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13-3

FLOW IN A CONSTANT-AREA DUCT WITH FRICTION

(continued)

Isothermal Flow
Gas flow in long constant-area ducts, such as natural gas pipelines, is essentially isothermal. Mach numbers in such flows are generally low, but significant pressure
changes can occur as a result of frictional effects acting over long duct lengths.
Hence, such flows cannot be treated as incompressible. The assumption of isothermal
flow is much more appropriate.
For isothermal flow with friction (as opposed to the adiabatic flow with friction
we previously discussed), the heat transfer dQ/dm is not zero. On the other hand,
we have the simplification that the temperature is constant everywhere. As for adiabatic flow, we can start with our set of basic equations (Eqs. 13.1), describing onedimensional flow that is affected by area change, friction, heat transfer, and normal
shocks,
 constant
r V1 A1 r V2 A2 rVA m
13:1a
1

 2 mV
 1
Rx p1 A1 p2 A2 mV
V2
V2
dQ
h1 1 h2 2
dm
2
2
 :
Z
1 Q
 2 s1
dA
ms
CS T A

13:1b
13:1c
13:1d

p rRT

13:1e

Dh h2 h1 cp DT cp T2 T1

13:1f

Ds s2 s1 cp ln

T2
p2
R ln
T1
p1

13:1g

We can simplify these equations by setting DT 0, so T1 T2, and A1 A2 A. In

addition we recall from Section 13-1 that the combination, h V 2/2 is the stagnation
enthalpy, h0. Using these, our final set of equations (renumbered for convenience) is

m
r1V1 r2V2 rV G constant
13:22a
A
 2 mV
 1
Rx p1 A p2 A mV
V 2 V12
dQ
h02 h01 2
dm
2
 :
Z
1 Q
ms2 s1
dA
CS T A

p rRT
Ds s2 s1 R ln

13:22b
13:22c
13:22d
13:22e

p2
p1

13:22f

Equations 13.22 can be used to analyze frictional isothermal flow in a channel of constant area. For example, if we know conditions at section 1 (i.e., p1, r1, T1, s1, h1,
and V1) we can use these equations to find conditions at some new section 2 after
the fluid has experienced a total friction force Rx. We have five equations (not including the constraint of Eq. 13.22d) and five unknowns ( p2, r2, s2, V2, and the heat

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13-3 FLOW IN A CONSTANT-AREA DUCT WITH FRICTION (continued)

W-25

transfer q that was necessary to maintain isothermal conditions). As we have seen before, in practice this procedure is unwieldywe once again have a set of nonlinear,
coupled algebraic equations to solve.
Before doing any calculations, we can see that the Ts diagram for this process
will be simply a horizontal line passing through state 1 . To see in detail what happens to the flow, in addition to Eqs. 13.22, we can develop property relations as functions of the Mach number. For isothermal flow, c constant, so V2/V1 M2 /M1, and
from Eq. 13.22a we have
r2
V1
M1

r1
V2
M2
Combining with the ideal gas equation, Eq. 13.22e, we obtain
r
p2
V1
M1
2

p1
r1
V2
M2

13:23

At each state we can relate the local temperature to its stagnation temperature using
Eq. 12.21b,
T0
k1 2
M
1
2
T

12:21b

Applying this to states 1 and 2 , with the fact that T1 T2, we obtain
k1 2
M2
1
T02
2

k1 2
T01
M1
1
2

13:24

To determine the variation in Mach number along the duct length, it is necessary
to consider the differential momentum equation for flow with friction. The analysis
leading to Eq. 13.18 is valid for isothermal flow. Since T constant for isothermal
flow, then from Eq. 13.18, with dT 0,


f kM 2
1 kM 2 dM 2
dx
M2
Dh 2
2
and
1 kM 2 dM 2
f
dx
kM 4
Dh

13:25

Equation 13.25 shows (setpdx

0) that the Mach number at which maximum length
Lmax is reached is M 1/ k. Since T is constant, then the friction factor, f f (Re),
is also p
constant.
Integration of Eq. 13.25 between the limits of M M at x 0 and

M 1/ k at x Lmax, where Lmax is the distance beyond which the isothermal flow
may not proceed, gives
fLmax
1 kM 2

ln kM 2
Dh
kM 2

13:26

The duct length, L, required for the flow Mach number to change from M1 to M2
can be obtained from
f

Lmax1 Lmax2
L
f
Dh
Dh

1 kM12
1 kM22
M2
L

ln 12
2
2
Dh
kM1
kM2
M2

13:27

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The distribution of heat exchange along the duct required to maintain isothermal
flow can be determined from the differential form of Eq. 13.22c as

 
k1 2
M
dq dh0 cp dT0 cp d T 1
2
or, since T constant,



cp T0 k 1
k1
 dM 2
dM 2 
dq cp T
k1 2
2
2 1
M
2

Substituting for dM 2 from Eq. 13.25,

cp T0 k 1kM 4
f

dx
13:28
dq 
k1 2
Dh
2
M 1 kM
2 1
2
p
From Eq. 13.28 we note that as M ! 1/ k, then dq/dx ! . Thus, an infinite rate of
heat exchange is required to maintain isothermal flow as the Mach number approaches the limiting value. Hence, we conclude that isothermal acceleration of flow
in a constant-area duct is only physically possible for flow at low Mach number.
We summarize the set of Mach numberbased equations (Eqs. 13.23, 13.24, and
13.27, respectively, renumbered) we can use for analysis of isothermal flow of an
ideal gas in a duct with friction:

13-6

r
p2
V1
M1
2

p1
r1
V2
M2

13:29a

k1 2
M2
1
T02
2

k1 2
T01
M1
1
2

13:29b

1 kM12
1 kM22
M12
fL

ln
Dh
kM12
kM22
M22

13:29c

SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS (continued)

Supersonic Diffuser
Analysis of the effects of area change in isentropic flow (Section 13-2) showed that a
converging channel reduces the speed of a supersonic stream; a converging channel
is a supersonic diffuser. Because flow speed decreases, pressure rises in the flow direction, creating an adverse pressure gradient. Isentropic flow is not a completely accurate model for flow with an adverse pressure gradient,2 but the isentropic flow
model with a normal shock may be used to demonstrate the basic features of supersonic diffusion.
For isentropic flow, a shock cannot stand in a stable position in a converging
passage; a shock may stand stably only in a diverging passage. Real flow near M 1

Boundary layers develop rapidly in adverse pressure gradients, so viscous effects may be important or
even dominant. In the presence of thick boundary layers, supersonic flows in diffusers may form complicated systems of oblique and normal shocks.

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W-27

5
Flow

1
T

p04

p01

T0 = constant

4
p1*

T* = constant

p1
T1
1
s

Fig. 13.22 Schematic Ts diagram for flow in a

supersonic diffuser with a normal shock.

is unstable, so it is not possible to reduce a supersonic flow exactly to sonic speed.

The minimum Mach number that can be reached at a throat is 1.2 to 1.3.
Thus in real supersonic diffusers, flow is decelerated to M & 1.3 in a converging
passage. Downstream from the throat section of minimum area, the flow is allowed
to accelerate to M & 1.4, where a normal shock takes place. At this Mach number,
the stagnation pressure loss (from Eq. 13.41b) is only about 4 percent. This small
loss is an acceptable compromise in exchange for flow stability.
Figure 13.22 shows the idealized process of supersonic diffusion, in which flow
is isentropic except across a normal shock. The slight reduction in stagnation pressure
all takes place across the shock.
In the actual flow, additional losses in stagnation pressure occur during the supersonic and subsonic diffusion processes before and after the shock. Experimental data
must be used to predict the actual losses in supersonic and subsonic diffusers [3, 4].
Supersonic diffusion also is important for high-speed aircraft, where a supersonic
external freestream flow must be decelerated efficiently to subsonic speed. Some diffusion can occur outside the inlet by means of a weak oblique shock system [5]. Variable geometry may be needed to accomplish efficient supersonic diffusion within the
inlet as the flight Mach number varies. Multi-dimensional compressible flows are discussed in Section 13-7, and are treated in detail elsewhere [6, 7].

Supersonic Wind Tunnel Operation

To build an efficient supersonic wind tunnel, it is necessary to understand shock
behavior and to control shock location. The basic physical phenomena are described
by Coles in the NCFMF video Channel Flow of a Compressible Fluid. (See http://
web.mit.edu/fluids/www/Shapiro/ncfmf.html for free online viewing of this film; it is
old but good!) In addition to chokingsonic flow at a throat, with upstream flow
independent of downstream conditionsColes discusses blocking and starting conditions for supersonic wind tunnels.
A closed-circuit supersonic wind tunnel must have a converging-diverging nozzle to accelerate flow to supersonic speed, followed by a test section of nearly constant area, and then a supersonic diffuser with a second throat. The circuit must be
completed by compression machinery, coolers, and flow-control devices, as shown in
Fig. 13.23 [9].

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A. Dry Air Storage Spheres

B. Aftercooler
C. 3-Stage Axial Flow Fan
D. Drive Motors
E. Flow Diversion Valve
F. 8- by 7-Foot Supersonic Test Section

G. Cooling Tower
H. Flow Diversion Valve
I. Aftercooler
J. 11-Stage Axial Flow Compressor
K. 9- by 7-Foot Supersonic Test Section
L. 11- by 11-Foot Transonic Test Section

Fig. 13.23 Schematic view of NASA-Ames closed-circut, high-speed wind tunnel with supporting
facilities [9]. (Photo courtesy of NASA.)

Consider the process of accelerating flow from rest to supersonic speed in the
test section. Soon after flow at the nozzle throat becomes sonic, a shock wave forms
in the divergence. The shock attains its maximum strength when it reaches the nozzle
exit plane. Consequently, to start the tunnel and achieve steady supersonic flow in
the test section, the shock must move through the second throat and into the subsonic
diffuser. When this occurs, we say the shock has been swallowed by the second
throat. Consequently, to start the tunnel, the supersonic diffuser throat must be larger
than the nozzle throat. The second throat must be large enough to exceed the critical
area for flow downstream from the strongest possible shock.
Blocking occurs when the second throat is not large enough to swallow the
shock. When the channel is blocked, flow is sonic at both throats and flow in the test
section is subsonic; flow in the test section cannot be controlled by varying conditions downstream from the supersonic diffuser.
When the tunnel is running there is no shock in the nozzle or test section, so the energy dissipation is much reduced. The second throat area may be reduced slightly
during running to improve the diffuser efficiency. The compressor pressure ratio may
be adjusted to move the shock in the subsonic diffuser to a lower Mach number. A combination of adjustable second throat and pressure ratio control may be used to achieve
optimum running conditions for the tunnel. Small differences in efficiency are important when the tunnel drive system may consume more than half a million kilowatts [10]!

Supersonic Flow with Friction in a Constant-Area Channel

Flow in a constant-area channel with friction is dominated by viscous effects. Even
when the main flow is supersonic, the no-slip condition at the channel wall guarantees
subsonic flow near the wall. Consequently, supersonic flow in constant-area channels
may form complicated systems of oblique and normal shocks. However, the basic

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W-29

behavior of adiabatic supersonic flow with friction in a constant-area channel is

revealed by considering the simpler case of normal-shock formation in Fanno-line flow.
Supersonic flow along the Fanno line becomes choked after only a short length of
duct, because at high speed the effects of friction are pronounced. Figure E.2 (Appendix
E) shows that the limiting value of f Lmax /Dh is less than one; subsonic flows can have
much longer runs. Thus when choking results from friction and duct length is increased
further, the supersonic flow shocks down to subsonic to match downstream conditions.
The Ts diagrams in Figs. 13.24a through 13.24d illustrate what happens when
the length of constant-area duct, fed by a converging-diverging nozzle supplied from
Lb
La

La
T0
p0

T0
p0
1

*
T

p 0*

p01

Shock

*
p0*

p01

T0 = constant

T0 = constant

M<1
p*

Shock

p*

T* = constant

T* = constant

M=1
M>1
Process path
1

p1

p1
T1

T1

s
(a) Choked supersonic flow in channel.

(b) Choked flow in channel with shock.

Ld

Lc
La

La
T0
p0

T0
p0

Shock

1
T

*
p0*

p01

T0 = constant
M<1

*
p0

p*

p01
p1

p0*
T0 = constant
T1

T* = constant

T* = constant
M=1

p*

p1
T1
s

s
(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle exit
plane.

(d) Choked flow with shock in nozzle; subsonic

flow in channel.

Fig. 13.24 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Fanno-line flows with normal shocks.

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a reservoir with constant stagnation conditions, is increased. Supersonic flow on the

Fanno line of Fig. 13.24a is choked by friction when the duct length is La. When
additional duct is added to produce Lb La, Fig. 13.24b, a normal shock appears.
Flow upstream from the shock does not change, because it is supersonic (no change
in downstream condition can affect the supersonic flow before the shock).
In Fig. 13.24b the shock is shown in an arbitrary position. The shock moves
toward the entrance of the constant-area channel (toward higher initial Mach number)
as more duct is added.
Flow remains on the same Fanno line as the shock is driven upstream to state 1
by adding duct length; thus the mass flow rate remains unchanged. The duct length,
Lc, which moves the shock into the channel entrance plane, Fig. 13.24c, may be calculated directly using the methods of Section 13-3.
When duct length Lc is exceeded, the shock is driven back into the C-D nozzle,
Fig. 13.24d. The mass flow rate remains constant until the shock reaches the nozzle
throat. Only when more duct is added after the shock reaches the throat does the
mass flow rate decrease, and the flow move to a new Fanno line.
If the shock position is known, flow properties at each section and the duct length
can be calculated directly. When length is specified and shock location is to be determined, iteration is necessary.

Supersonic Flow with Heat Addition in a Constant-Area Channel

Supersonic flow with heat addition in a frictionless channel of constant area is shown
in Fig. 13.25a. Assume the channel is fed by a converging-diverging nozzle, supplied
from a reservoir with constant stagnation conditions, and flow is supersonic at state
1 . Heat addition causes state points to move up and to the right along the Rayleigh
line. Figure 13.25a illustrates the condition in which the heat addition is just sufficient
to choke the flow.
R se Flow is sonic at the exit, so pe p* and Te T*; the heat addition
per unit mass, s1 T ds, is represented by the shaded area beneath the Rayleigh line.
A normal shock involves no heat addition, so T0 is constant across a shock. Consequently, a shock in the constant-area channel would not change the heat addition
required to change the flow state from the inlet condition to choking. When the shock
stands at the channel inlet, Fig. 13.25b, the heat addition needed to reach Mach one
at the exit is the same as in Fig. 13.25a; the shaded areas also must be identical.
If more thermal energy is added to flow at the conditions shown in Fig. 13.25b,
the shock will be pushed from the entrance of the constant-area duct back into the diverging portion of the nozzle, where the Mach number is lower.
With a shock in the nozzle, conditions at the duct entrance are changed, and heat
addition occurs along a different Rayleigh line, as shown in Fig. 13.25c. There is no
change in T0 or T* across the shock (thus T03 T04 and T3* T4*), but the Mach number downstream changes. Additional subsonic diffusion occurs from state 4 to the
nozzle exit (state 5 ), thus moving the choked condition upward on the Ts plane,
allowing for increased heat addition on the new Rayleigh line. All of these changes
occur at the same mass flow rate, because nozzle throat conditions remain unchanged.
The Mach number immediately upstream from the shock (state 3 ) is less than
M1 of Fig. 13.25b; the corresponding temperature, T3, is higher than T1. Since the
shock strength is reduced, the entropy rise across the shock is less, (s4 s3)
(s2 s1). The subsonic diffusion following the shock results in a lower Mach number
and higher temperature at the duct entrance. Thus M5 M2 and T5 T2.
When the heat addition rate is increased enough to drive the shock to the nozzle
throat, a further increase in heat addition will result in a decrease in mass flow rate.
The Mach number at the channel inlet is reduced, M7 M5, and the channel flow
shifts to another new Rayleigh line, as shown in Fig. 13.25d.
Thus for specified mass flow rate, there is a maximum rate of heat addition for
supersonic flow throughout. For higher rates of heat addition, a shock occurs in the

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13-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS (continued)

p01
T01

M>1

1200

p01
T01

M>1

Mt = 1

M1 = 2

Me = 1

M<1

Mt = 1

1200

Me = 1
p0e

T0e
pe

p0e

p01

T01

T0e
p01

T01
Temperature, (K)

Te

800

T1
p1

400

M>1

800

400

(a) Choked supersonic flow.

p1

0
1
2
3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R

M<1

p01
T01

p01
T01

M<1

M<1

M<1

7
Mt < 1 M7 = 0.35

M6 = 1
Mt = 1 M4 = 0.701
M3 = 1.5 M5 = 0.407

2000

Te

T
p2 2

(b) Choked flow with shock at nozzle exit

plane.

M>1

pe

p02

T1

0
1
2
3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R

8
M8 = 1
p08

2000

T08
p8

p06
1600

1600

T06

T8

p6
T6
1200
p02
T01

p01
T04
T5
T4
Tt

800

Temperature, (K)

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Temperature, (K)

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Temperature, (K)

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1200

T01
800

p01
T7
Tt

T3
p3
400

400
1
2
3
0
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R
(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle; same
mass flow rate, but flow shifts to a new
Rayleigh line.

0
1
2
3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R
(d) Subsonic flow throughout; decreased mass flow
rate and flow shifted to another new Rayleigh
line.

Fig. 13.25 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Rayleigh-line flows with normal shocks.

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nozzle and flow is subsonic in the constant-area channel, but the exit flow remains
sonic. If the shock position is specified, the heat addition along the Rayleigh line can
be calculated directly. If the heat addition is specified but the shock position or mass
flow rate are unknown, iteration is required to obtain a solution.
Additional consideration of flow with shock waves is given in [11].