a threeis
the
situation
more complex:
phase system
3.2.1 Standard Three-Phase Mains Rectifier
A standardthree-phasebridge rectifier circuit feeding a single DC/DC converter is

industrial
in
applications up to the 120 kW level [Rashid M., 1993].
extensivelyused
Unfortunately the conduction angle of each phaseis limited to 120(while the diode is
forward biased)and therefore resistive input currents can not be drawn from the supply
32
Figure 3-2 Circuit diagram of a Three-Phase Controlled Bridge Rectifier circuit with
input filter.
diagram
Figure
3-1
[Mohan
N.,
1989].
of a
this
shows
a circuit
supply system
using
standard three-phase rectifier.
It is well known that this type of circuit has a low input power factor when supplying an
inductive load [Ziogas P.D., 1989]. The author predicted that the use of a passive filter
factor
input
[Prasad
A.
improve
R(1).,
Similar
1992].
the
power
results are achieved
can
bridge
in
Figure
3-2.
three
thyristors
phase
with
six
controlled
as
shown
using a
In the standard three-phase bridge rectifier circuit the conduction angle of each phase is
limited. By looking at the waveforms in Figure 3-3, it is clear that at any instant of time,
two devicesconduct: one from the top diode group 1,2, and 3 and one from the bottom
33
X11
V2
V3
Wt.
1
5,1 1,4
L
6,3
3,5
14,2 12,6 t
5,1 ' Diode

Conduction
Figure 3-3 Phasevoltages of the standardthree-phasebridge rectifier circuit.
diode group 4,5, and 6. Each diode conduct for 120 per cycle and new diode begins to
from
input
drawn
be
interval.
Consequently,
60
currents
resistive
can not
conduct after
the supply using a very common rectifier system [Cavallini A., 1994].
To overcomesome of the disadvantagesof these systems,a number of methods have

been presented in the literature [Kim S., 1994]. Although the use of an additional single
improve
input
factor
(2)
higher
boost
[Prasad
A.
R.,
19891,
the
can
power
chopper
switch
higher
output voltage are the main disadvantagesof this system.
and
stress
switching
This -rectifiertype will therefore not be consideredfor induction heatingapplication.
34
Figure 3-4 Circuit diagram of a Boost Power Factor Corrector for Three Phase Diode
Rectifier.
3.2.2 Unity Power Factor Three-Phase Rectifier
A three-phase controlled boost rectifier with a high quality ac supply current, operating
displacement
has
been
introduced
P.,
[Bialoskorski
1993].
angle
recently
zero
with
Although many of the diodes operating parallel which decreases their required rated
large
diodes.
Figure 3-4 shows a
the
consists
of
a
relatively
system
number
of
current,
circuit diagram of a Boost Power Factor Corrector for a Three PhaseDiode Rectifier.
However, in order to achieve high quality input current waveforms, a relatively large
voltage stressacrossthe switching devicesis required.
Provided the DC/DC
converter connected to the rectifier draws a pulsed current
waveform it is possible to use a unity power factor three-phase rectifier stage. This
35
Figure 3-5 Circuit diagram of a Single-Ended Resonant Converter with a Three-Phase

Input.
input
bridge
diode
the
to
the
three-phase
at
of
a
passive
network
consists
system
DC/DC
Provided
the
the
are
chosen
elements
correctly
and
passive
circuit
rectifier.
converter draws pulsed current waveforms this rectifier systemwill draw approximately
factor
from
input
[Pforr
J(1).,
1991].
the
three-phase
current
waveforms
unity power
Figure 3-5 shows a circuit diagram of a Single-EndedResonantConverterwith a ThreePhase Input.
This rectifier system has the advantageof being very simple and requires only a few
passive components more than a standard three-phase rectifier circuit. The main
disadvantagesof this technique are that the input rectifier devices must be able to
DC/DC
input
frequency
the
the
at
converter
switching
and
operate
rectifier voltage
stressesare high [Pforr J(2). 1992].
36
Despite the device voltage stresses this rectifier stage is very promising due to the
`resistive' input currents and simplicity of the circuit.
3.3 Basic Converter Topologies
Electronic power processingtechnology has evolved around two fundamentallydifferent

circuit
schemes: duty-cycle modulation, commonly known as Pulse Width
Modulation(PWM),
and resonance. The PWM
technique processes power
by
interrupting the power flow and controlling the duty cycle, thus resulting in pulsating
current and voltage waveforms [Rashid M. H., 1993]. The resonant technique processes
form.
in
The
PWM
has
been
in
technique
today's power
a
sinusoidal
power
used widely
industry
[Jayne
G.,
M.
1988]. Resonant topology, although well established
electronics
in high-power SCR motor drives, telecommunication and uninterrupted power supplies,
has not beenwidely used in low-power DC/DC converter applicationsdue to its circuit
complexity.
3.3.1 PWM Switched Mode DC/DC Converters
PWM switched mode DC/DC converters are extensively used in a variety of

applications. There are three basic types of the PWM converters, namely the buck,
boost, and buck/boost converters.
Their operation and designare well understoodas well as someof their limitations [Hua
G., 1993]. Some of their limitations can be classified as:
37
"
Current waveforms drawn by the converter from the supply are rectangular and
therefore rich in high frequency harmonics. These harmonics must be reduced to
specified limits to comply with EivII emission controls.
"
During the switching transitions, both voltage and current are applied simultaneously
to the switch, leading to high levels of power dissipation in this device. These
losses
limit
frequency
the
maximum
practical
operating
severely
of the
switching
switching device [Kazimierczuk M. K(1)., 1987].
Figure 3-6 shows three basic topologies of switched mode power supply. They are
describedas follows:
The Buck Converter is sometimes referred to as a step-down converter because the

input
is
less
than
the
always
voltage. The configuration is shown in
output voltage
Figure 3-6a. When the switch S is closed, input current flows through the filter inductor
L, the filter capacitor C, and the load R. When S is opened,the voltage across L
in
is
L
delivered
the
to the load. Sincethe current in L can
and
energy
stored
reverses
instantaneously,
flowing
the
through S at the time S is openednow
current
not change
flows through L, C, R and the diode D. When S is again closed, the current which
flowing
D
flows
through
through S and the cycle repeatsitself.
now
was
The Boost Converter
is shown in Figure 3-6b. It is sometimes referred to as a step-up
converter because its output voltage is always greater than the source voltage. With
input voltage applied, current flows through inductor L, diode D, capacitor C, and the
load R. When S is closed, current flows through L and S and in effect, the voltage
38
IL
DCR
VS
V0
a) Buck Converter
IL
LD
VS
S_
V0
SC
T
b) Boost Converter
S
1-4
D
VS
LJ
c)Buck/Boost
ILT
Vo
CR
Converter
Figure 3-6 Three basictopologies of switched mode power supply.
input
is
L
the
voltage. When S is opened,the induced reversevoltage in L is
across
then series-aiding with the input voltage to increase the output voltage, and the current
which was flowing through S now flows through L,
D,
C and the load R. The
in
L is transferred to the load. When S is again closed, the diode
stored
energy
39
becomes reverse biased, the energy in C supplies the load voltage, and the cycle
repeats.
The Buck/Boost
Converter
provides an output voltage which may be less than or
is
input
the
than
the
output voltage polarity opposite to that of the
voltage and
greater
input voltage. The configuration is shown in Figure 3-6c. When switch S is closed,
S
is
biased.
is
When
D
L
flows
through
opened, the current
since
reverse
current
C
load
L,
D,
R.
S
flows
The
in
flowing
the
through
and
energy
now
which was
S
is
load.
When
in
L
is
transferred
to
the
again closed, the current which was
stored
flowing through D now flows through S, and D becomes reverse biased.
Current waveforms drawn from the supply by PWM switched mode DC/DC converters
filtering
high
frequency
harmonics
by.
be
to
therefore
must
reduced
and
are rectangular
limits
EMI
to
emissions regulations. During switching transitions,
comply
with
specified
both voltage and current are applied simultaneouslyto the switch, leading to high levels
in
dissipation
the switch. These switching losses severelylimit the maximum
of power
highlighted
frequency.
The
and
maximum
practical
operating
power
above
output
characteristics show that P`VM Switched Mode Converters are not suitable for medium
frequency induction heating systems which require high input power factor and low
input current harmonic distortion.
3: 3.2 Quasi-Resonant
Switched Mode DC/DC Converters
Many of the limitations associated with PWM non-resonant converters can be avoided
by replacing the switch by a resonant switching network to produce a resonant or quasi-
40
resonant converter. The quasi-resonant converters(QRC) are all derived by the addition
inductance
diode
to a PWM converter, according to
a
switch,
a
capacitor,
and
an
of a
or
certain topological rules [Freeland S., 1987] The inductor and capacitor in the resonant
switch serve two purposes. One is to ensure that the switch is turned on at zero current.
The other is to set up a current resonance when the switch is turned on so that the
instead
forced
by
be
the gate signal. As a result
of
off
commutated
switch can naturally
be
turn-off
this
can
achievedand the turn-off switching stresson
action, zero-current
of
the power device is minimized [Zeng T., 1986]. Since both turn-on and turn-off of the
loss
is
the
switching
much reduced.The dual of the above
switch occur at zero current,
device's
LC
is
to
to
the
resonant
elements
switching
auxiliary
shape
use
statement
in
order to create a zero-voltage condition for the device to turn on.
voltage waveform
This latter statement describes the principle of zero-voltage switching(ZVS).
Both,
ZCS-QRC and ZVS-QRC can be operatedin a half wave and a full wave mode [Liu K.,
1986]. This family of converters ensuresthat voltage and current are never applied
device.
Therefore, the turn-on switching loss or the
to
the
switching
simultaneously
turn-off switching loss is considerablyreduced,yielding high efficiency at high switching

frequencies [Hua G., 1993]. Both high efficiency and high switching frequency permit a
significant miniaturization of the resonantDC/DC power converter becauseof smaller

and lighter components. The comparison study [Hsiu L., 1991] shows that Quasi-
Resonant converters offer lower switching frequency harmonic bandwidth than the
equivalent PWM modulated converter. The price paid for these advantages is higher
circuit complexity and higher peak currents/voltages in the system [Smith C., 19951.
Figure 3-7 shows a circuit diagram of a quasi-resonant buck converter and Figure 3-8
shows typical switching waveforms of a converter based on Quasi-Resonant Technique.
41
Figure 3-7 Circuit

Technique.
diagram of a Buck Converter based on Resonant Switching
One other classof resonant-switch converter that has been cited in the literature is
the multiresonant converter (MRC). As mentioned previously a QRC creates favorable
diode,
but
idea
both.
basic
for
The
the
the
of multiswitch
or
not
either
condition
switching
is
both
the
to
to
the active switch
resonant
extend
concept
resonant switches
'
diode
diode.
be
The
by
the
can also
rectifier
replaced
an active switch
rectifier
and
[SchonemanK. G., 1991]. Similar to QRCs the MRC can enable the semiconductor
devicesto switch either under zero current or zero voltage and half or full wave mode.
The main feature of the MRC is that it reduces the stresses on the components.
However, this is at the expense of complex closed-loop control.
Another resonant converter worth mentioning is the Class E resonant converter. The
basic principle of Class E operation is to shapethe waveforms of switch voltage and
displaced
in time
the
transitions
that
those
two
of
so
are
current
switching waveforms
from eachother: a)during switch turn-on where the voltage falls before the current rises
b)during
switch turn-off where the voltage does not rise until after the current has
and
fallen. As a result of this type of operation the power switch operates with very low
42
Is - Current through the switch
V- Voltage acrossthe switch

SW
Figure 3-8 Typical voltage and current waveforms for a converter based on the
Resonant Switching Technique.
load,
[Redl
R.,
These
losses
1986].
through a sharply
the
supply
converters
switching
in
tuned series resonant circuit as shown Figure 3-9.
The disadvantages are that the current and voltage stresses are high, and optimization
[Kazimierczuk
M.
K(2).,
1989].
Recent
work on this area
more
complex
are
control
and
has resulted in a dual class E resonant converter [Forsyth A. J., 1990].
3.3.3 Load Resonant Converters(LRC)-
There has always been a requirement in the electronic power supply industry for a
technology capable of achieving high power density at an affordable cost.
43
LS
VU
Figure 3-9 Class-E DC/DC resonant converter circuit diagram.
In an attempt to make power supplies more compact without losing efficiency, higher
frequencies
are utilized to reduce the size of magnetic and capacitive
switching
increase
frequencies
do
As
so
switching losses. To overcome these
components.
interest
last
decade,
has
been
the
great
over
problems,
shown in the more sophisticated
based
on the principles of the transfer and control of
methods of power conditioning
by
electric energy meansof resonantcircuit techniques.Although many advantagesexist
over the switch mode power converter, resonant converters have not been used
sufficiently in the power electronic supply industry since the 1970s. This has been mainly
due to a lack of understanding of resonant inverter characteristics and also the
devices
of
power
which can be operated at high frequency and high
nonavailability
power such as MOSFETs, high power darlington transistor, GTO(gate turn off
controllablethyristor) and magneticcores suitablefor high frequencyoperation.
Load resonant converters are characterized by topologies in which the resonant

integral
to the operation of the converter and are not just added around
are
components
the switch components of a PWM converter.
44
There are two primary categories into which standard resonant converters fall, series
resonant converters(SRC) and parallel resonant converters(PRC), A third category
exists which is termed the series-parallel resonant converters(SPRC). This attempts to
incorporate the advantages of the two previous categories and remove the main
disadvantages. There are many operating permutations to these three basic resonant
topologies, each displaying their own advantages and disadvantagesunder certain

conditions [Steigerwald R. L., 1988].
3.3.3.1 Series Resonant Converter(SCR)
The series resonant converter converts a dc input voltage to a desired output dc voltage.
The SRC consistsof a resonantinductor LS resonantcapacitor CS in serieswith the

,a
load. A transformer may also be included to provide an output voltage of the required
magnitude,aswell as the electricalisolation betweenthe input and the output.
Figure 3-10 shows a typical circuit of a series resonant converter. The resonant inductor
current supplies the output stage and is full wave rectified at the output. Therefore, as
the name suggests, the output load appears in series with the resonant tank.
Depending on the resonant inductor current there are two basic modes of operation.
These are the discontinuous conduction mode(DCM)
and continuous conduction
mode(CCM). When the output rectifier diodes become reversed-biased, causing the tank
inductor current to remain at zero for some time, then the converter is said to operate in
DCM, otherwise the converter operates in CCM. [Oruganti R., 1985].
45
vs
cIN
DI
s1
r,
L=
Lo
V
lIJ
_o
III
CY
S2
CIN2
D2
Figure 3-10 General circuit diagram of series resonant converter
Poor output regulation at or near no-load condition is the main disadvantage of the
SRC. Another disadvantage is that the smoothing capacitor must carry high ripple
for
high
it
power applications where a
of
converter
choice
a
poor
currents, so making
low-voltage high-current output is required. Additionally, in the converter operation, the
The
between
tank.
the
energy
the
resonant
source and
energy exchange takes place
in
the
increases
the
current
and
the
of
voltage
to
the
peak
values
source,
returned
In
impedance.
in
to
dissipation
the
attempt
an
source
power
converter, and causes
[Bhat
been
have
reported
overcome these problems, a number of new configurations
A. K., 1994], [Ojo 0.1995].
The main advantage of the SRC is that the series resonant capacitor on the primary side
be
in
fact
Because
the
dc
blocking
can
easily
this
converter
used
of
capacitor.
act as a
full-bridge arrangements without any additional control to control unbalance in the
MOSFETs'
SRC
is
drops.
For
forward
the
this
reason
times
voltage
or
switching
is
desirable.
Another
full-bridge
for
high-power
converter
a
applications where
suitable
46
VS
Figure 3-11 General circuit diagram of parallel resonant converter.
is
in
SRC
that
the
the power devices decreaseas the load
the
currents
advantageof
decreases.This advantageallows the power device conduction lossesto decreaseas the
load decreases,thus maintaininghigh load efficiency [Steigerwald R.L., 1988].
3.3.3.2 Parallel Resonant Converters(PRC)
Figure 3-11 shows a typical circuit diagram of a half bridge PRC. The configuration is
difference
is
SRC,
load
is
the
that
the
to
the
similar
usually connectedto the resonant
capacitor in parallel, and the output voltage is obtained from the voltage across the
If
required, a transformer may be used to provide the correct output
capacitor.
resonant
isolation.
A
and
number of articles deal with the analysisand design of a PRC
vltage
[Kang Y. G., 1988], [Kazimierczuk M. K(3)., 1995].
47
The main disadvantage of the parallel resonant converter is that the current carried by
the switches and resonant components are relatively independent of load. The
is
behavior
that the conduction losses in the sv itches and the
this
consequenceof
fixed
load
decreases
light-load
the
that
the
stay
relatively
as
components
so
reactive
efficiency of the converter suffers. In addition, the resonant current increases as the
input dc voltage to the converter increases.Thus this converter is less than ideal for
have
input
it
large
to operate
range
and
a
which
voltage
which
require
applications
considerably below its maximum design power while maintaining very high efficiency.
The PRC is suitable for low output voltage high output current application. This is due
to fact that the dc filter on the low-voltage-output side of transformer is of the inductor
input type and, therefore, dc output capacitor capable of carrying very high ripple
leakage
inductance
Using
the
are
not
needed.
of the transformer and the
currents
increases
the
tank
capacitance
partial
resonant
element
winding
efficiency [Johnson
S.D., 1987]. Additionally PRC is naturally short circuit proof. This property can be seen
by applying a short directly across the resonant capacitor. For this case, the entire square
by
inverter
is directly across the resonant inductor and,
the
applied
wave voltage
therefore, the current is limited by this impedance. This property makes the PRC
for
desirable
applicationswith severeshort circuit requirements.
extremely
PRC is suitable for various types of induction heating applications from low power
domestic cooking application [Hobson L(2)., 1990] to high power industrial applications
[Mauch K., 1986].
48
vs
c
--- -
q'IN2
Figure 3-12 Circuit diagram of series-parallel resonant converter.
3.3.3.3 Series-Parallel Resonant Converter(SPRC)
The principle of the SPRCis to employ the advantagesof the PRC and the SRC, and to
heavy
SRC
has
This
the
the
characteristics
at
the
of
converter
weak points.
eliminate
load and of the PRC at light load. This topology has both a parallel and series resonant
in
Fig
3.11.
seen
as
capacitor
The previous study shows that the SPRC takes on the desirable characteristics of the
while
disadvantages
the
the
converter
pure parallel
main
of
removing
pure seriesand
those two converters [Steigerwald R.L., 1988]. These converters can operate over a
large input voltage ranke and a large load range while maintaining high efficiency
[RoshenW., 1993].
Additionally SPRC generally have lower component stresses compared to the parallel
[Schuften
M.
J.,
1991].
resonant converters
49
A brief comparison has been made to help select the best possible power conversion
topology. An investigation has been carried out into the possibility of using a rectifier
for
induction
DC/DC
to
the
requirements
converters
comply
with
arrangementand
heating systems.Quasi-resonant/resonant switched mode DC/DC converters allow the
device
to turn on and turn off under zero current conditions and also this
switching
techniquegreatly reducesthe switching losses.
One of the most suitable power converter topologies for this application has been
identified as two resonant converters connected in cascade. The first stage, which is a
input
is
implemented
factor
with
resistive
characteristic
rectifier
using ..a
power
unity
quasi-resonant converter to convert the three phase AC supply to a required DC value
frequency
This
DC
AC
this
to
the
system
a
required
stage
converts
value.
second
and
ideally draws resistive currents from the main supply with a power factor approaching
losses
be
low
the
must
as a result of the resonancemode of
switching,
very
unity and
operation.
These two power conversion stages are therefore assessedin more detail in the
following chapters.
50
CHAPTER 4
THREE PHASE UNITY POWER FACTOR CONVERTERS FOR

INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS
4.1 Introduction
In order to achieve sinusoidal input currents from the three phase mains supply as
required, a new type of three phase rectifier-converter
topology concept has been
identified. It is based on a three phase inductive/capacitive network, a high frequency

full bridge rectifier and a DC/DC converter arrangement. The system can be designed
to achieve high quality sinusoidal input supply currents, when operated with
discontinuous resonant capacitor voltages.
To provide high quality input current waveforms a new topology was identified which
input
characteristics together with
gives resistive
other parameters for a reliable
induction heating system. A power circuit of the three phase input converter using
has
been
developed
limitations
technique
to
the
overcome
quasi-resonant
of restricted
power density and efficiency of PWM operation.
51
Figure 4-1 Principal circuit diagram of the overall Three Phase Unity Power Factor
Converter and Quasi-Resonant DC Converter.
A circuit diagram of the proposed converter system is shown in Figure 4-1. The
inductive,
consists
of
an
capacitive network at the input of each phase, a
converter
three-phase diode rectifier and a push-pull buck converter arrangement. This converter
into
divided
functional
be
blocks:
two
can
system
Buck
Rectifier Stage to provide Unity Power Factor from three
A
Three-Phase
a)
phasemains supply.
b) A Quasi-Resonant Push Pull Buck Converter to provide DC output voltage.
52
The active switching devicesS, S2operatein quasi-resonantmode of operation and are

,
Quasi-resonant
is
mode
of
alternately.
operation
obtained by allowing the
switched
switch current to resonate between the input capacitors CRI, CR2, C3 and the resonant
inductors LR
LR2. Alternate operation of the switches S
SZ has been chosen,
because it does not change the overall converter operation in comparison to

it
but
switching,
provides the advantageof reduced voltage stress across
simultaneous
the three-phaserectifier diodes D, - D6. At switch turn on the input capacitors CR,,
CR2 CR3 are dischargedby the resonating switch current is,, ist ; the discharging
,
is
input
the
capacitors therefore sinusoidallyshaped.As soon as the capacitor
current of
diodes
D,
Dg
The magnitude of the
the
to
start
are
reduced
zero,
conducting.
voltages
,
down
level
falls
to
a
equal to the sum of the phase input currents
rapidly
switch current
is
low
losses.
is
inductor
The
turned
the
off
switching
with
switch
current
resonant
and
decreasing
determined
by
linearly
inductors
LR2
the
with
a
slope
and the
-LRI,
now
Quasi
Resonant Push Pull Buck Converter.
the
of
voltage
output
The advantage of this topology is that it provides a high output power capability and
requires a simple and cheap control system. The system can be designed to achieve
input
currents, when operated with discontinuous resonant
nearly sinusoidal supply
capacitor voltages and provide output power control in a quasi-resonantmode. The
factor
for
the wide rangeof output power providing
also
achieves
unity
power
converter
high efficiencyand high power density.
This topology is operated under the zero-current switching mode of the semiconductor
devices. The use of a push-pull configuration with a pair of switches enables the use of
53
high speed devices with a low voltage switching stress. Using quasi-resonant techniques
the proposed topology is very suitable for practical application at high power level and it
low
very
provides
harmonic distortion
interference(EMI)
electromagnetic
of the input
current
and reduces the
emissions. For the proposed induction
heating
it
factor
is
because
topology
this
provides unity power
chosen
with a resistive
system
input characteristic,offers low switching lossesand higher systemefficiency.
4.2 Input Power Factor Correction
One of the major problemswith present day induction heating, is that the power drawn
from the mains supply is often of low power factor and current of high harmonic
distortion [Andrews, D. 1996]. Operation at low power factor results in additional
drop
lower
voltage
the
through
yielding
a
on the plant
power
system
system
voltage
buses. Low system voltage increases the overall plant operating cost. Low power
factor(PF<0.90) can also result in additional cost in the form of penalties from the
electric-utility company.
Conventionalswitching power supplies operate by rectifying the input AC line voltage

it
large
input
involves
filtering
This
both
electrolytic
with
very
process
capacitors.
and
have
elements
and
storage
which
some very undesirableside effects such as
nonlinear
the generation of distorted input current waveform with rich harmonic content that
factor.
the
power
reduce
54
During recent years, however, much researchhas been carried out to obtain a stabilized
dc output voltage from an A. C. supply whilst drawing unity power factor input current
[Nalbant M. K., 1989], [Pforr J.(2), 1992], [Ghanem M. C., 1996].
One of the main reason for choosing this power circuit topology as a part of the three
is
its
high
input
to
the
ability
power factor. This is the
provide
phaseconverter stage
new polyphasequasi-resonanttopology. In all three phasesthe need to actively control
by
line
three
currents
are
avoided
use of quasi-resonantswitched mode circuit which
all
input
resistive
characteristics. This mode of operation is obtained by
naturally emulates
between
input
CR,
CR2,
the
to
the
current
resonate
switch
resonant
capacitors
allowing
,
CR3 of the three phase rectifier stage and the resonant inductors LRI, LRZ When a
.
is
higher
frequency
times
than the mains frequency the rectifier input
many
switching
phase voltage then consists a train of triangular pulses with peak proportional to the
input line currents. The three phase input side of the rectifier and the input
capacitive/inductive network
automatically
performs high power factor
and low
distortion harmonic rectification, while the DC output side of the rectifier continues to,
function as DC/DC converter.
The main advantagesof the Unity Power Factor Converter are that 1)It requires a
simple control circuit, similar to that of the single-phaseconverter, 2)High Input Power
Factor and low harmonicdistortion can be obtainedfor a wide range of output power.
55
Figure 4-2 Input voltage waveforms of the Three-PhaseBuck Unity Power Factor
Rectifier. VR, -Resonant capacitor voltage, VL, - Phase input voltage.
4.3 General Description Of The Three Phase Unity. Power Factor

Induction Heating System Converter Stage
This circuit functions as a high power factor low harmonic rectifier basedon the concept
that the peak capacitor voltages are proportional to the line input currents. Hence the
low frequency components of the capacitor voltages are also approximately proportional
to the line input currents. This is illustrated in Figure 4-2 for one mains frequency
period.
The ThreePhaseUnity Power Factor Converter is operatedwith discontinuousresonant

Discontinuous
input
capacitorvoltages are obtainedby employing an
capacitorvoltages.
inductive/capacitiveinput network, LFI LF2, LF3 and CRI, CR2 CR3at the input of
,
,
56
Figure 4-3 An ideal line to neutral voltage VLF,and line current ILLv for one period of
the mains frequency.
QR
Push-Pull
The
Buck Converter is smoothed by
the
output
voltage
of
phase.
each
CF,
CF2
input
filter
The
filtered
I,
IZ',
13
the
capacitors
and
currents
are
using
.
,
through the input inductors LF, , LF2,
LF3
A commonly used definition of the input power factor for sinusoidal line input voltages:
PFC. _
P,
v
Eq 4-1
is
input
P,,
is the RNIS value of the sinusoidal input
the
average
power, VR,,
where
rs
is
IRIfs
the RMS phase input current.
voltage and
The input power -PA, is presented as;

1n
PIN =Is 3VLiLd(ct)
Eq 4-2
57
I1
RM
vo
MODE B3
T vo
MODE B2
MODEBI
TCRM
ADS
xra
Vo
DI(
MODE B4
Figure 4-4 Equivalent modes of single phase converter model operation.
Figure 4-3 shows an ideal pure sinusoidal line to neutral voltage VL. and line current
ILLv as an example of the maximum unity power factor.
In practice, typical AC current waveforms in single-phase and three-phase diode rectifier

being
from
far
sinusoidal. The power factor is also very poor because of the
circuits are
harmonic contents in the line current [Mohan N., 1989]. For purpose of design and
high
input
factor,
it is important to outline operating
the
required
power
achieving
in
the
restriction
of
and
components
conditions
used the circuit. Each switching cycle of
the proposed converter can be divided into four modes of operation as seen in Figure
4-4.
58
During the Mode B1 of the unity power factor converter the three input capacitors CRI
,
CRZ, CR3 are discharged. The rate of voltage decrease across each capacitor is
dependent on the phase input currents I, I2 13 and on the current stress of the active
,
,
switches S,, SZ. The average values of the capacitor voltages vom,, vc7,2,v3
during
this Discharge Modes are therefore not linearly dependent on their phase input currents.
In this casethe line input current will becomemore dependenton the peak value and the
length of the DischargeModes. Since the area of the Mode B1 dependsnot only on the
line input voltage but also on the output voltage more distortion will then appear in the
input
current.
phase
The distortion during Mode B2 and B3 is very little and depends mainly on the value of
the input filter inductors LF, , LF2 , LF3 . The inductors can be designed so that they can
during
input
current
a complete switching cycle.
provide approximatelyconstant
During the Mode B4 all three capacitors are chargedby the input currents I, I2 I3
.
, ,
As a result, the three capacitor voltages vc1,
vCR2, v,,, 3 begin simultaneously to
increase at a rate proportional to their respective input currents. If discontinuous input

is
initial
operation
assumed
and
voltages across each capacitor CRI,
capacitor voltage
CR2, CR3are zero, the peak voltage acrosseachcapacitor at the end of the Mode B4 is
its
input
to
respective
phase
current. Since resonant capacitor voltages
proportional
begin
at zero their average values during the Mode B4 are also linearly
always
dependent on the phase input currents.
59
IN
L IN
I
IN AVG
Figure 4-5 Mains input phase voltage and filter inductor current waveforms for the
Three-Phase Buck Unity Power Factor Rectifier for one period of the mains frequency.
J' is input voltage, ILS is filter inductor current and 1l,
input
of
average value
_AVQ
current.
The output current also has influence on the power factor. If the load current Io
increases the rate of the capacitor voltage discharge increases. The result is that average
its
is
is
dependent
to
therefore
peak
proportional
on
value
and
more
voltage
capacitor
input
linear.
Hence
becomes
input
the
rectifier
more
characteristic
the phase
voltage.
Figure 4-5 shows waveforms of the mains input -phasevoltage and unsmoothed filter
inductor current of the Three PhaseBuck Unity Power Factor Rectifier for one period
frequency.
the
mains
of
There are several important conditions which provide the unity power factor property of
60
the three phase rectifier stage. To draw sinusoidal input currents from the
supply(automatic input power factor correction), the three-phase rectifier stage must
draw input currents averaged over each converter switching cycle which is proportional
to the phase voltages. Assuming steady state operation, the average phase input voltages
input
be
to
the
appropriate
must
equal
average
capacitor
cycle
over each switching
input
OFF-time
CRZ
CR3
during
CR,
the
the
plus
average
switch
capacitor
voltages
,
,
ON-time.
during
the
switch
voltages
The average input capacitor voltages during the OFF-time have been shown to be
(1),
input
[Pforr
J.
1992]. High quality, unity power
to
the
currents
phase
proportional
factor input currents are achieved by keeping the discharging time of the capacitors
input
Therefore,
discharging
the
time.
the
the
of
currents
charging
short compared with
in
large
be
kept
CR3
CRI
CR2
to their charging currents.
comparison
must
capacitors
,
2
This increasesthe switch current crest factor and the rectifier should be optimized by
this parameter.
The input filter inductors LFI
LF2 LF3 can be designed so that they can provide

2
,
during
filter
input
The
a
complete
capacitors
switching
currents
cycle.
nearly constant
CFI CF2 are chosen so that the output voltage is nearly constant during a whole mains
,
cycle.
Figure 4-5 demonstratesthe difference between the filter inductor current and average
(ideal) phase input current at low switching frequency. To achieve better input current
frequency
line
/
frequency
F,
Fi
the
to
minimum
ratio
of
switching
performance
(20kHz).
kept
400
be
above
should
61
From the designpoint of view, the conditions and restrictions describedabove should be
important
design
the
to
as
parameters to achieve the required
procedure
added
input
currents.
sinusoidal
4.3.1 Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Rectifier
The Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Buck Resonant Rectifier
Stage has been
developed to overcome limitations obtained from the conventional three phase rectifiers
described in Chapter 3. A circuit diagram of the basic Three Phase Unity Power Factor
Buck Rectifier stage is shown in Figure 4-6. The figure shows the three phase supply
VLI Viz VL3; the Three Phase Unity Power Factor Buck Rectifier Stage, consisting of
2
2
the three input inductors LF,
LF2, LF3, the three input capacitors CRI CR2; CR3 and
,
,
the three phase diode rectifier D, - D6; a quasi resonant Buck* DC/DC converter
its
devices
D7
D$
S,
S2,
diodes
to
the
output
consisting
of
switching
;
and
connected
,
resonant inductors LRI, LR2; and the output filter capacitors CF, , CFZ2 CFO with a
load
RLO
connected
parallel
.
This three phase input buck rectifier stage is able to draw approximately unity power
factor input currents with a very low harmonic content from a three phase mains supply.
The converter connected to the output of the rectifier stage must operate in a
discontinuousmode of operation for the resonantcapacitorvoltages VCR VCR v0
1,
29 3.
As a result of this mode of operation the switch hasto withstand high voltage stressand
62
Figure 4-6 Circuit diagram of the Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Buck Rectifier
Stage.
high current stress to obtain nearly sinusoidal input currents with the three phase input
buck rectifier stage.
An additional advantageof this topology is that the use of alternate operation of the
switch devices provide reduced voltage stress across the three phase rectifier diodes.
The proposedUnity Power Factor Buck Rectifier Stage describedabove is an attractive
high
for
power applications requiring high quality input currents from threesolution
phase mains supply system.
63
4.3.2 Quasi-Resonant
Push-Pull Buck Converter
The Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Induction Heating System converter consists of
two main stages: the passive input stage consisting of the three phase diode rectifier with
the inductor/capacitor input filter LFI 2LF2 , LF3 and CR,, CR22CR3 connected to the
input of each phase; and the active output stage consisting of the Quasi-Resonant PushPull Buck Converter, including the active switches S, S2 the diodes D, Dg the
, ,
,
,
CFO
CF,
filter
CFZ
inductance
LRZ
LR,,
The
the
and
output
capacitance
and
resonant
,
.
SZ
in
S,,
Quasi-Resonant
devices
This
the
operate
mode
of
operation.
switching
active
is
by
between
the
to
the
switch
allowing
current
obtained
resonate
operation
of
mode
input capacitors CR, CRZ CR3 of the three phase rectifier stage and the resonant
,
,
inductancesLR,, LR2. At switch turn ON, these capacitors are therefore dischargedby
the resonating switch current and the discharging current of the input capacitors is
thereforesinusoidallyshaped.As soon as the capacitor voltages are reducedto zero, the
diodes D, D8 start conducting. The magnitudeof the switch current falls rapidly down
,
to a level equal to the sum of the phaseinput currents. The sum of the switch current
decreases
linearly
diode
determined
inductances
by
the
the
current
with
a
slope
plus
LR LRZ and the output voltage. When the switch current is fully decreased to zero, the
input
turned
the
are
off
and
capacitors CRI, CR2,CR3are chargedlinearly
active switches
by their respectivephasecurrents 1, 1,13 until the active switch is turned on again.
,
Typical voltages and currents waveforms of the Quasi Resonant Push-Pull Buck
Converter with three phase input for one switching cycle are shown in Figure 4-7.
64
vGSl
,..
GRl
/'
I-
31
'f
r
'DSi
F1
11
L, RM
t1 t2
t3
t4
t0
Figure 4-7 Typical voltages and currents waveforms of the Quasi ResonantPush-Pull
Buck Converter with three-phase input during one switching cycle. VGs,-Gate pulse of
IDS,
IS,
Vom,
the
capacitor
current,
voltage,
switches,
one of
-Diode
-Switch
-Resonant
inductor
1mti,
current.
current,
-Resonant
4.3.3 Principles of Operation
The Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Buck Rectifier
Stage provides discontinuous
for
input
factor
The
three
purpose
of
phase
correction.
power
capacitor
voltage
resonant
input currents I, I2 I3 are filtered through the input inductors LF, LF2, LF3
,
2 ,
These inductors are designed so that the input currents are approximately constant
during a complete switching cycle. The time period of one switching cycle is determined
by the converter connectedto the output of the three phaserectifier stage. One.of the
iL
for
input
Three
the
and
capacitor
current
voltage
v,,;
a
switching
cycle
of
phase
j
Phase Rectifier Stage are shown in Figure 4-8.
65
CR;
ILFi
Figure 4-8 One of the phase input current iLFj and capacitor voltage v,,,; for a
Stage.
Rectifier
Three
Phase
the
of
switching cycle
During the first interval of a new switching cycle, the charged capacitors are discharged
by a pulsed current drawn from the converter, which is connected to the output of the
three-phase rectifier stage. This pulsed current can be a square wave, produced by a
in
be
During
the
case
as
of
converter.
or
can
shaped
a
resonant
mode
converter
switched
this first interval(discharging-time),the energy stored in the three input capacitors vc21,
diodes
is
discharged
D, - D6 into the converter which
through
the
rectifier
six
vC7?
vCR2
3
,
is connected to the output of the three-phase rectifier stage. The rate of voltage decrease
is
dependent
vom
on the current drawn from the converter ice
capacitor
each
across
input
'LFI
iu.
in
'L
Equation
4.3.
the
the
currents
as
given
phase
and
3
2 F2,
`F'
(0)
(t)
''cRN = vcR, cos(01) +I
es
"
(0)
sin(wt) +V, (1- cos(wt))
Eq 4-3
PSI
where;
66
vcR,,-Resonant capacitor voltage, Vo- DC output voltage of the converter, ILF, - Input
inductor
CRt,
it,
the
current
of
current,
value
resonant
phase
-Component
-Resonant
frequency
the
of
resonant circuit.
and
co
capacitor
-Angular
The average values of the capacitor voltages vCR VCR

v3
2,
1,
during this discharge time
dependent
input
linearly
their
therefore
on
currents.
not
are
The initial voltages across each capacitor vcR, vCR2 vCR3are zero at the beginning of
,
7
the second interval. During the second interval in which no current flows through
diodes
(charge
time) all three capacitors are charged
the
and
rectifier
switches
resonant
by the input currents 'Du' 1LF2 'LP3
.
2
The three capacitor voltages vom, vC7? vCR3begin to increase at a rate proportional to
22
,
their phase input currents. Under the discontinued input capacitor voltage operation, the
initial voltages across each capacitor CRI CRZ CR3 are zero at the beginning of the
,
,
Charge-time interval. The peak voltage across each capacitor at the end of this interval
is proportional to its respective phase input current during the same Charge-time.
During the Charge-time interval, the average capacitor voltages are also linearly
dependenton the phase input currents becausethe capacitor voltages always begin at
interval.
discharging
each
zero after
To provide sinusoidal input currents from the mains supply (unity input power factor
correction), the three-phase rectifier stage must draw input current averaged during each
is
cycle
which
proportional to the phase voltages. Assuming steady
converter switching
67
input
during
the
phase
average
voltages
each switching cycle must be
operation,
state
input
the
to
average
appropriate
capacitor voltages CR,, CR2 CR3 during the
equal
,
Charge-time plus the average input capacitor voltages during the Discharge-time.
The average input capacitor voltages during the Charge-time have been shown to be
input
to
the
currents. High quality unity power factor input currents
phase
proportional
discharging
by
keeping
time of the capacitors short compared with the
the
are achieved
discharging
To
the
this
time.
of
operation
achieve
mode
currents of the input
charging
CRl,
CR2
CR3
be
kept
larger
in
times
to their
many
must
comparison
capacitors
,
in
is
by:
Energy
a
charged
capacitor
given
currents.
stored
charging
ic X t3_4
---
Eq 4-4
where;
O-coulombs or ampereseconds.
is -charge current(ampere).
time(second).
13_4
-charge
Energy delivered during the dischargetime from the capacitor to the resonant inductor
is;
Qd = -1d x to-1
Eq 4-5
where;
68
'd -dischargecurrent(ampere).
to_,-dischargetime(second).
The energy stored in capacitor during the charging time Q is equal to energy delivered
during the dischargingtime Qd thus;

,
c-QdI
where;
Resonant capacitor disch arg ing time < Resonant capacitor ch arg ing time
t0-1<
t3-4
therefore;
Resonant capacitor ch arg ing current < Re sonant capacitor disch arg ing current
lc < <d
The main effect of the principle of operation obtained with the Three-Phase Unity Power
Factor Buck Rectifier Stage is shown in Figure 4-9. The figure a) shows the three supply
VL2
VL3;
figure
VLI
b)
input currents iLF 'LF2 1L. and
the
the
three
shows
voltages
,
2
3
,
the figure c) shows capacitor voltages vCR1,VCR VCR during a complete period of the
2,
3
three-phase supply.
69
v , V1,,
--vWT
-I-'
-\
WJ?
uNM
'NUN
IVI
11
JU
Figure 4-9 Typical waveforms obtained from the computer simulation of the ThreePhase Unity Power Factor Buck Rectifier Stage a) VLI, Viz , VL3-Supply voltage, b)
Resonant capacitor voltages.
ice.,, jLF2, 'L. 3-Input currents, c) vCR1,vC7?
vCR32,
70
4.4 Analysis Of The Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Converter
Stage
The analysis of the QR Push-Pull Buck Converter with three phase input is obtained
in
is
from
Figure
4-10.
This
the
model
as
shown
model
obtained
a
single-phase
using
three phase converter by assuming that one phase voltage operates exactly at its cross
is
The
supply voltage of one phase therefore zero and the circuit is simplified
over point.
in
both
SP
S2
Figure
The
have
4-10.
that
model
also
assumes,
switches
active
shown
as
been replacedby a single active switch. This is possiblebecausethe converter performs
in a similar manner whether alternate or simultaneous switching of the switches S, S2
,
is employed.
Having found a simplified single phasemodel of the QR Push-Pull Buck Converter with
three-phase input, the analysis proceeds by splitting each switching cycle into its
four
The
of
operation.
resulting
modes of operation are shown in
equivalent modes
Figure 4-4. Each mode is analyzed individually.
Componentvaluesof the singlephasemodel and the three phaseconverter are related as

follows: Assuming,that phase-voltageVL, of the three-phaseconverter is zero, then the
input voltage source of the single phase model consists of the seriesconnection of the
two remaining phase voltage sources VLZ and VL3 of the three phase converter.
Similarly, the input capacitor C1
of the single phase model consists of the series
input
CRZ
CR,
the
remaining
of
capacitors
and
of the three phaseconverter.
connection
71
Figure 4-10 Single phase converter model of the three-phaseQRW Push-Pull Buck
Converter.
The required input capacitors CRI CRI CRI of the three phase converter have therefore
,
I
large
twice
as
as the capacitor value of the single phase model.
values
The assumptionsmade for the analysis of the Three Phase Quasi-ResonantPush-Pull

Buck Converter can be summarizedas follows:
The three-phase model is expressed by its equivalent single-phase model.
All switches are assumed ideal, with zero impedance when turned on and infinite
impedance when turned off and no switching losses.
"
The rectifier stage operateswith discontinued resonant capacitor voltages during a

whole mainscycle.
"
The switching frequency and the charging-time are kept constant.
72
"
All reactive componentsare ideal.
The output filter capacitance CFO is large, so that the output voltage is assumed
constant during a whole switching cycle.
is
large,
input
inductances
LF,
LF2
LF3
filter
input
that
The
the
so
are
current
o
,
,
during
a whole switching cycle.
constant
assumed
4.4.1 Mode B1: Resonant Capacitor Discharging
Mode
An equivalent circuit diagram of Mode B1 is shown in Figure 4-11. Mode B1 starts
switch
S,
ON.
is
between
The
Mode
BI
to
t,
turns
the
of
and
as
waveforms
when
CRts
is
fully
in
discharged.
It
Figure
4-12.
the
ends
capacitor
when
shown
L Rhi
vI1
1CRM
V0
MODEBI
Figure 4-11 Circuit diagram of Mode B I.
73
vGSl
T-
-_-. 1
cRi
.i
'Si
Ds1
IZ'ivi
1
1
t0
liVVV
t4-
11t2t3
t0
Figure 4-12 Waveforms of the single-phase model during Mode B 1.
Initial conditions:
VCRN
Ò)
Eq 4-6
vexv-
Eq 4-7
(0)
'L,
=
t,
Boundary conditions:
Eq 4-8
(&)=o
vR
duration
Mode
B,
is
B 1.
the
angular
of
where
Equations describing circuit operation during Mode B1 are as follows:

VQ2''(0) V
f
'LRf(t) = iLRtf(o) cos(a)t) +
sin(cot) + I, (1- cos(wt))
C)Lktr
Eq 4-9
iP-tf
Eq 4-10
vcm(t) = vvRV(0)cos(wt)+il
R, f
74
where,
1
w=
LRJ!CPu ,
4.4.2 Mode B2: Freewheeling Mode
An equivalent circuit diagram of Mode B2 is shown in Figure 4-13. Mode B2 follows on

directly from Mode B I. It starts when the voltage across the capacitor C1
becomes
diode
D2
the
starts conducting. From t, to t2 output current flows through
zero and
diode D2 as shown in Figure 4-14. It ends when the switch current is equal to the input
current I.
Initial conditions:
va(0)
1Lxnl (0)
Eq 4-11
=0
(el )
='Lw
Eq 4-12
1
Il
Eq 4-13
LR4f è2)
Equation describingthe resonantinductor current during Mode B2 is as follows:
'L,
R(t)=-
'+'L
(0)
Eq4-14
Rtf
75
L RM
El.
$
'j' vo
MODE B2
Figure 4-13 Circuit diagramof Mode B2.
VGS1
--l
t
_i
1111\\\\
CRl
-_t
"
. -
LJ-1
---
LAN"..
Sl
r. '[1
-1
1: :.1
t
-'1
1/"1
DS1
!`
I-L.
IL,
`.
gM
t0
I_ nV
t1 t2 t3
t4
t0
Figure 4-14 Waveforms of the single-phase model during Mode B2.
4.4.3 Mode B3: Equal Currents Mode

directly from Mode B2. It starts when the diode DZ stops conducting and the switch
is
I.,
equals to the resonant inductor current IL.,
current
input
is
to
the
equal
current I,
current
switch
The starting value of the
IN.
76
I1
---I
ILRM
L1
--
7
VIi
c RIvi
MODE B3
The angular duration of Mode B3 is 03 from 12 to t3 It ends when the switch current
.
Is, comesto zero. This is the last mode during which the resonantswitch is ON as can
be seenfrom the waveformsin Figure 4-16a and enlargedin Figure 4-16b.
The switch S, is commutated OFF naturally after 13

the case when S, is an IGBT or
'In
MOSFET, the gate drive can be removed shortly after t3
Initial conditions:
(0)
vcR,r
=0
1
Lav `
=1 Lru,
r
Eq 4-15
(02 )
LAH
)= o
(03
Eq 4-16
Eq 4-17
77
a)
VGS1
, 91
CRl
---------------------
S1
r. f
II't
IDSl
LRM
to
tl t2 t3
t4
t0
b)
MODE B3'
'
l
I
DSl
1S1 ILRM
CR1
tl
t2
t3
is
duration
03
the
angular
of mode B3.
where
Equations describing circuit operation during mode B3:
78
(t)
'LRt,
='L,
(0) cos(wt) +
VmO)
V
-
sin(wt) +I, (1 -cos(r)t))
Eq 4-18
sin(cot) +Vo(1- cos(wt))
Eq 4-19
MIr
(0)
(t)
cos(wt) +
vCR,
vCRtf =
1
I'
L.Rlf
(0)
Rtf
4.4.4 Mode B4: Resonant Capacitor Charging Mode

directly from Mode B3. It starts when the switch S, turns OFF. After t3 S, is off and
,
Capacitor voltage vcR, rises linearly as can be seen from
I, begins charging up C
1.
r
the waveforms in Figure 4-18. The angular duration of Mode B4 is 04 from 13-t4.
The resonantcapacitor charging mode ends when the capacitor Ceti, is chargedto its
S,
(04)
At
t4)
turns on again, starting the next switching
vcR,,
vcRymix
value
peak
=
.
cycle.
Initial conditions:
vcztf(0) = VCR,
Eq 4-20
'L,,
Eq 4-21
1(0)
=0
Bbundary conditions:
vCRK
(94) = VCx_
Eq 4-22
79
/
wem.
I1
CRM
MODE B4
MODE
csl
.
.
.
.
.
v11..
B4
1.
1.
..
CRI
-_-__----------
---''
---------
I111
$1
1.
---i---
1
a.
1
11
1
1'--.
'1
IDSI
;;
1I\
-
1\I
I
LRM
1Ì
tl
t2
1
1
t3
t4
t0
is
duration
6,,
describing
Mode
Equations
B4.
the
angular
of
circuit operation
where
during Mode B4:
I
Ct+
Rtif
vc, (0)
"
Eq 4-23
80
4.4.5 Voltage Conversion Ratio Characteristic
of the Three Phase QR. Push-Pull
Buck Converter
The above equations fully describe steady state operation of the single-phase converter
individual
describing
The
each
operation modes are combined by
equations
model.
for
is
boundary
from
initial
It
the analysis
conditions
adjacent
modes.
and
seen
matching
in
is
delivered
load
the
to
the
that
the
the
stored
resonant
capacitors
energy
converter
of
during mode 1, mode 2 and mode 3. There is no energy transfer from supply to the load
during mode 4 where resonant capacitor is charged. The stored energy in the resonant
is
during
during
discharge
4
to
transferred
the
equal
mode
energy
mode.
capacitors
Delivered energy to the load during Mode B1 can be written as follows;
4"" (0)
JL (O)
eV
)
)
Eo (8i) = Vo +1,9, +
COS(0)0,
sin((98, CO
w
CO
I'
Eq 4-24
At the end of this mode resonant capacitor is discharged and transfers its stored energy
to the load. Energy delivered from supply to the load during Mode 2 is found from Eq.
4.25 as;
Eo(02)-lo
VO
- 2 LR,
'Lxv
(0) 02
Eq 4-25
This mode ends when the freewheeling diode D2 stops conducting. During Mode 3
is
inductor
to
equal
resonant
current and delivered energy to the load can
switch current
be found as follows;
1
Eo (03)
-T7
(0
LxN
I1
sin(C)83)
w
rL
AN
-
Co
lt
+ 1193+
COS(O)o3)
Ò)
xN
C) Z
Eq 4-26
81
Resonant capacitor charging mode (Mode 4) follows on directly from Mode 3. Eq. 4.27
by
input
delivered
load
Eq.
4.28
to
the
equating
energy
and
energy
obtained
and
are
and
given as [Pforr J(2)., 1992];
Fs{E0(0, )+E0(02)+Eo(e3)}
I1
V2
Ro
Eq 4-27
Eq 4-28
FS{Eo(9, )+Eo(82)+EJ03))
where;
I LN,-Input voltage(V).
I, -Input current (A).
R0-Maximum load resistance(92).
V0JJC converter output voltage(V).
FS -Switching frequency(Hz).
Switching frequencyis dependon the time intervals of each modesand can be found as
follows;
I
FS e1
+02+e3+04
Eq4-29
Component value of the resonant capacitor is depend on the switching frequency FS

,
duty
D,
Po,
input
V
[Pforr
the
cycle
and
output
power
converter
voltage
required
J(1)., 1991];
PT
C-Z
2FSV,,,
Eq 4-30
The resulting equation systemallows the calculation of switching frequency FS, output
load
Ro
functions
input
V,
the
resistance
as
and
of
voltage V,,, and the input
voltage
describing
1,
The
equations,
steady state converter operation, havebeen solved
current .
82
for a range of values of Ro / Z,, and FS / F [Hobson L(1)., 1992]. Result is plotted in
Figure 6-3 of chapter 6.
The switch voltage stress is directly depend on the peak capacitor voltage vCRt, and
c
the output voltage Vo ;
VSm= VC
f-
Vo
Eq 4-31
A Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter has been developed for application as first
induction
heating
induction
for
This
the
systems.
stage
complete
converter
of
stage
heating system converts the three-phase mains supply to a required DC value. It
basically consists of a Quasi Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter arrangement which is
Rectifier
input
Buck
discontinuous
Three-Phase
voltages.
capacitor
with
operated
input
input
follows
the
average
capacitor
voltage which
produces nearly sinusoidal
inductor line currents.
The analysis is obtained using a single-phase model. This model is obtained from the
three phase converter by assuming that one phase voltage operates exactly at its cross
is
the
therefore
circuit
and
simplified.
point
over
The complete induction heating system consists of two stages of power conversion. The
proposed stage converts the three-phase mains supply to a required DC value. The
DC
AC
in
be
investigated
to
the following chapter.
converts
which
stage
will
second
83
CHAPTER 5
INVERTER STAGE FOR THREE PHASE UNITY POWER
FACTOR INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEM
5.1 Introduction
To achievethe required specification of the induction heating systema new topology

conceptwas identified which can be divided into two relatively independentstages.The
first stage consists of a Three-PhaseQuasi-ResonantPush-Pull Buck Converter to
transform the three-phasemains supply into DC and is investigated in the previous
chapter. The second stage consists of a single ended resonant inverter which transforms
the DC into AC for the induction heater coil. Figure 5-1 shows the circuit diagram of the
factor
induction
heating
unity
power
system.
proposed
Basically an induction heater consists of a magnetic circuit (induction coil) and an
inverter suitable for exciting the induction coil. The coil can be representedas an
inductance and a resistancein series. The power dissipation in the resistanceis the
inverter
The
type
of
and its design determinesthe performance of the
output power.
heater [ChatterjeeK., 1993]
84
Figure 5-1 Circuit diagram of the Three-Phase input Unity. Power Factor induction
heating system.
The output voltage of the resonant inverters is controlled by changing the ratio of
(Fs,
/
frequency
frequency
Fv)
to
resonant
switching
j.
Continuous Conduction Mode(CCM),
as seen in Figure 5-2. In the
the switch is controlled so that the resonant
is
between
inductor
i,
the
the
continuous
and
oscillation
and
capacitor
current
resonant
is not interrupted [Ramanarayanan V., 1992]. Another way to operate the resonant
inverter is with the Discontinuous Conduction Mode(DCM). In this mode the resonating
interrupted
is
interruptions
during
the current has a value
these
every
cycle
and
current
is
Output
duration
interruption.
by
the
the
power
control
obtained
of
of zero.
varying
85
Figure 5-2 Resonant current i, in a) A Continuous Conduction Mode(CCM) and b)A

Discontinuous Conduction Mode(DCM).
The proposed single ended resonant inverter is operated under DCM by setting the
frequency.
half
is
frequency
The
the
topology
to
this
of
resonant
advantage
of
switching
that the turn OFF of the switching action takes place at zero current, therefore, the
losses
An
inverter
the
reduced.
much
additional
advantage
are
of
proposed
switching
topology is that it requiresa small number of componentsand of lower in cost compared
bridge
inverter.
inverter
the
the
and
push-pull
with
5.2 Principle
Of Operation
Of The Single
Ended
Resonant
Inverter
The proposed Single Ended Resonant Inverter provides AC current through the
induction heater coil. This AC current flowing in the turns of the induction coil creates
86
7-7
VGA
-----------------------------r
---------,
-------'
V,
-----
L
----
------
t3.
{O
---
-----
t0
Figure 5-3 Operational waveforms for the single ended resonant inverter.( VGS-Gate
load
Vc,
IS-Thyristor
the
the
thyristor,
across
resonant
pulse of
capacitor,
L-Voltage
current, ID -Diode current, VLrL-Load voltage).
field
for
the workpiece. The power device of the
electromagnetic
an alternating
proposed inverter consists of a semiconductor switch S, an inductor
LrL
and
a
,
capacitor C,L. The diode D, which is connected in antiparallel with switch S,

implementsbi-directional current flow through the load.
Figure 5-3 shows the operating waveforms of the proposed single switch resonant
inverter. When the switch S is turned ON, the capacitor is discharged through the coil,
87
Figure 5-4 Switch voltageVV and current IS, waveforms during turn-off.
transfers its stored energy to the load. During this mode a resonant pulse of current,
from
load,
falls
flows
to
to zero
through
the
rises
zero
a
maximum value and
which
again at t= t, and the switch is self comutated. However, the resonant oscillation
direction
in
falls
diode
D
the
the
through
reverse
until
again zero at
current
continues
t= t2 During the time interval between t2 and t3 the resonance capacitor is charged by
.
the DC supply voltage.
This topology is operatedunder the zero-current switching mode of the semiconductor

devices.The energylost when a device switchesON or OFF is:
tON-Orr
vxixdt
Eq 5-1
it
is
the
time
takes the semiconductor device to turn ON or OFF, that is,
ION-OFF
where
the rise or fall time of its current and/or voltage. Figure 5-4 shows the turn OFF switch
IS,
VS
inverter.
It
be
the
current
waveform
of
and
proposed
can
seen that the
voltage
88
Figure 5-5 Equivalent modes of the three-phase unity power factor induction heating
system inverter stake.
is
losses
OFF
OFF
therefore,
turn
turned
power
at
current,
are negligible.
zero
switch
As a result of this, the proposed single switch resonant inverter has higher efficiency
compare with the non-resonant inverter systems.
5.3 Analysis Of The Three Phase Unity Power Factor Induction

Heating System Inverter Stage
An analysis has been performed which allows calculation of the voltage and current
is
The
based
the
components.
analysis
of
resonant
on mode analysis and each
values
into
different
is
divided
three
modes. Their associated equivalent circuits
switching cycle
is
based
in
5-5.
The
following
Figure
the
analysis
on
simplifying assumptions:
are shown
"
The input DC voltage is constant; no ripple is present in the dc voltage.
"
The switch and the diode shown are ideal. The reverserecovery time of the diode is
zero.
"
The effect of snubbercomponentsis neglected.
89
5.3.1 Resonant Capacitor Discharging
Mode (Mode 1)
Figure 5-6 Circuit diagram of Mode 1
An equivalent circuit diagram of Mode 1 is shown in Figure 5-6. Mode 1 starts when the
S
is
duration
ON.
is
The
Mode
9,
between
1
turns
to and t, as shown
angular
of
switch
in Figure 5-7. It ends when the switch current i, (t) becomes zero.
Initial conditions:
V
(0)
CTL
=V
CrL mar
i, (0)=0
()=o
i,
VCrL (&)
VCTLI
Equationsdescribingcircuit operation during Mode 1 are as follows:

yCrLmax
j'! 1 l
etS1Y1CUrI
(fir LiL
VCrLmax
vCrLllt
e
0)r
at (aSi, zw t +COrCOSCVr1)
`
Eq 5-2
Eq 5-3
90
MODE 1
V
1
-1
1-7
VCd.
------------------I-
-----
-----
ID
:V
to
ti
t3 to
"
t1
Vc,
Figure 5-7 Waveforms during Mode 1. VAS
the
tyristor,
pulse
of
-Gate
L-Voltage
VL,
load
IS
ID
the
current,
current,
resonant
capacitor,
across
-tyristor
-Diode
L -Load
voltage).
R(1Z2
where: aR
2LZ
rL
L",C.
5.3.2 Diode Conduction
4L.
Mode (Mode 2)
An equivalent circuit diagram of Mode 2 is shown in Figure 5-8. Mode 2 follows on

directly from Mode 1. It starts when the capacitor voltage becomes maximum at the
91
L
rL
I2
+
rL
CrL
is
direction.
However,
The
turned
the resonant oscillation current
off.
switch
reverse
flows through diode D in the reverse direction. This mode ends when the current falls
to zero again as can be seen from the waveforms in Figure 5-9. The angular duration of
Mode 2 is BZ from t, to t2.
Initial conditions:
VCrL2(0)
=VCrLI(e2)
i, (0) =0
Boundary conditions
VCrL( 02) = VCrL3
12(02)=0
Equations describing circuit operation during Mode 2 are as follows:
92
MODE 2
V
CrL
i
i
Lri
---"- ---
---
t3
t2
t
0
'
tp
i2 /tl
ll
VCrL2
=
O)r LL
e-Silzo
Eq 5-4
VCrL2
VCrL3(t)
+COrCOSQ)rt)
e-'(aSiiicorf
=
0r
Eq 5-5
where
i
R2 z
a2L.
_R1
LTL C.
L
4 L, 2
93
5.3.3 Resonant Capacitor Charging Mode (Mode 3)
An equivalent circuit diagram of Mode 3 is shown in Figure 5-10. Mode 3 follows on
directly from Mode 2. It starts when the diode current becomes zero. After 12
,
IDc begins charging up CrL. Capacitor voltage VCrLrises linearly as can be seen from
the waveformsin Figure 5-11. The angular duration of Mode 3 is 83 from t2-t3'
IDC
VDC
CrL
CrL
The resonant capacitor charging mode ends when the capacitor C, is charged to its
L
maximum value vc,L
(03)
At
t3
thyristor
turns
the
vc,
on
again,
starting
next
=
Lm1C
.
,
switching cycle.
Initial conditions:
VCrL(0
= VCrL3(02)
(0)
13 =0
94
MODE 3
cP
VCrL
-----
-------------------------
.I
--------,
------
-- -
---------
' LrL
---------
- ----to
El
t2
t3
-
to
(03)
V
= v,::,,,..
CrL
duration
Mode
is
3.
03
the
of
angular
where
Equations describing circuit operation during Mode 3.

IDC
vCrL
`t)
t+
C+
rL
VCrL
Eq 5-6
The energy delivered to the load during this mode is zero.
95
5.4 Induction Heater Coil
In most induction heating applications the workpiece is surrounded by the coil which
is
field
the
and
magnetic
which
supplied from the power source. The
produces
loosely
the
are
coupled together via the magnetic field and the
and
coil
workpiece
is
complete assembly equivalent to a transformer with the coil as the primary and the
workpiece as a single-turn secondarywinding.
The electrical efficiency of an induction heater is defined as the ratio of the power
dissipated as heat in the workpiece to the total input power. Thus, it is dependent on the
induced
distribution
in
the
the work-piece, and on the losses
current
and
of
magnitude
highest
in
The
is
the
magnetizing
winding.
efficiency
generated
obtained when the
is
large
the
compared to that of the coil conductors. In
resistivity
of
workpiece
electrical
in
induction
losses
the
to
minimize
resistivity
and
an
coil, water cooled highorder
is
copper
normally used. The electrical efficiency can also be improved, if a
conductivity
is
instead
layer
coil
used
of
conventional
single
multi-layered
winding [Harvey I., 1976].
5.4.1 Induction Heater Coil Configurations
The coil must be designed to produce the value of field strength(H) required to give the
dissipation
in
heat
the workpiece. The air gap. between the coil and the
specified
be
large
to
need
relatively
will
since it is necessary to thermally insulate the
workpiece
heat
to
against
give
protection
coil
radiated from the workpiece. In addition there
work
insert
be
to
the workpiece into the coil and, and withdraw it on
must sufficient clearance
96
Figure 5-12 A typical coil construction for through-heating application
in
insulation
Figure
5-12
heating
typical
method
used
the
shows
a
cycle.
completion of
through-heatingcoil construction.
Although circular or cylindrical coils are one of the most popular type, it is sometimes
heating,
hairpin
for
is
A
to
surface
coil,
which used
convenient use other shapes. curved
is shown in Figure 5-13. This would be used where it is impossibleto surround the
it
is
because
but
the
possible to
of
presence of other parts,
where
cylindrical surface,
rotate the cylindrical surface under the coil.
In home cooking applications where most vessels have a flat bottom, the pancake
[Chatterjee
Such
is
in
K.
1993].
suited
an
arrangement
are
well
shown
coils
shaped
Figure 5-14. To increasethe coupling of the coil with the vessel,ferromagnetic
97
Figure 5-13 A curved hairpin coil for surface heating.
low
-path
for
flux
These
the
provide
a
reluctance
concentrators are normally used.
insteadof allowing it to flows freely flow through the normal leakagepath.
In melting application the induction furnace consistsbasically of a cylindrical refractory

be
induction
by
heating
to
the
the
melted,
metal
surrounded
contains
which
container,
in
5-15.
These
for
Figure
ferrous
units
are
used
melting
and non-ferrous
seen
as
coil
ingots and scrap, and for refining.
For the proposedthree-phaseunity power factor induction heater,the cylindrical shaped

Consequently,
design
in
been
has
this
type
the
of
coil
chosen.
method
of
are
given
coil
following section.
98
Xi-
Coil
Flux return path
Figure 5-14 Pancake coil for induction heating.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O.
4--Coil
O
Refractory
Figure 5-15 An induction furnace for melting.
99
5.5 Equivalent Circuit Coil-Design Method
The basis of this method of coil design is the reduction of the induction heating coil and
inductance.
is
This
their
the same procedure as
to
and
resistance
equivalent
workpiece
its
to
transformer
equivalent circuit, where the various flux paths are
the reduction of a
including
inductances,
losses,
load,
in
the
the
terms
and
of
representedas
represented
by
in
Baker
[1957].
The
this
area
out
original
work
was
carried
resistances.
The method is applicable to a load of any shape so long as the coil surrounds the
flux
Figure
5-17
Figure
5-16
the
and
current
path
and
shows
shows the
workpiece.
for
induction
heating
the
the
proposed
circuit
of
coil
system.
equivalent
electrical
From the simplified electrical circuit an induction heating coil can be representedas five
impedance
is
The
two
three
resistive
and
reactive.
components,
of
coil
connected
series
follows;
as
calculated
Z=(Rw+Rc)+j(Xg+XV+Xc)
Eq5-7
where;
R, -reflected working piece resistance (Q).
,
R, -coil resistance(92).
X, -reactance due to air gap flux (SZ).
X, -reactance due to coil flux (S2).
X,, - reactancedue to workpiece flux (92).
100
oll,
A
------------------------
-------------
-----------------------------------------J--
ff
-----------
-'
QQaQ
-T
------------------.
off
11
\\
C-C ------------------------
-C
_dd Wg
tc
11111121.
Pennell[ 121111111
ooo
1-C
Figure 5-16 Flux and current path for proposed coil.
Xc
Xg
E
I
Ftc
Rw
Figure 5-17 Equivalent circuit of the coil.
Specific expressions for these quantities are given in the equations between Eq 6.16 and
Eq 6.25. The design of the coil for the proposed three-phase unity power factor
induction heating systemis carried out using electrical equivalentcoil design method and
following
in
the
chapter.
given
101
A Single Ended Resonant Inverter which supplies AC current to the induction heater
investigated.
This stage of the complete induction heating system
has
been
coil
transforms the DC into AC for the induction heater coil. It basically consists of an
induction coil and an inverter suitable for supplying the induction coil. The use of a
inverter,
is
Discontinuous
Conduction
Mode
resonant
which
operated
ended
with
single
device
to turn off under zero current conditions, therefore,
the
switching
allows
switching lossesare much reduced.
The analysis is based on mode analysis and each switching cycle is divided into three
different modeswhich are determinedby the statusof the switching device and diode.
For the proposedthree-phaseunity power factor induction heater, a cylindrical shaped

been
design
has
chosen
and
an
equivalent
circuit
coil
coil
method has been investigated.
To verify the theoretical results a 500W induction heater prototype, which has been built
is
introduced
in
following
the
tested,
chapters.
and
102
CHAPTER 6
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR THE COMPLETE INDUCTION
HEATING SYSTEM
6.1 Introduction
The proposed induction heating system has been designed to achieve high quality
500
To
the
input
theoretical
simulated
verify
and
results
a
currents.
supply
sinusoidal
W prototype system has been built and tested. The circuit diagram of the complete
6.1.
in
is
Figure
shown
prototype
The system can be divided into two functional blocks according to design procedure.
The first part, which includes a three-phase rectifier and a Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull
Buck converter, converts the three phase AC mains supply to a required DC link value
link
AC
DC
this
to
the
required
voltage of specified
value
a
part
converts
second
and
frequency. In this chapter the design procedure, simulated and design results of the
have
induction
been
investigated.
input
factor
heating
system
power
proposed unity
103
V.
L, L
VI
L
V
TMZZPF-AS:.'II; i1TYPOW
PICITFIIt
PACTOR
-'-
QUASI-3FSONANTPUSH"P=B-jCP.
CONVERTER
--
SMGLESWTTCHRESONANT '
IIdDUCT;ON HEATER
diagram
The
of the complete systemprototype.
6-1
circuit
Figure
6.2 Component Selection
The selection of components used in a power converter is critical to its operation. There
into
dealing
factors
take
to
consideration,
when
with resonant converters
are many
frequency.
high
The
switching
size, weight and cost of a system are also
operating at a
designs.
Usually
important
to
these
three
of
parameters
most
all
parametersgo
obvious
together oncethe configuration and types of componentsare chosen.
This section briefly introduces the decision processes undertaken when choosing
in
the
to
areas
critical
of
proposed system.
use
components
104
ESL
iaai
ESR
Rp
Figure 6-2 The equivalentcircuit of an electrolytic capacitor.
6.2.1 Resonant Capacitor
A capacitor is a complex device that consists of a dominant capacitance, parasitic series

inductance and a resistance as seen- in Figure 6-2. The capacitor used in resonant
basis
be
the
of their equivalent seriesresistance(ESR)and
on
selected
should
converters
their equivalent series inductance(ESL). There are four major types of capacitor and
below:
disadvantages
are
considered
their advantagesand
1. Electrolytic: This is the most common of the four main types. Because of their
limitation,
dc
filter
they
are
most
often
voltage
used
as
capacitors.Currently
unipolar
availabletypes of electrolytic capacitorshave large ESR. The bulky metal cansused
low
these
create
capacitors
a
volumetric efficiency.
with
2. Solid film tantalum: This capacitors are of high-capacity, polarised, and of low ESR.
They are, however, more reliable than electrolytic capacitors. Although they have a
105
high volumetric efficiency,they also have all the problems of electrolytics, as well as
the addeddisadvantageof higher cost.
3. Ceramic: Multilayer ceramic capacitors have low ESR and ESL. However, they are
for
low-voltage
with
electrolytic
capacitors,
particularly
compared
expensive
quite
ideal
for
These
resonant capacitor or output capacitor
capacitors are
ratings.
is
high.
is
Technology
the
required
capacitance
not
rapidly
where
applications,
making this type of capacitor more attractive.
4. Polypropylene: These are high voltage low ESR capacitors. Polypropylene

ideal
for
high
are
voltage resonant converter applications because of a
capacitors
dielectric
loss
the
of
polypropylene
coefficient
material.
very small
Capacitors for use in resonant tank circuits must primarily have low ohmic series
loss
dielectric
For
the proposed system polyprolene
characteristics.
and
resistance
because
low
have
been
ERS
high
their
chosen
of
and
capacitors
voltage capability.
6.2.2 Resonant Inductor
Inductors are present in almost every power electronic circuit. The main applications of
inductors canbe classifiedas follows:
1. In resonant converters: They are used with capacitors to create sinusoidal variations
of voltage or current.
106
2. As a part of input and output filters: The DC output voltage of a rectifier should be
be
Inductors
DC
to
the
possible.
can
used
smooth
as
out
output
ripple-free
as
voltage of the rectifier.
3. In snubbercircuits: Inductors are used to minimise large overcurrents through the

deviceat turn-on by limiting the rate of changeof current.
Unlike other electric components used in power electronic circuits, inductors are not
in
form
large
The
the
required.
number of parameters that
generally available
it
impractical
for
makes
a manufacturer to produce
component
a
magnetic
characterise
industry.
by
Consequently
design
the
the
required
of
configurations
vast
array
stock
and
in
implementation
is
inductor
the
the
aspects
critical
of resonant
one
of
most
of an
have
these
components
a great effect: on the overall
magnetic
converters, since
functionality and efficiency of the converter. The main problems of concern are heat
losses,
in
implementations.
as
cost
as
well
saturation,
core
practical
management,core
The causes of core and winding losses in high frequency, resonant switching converter
in
discussed
reference,along with sometechniqueto minimise
are
magneticcomponents
them [Boyle J W., 1995].
Inductors used in an inductor capacitor network must have the following characteristics:
loss.
low
and
magnetic
electrical
very
"
small cost and volume.
107
Magnetic materials suitable for high-frequency, high-power applications are mainly MnZn(Manganese-Zinc) and Ni-Zn (Nickel-Zinc) ferrites. For the proposed converter, airis
because
low
the
of
preferred,
cored construction
output
power(500W).
This
losses,
in
further
and
as well as cost.
reduction
weight
construction gives
6.2.3 Controlled Switches
The increasedpower capabilities,easeof control, and reduced cost of modern power

in
have
large
devices
made
converters
affordable
a
number of
semiconductor
host
have
for
topologies
a
of
new
converter
opened
up
and
power
applications
introduction
Since
first
the
the
tyristor or silicon-controlled
of
applications.
electronic
in
late
by
developed
1957s
General
Electric
Company,
the
was
which
rectifier(SCR),
device
have
been
introduced.
different
Presently
types
semiconductor
of
power
many
devices
be
into
three groups according to
can
classified
semiconductor
power
available
their degree of controllability. These are:
1. Diodes: Turn on and off states controlled by the power circuit. At turn on, the diode
ideal
because
be
it
turns on rapidly compared to the
switch
an
considered
can
transientsin the power circuit. However at turn-off, the diode current reversesfor a
before
falling
lead
This
time
to overvoltages in diodes
to
can
zero.
reverserecovery
.
inductive circuits. Depending on the application requirements,various types of are

available:
108
diodes
diodes:
These
low
forward
Schottky
drop
is
are
used
where
a
voltage
a)
low
in
The
leakage
output
voltage
circuits.
very
needed
current increases with
the voltage rating and their ratings are limited to 100V, 300A
b) Fast recovery(High speed) diodes: They are designed to be used in high-
frequency circuits in combination with controllable switches where a small

is
be
kilovolts
Their
time
can
several
needed.
rating
recovery
and several
reverse
kiloampers. The reverse recovery time varies between 0.1 and 5 s.
diodes:
The
diodes
General-purpose
is
designed
be
these
on-state
to
voltage
of
c)
have
larger
low
They
a
reverse recovery time than the high speed
as
possible.
as
type. These diodes are available with blocking voltage ratings of several kilovolts
of
several
kiloampers.
and current ratings
2. Thyristors: These devices turn on by a control signal and off by the power circuit.
The thyristor can be turned-on by applying a pulse of positive gate current for a
device
is
forward
duration
biased and turned off by making
that
the
provided
short
the potential of the anode equal or less than the cathode potential. Their rating can
be of several kilovolts and several kiloampers. The thyristor is the most extensively
in
frequency
induction
heating
switch
medium
semiconductor
used
applications
because of its high power handling capability [Chudnovsky V., 1996]. The main
disadvantages of the thyristor may be summarised as-:(I )the low operating frequency
(2)the extra commutation components required to turn off the device in inverter
applications.
109
3. Controllable switches: This devices are turn on and off by control signals applied to
the gates and bases. The required output is obtained by varying the conduction time
devices.
is
The
higher
than that of
these
switching
speed
switching
much
of
thyristors and they are extensively employed in DC-DC and DC-AC converters, with
diode
bi-directional
inverse
to
provide
parallel-connected
current flow. These
an
devices have seen major advancesin recent years. They can be divided into four
main categories:
Transistors(BJTs):
They
devices
Junction
Bipolar
are
current
controlled
and base
a)
be
keep
to
them in the on-state. The
must
supplied
continuously
current
Darlington and Triple Darlington configurations in which BJTs may be used,
have a considerable increase the overall current gain at high levels. Some
disadvantages which accrue in this configuration include slightly higher on stage
voltage drops and slower switching speeds.
b) Gate-Turn-Off Thyristors(GTOs): Like the thyristor, the GTO can be turned on

by a short-duration gate current pulse, and once in the on state, the GTO may
stay on without any further gate current. However, unlike the thyristor, the GTO
by
be
turned
applying a negative gate-cathode voltage. A GTO has low
off
can
gain during turn off and requires relatively high negative current pulse to turn-
off.
c) Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs):
MOSFETs
require the continuous application of a gate-source voltage of appropriate
in
in
to
the on-state. The device is turned off when the
order
remain
magnitude
110
is
below
in
Power
MOSFETs
the
threshold
value.
are
voltage
used
gate-source
high-speed power converters and are available at a relatively low power rating in
the range of 1000V, 100A at a frequency range of several tens of kilohertz
[Farnell Components, 1997]
Various
Transistors(IGBTs):
Bipolar
Gate
Insulated
methods have been
d)
developed to combine the advantages of the BJT and MOSFET, of which the
IGBT is the most commercially advanced.Typically the IGBT provides much

faster switching speedthan the BJT and attains significantly lower on-resistance
than the MOSFET. The IGBT has a small on-state voltage even in device with
large blocking voltage ratings. Similar to the MOSFET, the IGBT has a high
impedance gate, which require only a small amount of energy to switch the
device. IGBTs are available for high voltage, high current and frequencies up to
45kHz [Farnell Components, 1996].
The choice of semiconductor device will depend on the voltage, current and frequency
few
Only
definite
be
in
the
a
application.
can
made
statements
of
requirements
devices
be
these
of
since
a
number
properties
must
considered simultaneously
comparing
devices
However,
because
the
the
evolving
are
still
at
a
rapid
qualitative
pace.
and
be
in
help
6-1
best
Table
The
this
table
to
can
can
of
made.
use
chose
given
observations
for
device
the proposed system.
possibleswitching
The proposed three phase unity input power factor induction heating system consists of
in
Figure 6-1, therefore, power and speed
conversion
as
seen
three stages of power
III
nf1
f,..
.,
Low
Fast
General Purpose Diode
High
Low
High Speed Diode
Medium
Medium
THYRISTOR
High
Slow
BJT
Medium
Medium
GTO
High
Slow
MOSFET
Low
Fast
IGBT
Medium
Medium
Schottky
S
Diode
Table 6-1 Relative properties of semiconductor devices.
individually.
Since
been
have
then
switching
outlined
stage
each
of
requirements
in
been
have
'Table 6-2.
for
given
devices eachstage
chosenand are
Switch
Quasi-Resonant Push
Single
Rectifier Stage
Pull Buck Converter
Resonant Inverter
Type and number of
General Purpose
IGBT
THYRISTOR
devices
switching
Diode
IRGPC40U (2)
N105HR06
16FL60S02(6)
High-Speed
Type of Converter
Three
Phase Unity
RUR660 (2)
Diode (1)
GeneralPurpose
Diode
RURU8060 (1)
Table 6-2 Switching devices used in proposed three phase unity input power factor
112
6.3 Design Procedure For The 500w Converter Based On ThreePhase Input Rectifier Stage And Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull
Buck Converter
Based on the described analysis in chapters 4 and 5, a design procedure has been
developed.The design procedure of the converter has been carried out to achieve the
converter specification given in Table 6-3.
Typical design procedure steps for the Three Phase Buck Rectifier Stage and QuasiResonant Push-Pull Buck Converter may be outlined as follows:
Three Phase Unity Power Factor Converter

Parameters
Prototype
Output Power
500W
Output Voltage
200V
input Voltage -Three Phase Mains
150V
Supply Frequency
50Hz
Minimum Input Power Factor
0.95
Mmum
Converter Switching Frequency
Maximum Converter Switching Frequency
20kHz
40kHz
Table 6-3 Design target specification of the converter based on the Three Phase Push-
Pull Buck Rectifier Stageand the Quasi ResonantBuck Converter.
113
The design values of the resonant components of Three-Phase Quasi-Resonant

Push-Pull Buck Converter could be obtained from the relationship of the singlein
Figure
be
4.10.
It
three-phase
the
as
seen
converter
can
seen that
phase model and
CR3
large
CRI
CRZ
inductors
LR,
input
twice
are
as
and
the
capacitor values
,
,
,
LRZare twice as small as those calculated for the single phase model.
The required output voltage of the three-phase rectifier stage determines the
Minimum
Voltage Conversion Ratio VB
.A
possible converter operating point,
be
from
the voltage
the
obtained
output
voltage
could
required
which provides
in
Figure
6-3.
shown
conversion ratio characteristic
6.3.1 Minimum
Voltage Conversion Ratio VB
In a Buck type converter average converter output voltage Va, is less than the input
The
Vp
M.,
1993].
is
V,
[Rashid
voltage
conversion
ratio
which
voltage N
,
depending on the applied input voltage VL and the required output DC link value
follows:
found
be
as
can
a
V.
VB =
Viv
Eq 6-1
Because the output voltage is always less then the input voltage, the voltage conversion
in
between
0<VB
Figure
6-3.
Voltage
<1
V.
has
as
seen
conversion
value
a
ratio
ratio
for the proposedconverter is found as follows;

114
V _Vo
B Vin
ZCS
0.9 -L
---
--
---
0.8
---
I
J
0'7
L
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
03
.
0.2
0.1
01
Fs/Fn
A-0 66
.
B-0.62
C-0.57
D-0.53
E-0.48
F-0.44
G-0.40
H-0.35
I-0.31
J-0.26
K-0.22
L-0.18
M-0.13
N-0.09
0-0.04
23456
RB = Ro/Zn
Figure 6-3 Voltage conversion ratio characteristic of the Three-Phase Quasi-Resonant

Push-Pull Buck Converter [Pforr J(2)., 1992].
From Table 6-3,

V =200V.
VL, =150V.
V
VB
V1
i
VL
=0.90
where;
V - output DC link voltage.
AC mainssupplyvoltage
VLLv
three-phase
-
115
6.3.2 Normalised Switching Frequency Ratio FB
From Figure 6-3 it can be seen that a horizontal line of specified voltage conversion
the
all
provide
required voltage conversion ratio.
curves
which
several
cross
will
ratio
The curves determinethe normalisedswitching frequency ratio F. of the converter. The

frequency
ratio
switching
normalised
FB
depends on the switching

which
,
frequencyF,,, and the normalisedresonancefrequency FN of the converter, is equalto;
FB
F,v
Eq 6-2
Switching frequency FF,, is obtained from Table 6-3 as 20kHz<FF-<40kHz. This is the
Three-Phase
Buck
Converter.
Normalised
band
frequency
the
proposed
of
switching
by
is
determined
F.
frequency
the
the
resonant
components
converter.
of
resonance
Figure 6-3 shows that several curves are available which all provide a voltage
(curves
A,
B,
C,
VB
D,
F,
G,
G,
The
H).
named
=0.90
ratio
curve
and
which
conversion
frequency
F.
is
because
it
leads
0.4,
to
ratio
switching
chosen
=
normalised
provides a
frequency
The
design
resonant
components.
switching
smaller
normalised
ratio
with
a
F. is used to determine the component values of the resonant inductor L,.,1 and
CRM
resonantcapacitor
116
6.3.3 Normalised Load Resistance Ratio RB
A vertical line of the selectednormalised switching frequency ratio curve (G) estimates
the normalised load resistance ratio R.
as seen in Figure 6-3. This vertical line
determines the final converter design point. The normalised load resistance ratio RB is
given by;
RB
Ro
Eq 6-3
ZN
where;
ZN -Normalised impedance.
Ro-Output resistanceof the converter
Equations which determinethe normalisedimpedance ZN and output resistanceRo are

load
in
following
is
determined
The
RB
the
sections.
normalised
resistance
ratio
given
from Figure 6-3 to be 5.3. Calculation of the resonant components of the Single Phase
Model could be done using selected operating point and parameters.
6.3.4 Maximum Average Switch Current
ISAFIG
The average current through each of the two switching devices( S, and SZ) is depend on
the required output power Po and DC link voltage VO as well as the total system
describing
Equation
the average switch current ISA is given by;
,
q.
efficiency
117
Po
Eq 6-4
SA - Vo7J
= 3.33A
6.3.5 Converter Output Resistance Ro
The converter output resistanceRo is calculated from the averageswitch current IS4f
J"
follows:
link
DC
as
the
voltage
required
and
Pro
Eq 6-5
ISA
=6M
6.3.6 Resonant Components C1
and LRti1 of the Single Phase Model
Using the selected operating points and parameters (Fsw Jo,

,
Fs;. / FN)
VO/ Viv
Ro / Zx
the required resonant component values can be determined from the
impedance
ZN
frequency
describing
F.
the
the
the
value
of
and
resonant
equations
Normalised resonant frequency F.
and normalised impedanceZN of the resonant
by
[Pforr
J(2).,
1992]:
is
given
circuit
1
FN
2r LC
Rif
Eq 6-6
R4f
118
LRtir
ZN =
Eq 6-7
CRu
From the equations (Eq. 6.6 and Eq. 6.7) describing the normalised impedance ZN and
frequency
F,,
resonant
normalised
the component values of the resonant capacitor
CRt, and the resonant inductor LR,, are calculated. The calculation of the resonant
is
follows:
as
capacitor
Rearranging Eq 6.6, which describes normalised resonant frequency FN gives:

,
1
CP. =
Vf (27rFtv)2 LFU1
Eq 6-8
From Eq 6.7;
LRt, = ZN
RM
Eq 6-9
Combining equations Eq. 6.8 and Eq. 6.9 rearranging and collecting terms:
1
CRtf
27r
ZN
Eq 6-10
The normalised resistance RB and normalised switching frequency FB found from

Figure 6-3 are given by:
RB = Ro / ZN
=5.3
FB ='
Sir
/ Fx
=0.4
119
Combining Eq. 6.2, Eq. 6.3 and Eq. 6.10 gives
F,
Eq6-11
1=27r
The solution of Eq. 6.11 gives the component values of the resonant capacitor CR as
follows;
CRr
0.40 x 5.3
21r40x103 x45
=l40nF
is
found
from
Ro
Eq.
6.5
600
as
resistance
and maximum switching
output
where,
frequency FS,, is given in Table 6-3 as 40kHz.
The equation, which determines the component values of the resonant inductor LRW is
,
Eq.
6.3
Eq.
by
6.9
follows:
and
rearranging
combining
and
as
obtained
C%
Ro
LRtir
Eq 6-12
=17 LH
of Three Phase Quasi-Resonant
Push-Pull
Buck
Converter
The design values obtained for the resonant inductor LR, and the resonant capacitor
4f
C, are valid for the single-phase converter model given in Fig 4.10. Component values
uf
120
of the single-phase model and the three-phase converter are related as follows:
Assuming, that phase-voltage VLI, of the three-phase converter is zero, than the input
voltage source of the single-phase model consists of the series connection of the two
VL2
VL3
and
sources
of the three-phase converter. Similarly,
phase-voltage
remaining
the input capacitor C1
of the single-phase model consists of the series connection of
CRZ
input
the remaining
capacitors
and CR3of the three-phaseconverter.
Equation describing total capacitance C,u,
of series connection of two capacitors is as
follows;
CR2
CR3
CR
CR
Ruf
Eq 6-13
3
2+
Resonant capacitors of the three-phase converter have similar component values,
therefore Eq. 6.13 can be simplified as;

CR3
CR2
Eq 6-14
CRI -22
Componentvalue of resonantcapacitor for the single-phasemodel has been found from

Eq. 6.11 as C 1=140nF. From Eq 6.14, capacitance value of the resonant capacitors for
found
be
follows;
three-phase
can
as
converter
the
CRI
CR2
CR3
2CRtir
=
280nF
=
Similar to resonant capacitor, the resonant inductor LX,,,,of the single-phasemodel

inductors
LR,
LR2.
the
Equation
connection
of
series
resonant
of
and
consists
describingthe total inductanceof the seriesconnectionof two inductors is as follows;
LRtif
LRl
+ LR2
Eq 6-15
121
Total resonant inductance of the single-phase model is given by Eq. 6.12 as LR, =17H.
f
Consequently, the inductance value of the resonant inductors of the three-phase

is;
converter
LRI
LRr
LR
2==8.5ffl
From the relationship of the single-phasemodel and the three-phaseconverter, it can be

CR,
CRZ
CR3
large
inductors
input
twice
the
the
that
are
as
values
and
capacitor
seen
,
,
LR, and LRZare half of those calculatedfor the single phasemodel.
6.4 Design Procedure For The 500 W Single Ended Resonant
Inverter
This part of the circuit is shown in Figure 6-1 and basically consists of a resonant
heating
flow
The
induction
AC
through
circuit
provides
coil.
current
an
and
capacitor
inside
is
In
A
the
this part of the circuit, a thyristor
coil.
placed
the coil. steel workpiece
is used as the switching elementmainly becauseof their high current handling capability.
The design procedure for this part of the system has been carried out to satisfy the
in
6-4.
Table
given
specifications
Having defined circuit parameters, other parameters have been calculated by using
is
investigated
in
details
in
coil-design
circuit
method
which
more
equivalent electrical
5.
chapter
122
Three Phase Unity Power Factor Converter

Inverter Parameters
Output Power
500W
DC Input Voltage
200V
Resonant Frequency
1000Hz
Power Factor of the Coil
0.3 lagging
Maximum Switching Frequency
500Hz
Working
piece parameters
Cylindrical load diameter
d, = 60mm
V
Working piece length
l =100mm
Relative permeability of steel
Pr =10
Resistivity of steel
p20 =0.2p0m
Temperaturecoefficient of resistivity
a20= 0.00572 K-'
Permeability of free space
uo = 4ir 10-7
Coil parameters:
Coil diameter
dc=110mm
Coil length
lc=150mm
Resistivity of copper
p20=0.017)m
Temperaturecoefficient of resistivity
a20= 0.004 K-'
Table 6-4 Design target specificationsof the single endedresonantinverter.
123
Frequency
50/60Hz
Workpiece Temperature(C)
550 850
1kHz
1250
850
3kHz
1250
850
10kHz
1250
850
1250
Air Gap
Work dia 0 to 60mm.
25
25
50
50 62
Work dia 60 to 125mm.
25
38
50
62 75
Work dia 125 to 250mm.
25
38
50
75 80
50 62
50 62
Table 6-5 Recommended air gaps between coil and workpiece for through-heating
coils.
From Table 6-5 the recommended air gap between coil and workpiece can be found. It
on
between
is
depend
be
that
the
the required
coil
and
airgap
workpiece
noted
can
diameters
frequency.
d,,.
For
60mm
the
temperature,
and
coil
piece
working
=
and
output
1000Hz the air gap between coil and core has been chosen as x= 50mm from Table
6-5 [Davies J., 1979].
6.4.1 Resistivity and Skin Depth
In the heatingprocessesthe variation of resistivity with temperaturemust be considered.

The resistivity of metals varies with temperature. Eq 6.16 is used to determine the
[Davies
J.,
1979];
temperature
given
at
metal
of
resistivity
124
po = p,
(l+u
(B-9))
Eq 6-16
in
0
is
terms
temperature
the
of
the
any
resistivity
at
resistivity
po
where
p, at
is
9,
the temperaturecoefficient of the metal.
a
and
temperature
By using the designparametersgiven in Table 6-4, resistivity of steel at 750 found as:
Peso= izo(1 '
0(0 -
Bf))
nm
=1.035
For the purpose of calculation and accommodate the variation in resistivity through the
heating period, a representative value may be used, known as integrated resistivity p,,,,
for
heating
The
the
to
the
over
rate
period.
required
value
mean
which corresponds
integratedresistivity is given by the Eq. 6.17, which is simply the arithmetic mean of the
[Nicholls,
H.
J.,
1980]:
two
the
values
extreme
square roots of
Integrated resistivity of steel pn is defined for the range of 20-750 as;

)
Pm
.l(
! 'ZO
p730
Eq 6-17
Pm=0.536Qm
As mentioned in Chapter 2, distribution of the magnetic field and current within the
depth
is
depth.
Skin
8
density
has
fallen
the
roughly
with
where
current
vary
workpiece
be
found
its
35%
and
value
can
surface
as;
of
to about
125
For
Eq 6-18
where;
is
free
integrated
the
is
of
steel,
p0
permeability
the
resistivity
of
space, p,
p,,,
is
frequency.
the
the
angular
workpiece and w
permeability of
Having obtainedthe required parametersfrom Table 6-4, skin depth for the workpiece
heating
is
found
induction
in
the
system
as;
proposed
used
5 =3.68x10-3mm.
In the copper coil the variation of resistivity with temperature pc,,,,is found from Eq. 616 as follows:
(1
(0 81))
PC750
- P20 +a 20 =0.019 tm
Skin effect will operateon the coil, just as it does on the workpiece, tending to force the
inner
flow
Skin
in
8c
depth
the
the
to
copper.
surface
of
on
copper
coil
can
coil current
be calculated from Eq. 6.18 and is given by;
8 _
2 P
10-3
mm
=2.19x
The dimensionlessflux factors p and q dependsnot only on geometry but also on

frequency, resistivity, and permeability. For the ratios of
<8 Figure 6-4 can be use
for defining p and q values [Baker R. M., 1957];
126
1.0r--, Z: --, ------;

-7
0.8 ------0.7
------
------,
------,
------;
------,
------;
-=--1------------------------------4
-------
-----
------L1
-----
------;
------
-------
------1'-----J
0.6 -----
'------'
0.5
---
0.4
---------r-
.,
--1--1-
"---"------L-----
---------------------z-
-r-
---t-
-r-
---,
-"
----------"-----------------I
0.3
..
123456d78
Work-diameter to current depth ratio w
Figure 6-4 p and q functions for a solid cylinder. When dw /8>8,
p=2/(123d,,
q=2/
(d, / 5);
r
IS)
By using design parameters given in Table 6-4 p and q values are found as;
60 x 10-3
S
3.68 x 10-3
=16.28
For the valueswhich are over 8 can be defined as:

2
qd
Eq 6-19
2
p= (1.23+d
S)
Eq 6-20
127
For the proposed induction heater:

q =0.1228
p=0.1142
is
depth
load
diameter,
8
is
dx,
the
the
skin
cylindrical
of the workpiece
where
6.4.2 Equivalent Circuit Components:
As there is a close analogy between induction heating and the transformer, the coil can
be designed by obtaining the values of the resistance and reactances and solving the
introduced
is
first
by
Baker
[Baker
This
R. M., 1957] and
method
circuit.
equivalent
investigated in more details in Chapter 5.
Figure 6-5. Electrical equivalent circuit an induction heater coil.
Figure 6-5 shows the corresponding equivalent circuit for long coil. In this figure:
Re-coil resistance (S2).
Rw working piece resistance(S2).

Xe-coil reactance(92).
128
X,, -working piece reactance (S2).

Xg-air gap reactance (Q).
Definition of each of these parameters gives the total electrical equivalent of the coil.
Equations used to design of the induction heater coil are given as follows [Baker R.M.,
1957], [Davies J., 1979];
Resistance of workpiece R,,, can be found from Eq. 6.21 as;
)
R,,,= K(P PA,,
Eq 6-21
=K3.22 x 10-3S2
is
is
A,,
the
the
the
area
of
working
piece
cross section
u,
permeability
of
where,
,
flux
factors
found
from
dimensionless
is
is
Eq.
6.20.,
K
depend
the
p
and
on,
workpiece
from
6-4
Table
and found as;
the coil parameterswhich are obtained
2 poN,'
K=
1
Eq 6-22
f-Resonant frequency(Hz)
free
space
of
u0 -Permeability
N-Number of turn.
1c-Coil length(mm)
Coil resistanceR, is dependon the physical parametersof the coil and given by;
l6rX9fXX(S
Eq 6-23
129
S2
10
=K5.6x
where;
c-. Skin depth in copper coil (mm).
dc -Coil diameter(mm).
lc-Coil length(mm).
k, -Coil correction factor, 1.5(assumed).This factor takes into account the spacing
betweenturns and other imperfectionsof a practical coil.
Coil reactance is approximately equal to the coil resistance and found from Eq. 6.23 as;
Xc=R=K5.6x
10-3S2
Airgap between coil and workpiece is considered as a series reactance. Reactance value
is
defined
the
as:
airgap
%g
of
K(Ag)
%g =
Eq 6-24
=K6.7x10-3S
is
is
Ag
from
the
Table 6-5.
section
cross
area
of
air
gap
and
obtained
where
Work piece reactancex,, is found from Eq. 6.25 which is similar to Eq. 6.21 The use of
is
difference
between
instead
Thus;
the
these
two
only
p
of
equations.
q value
K(p.
gAj
xw =
Eq 6-25
=K3.45x10-'SZ
130
All the reactance and resistance values depend on K value. Having obtained the
K
be
from
Table
6-4.
by
value
can
calculated
parameters
using Eq. 6.26 as;
required
27rfpoNc
Eq 6-26
11
K=0.053N2
The valueswhich are obtained from Eq. 6.27 to Eq. 6.37 can be used to calculate the
major coil properties such as efficiency, the coil power factor, the number of volts per
turn.
6.4.3 Coil Efficiency, Power Factor, Apparent Power
The ratio of workpiece resistanceRx, to total resistanceis called the coil efficiency il.
From Eq. 6.27 it can be seen that to obtain higher efficiency, coil resistance value R,
must be reduced;
R,,
Rc + R,,,
Eq 6-27
=0.85
impedanceZ is termed the power factor Coscp

to
The ratio of the total resistanceRto,
d
.
For a series circuit, the power factor Cosp is given by;
Cosh =
total
resistance
impedance
Rtotpr
__ Z
Eq 6-28
131
heater
be
found
induction
from
Eq.
6.29
impedance
the
can
of
as ;
where
Z=
(Rw, Rc)2 (Xw + Xc + Xg) Z

+
+
Eq 6-29
Rearranging Eq. 6.28 and Eq. 6.29 yields;
Coscp=wR
[(R+R)2
R+ +
(Xg
Eq 6-30
+ Xw + XJ)z
=0.33
The power factor is also termed the ratio of the active power P to the apparent power S
as follows;
P
Cosp =S=
active power P in watts

S
in voltamperes
power
apparent
Eq 6-31
From Eq. 6.31 apparent power of the coil can be found as
Eq 6-32
S _P
i7.xCoscp
=1763 VA
6.4.4 Coil Ampere-turns
and Volts per turn
Coil volts per turn E. / N. and ampere-turns IcNc
are important coil design
be
found
These
follows;
parameters
can
as
parameters.
132
r_S
IJrc =Z
Eq 6-33
N.
c
The reflected impedance per turns ZINC

That
is found by combining Eq. 6.29 and Eq. 6.33.
is;
(RW Rc)2 (Xx, + X47+ Xg)2

+
+
-=K
Eq 6-34
5.94x10
A
G_
By using Eq. 6.33 and Eq. 6.34 coil ampere turns is found as;
I- Nc=1722 ampere-turns
where;
Ic is the r.m.s values of coil current and Nc is the number of turns
Coil volts per turns: The term E, / N, is known as the volts per turns figure for a coil.
It is the voltage across each number of turns. The ratio is the same for each winding on
the coil. Coil volt per turns of the proposed coil is found from Eq. 6.35 as follows;
E,
11c
.SX
z
N2
Eq 6-35
= 1.02 volts per turn

is
is
Nc
Ec
the
the number of turns, S is the
r.
m.
s
value
of
coil
voltage,
where,
the
coil.
of
power
apparent
133
Number of turns Nc is dependon the r.m.s values of coil voltage Ec and volts per turns
Ec / Nc. It is seen from Eq. 6.36 that the total voltage across the windings is directly
its
to
number of turns;
proportional
N=_
volts
Ec
Volts.per. turns
Ec
Eq 6-36
Nc
=100 turns
When the number of turns known, one of the important design parameter K can be
is
determine
to
all the resistanceand reactancevaluesof the coil;
calculatedwhich used
K. 053 Nc2
=530
The source of magnetic field in a coil is the ampere-turns products of the windings.
When the coil is connected to the power supply, the current Ic flows through the
field.
This
I,
be
follows;
current
coil
creates
a
magnetic
can
and
calculated
as
grinding
1` _
IC NC
Ampere. turns
turns
NC
Eq 6-37
=17.2A
After defining the K parameterfrom Eq. 6.26, all the reactanceand resistancevalues
These
be
are:
calculated.
can
Reactance of coil, X, =0.352
134
Reactanceof working piece, X, =1.8352

Reactance of air gap, Xg =3.5552
Resistance of working piece, R. =1.752
Resistance of coil, R, =0.352
Total resistance, Rtotai=252
Total reactance, XLtolal =5.791
Total inductancevalue of the induction heater LrL is found by using Eq. 6.38 as :
LrL _XuQI
0
Eq 6-38
=O.91 mH
Xu0
frequency(Hz)
is
the
and
angular
where; a
is the total reactanceof the induction
heater(S).
The proposedinverter circuit consistsof an L-C resonantcircuit. Oscillating voltage and

load.
In
inverter
due
to
the
the
to
applied
are
resonance,
proposed
circuit, the
current,
by
is
load
impedance,
in
flow
the
to
the
turn is
resonant
controlled
circuit
which
power
frequency
by
in
fss,.
the
the
thyristor
of
switching
comparison to the
controlled
fOL
frequency
inverter
To
for given
the
the
resonant
of
circuit.
operate
resonant
fogy
is
frequency
Table
it
6-4),
=1000Hz(from
necessaryto calculate the
resonant
CL
inverter
For
is
the
the
resonant
of
capacitor
proposed
value
which
component
.
investiated in more detail in Chapter 5, it is evident that, resonanceoccurs, when-C,
) = capacitive reac tan ce(XcrL)

inductive reac tance(XLto,,,,
135
thus;
1
2foLL.
L=
OLC L
fAL
frequency
;
therefore,resonant
1
.
oL
2z
Eq 6-39
L, C,
L L
Rearranging Eq. 6.39 for the resonant capacitor value Cri yields;
C"L .2 (2fo)
Eq 6-40
LrL
Solving Eq. 6.40 gives;

Cri= 2 7.8F
6.5 Design
And
Construction
Results
For
The
Complete
Induction Heating System
6.5.1 Overview Of The Computer Program
Design Architect and Accusim which are the packageprogrammesof Mentor Graphics
have beenused for the computer simulation of the proposed induction heating system.
analogue
design
the
to
These packageprogrammesallow
and simulate
user
and digital
design
flow
diagram
Mentor
Graphics.
6-6
Figure
the
of
shows
circuits.
136
DESIGN
MANAGER
"DesignManagement
ii
------M--------------
II
I1
i -------------
--------------
DESIGN
ARCHITECT
'Symbols,
schematic
entry
*Digitalsystem
EDITOR
*Testeditor
*Spicemodules
etc...
1
1
I
AUTOLOGIC
Logicsynthesis
&
tool
optimisation
Design
creation
tool
I
I
DVE
I
"Designviewpoint
editor
Back
annotation
1
1.
1
1
QUICKSIM
II
ACCUSIM
*Digitalsimulator
II
*Analogue
simulator
Design
evaluatio
SIMVIEW
*Displays
simulation
results
Mentor
Graphics.
flow
Design
6-6
using
Figure
137
6.5.1.1 Design Architect
This package is the start point for most Mentor Graphics design processes. The design
logical
designs
be
in
digital
Architect
in
Design
the
the
which
can
creates
used
and
editor
be
Components
a
structure
can
placed on the current
which are
analogue simulations.
libraries.
A
from
the
the
component
contains
models which
component
sheet
schematic
describe the functional, graphical, timing and technology aspect of an electronic design.
Schematic is built up by combining and connecting electrical objects together, It is a
description
behavioural
of a circuit.
graphical and
The libraries, where the parts are obtained, contain two different types of components.
Theseare:
library
for
library:
This
Analogue
contains
generic
circuit
elements
using
component
9
in analogue simulations. The characteristics of these elements are defined by the
user.
"
Accupart component library: This library contains pre-characterised component

diodes,
MOSFETs
transistors,
thyristor,
and so on.
models such as
Design Creation: Schematiccapture allows the designerto adopt a top down design
designs.
Sub
to
the
ability
quickly
multi-sheet
create
complex
and
systems
methodology,
for
Schematic
is
faster than
be
modified
and
each
application.
copied
capture
easily
can
is
increased
dramatically.
Also,
drafting
designs
table,
the
productivity
a
are not
using
138
drawings
design
drawings,
data
for
be
these
the
to
contain
all
required
restricted
layout.
layout
C.
I.
and
circuit
simulation, printed
Design Architect contains all the features of computer-aided schematic capture

functions
Some
the
are;
of
powerful
packages.
eA
schematiceditor that createsand modifies schematicsheets.
"A
for
creating and modifying symbols.
editor
symbol
Elements of a schematic: A schematic is a graphical and behavioural description of
by
built
Schematics
combining and connecting electrical objects
up
are
a circuit.
is
it
drawing
drawing,
than
Hence,
more
contains all
a
simple
together.
a schematic
the relevantinformation necessaryfor the simulation.
A schematic contains the following elements:
Instances of symbols: An instance is a copy of a symbol and can represent anything
from a simplelogic function to a large-scaleintegrated circuit.
Nets: A net is a pin-to-pin wiring connection between components on a schematic

sheet.
Property: A property is a label or "name" attached to an object on the schematic.

Each property name has a value associated with it. The combination of property
139
is
its
the
to
to
on
schematic
objects
supply more
attached
value
name and
information about that object. Property values are generally displayed on the sheet.
Comment Text and Graphics: Common text and graphics add non-electric display
information to the schematic sheet.
Architect.
Design
default
6-7
Figure
window of
shows a
6.5.1.2 Accusim
hardware
design.
to
test
the
is
that
an
analogue
user
This
allows
an analogue simulator
AC
Operating
Analyses,
Analyses,
DC.
Point
DC
A wide range of analyses such as
Analyses (DCOP) and Transient Analyses can be carried out. By using different probes a
level
frequency,
minimum
current,
maximum
and
wide range of values such as voltage,
default
Accusim.
6-8
Figure
be
a
windows
shows
of
measured.
of a wave can
The Status Window:
Accusim creates the Status window during invocation. The status
frequency,
displays
time
the
current
simulation
or
simulation
status,
server
window
temperature,and the type of analysis.
The Schematic Window: The schematicwindow lets the user see a schematic of the
design the user is simulating. The primary feature of the schematic view window is that
it allows the user to select and operate on the graphical representation of the design,
140
Design Architect
MGC
Sei. 0(WI
Setup
Edit
File
dae) (my_dfil
Miscellaneous
Is hematic I sheen)
Schematic#1
-:
Libraries
Check
- -----------Report
View
{jO
Help
(t
my__dff sheetl
t 7?, 1 k!
ij_1
Active Symbol
Window
Therais no active syrnt,ol
schematic
add
route
SESSION
TEXT
DRAW
DELETE
s
'
MOVE
Schematic
Palette
UNSEL-ECT I
ALL
--
Origim
'
UNDO
F
COPY n
ETSELECT
L FILTER
OS
LIBRARY
C IOO SE
SYMBOL
ADD
ADD BUS
_
Context
Window
r
F3
F6
P4
FS -1
F2
SS
Select AroUnseiiect A Add Wire Popup Me Place Syml Set
Add ProperConnect Ag
Select Verl, Unsetect A. Add Dus
e-openSol
Move
Copy
Rselect Chock Shal
j Version 1 of component
F9
F7
FB
I
Set Txt 8 View Area Setup Ses
Text
View AU
C Open Up
(Open Dow
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reader/my
l
F10
F12FF1
Pop Wind
ulldo(Command
Read File Clot w Win
_dff""has
been written
Message indicating the creation of a new component
Figure 6-7 Design Architect default windows.
141
Title
Area
Window Menu
11
Button
lI v8.2__12.0 - $MGC_H
AccuSim
_IJL
MGC
Add
Edit
File
27
Tnoni:
Pulldown
Menu Bar
Minimize
Button
ME/shared/traigrng/asim_.
Run
Results
Report
n/reg/default
View
Help
DC M677-777
dQ
Server: stopped
Analysis: DCOP
Temp:
Setup
Delete
Maximize
Button fl
Default
( Status
27
Palette
Window
110-
Menu
( RESULT
.,
FREQ
I_
I[
DESIGN-1
CHANGE I
_MODE
MODE
!
CHART
FLAG
MONROR
TRACE
UST
----
Session
DELETE
Window
jI
NSELECT
ALL
CHANGE,
SELECT 1 !
COUNTS
RUN-]
SETUP
SIM
ANALYSIS
SY.
S i
c
Wlndow
OPTION
ADD
FORCE
ADD
KEEPS
,
EEP
NALYSIS
,
CARLO'!
I
NODESET
L_J
P
F
Open
Shea, Onselect
eF
Chart
o ce VC iew art
Name 'op d ee P
.. Force t
I Pin Name ect at cttr, 41
Run
II
Oul'ill
Message
Area
DCOP V
Tracc3 V
Trace
e7
c an 9 nt st
a
Print job complete. Job spooled to printer billYbob
1Ìld F10
F8
on
Mo
DC SENS
11
Read File
Windoy
pW
d o
o
Softkey
Area
Figure 6-8 Accusim default Windows.
142
The Trace Window:
The trace window displays waveforms of signal activity. The user
during
To
Trace
a
simulation.
windows
see a simulation, chart result
can create multiple
dialogue box can also be open. It is an analogue dialogue box which enables to create
by
data
the
combining
a
curve
of two signals, such as adding
or
create
curve one signal,
or dividing the voltages of two signals.
6.5.1.3 Overview of Capture and Simulation
Process
To create a schematic for Analogue simulation, schematic capture tool, along with the
is
lib
in
The
directory
both
used.
accupart_lib
accuparts
symbols
contains
component
pre-characterised component models(AccuParts) and generic analogue circuit elements.
Each Accupart component model symbol has the following three visible properties:
1. The Comp Property is a logical component name for component identification.
2. The Inspar Property value defines the value of a component.
3. The Model Property value definesthe parametersfor a component.
Each SPICE generic analogue circuit element symbol has the following two visible
properties:
"
The Inspar property value defines the value of a component.
143
The Instance property value specifies a name in the form "R", "C" to individual
instances in the user design.
Before simulating the design, the "ground" for the circuit is also defined. One net in the
design must be named GND, GRND or GROUND to define ground to the Accusim.
This is done by attaching the "ground" symbol from analogue_lib to a net.
For a passiveelementsuch as resistor or capacitor, the value of the elementis the Inspar
Inspar
5mH,
0.01U,
1K,
For
represent
value of a resistor, capacitor, and
example,
value.
inductor, respectively.
The inspar value for a semiconductor device must be the name of a SPICE ". MODEL"
statement. The inspar value can also have any model name that is found in the modelfile.
Within the analogue simulator, a file is then specified where the analogue simulator can
find the corresponding, MODEL
statements that define the semiconductor models.
These modelfiles conform exactly to SPICE syntax, except that they can contain
for
the
any
of
values.
expressions
parameterised
6.5.2 Simulation Of The Complete Induction
Heating System
The final design of the induction heating system has been simulated using the circuit
Design
Architect
The
Accusim.
from
and
results
programmes
are
obtained
simulation
in
Figure 6-9 to Figure 6-13. For this simulation the phase
are
shown
this simulation
in
been
have
three-phase
a
star
connected
arranged
supply configuration where
voltages
144
120. The simulated voltage across the three input capacitors vom, vC7? vC7? is
2,
3
,
linearly
because
The
6-9.
in
Figure
are
capacitor
voltages
rising
of the nearly
shown
input
filters
LFI,
LF2
LF3
The
input
the
through
current
peak
voltage
of
each
constant
,
.
input
depends
different
is
The
the
on
supply
and
voltages.
results of this
capacitor
input
discharging
is
the
time
three
the
that
of
capacitors
many times
simulation show
for
input
factor
time,
the
than
power
as
required
correction operation.
charging
smaller
The active switches turn ON and OFF under zero current conditions as seen in Figure 6-
10. The figure shows that turn-off of the switching device takes place at zero current.
Switching lossesare thereforeminimised.
Figure 6-11 shows the simulatedoutput DC line voltage of the Quasi-ResonantPushPull Buck Converter stage. The second stage converts this DC input voltage to an AC
inverter
The
frequency.
switch
resonant
single
consists of a resonant
voltage of specific
An
between
diode
is
thyristor.
the
antiparallel
a
and
placed
capacitor and working coil,
Simulated
for
the
the
voltage
and
capacitor.
current
waveforms
resonant
coil and
in
6-12.
C,
Figure
are
shown
resonant capacitor
L
145
x (
Figure 6-9 Simulated voltage across the input resonant capacitors CRI CR2 CR3
,
,
[CH1: 50V, CH2: 50V, T: 20 S].
S
'd
L(
S
5
OA
t
LYY
sW
"M
sY
SOY
"aY
sY
Figure 6-10 Simulated switch voltage vs, and switch current is, of the QSW Push-Pull
Buck Converter[CH1: 50V, CH2: 5A, T: 20gS].
146
s
L
Figure 6-11 Simulated output DC line voltage of the QR Push-Pull Buck Converter
[CH1: 50V, CH2: 1A, T: 20[tS].
b
L
6-12 Simulated current and voltage waveforms of the load resonant capacitor
Figure
v,
[CH1: 50V, CH2: 5A, T: 0.5m S].
147

4
L
3
.
\f.
I.
Icr
Figure
rl
6-13 Simulated load voltagevL
and load current 'L
[CH1: 50V, CH2: 5A,
T: 0.5mS].
6.5.3 Design and Construction
Results For
The
500W
Complete
Induction
Heating System
To verify the simulated and theoretical results a 500W prototype induction heater has
been built and tested. The active switching devices employed in this prototype are
2xIGBTs and 1 thyristor. The prototype is supplied by a three-phase 150V supply. A
input
factor
induction
is
heating
in
three
the
power
system
phase
unity
shown
slide of
Figure 6-14. Results obtained from the measurements are shown in Figure 6-15 to
Figure 6-20.
148
14'I
""
04
...
r1
(\
,.
.-. -.
,x
b .:..
r,. -
'"
Fap.
G>.
,
y,
Figure 6-14 A 500W three phase unity input power factor induction heating system.
The measuredvoltagesacrossthe three input resonantcapacitors vom, VCR

are
shown
2,
,
in Figure 6-15. It can be noted that the initial voltages across each input resonant
beginning
the
the
are
at
of
and
v,.
zero
v(71
each switching cycle.
capacitor,
2
The waveform of the switch voltage vs, and the switch current is, are shown in Figure
6-16. Figure 6-17 shows the measured output DC line voltage and current waveforms. It
is seenthat the converter output voltage is constant and correspondsvery well with the
in
Figure
6-11.
given
simulation result
The resonant load capacitor voltage and current are shown in Figure 6-18. Figure 6-19
load
inverter
the
the
of
voltage
and
current
the
of
waveform
stage of the
shows
heating system.
induction
complete
149
UC2
6J
'"
I.
...
"
...
....
.......
....
......
i.
....
....
6
:. UC1
............................:....:....
6-15 Measured voltage across the input resonant capacitors
Figure
CRI
CX2
,
,
[CH1: 50V, CH2: 50V, T: 20 [S].
........................
f1 r
..........
...
...............
6
--i
:....:..............
i-
........................
21'
Figure 6-16 Measured switch voltage vs1 and switch current isl power [CH1: 50V,
CH2: 20A, T: 20p.S].
150
ED
clu
\)
(7,
...................
.........................
...........
.......
_r..
Figure 6-17 Output DC line voltage and current of the QRW Push-Pull Buck Converter
[CHI: I OOV,CH2: 1A, T: 20p.S].
Ea
.........
........
jE:
j
i_r.
..
__!
i-;
-f. . I_t
-..
, ..:
..`
Ic
I-1.. _7-! _.
j'". 1. 1'_
. _"
_t'Y. I._L"
...
T-I-l-1
j....
.............
1.
s...............
.
21
Figure 6-18 Current and voltage waveforms of the load resonant capacitor [CH1: 100V,
CH2: 10A, T: 0.5mS].
151
--
UU
.....
............
........
.............
...
24.
Figure
........
;t
6-19 Load voltagev,
and load current
iL
at maximum output
power
[CH1: 200V, CH2: 20A, T: 0.5mS].
Figure 6-16 shows that the switches turn ON and OFF at zero current conditions. The
three-phase input diode rectifier operates under zero voltage conditions, reducing
As
these
a
result
of
operating
problems.
recovery
reverse
.
conditions
for
the
is able to operate without using large passive

devices,
the
converter
semiconductor
losses
high
leading
Switching
therefore
thus
to
minimised,
are
converter
snubbers.
operating efficiencies.
Figure 6-20 shows the voltage and current of one phaseof the three-phasesupply. As a
it
is
the
structure
mode
of
converter
and
operation,
alternate
clear
symmetrical
result of
input
the
phase
currents of phasetwo and phasethree resemblesthat
that the quality of
converter
input
As
the
the
waveforms
of
predicted
currents are nearly
of phaseone.
factor
be
input
in
Figure
6-21.
can
approaching
power
as
unity
seen
an
with
sinusoidal
152
AHTAL
AHA.,
of
:1
X.
TiIlL I.
:. U.:....:
V.:.....
Figure 6-20 Supply voltage and current of one phase of the three-phase supply at
CH2:
3A,
T:
lOmS].
[CH1:
40V,
output
power
maximum
Variation of the converter output voltage between V,,=100V and V, =200V is achieved
by varying the switching frequency within a bandwidth between Fsw =20kHz
F5
and
4OkHz. The variation of the output voltage with input voltage at different
in
It
is
Figure
6-22.
be
frequencies
can
shown
seen that the relationship
switching
between output voltage and input voltage is approximately linear, as expected, because
during
determined
is
by
to
the
transferred
each
output
switching
mainly
cycle
the energy
CR,
input
in
CR,
CR3
three
the
capacitors
the energystored
,
'
,
input
different
6-23
the
the
Figure
converter
output
voltage
power
at
versus
shows
is
frequency.
Variation
by
achieved
of
output
power
changing the
values of switch
input
is
frequency,
the
whilst
voltage
maintainedconstant
switching
153
PF
------------------------I------,
------;
------;
-----;
0.99
--------------
,{
M"-I
0.990
- ----M"
0.985 -------
-------
0.980
-------------------'
--------
-----------------
------J
-----------.
---------
------
0.975
0.970 --
------+------1------+------------+------------1
0.965 r
------1--------1------1------1----------_-1_-___-L"-_--J
I11III1
1
'
0..
760
'
---
-----
----
1_
'
---
---
---
I------
111111I1
'
0.955 -----
---
---_
11I11II1
1I1II1
150
'
200
--_
250
-_-300
---
350
'
---400
'
---
450
500
Po (W)
Figure 6-21 Variation of the input power factor with output power.
Vo 200 ------, ------;
------------------------------------
-----
--f
...
Q
4OkHz.
sw=30
---
160 ----- ------a------1-------------1------"140 -------1------11-----'------1------'-120
---
-1----
---
-------
----------
=0
----
--------------
-----J
2 kiz
IIIII1I,
1111.1111
100
-11111r1111
1111I111
80 ------1------"------1
---
11111,
1I111111
60
40
"----J------1"
1i111
11111
------1---
-----"1
------
--- -----
----1------1------L---A.
--
-; ------. 4
---""-"---J
11
1,
11I
-------r---i---"-----111111I111
1111111,
20
111111I11
1I1111111
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160 Vi (V)
Figure 6-22 Variation of the output voltage of the Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck
Converter system with input voltage at different switching frequency levels.
154
Po(W) 500 -------------------------450
-------------
------------
f =40kHz
sw
400
-"-__
------_--__-,..
350 ------ -----'1--------------- I

300 ----- '-----------'------'---250
---
1------------'-
I
'----
f =30kHz
sw
-----
-----
200
------
I____
__s
r,
150 -------100
-.
---
-------
----r-----
----
-l
r.
------;
------f
=20kHz
sw
-------I------z------r-----
r
50
90
80
110
100
130
120
140
150 Vi(V)
Figure 6-23 Output power of the induction heating system at different input voltage
levels.
----------
--T-------
--
61'nfyq ^
"
------1----7------------T------1----
450
--
Po(W) 500 ---- --------------------------------
fs=600Hz
fs-500Hz_
rT
aIlaiK--,
-,
400 -----------350
+
----------
-----------
-----'------1-------------------'----
-- ---
--
--
--
---
; f=39
--1--
----L-----J
f(`s=
300 ------------
-------------------
250 ---------------------
------;
200 -----150 -----!
------+-
'--
1,
--------------
100 ------------r----
.--
20
40
----
60
,-
1 ------
---
---- r- ---
---1
---
----
-1----------
80
100
--+-
fs_250F%--;
----
-----
--
-----
30PHz
-1
------1------t---
--
------
----
-1_"-
--l_
----------------
120
-.
_.
r- ----T
1.
------
_--"-1-----
------
r -----i
------------------
140
160
180
vi(V)
Figure 6-24 Output power of the induction heating system at constant converter
(Fsj,,
frequency.
=4OkHz)
operation
155
The output voltage regulation of the proposed three-phase induction heating system is
investigated
in
in
detail
by
time
the
as
control
system
on
more
constant
performed
following chapter. By varying the off time of the pulses, the amount of power being
is
G.,
Figure
J.
1992].
6-24
[Kassakian
by
is
obtained
varying the
also
varied
converted
frequency
thyristor.
the
of
switching
and Comparison
of Simulated
and
Experimental Results
The proposed unity power factor induction heating system has been built and tested. The
functional
into
blocks
divided
be
design
two
to
according
can
proposed system
includes
Quasi-Resonant
first
three-phase
The
a
rectifier
and
a
part, which
procedure.
Push-Pull Buck converter, converts the three phase AC supply to required DC values
AC
frequencies.
DC
to
this
a
required
of
and the secondpart converts
The first part of the system is able to operate from a 150V three-phase supply whilst
delivering the required 200V DC voltage. Output power control is achieved by
IGBTs
thyristor
the
or
either
of
variations
switching frequency. The converter is
in
for
load
feature
This
the
to
changes
any
resistance.
compensate
of the
therefore able
induction
for
heating
because
it
load
the
of
attractive
applications
makes
converter
heating
during
the
process.
variation
ver
including:
topology
a
relatively
advantages,
The proposed
offers
simple p6
circuit,
high power capability, simple control and protection circuits and high converter
efficiencies.
156
The system can be designed to achieve nearly sinusoidal supply input currents, when
is
in
It
discontinuous
Figure
6-15
that
resonant
capacitor
voltages.
seen
with
operated
input
initial
discontinuous
the
the
capacitor
voltage
operation,
voltages across
under
beginning
interval.
The
the
the
of
charge-time
at
are
zero
peak voltage
capacitor
each
interval
is
its
this
the
to
proportional
end
of
at
respective phase
across each capacitor
input current. Similar waveforms are obtained from the simulation result and given in
Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-16 showsthe voltage acrossand current through the IGBTs. It is seenthat the
device
takes place at zero current and correspond
the
turn
switching
off of
turn-on and
in
Figure
6-10.
The
the
given
result
simulation
zero current switching
very well with
higher
frequency
IGBTs
the
a
at
switching
of
operation
and provides
technique allows
lower switching losses.
---
Practical output voltage and current waveforms of the converter, which is given in
Figure 6-17, shows that the delivered energy to the inverter stage is nearly constant
during the whole switching cycle. Output voltage of the Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck
Converter stage is kept constant for a whole switching cycle by output filter components
is
from
the simulation result given
waveform
obtained
output
voltage
similar
and almost
in Figure 6-11.
Figure 6-20 shows the waveforms of the input voltage and input current of one phase of
The
waveforms-of the two other phases are similar. As predicted
supply.
the three-phase
input
is
in
the
current
sinusoidal
converter
nearly
and
of
phase with the
the waveform
factor
induction
heater
Although
is
the
the
power
of
coil
poor, the
voltage.
supply
from
factor
the
draws
mains supply.
power
unity
system
157
CHAPTER 7
CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS
7.1 Introduction
The concept of quasi-resonant converter and resonant inverter has been successfully
implemented in high frequency power converters. High power density and high
because
be
lossless
them
their
with
of
obtained
can
switching conditions. On
efficiency
the other hand control of resonant and quasi-resonant converters is more complex than
PWM converters.Generally variable frequency operation is used to control the output

power of a resonant type converter.
This chapter describes work carried out to investigate and test a complete control and
for
input
three
the
proposed
phase
unity
system
power factor induction
protection
heating topology, which consists of cascaded quasi-resonant push-pull buck converter
inverter.
A
diagram
resonant
circuit
switch
single
a
of the proposed induction
and
heating system considered as the subject of this chapter is shown in Figure 7-1.
In- this chapter the design procedure and practical results of the control and protection
input
induction
factor
for
heating system have been
the
unity
power
proposed
circuits
investigated.
158
L, L
R
L
Tc R3t-
+D6
DA1
DS
lpf
FACTOR
UNTrYPOWER
THRMPHASE
RFCFgR
QUA S:
-RESONANTPUSH-PULL
BUCK.
CONVERTER
SNULESWTZCH
RESONANT
INDUCTION
HEATER
induction
heating
diagram
Circuit
the
7-1
system.
Figure
complete
of
7.2 Control System Requirements
Push-Pull
Converter
Quasi-Resonant
Buck
Phase
Three
7.2.1
The active switching devices of the Buck converter operate in a quasi-resonant mode of
The
is
alternately.
quasi-resonant
switched
mode
of
are
operation
and
operation
between
input
by
to
the
the
current
resonate
switch
capacitors and the
allowing
obtained
is smoothed by the filter
The
inductors.
the
output
voltage
of
converter
resonant
159
capacitors. Automatic
input power factor correction
is achieved by keeping the
discharging time of the capacitors short compared with the charging time.
7.2.2 Single Ended Resonant Inverter For Induction
Heater Stage
This power conversionstagecontains a single endedresonant inverter which transforms

DC into AC for the induction heater coil. The power device of the proposed inverter
S,
inductor
L,
CL
diode
The
switch
an
and
of
a
semiconductor
a
capacitor
consists
L2
.
D, which is connected in antiparallel with sitch S, implements bi-directional current
flow through the load. The output power is varied by changing the ratio of switching
frequencyto resonantfrequency.
The power circuit presentedhas many advantagesand is very flexible. It provides a unity
input power factor characteristic and operates with high efficiency. A single ended
discontinuous
inverter
conduction mode of operation is used
operating under
resonant
for the induction heater stage. This operation mode is achieved by setting the switching
frequency to half of the resonant frequency. The inverter can be designed to operate
from full load to open-circuit conditions within a small frequency range.
To satisfy the requirementsof the induction heating system, the control system must
following
the
requirements;
satisfy
To minimise switching losses the resonant switches must turn off soon after the
fallen
has
ZCS
to
providing
zero
current
operation.
switch
160
be
devices
The
protected against over-current and overmust
active switching
9
fault
conditions.
voltage which can occur under
The output power produced during a whole mains cycle must be varied according to
the load variations.
7.2.3 Voltage Regulation In Resonant Converters
Effective regulation of the resonantconverter has been an area of difficulty in the design
literature,
have
been
In
the
a
variety
of
methods
proposed,
of resonant power supplies.
for regulation under widely varying load conditions, as well as for wide input voltage
for regulation of
The
J.,
1993].
[Lai
control
methods
common
most
used
ranges
frequency
based
variation, either with constant on-times, or
on
resonantconverters are
in
7-2.
Figure
seen
constant off-times as
Output voltage regulation of the proposed three phase input induction heating system is
By
by
time
system.
control
on
varying the off time of the pulses,
constant
a
performed
is
power
being
also varied. The advantage of the proposed
converted
the amount of
is
for
ZCS
is
technique
the
achieved
a wide range of output power.
method that
7.3 Protection Systems
devices
process
of
power
and switching actions in the
the
Due to
reverse recovery
in
inductances,
transients
the
Shortoccur
voltage
converter
circuit
circuits.
of
presence
in
flow
devices.
through
fault
heat
The
the
an
excessive
current
result
conditions
circuit
161
High
Frequency
-----------
-------T
-----------
----
-;
Low Frequency
----------
---;4Ti;
off time
a)Constant
control
--------------
method
I E&
-----------------
- -----T ->
LowFrequency
I_.
F-----]
- ---------------------
b)Constant
on time control
method
Figure 7-2 Frequency variation control methods for resonant converters.
device must be dissipated sufficiently and

in
losses
by
semiconductor
a
produced
its
device
limit.
temperature
The
to
upper
within
operate
reliable operation of
efficiently
do
times
that
the
circuit
at
all
conditions
requires
not exceed the ratings of
a converter
by
devices,
providing
the power
protection
against overcurrent, overvoltage,
and
overheating.
The proposed three-phase unity input power factor induction heating system is protected
by the use of
162
"
high dv/dt by snubbers.
"
by
heat
heat
sinks.
excessive
"
by
fuses.
fault
conditions
short circuit
7.3.1 Determination
of Snubber Components Values
The term snubbing generally refers to the control of unwanted overcurrent or

during
that
transients,
of
current
or
rates
or
voltage,
occur
switching.
overvoltage
Snubbersare required in almost all power electronic applicationswhere inductive loads
In
being
power switching circuits, shunt snubbersare often used to reduce
switched.
are
the turn-off switching loss or prevent reverse-biasedsecondbreakdown. Similarly, series
loss
to
forward-biased
turn-on
the
switching
or
prevent
reduce
second
snubbersare used
breakdown [McMurry W., 1980].
Several papers describe some of the desirable features of a snubber circuit [Tadriff D.,
1989]. Some of these features can be summarised as:
be
Part
minimised.
should
count
9
Charging and discharging currents for the snubbers should not cause additional
in
flow
device.
the
to
main
switching
- current
No additional switching devicesshould be required.
163
Figure 7-3 The snubber circuit placed across IGBTs and the thyristor to reduce the
improve
locus.
the
switching
and
overvoltage
switching
No additional power suppliesshould be used by the snubbers.
"
Voltage stress on the snubberdevices should not exceed the voltage stress of the
main switching devices.
Current in the snubber devices should not exceed the current in the main switching
devices.
Circuit functioning should be independent of operating converters (load current,
frequency,etc.).
Although all controllable switches in the proposed circuit operate under zero current
it
is
by
to
them
necessary
protect
snubbers against overvoltages.
condition,
switching
The overvoltage at turn-off due to stray inductances is minimised by means of the

in
Figure
7-3.
shown
circuit
snubber
overvoltage
164
The value of snubbercapacitor CS is calculatedas follows [Mohan N., 1989];

100kIotr
CS =V
Eq 7-1
where;
Io -Load current(A).
C. -Snubbercapacitance((tF).
tf -Switch current fall time at turn-off(S).
Vo-Operation voltage(V).
k -percentage of maximum acceptable switch voltage.
The snubberresistanceRS is chosenso that the peak current through it is less than the
freewheeling
diode,
I.
the
that is:
of
current
reverserecovery
R<
Rs
I"
For the proposed snubber circuit reverse recovery current I,
is limited to 0.210 and
thus,
RS _
Vo
0.210
Eq 7-2
Using equations Eq. 7-1 and Eq 7-2 required snubber capacitor CS and resistance R.
Cs
determined
been
have
0.
RS
as
=0.22F
and
=333
values
Figure 7-4 shows measured voltage and current waveforms across one of the IGBT with
be
It
can
seen that the use of overvoltage snubber eliminates the
snubber.
overvoltage
devices.
the
switching
across
peak voltages
165
_...................
..........................
.....
. ........
....
......
.. _..... ...
.......
__.
.....
......
Figure 7-4 Voltage and current waveforms across IGBT with proposed overvoltage
snubber.
7.3.2 Determination
Rating
Beatsink
of
Due to on-state and switching losses, heat is generated within the power devices. This
heat must be transferred from the device to maintain the operating junction temperature
Although
proposed
is
the
the
system
range.
specified
operated under zero current
within
losses,
it
is
the
considerable
reduces
which
conditions,
switching
switching
still
heat
the
to
switches
semiconductor
against
protect
excessive
which occurs
necessary
fault
conditions.
under
The total power dissipation, of a switching device can be expressed as:

Ptot.
Pconduction + Ps%itcldng + Pgate + pleakage
Eq
7-3
166
v
V
SW
c
Sw
I
VON
t
11I',
1
v
t.
t
OFF
ON
pct
VONI
t
tOFF
tON
Figure 7-5 Typical voltage, current and dissipation waveforms for a power
semiconductorswitch.
Typical current and voltage waveforms for a semiconductor switching device are shown
in Figure 7-5. When the switch is on, it exhibits a forward voltage drop, which gives a
it.
flows
A
loss
through
semiconductor switch also needs time to
current
as
conduction
from
During
to
the
device
this
time
the
transaction
other.
the
one
state
switching
make
dissipates energy. The total energy dissipated in the turn-on and turn-off transitions,
frequency
loss
for
by
device.
the
The
the
the
gives
net
switching
switching
multiplied
is
leakage
due
low
in
dissipation
to
currents
and
gate
current
very
comparison
power
with conduction and switching losses and can be ignored.
For an ambient temperature of 40C, and an IGBT rated at IDC= 4A, the total
device
is:
loss
the
of
conduction
167
Pcond+ction =1'
DCRCE
Eq 7-4
=420.4 = 6.4W
where;
RcE is the ON time resistance of the IGBT(IRGPC40U)
and obtained from
data.
manufacturer's
Using triangular approximation for switching losses, the power loss due to switching is
C.,
by
[Luk
1992];
estimated
[(I)
=2,,
,t nS
+ T(V) + T1(,+ Tf(v)
200*4*40*103
_
Eq 7-5
[21 + 21 + 120 + 120] * 10-9 = 4.5W
where;
T(,
T -Rise time and fall time of switch voltage,

), f(v)
Tr(l)T1(, ) -Rise time and fall time of switch current, and

F,, -Switching frequency.
is
follows;
in
device
dissipation
the
as
The total power
+
Pawitching
'total -'conduction
=6.4+4.5=10.9W
The electrical analogueof a device,which is mounted on a heat sink, is shown in Figure

7-6. In this figure, the symbolsare defined by;
J-Junction, C-Case, A -Ambient, SHeatsink
168
PA
Figure 7-6 Thermal resistance model
PA-Device total power loss(W).

R,, -Thermal resistancefrom junction to case(C/W).
R, -Thermal resistance from case to sink(Ci W).
S
RS; -Thermal resistance from sink to ambient(C/W).
The junction temperature T, is given by;
Pots(Rec
Re.
+Rgcs
+
-T. 4
,)
Eq 7-6
For an operation condition of T,. =40'C and T,,,,, =150'C, the thermal resistance
,,,,,
from heatsink to ambient is as follows;
Rx4
T, -TA
P
o:r
(Rec + Rqcs)
169
150-40
10.9
C/W
(0.77
8.82
0.50)
+
=
-
From the calculation, a heatsink of 8.82C/W or lower thermal resistance is required.

The thermal resistance of heatsinks used in the proposed system is 1.3C/W which is a
Redpoint W seriesdouble sidedgeneralpurposepower heatsink.
7.4 Overall Control System Of The Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull

Buck Converter Stage
A block diagram of the proposed constant on-time variable frequencycontrol system is

different
levels
in
For
7-7.
Figure
the quasi-resonantpush-pull buck
output
power
shows
frequencies.
is
by
This
the-cntrol
of
operating
range
a
wide
requires
achieved
converter
frequency
With
techniques.
this technique, the advantages
control
variable
using
circuit
is
loss
ZCS
low
operation
present when operating at a wide range of
switching
of
The
frequencies.
proposed control circuit generates output alternate signals for
control
in
between
20kHz
40kHz.
The output of the control circuit
frequencies
and
a
range
the
is isolated from the IGBTs driver circuit.
7.4.1 Control Circuit of the Three Phase Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck

Converter
The proposed control circuit basically contains a voltage comparator,

frequency converter, flip/flops,
and a monostable multivibrator.
_a
voltage to
A detailed circuit
diagram of the complete control system is given in the Appendix A. The voltage
the
the
transformer
output
of
current
compares
and the referencesignal.
comparator
170
Figure 7-7 Block diagram of the complete control system of the quasi-resonant pushbuck
converter.
pull
Variation of the power is obtained by changing the voltage value of reference signal.
The amplifier amplifies the output signal of the voltage converter and sends it to the
is
The
NJM4151
frequency
output
of
a series of pulses
converter(NJM4151).
voltage to
is
frequency
The
input
duration.
the
to
the
of
pulses
proportional
applied
of constant
full
be
frequency
The
to
programmed
operate
with
can
scale
converter
voltage.
Measured input and output voltage waveforms of the
100kHz.
Hz
from
1
to
anywhere
is
in
Figure
frequency
7-8.
the
The
to
given
converter
the
voltage
of
rising and
output
falling edge of the input pulse trigger the monostable multivibrator
and alternate
171
uni-u-
1
....................
..............:........
:...................
`.........
....
..
......................
t...................:....
Figure 7-8 Measured input(A) and output(B) waveforms of the voltage to frequency
CH2:
[CH1:
IOV,
T:
20S].
IOV,
converter
CC
......................
(I
.......
Figure 7-9 Measured input(B) and output( C) voltage of the flip flop [CHI: I OV,
CH2: 10V, T: 20[S].
172
.2
J
J J.J1
1
C
iii
Figure
T'-
i.
7-10 Measured output voltages of the monostable multivibrator
[CHI: 5V,
CH2: 5V, T: 20S].
from
S,
S2
for
7-9
Figure
the
obtained
are
switches
output.
shows the
triggering pulses
Flip/Flop
input
Figure
7-10
the
of
and
pulses
and
output
shows the output
measured
pulses of the monostable multivibrator.
7.4.2 Isolated IGBTs Driver Circuit
The proposedisolated driver was used together with the presentedcontrol circuit. Many
involve
driving
IGBTs
from
is
that
power
control
a
circuit
applications
ground
switching
for this problem is using isolated drive
One
the
common
solutions
of
most
referenced.
isolation
be
Transformer
isolation
Two
types
of
can
used:
main
and optocircuits.
isolation principle is very attractive with simplicity
The
isolation.
transformer
of
coupler
low
The
isolated
this
type
main
problem
driver is in
cost.
with
and
of
the circuit
duty
controlled
of
accurately
cycle.
range
achievinga wide
173
.........
..........
A...
1-I
.......
Figure
........
7-11 Practical input
...
_ ...
........
signals of the isolated driver transformer [CH1: 5V,
CH2: 5V, T:20gS].
To solve this problem a novel high speed isolated driver has been developed using signal
The
is
flip/flops
driver
the
side.
proposed
secondary
of
circuit
suitable
transformers and
for all types of resonant or PWM converters which work at high frequency and high
level.
power
Waveforms obtained from the practical driver are presented in Figure 7-11 to Figure 7in
isolated
Figure
7-11. Typical
input
transformers
the
The
are
shown
14.
signals of
waveforms
isolation
transformer
the
supply
power
of
input(D)
and DC output
in
7-12. Practical gate signals of controlled IGBTs are
Figure
be
seen
can
voltage(E)
IGBT gate signal and resonant
Figure
7-14
7-13.
the
in
Figure
one
of
shows
shown
is
be
IGBT
It
turned
that
the
off at zero current.
seen
can
current.
174
......................
....
..............
.........
..............
Figure
7-12 Practical input(D)
and output
signals(E) of the full-wave
rectifier
[CH1: 25V, CH2: lOV, T: 20pS].
1-, _
:....
:..
.......
...
T..
. _..
..
0
......
Figure
....,..
...
....
.:......
:.....
7-13 Practical gate signals for the controlled IGBTs [CH1: IOV, CH2: 10V,
T: 20S]-
175
-4L.
............
ir
5
Cl
Zi
. .-i-i-i
.....
i"-'-'-,
. .....
* ?-i_i_s
,
-.
-'.
.
.........
. -a_e"-..
-:
-t.
..........;
_.
....
-i
i-i-,
f-f i
-j-i-i
-! -
..........
.........
..........
Mow.
, ;c
Figure 7-14 Practical gate signal for IGBT and resonant current [CH1: 10V, CH2: 20A,
T=2S].
Single
For
The
System
Ended Resonant
Control
Overall
7.5
inverter
This stage of the complete induction heating system transforms the DC into AC for the
induction heater coil. The thyristor which is used as the switching device between the
is
heater
induction
discontinuous
the
coil
operated
under
resonant capacitor and
discontinuous
The
conduction
of
operation
the
mode
allows
mode.
conduction
device
losses
therefore,
turn
to
zero
current
conditions,
off
under
switching
switching
are much reduced.
diagram
block
the
7-15
of the proposed thyristor gate drive
simplified
Figure
shows
The
voltage controlled oscillator producesan output signal whose frequencyis
circuit.
176
Magnetic
Coupling
Reference
signal
Voltage
01
01
Oscillator
scillatord
NOD
Logic
Amplifier
SCR
gate
Figure 7-15 Simplified block diagram of the thyristor gate drive circuit.
determined by the reference input. The output of the oscillator is improved by a NANDlogic gate, which is realised by connecting a NOT logic gate to the output of an AND
logic gate. A Darlington transistor is placed between the logic gate and the pulse
transformer because the logic gate can not drive the pulse transformer directly. The
thyristor
and its gate-pulse generation circuit are magnetically coupled. A diode is
in
series with the gate to raise the effective threshold voltage of the gate device
placed
detailed
from
A
false
triggering
noise.
circuit diagram of the complete control
to reduce
in
Appendix
A.
is
the
given
system
The proposed single ended resonant inverter is operated under DCM by setting the
half of the resonant frequency. The switching frequency can be
frequency
to
switching
by
Figure
the
the
7-16 shows the gate pulse
of
reference
changing
value
signal.
changed
It
be
the
thyristor.
the
that
of
the
waveforms
can
current
switching action takes
seen
and
losses
therefore,
the
current,
switching
zero
are much reduced. Additional
place at
it is easy to implement, less in number of
topologies
that
these
are
of
advantages
parts,
low
cost.
as
as well
177
SCR
GATE
Figure 7-16 Measuredthyristor gate pulse and thyristor current.

Control and protection systems of the proposed unity input power factor induction
heating system has been build and tested. The control scheme employs variable
frequency constant on time control with zero current switched operation. This control
improves
losses
and
system efficiency. Additionally output
technique reducesswitching
by
be
IGBTs
of
either
variation
achieved
or thyristor switching
can
power variations
frequency.
highest
have
the
actual failure rate of any component
Power semiconductorsnormally
.
is
important
therefore,
the
efficient
protection
of
one
circuit,
or
aspects
system
within a
failure
Three
Input
Proposed
Phase
Unity
Power
Factor
the
Induction
the
risk.
to reduce
Heating System has been protected against overvoltage by snubbers,overheating by

heatsinks,and overcurrent by fuses.
178
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS AND AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
8.1 Conclusions
improvement
devoted
is
to
the
thesis
of the quasi-resonantand resonant power
This
induction heating systems. The main purpose of this thesis was to
for
converters
input
high
from the three phase mains supply,
current
quality
waveform
novel
a
achieve
day
induction
heating systems is that
the
with
present
problems
major
because, one of
is
low
from
factor
drawn
the
the
supply
often
of
mains
power
and
current of
the power
input
low
Operation
distortion.
harmonic
power factor results in additional
at
high
voltage
drops throughout the power system buses and increases the overall plant
Additionally,
D.,
1996].
[Andrews
operating cost
from 1 January 1996, all electrical
European
Market
the
to
on
placed
equipment
was
required
comply with
electronic
and
Compatibility
Electromagnetic
Community
European
the
(EMC) directive agreed in
C.,
1992].
[Marshman
1989
May
Following
the critical review of the power converter topologies, it has been found that
the
The
provide
converters
most
suitable
performance.
resonant
proposed
two cascaded
induction
factor
heating
input
power
system consists of two stages of
three phase unity
in
illustrated
Figure
6-1
6.
The
first
of
chapter
the
as
three
stage,
conversion
power
factor
is
investigated
input
in
detail
in
converter
stage,
which
power
more
unity
phase
179
inductive-capacitive
input
an
the
4,
network
at
of
of each phase, a
consists
chapter
buck
diode
converter arrangement. One of the
a
push-pull
and
rectifier
three-phase
its
is
topology
for
high
to
this
the
ability
circuit
power
provide
choosing
main reason
phases
In
the need to actively control all three line currents
factor.
three
input power
all
by
mode
circuit
which
switched
naturally
a
quasi-resonant
emulates
of
use
avoided
are
is
by
This
input
of
operation
obtained
mode
allowing
characteristic.
a resistive
the
IGBT current to resonate between the input resonant capacitors CRI, CR2, CR3 and the
LR, LR2 An additional advantage of this topology is that it
inductors
resonant
.
,
provides
a high output power capability and requires a simple and cheap control
IGBTs
techniques
the
The
switching
allows
operation
current
of
of
zero
at
use
system.
lower
frequency
losses.
The
be
and
provides
switching
system
can
higher
switching
a
input
to
supply
currents, when operated with
designed
achieve nearly sinusoidal
discontinuous
input voltages and provide output power control in the quasi-resonant
6,
input
6-21
in
Figure
the
As
converter
of
chapter
achieves
power
unity
seen
mode.
high
high
wide
for
power,
providing
output
efficiency
power
of
and
range
a
factor
density.
inverter
the
resonant
conversion,
power
stage, consists of a single
of
The second stage
into
induction
DC
AC
for
heater
inverter
the
transforms
the
which
coil
resonant
ended
investigated in more details in chapter 5. Although the control of the output
is
and
is limited as seen Figure 6-24 of chapter 6, the discontinuous conduction mode
power
devices
has
been
The advantage of this
for
the
preferred.
switching
operation
of
topology
is that turn OFF of the thyristor takes place at zero current and therefore
in
devices.
An
losses
the
power
additional
the
advantage
the
switching
of
reduces
180
is that it requires a small number of components and is of

inverter
topology
proposed
lower cost compared with other alternative topologies.
A detailed investigation into the control and protection systems has been carried out in
induction
heating
the
is
the
of
complete
to
requirements
with
system
and
comply
order
investigations,
As
frequency
7.
the
these
in
of
variable
a
result
constant
chapter
given
been
has
The
is
the
preferred.
advantage
of
proposed
time
system
method
control
on
for
is
Additionally,
ZCS
technique
a
wide
achieved
range
of
output
the
power.
that
by
being
is
the
the
time
the
amount
of
pulses,
power
converted
of
also varied.
off
varying
input
three
the
unity
phase
power factor induction heating
proposed
Prototypes of
built and tested. The experimental results show that the novel
been
has
system
induction heating system is able to draw nearly sinusoidal currents from a three phase
factor
It
for
unity.
approaching
offers
a
power
with
good
opportunities
mains supply
medium
frequency induction heating systems. By introducing
novel power factor
induction
heating
the
the
techniques
existing
on
systems
amount of power
correction
increased.
busses
be
by
The
delivered
the
is
can
plant
alternate switching operation
that
input
IGBTs
diodes.
the
The
stress
the
voltage
across
also
reduces
rectifier
of
mode
the
of
number
components
a
reduced
with
requires
compared
existing
system
proposed
devices
The
operate
under
switching
switching
zero
current
active
conditions,
systems.
in higher efficiency and low EMI emission and reduces the size and cost of
resulting
Additionally
snubber components.
this technique allows semiconductor devices to be
frequencies
higher
and
with
reduced
control
requirements
much
at
compared
operated
mode
operation
switch
conventional
with
181
8.2 Recommendation
For Further Research
has
been
described
topology
consists of two stages of power
which
The proposed
development.
Thus
for
further
there
are a number of relevant
potential
with
conversion
investigation.
further
for
be
likely
to
worthwhile as subjects
areas
8.2.1 Three Phase Unity Input Power Factor Converter Stage
have
from
this
research
work
shown that the resonant power
The results obtained
conversion
technique can be used successfully for solving the input power factor
heating
induction
is
It
that
this
technique
systems.
with
possible
can
associated
problem
battery
to
such
as
welding
applications,
charger,
practical
equipment,
various
be applied
high
and
voltage
converters.
system,
supply
power
uninterruptable
Improving
the output power control range may be one area for further investigation.
from
analysis and measurements show that the range of output
The results obtained
is
limited
due
frequency
to
the
devices
switching
available.
operating
power and
for
the
the
method
control
regulation of the output of the new
suggested
Although,
is a variable frequency constant on time control technique, there are other
converter
investigated.
be
One
to
ought
possible
alternative
which
method
schemes
possible
inductor
in
the
the
be
to
or
capacitor
values,
which
resonant
case
vary
control
would
frequency
In
be
to
[Gu W. J.,
as
resonant
modulation.
reference
referred
may
method
182
1988] the author proposes the use of switch-controlled
inductor(SCI)
and switch-
in
elements,
resonant converters.
controlled capacitor(SCC)
The output power level of the converter stage can be increased by employing switching
devices with a higher current capability rather than utilizing parallel connected device
increasing of the output power can be achieved by using
Further
arrangements.
[Djordje
S.,
1995].
modules
converter
paralleled
in
further
deal
p, great
work remains extending the range of applications covered and
of
identifying
those which can benefit from the developed resonant structure.
8.2.2 Resonant Inverter Stage

including:
topology
offers advantages,
The proposed
a relatively simple power circuit, a
high power capability, simple control and protection circuits and high inverter
efficiencies
due to the
ideal operational conditions of the semiconductor devices
employed.
The maximum workpiece temperature was restricted by the maximum allowable

induction heater coil. Temperature dependent output
the
temperature
of
operation
induction
heating
investigated
be
by
the
system
of
can
control
using water
power
heater
coils.
cooled
long
bar
control
strategy
profile
of
a
using modular induction heating
temperature
The
183
Control Panel
Resonant
Inverters
23
Working
Coils
induction
heating
Three
8-1
system.
module
Figure
module
A
investigated.
induction
be
three
is
heating
modular
system
may
system
8-1.
in
Figure
shown
heating
induction
system contains more than one module which is
The modular
by a control terminal. Each working coil can be designed for a different
controlled
far
This
strategy
can
the
provide
a
control
accurate
more
control
of
range.
power
bar
higher
[Ninomiya
T.,
1993].
the
A
with
efficiency
of
profile
control
temperature
function.
be
to
this
controller
as
a
main
used
provide
processor should
Additionally
a single phase configuration of the proposed system can be investigated
for
home
heating
by
induction
areas
cooking
and
new
open
application
may
which
heaters.
184
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Bishop M., Witte J., "Harmonic Measurements, Analysis, and
Andrews D.
Power Factor Correction in a Modern

IEE Tr. on Industry
Facility",
Appl.
Steel Manufacturing
Vol. 32,1996,
No. 3,
617-624.
pp.
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Annen W.
Forges", Brown Boveri Rev., 1975, Vol Y2,pp.47-51.

'Design and Calculation of Induction Heating Coils", AIEE
Baker RM.
Trans. Vol. 57, Part. 4,1957, pp. 31-40.

Hoft R. G., "Principles of Inverter Circuits", John Wiley-Sons,
D.
B.
Bedford
Inc., 1964.
"Analysis
Bhat A. K.
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LCL-Type
Series Resonant
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Feb 1994, pp. 118-124.,
"A Generalized Approach for the Steady-State Analysis of
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Resonant Inverters",
IEEE
Tr. :on Industry
Applications,
March/April 1989,Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 326-338.

Bialoskorski
P.
Koczara W., "Unity
Power Factor Three Phase Rectifier",
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Bonert R.
Lavers
J.D.,
"
Simple
Starting
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Parallel
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J.
Boyle
"HF
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Power
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185
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Loggini
Cavallini A.
M., Montanan G. C., "Comparison
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Appendix A
Circuit Diagrams:
Push-Pull Buck Converter
Quasi-Resonant
dry
`m of
3 CD
lL
7m
7
C, CL
pN
a
0
LL
U-
m
0
N
'-`
.,v
t rcqq mE
j-
-.. U"-
Figure 1 Block Diagram of the Complete Control System of the Quasi-Resonant PushPull Buck Converter
A-i
Driver
IGBTs
the
Circuit
of
Power
Control
Complete
System
Driver
IGBTs
the
of
Circuit
the
of the
j'igure 2 Power
of
Buck Converter
Push-Pull
Quasi-Resonant
A-2
Isolated IGBTs Driver Circuit
Figure 3 Circuit Diagram of the Isolated IGBTs Driver Circuit of the Complete Control
System of the Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter.
A-3
Control Circuit of IGBTs
Figure 4 Control Circuit of the Three-Phase Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter
A-4
Single Ended Resonant Inverter
Magnetic
Coupling
Voltage
Reference
Controlled
signal
Oscillator
NAND
logic
Z
Thyristor
Amplifier
Gate
fl
Figure 6 Block Diagram of the Complete Control System of the Single Ended Resonant
Inverter
vcc
IN1148
n
a
1004
470
IOK
9096
12 39
GPO
5678
1011
57
1GRO
czo
Control
System
Diagram
Circuit
the
6
of
of the Single Ended Resonant Inverter
Figure
A-5
Appendix B
Transient Analysis Of The Proposed Resonant Inverter
Resonant capacitorC, L discharging mode(Mode 1):
This mode begins when S is fired and a resonantpulse of current flows through S and
inductor
instantaneous
L,
The
for this mode is described
resonant
the resonant
current
L.
by:
di,
L'+Ri,
+I
1 fildt=
"CL
Eq l
(t
Since
initial
0)
is
i,
the
the
=0.
conditions
circuit
=
underdamped,the solution of
with
Eq. 1 yields:
11t)
Ale-R/2LSl11C1)r1
Eq 2
frequency
is
the
resonant
angular
and;
where w,
1
._
'rLC.
R2 z
4 LrL
Eq 3
B-1
CrL1
I'rL
Il
VCrL
Mode 1
Figure 1 Resonant capacitor discharging mode of the three-phaseunity power factor

induction heating system inverter stage.
The constant, A, in Eq. 2 can be evaluatedfrom the initial condition:

,
dl1
Lt
CrL
t=o
=Y
ror
I'rL
=A
and
Vc"L
jl(t}
e-'Si1z
ort
Eq 4
rLrL
where
R
ZLrL
Eq 5
B-2
MODE
1
G
VCS
-----------------------------------------------------Z-
iVLrL
tc
t{
t2
to
-
VAS
Vc,
during
Mode
1.
SCR,
Waveforms
the
2
pulse
of
across
Figure
-Gate
-Voltage
L
ID
I.
VL,
load
current,
current,
voltage).
capacitor,
resonant
the
-Diode
-Load
-SCR
L
in
becomes
be
(t)
found
Eq.
4
from
i,
the
the
can
t,
maximum
current
The time when
condition;
di,
dt
B-3
or;
COSCOrt,
(,()re-t'
- ae-r'
Si zw t1 =0
and this gives;
Eq 6
t =1 tan-'
a
w,
r
VCrLl
(1)
j 11 t)
VcrL
CrL
0
(1)
V CrLl l1 _
yCrLmaa
e-'
(11?
Crt +CWrCoscort)
Eq
0),
This mode endswhen switch current i, (t) becomeszero,
Diode Conduction Mode(Mode 2):
S
is
However,
begins
the resonant current flows
turned
the
off.
switch
when
This mode
direction.
in
D
diode
the
reverse
through
B4
D
i
L
I
CrL
+VCrL
rL
Mode 2
Figure 3 Circuit diagram of Mode 2.
The instantaneousresonantcurrent for this mode is describedby:
diZ
1
L dt +Ri2+ CJi2dt=VC, L
Eq 8
(t
initial
0)
i2
0.
The
Eq.
8 gives;
the
conditions
solution
of
=
=
with
VCrL2
12 (t)
J _
e-'SinwOrt
(Dr LrL
Eq 9
The resonantcapacitorvoltage can be found from;
B-5
MODE 2
--
----
--------------
7s
---
--
-------
-;
Tt
Vom'
-----
tc
_';
---
tl
---"-
---
_-----
tc
Figure 4 Waveforms during Mode 2.
f`
VCrL3(t
'21-VCrL2
CrL
0
VCrL3
(t)
=V
CrL2
e-as (aSiizCUrt
+ CO,Cosw
t)
Eq 10
This mode endswhen i2(1) becomeszero.
B-6
Resonant capacitor C,L charging mode(Mode 3):
This mode starts when the diode current becomes zero. At the end of Mode 2 resonant
diagram of Mode 3 is shown in
An
C,
to
equivalent
circuit
charge.
starts
capacitor
L
Figure 5.
IDC
VDC
VCrL
CrL
-
Figure 5 Circuit diagram of Mode 3.
DC
I.
IDC
the
a
of
current
charges
at
constant
rate
resonant capacitor
During this mode
by;
is
given
rises,
The voltage v,,,, which
vErL
t1
CrL
Ji t +Vc,
L3
0
Eq 11
or;
B-7
Figure Waveforms during Mode 3.
VCrL
t +VCrL
`t)
! +C
l"
rL
\O/
Eq 12
At the end of this mode at t3 switch S is turned on again, starting the next switching
cycle.
B-8

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A NEW UNITY POWER FACTOR QUASI-RESONANT

Bekir Sami SAZAK

A dissertationsubmitted to the University of Glamorganin support of an application for

Department of Electronics and Information Technology

my daughterBuket Gizem, whose unfaltering supportwas

systemsbasedupon resonantswitch mode power convertertechniques.

these requirements are

The first stageconsistsof a push-pull buck converterconnectedto a unity power factor

important design and constructionachievementscan be summarisedas follows:

A secondarystage resonantconverter provides AC for the induction heater coil. This

I would also like to expressmy gratitude to the Turkish Government,particularly to the

List Of Principal Symbols

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS

2.2 Induction Heating Applications

2.2.3 Localized Heating

2.3 Power Systems For Induction Heating

2.4 Interim Conclusion

CHAPTER 3: REVIEW AND COMPARISON OF BASIC POWER

3.2 Three Phase Rectifier Arrangements

3.3 Basic Converter Topologies

3.4 Interim Conclusion

CHAPTER 4: THREE PHASE UNITY POWER FACTOR CONVERTERS

4.2 Input Power Factor Correction

4.3 General Description Of The Three Phase Unity Power Factor'Induction

4.4 Analysis Of The Three-Phase Unity Power Factor Converter Stage

4.5 Interim Conclusion

CHAPTER 5: INVERTER STAGE FOR THREE PHASE UNITY POWER

5.2 Principle Of Operation Of The Single Ended Resonant Inverter

5.3 Analysis Of The Three Phase Unity Power Factor Induction

5.4 Induction Heater Coil

5.5 Equivalent Circuit Coil-Design Method

5.6 Interim Conclusion

CHAPTER 6: DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR THE COMPLETE INDUCTION

6.2 Component Selection

6.2.3 Controlled Switches

6.3.2 Normalised Switching Frequency Ratio FB

6.3.3 Normalised Load Resistance Ratio RB

6.6 Interim Conclusion and Comparison of Simulated and Experimental

CHAPTER 7: CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS

7.2 Control System Requirements

7.3 Protection Systems

7.4 Overall Control System Of The Quasi-Resonant Push-Pull Buck Converter

7.6 Interim Conclusion

AND AREAS FOR FURTHER

8.2 Recommendation For Further Research

Appendix A: Circuit Diagrams

B: Transient Analysis Of The Proposed Inverter

Figure 1-1 General structure of an induction heating system.'

induction heating system.

Figure 2-1 A transformer.

Figure 2-2 Basic concept of induction-heating coil and load.

Figure 2-3 Induction heatingcoil and load

Figure 2-4 Distribution of current.

Figure 2-5 The effect of frequency f

at the coil on the temperature difference Ovo,

between surface vo and core vv of billet.

Figure 2-6 Basic supply-frequency system.

Figure 3-1 Circuit diagram of a standard Three-Phase Bridge Rectifier circuit..

Figure 3-2 Circuit diagram of a Three-Phase Controlled Bridge Rectifier circuit

with input filter.

Figure 3-5 Circuit diagramof a Single-EndedResonantConverter tivith a ThreePhase Input.

Figure 3-7 Circuit diagram of a Buck Converter based on Resonant Switching

Figure 3-9 Class-E DC/DC resonant converter circuit diagram.