Ography Notes PDF - Print Friendly 22-06-2016 PDF

00.Geomorphology.
pdf
01.Climatology.pdf
02.Climatic Regions.pdf
03.Oceanography.pdf
04.Indian Geography.pdf
05.Economic Geography.pdf
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Table of Contents
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Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians

and the Atlas mountains ......................48
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH .................... 3
Mains Question on Fold Mountains ......48
Seismic waves ....................................... 4
Propagation of Earthquake Waves.......... 6
Continent Arc Convergence or New

Guinea Convergence .............................49
Earths Layers ....................................... 8
Orogeny................................................50
Earths Chemical Composition ..............10
Composition of Earths Crust ................10
Types of Mountains - Classification of

Mountains ............................................50
Earth Movements .................................10
Fault in Geology ..................................53
Geomorphic processes ..........................11
Fold in geology ....................................53
Earth Movements - Endogenetic

Movements ...........................................11
Fold Mountains ....................................53
Block Mountains ..................................55
Exogenetic Movements .........................14
Volcanic mountains ..............................56
Weathering ...........................................14
Residual mountains .............................56
Continental Drift Theory - Tectonics .....18
Significance of mountains.....................57
Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener,

1922)....................................................19
Important mountain ranges ..................57
Andes ...................................................57
Convectional Current Theory - Tectonics

............................................................23
Rocky Mountains..................................58
Paleomagnetism ...................................24
Great Dividing Range ............................58
Concept of Sea Floor Spreading ............26
Transantarctic Mountains ....................59
Plate Tectonics .....................................27
Ural Mountains ....................................59
Plate Tectonics - Interaction of Plates....29
Atlas Mountains ...................................59
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics..31
Appalachian Mountains ........................60
Significance of Plate Tectonics ..............32
Himalayas ............................................60
Movement Of The Indian Plate ..............32
Alps......................................................61
Comparison: Continental Drift See Floor

Spreading Plate Tectonics ..................33
Mountain ranges By height ...................61
Questions .............................................34
Why are world's highest mountains are at

the equator? .........................................62
Ocean - Ocean Convergence or The Island

- Arc Convergence ................................35
Highest mountain peaks of the world ....62
Highest peak of each continent .............62
Continent - Ocean Convergence Or The

Cordilleran Convergence .......................40
Interaction of Plates ..............................63
Divergent boundary ..............................64
Continent - Continent Convergence or

The Himalayan Convergence .................44
Evolution Formation of Rift Lakes, Seas

and Oceans ..........................................64
Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent

- Continent Convergence ......................45
Rift valley lakes ....................................66
East African Rift Valley .........................66
Formation of Himalayans and Tibet ......45
Great Rift Valley ...................................67
Evidences for the rising Himalayas .......48
Transcurrent boundary or transform edge

............................................................68
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Volcanism ............................................68
Rock Types ...........................................96
Causes of Volcanism ............................69
Sedimentary Rocks ...............................98
Lava types in Volcanism .......................70
Metamorphic Rocks ..............................99
Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ...........70
Rock cycle ..........................................101
Positive Effects of Volcanoes .................71
Some Rock-Forming Minerals .............101 Page
Geysers and Hot Springs ......................72
Distribution of Volcanoes across the

World ...................................................73
Multiple choice questions. ..................102 | 2

Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .........102
The Distribution of Earthquakes ...........74
Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

..........................................................102
Volcanos in India ..................................75
Fluvial Erosional Landforms ...............102
Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes .75
Some significant Volcanic Eruptions .....75
Volcanic Landforms ..............................76
Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

..........................................................107
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms ..............76
Fluvial Depositional Landforms ..........107
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms ...............78
Exhalative (vapor or fumes) ..................79
Effusive (Lava outpouring) ....................80
Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

..........................................................111
Explosive (Violent ejection of solid

material) ...............................................80
Glacial Erosional Landforms ...............111
Glacial Depositional Landforms ..........112
Subaqueous Volcanism ........................81
Glacial Cycle of Erosion ......................112
Eruptive Volcanism Types ....................81
Hotspot Volcanism ...............................83
Why are world's highest mountains at the

equator? .............................................113
Reunion Hotspot Volcanism..................84
Distribution of Hotspot Volcanism ........85
Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

..........................................................113
Earthquakes.........................................85
Marine Erosional Landforms ...............114
Causes of Earthquakes .........................85
Marine Depositional Landforms ..........115
Seismic Waves or Earthquake Waves ....86
Marine Cycle of Erosion ......................116
Earthquakes based on the depth of Focus

............................................................88
Coastlines ..........................................116
Distribution of Earthquakes .................88
Effects of Earthquakes..........................88
Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..118
Tsunami ...............................................89
Erosional Arid Landforms ...................118
2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.................93
Arid Depositional Landforms ..............122
Occurrence ...........................................94
Shifts in Geography ..............................94
Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion 123
Warning Systems..................................95
Lakes .................................................125
Indias preparedness.............................95
Lakes and Man ...................................128
ROCKS .................................................96
Important Lakes on Earth...................129
Plateau ...............................................133
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Plateau Formation ..............................134
Plateau Types .....................................135
Major plateaus of the World ................135
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South Africa
Deepest mine
Gold mine
Deapth: 2.4 miles (3.9 km)
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
The configuration of the surface of the

earth is largely a product of the processes
operating in the interior of the earth.
Exogenic as well as endogenic processes
are constantly shaping the landscape.
Why know about earths interior

Understanding of the earth's interior is
essential to understand the nature of
changes that take place over and below
the earth's surface.
To understand geophysical phenomenon

like volcanism, earthquakes etc..
To understand the internal structure of
various solar system objects
To understand the evolution and present
composition of atmosphere
Future deep-sea mineral exploration etc.
Sources of information about the

interior
Direct Sources
Deep earth mining and drilling reveals the

nature of rocks deep down the surface.
[Mponeng gold mine and TauTona gold
mine in South Africa are deepest mines
reaching to a depth of 3.9 km. And the
deepest drilling is about 12 km deep]
Volcanic eruption forms another source
of obtaining direct information.
Indirect Sources
Not important for exam. But if you are a

science enthusiast and if you want to
know more
What causes
earth?
Depth: With depth, pressure and density

increases and hence temperature. This is
mainly due to gravitation.
Mponeng mine
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Meteors: Meteors and Earth are solar
system objects that are born from the | 3
same nebular cloud. Thus they are likely
to have a similar internal structure.
Gravitation: The gravitation force (g) is not
the same at different latitudes on the
surface. It is greater near the poles and
less at the equator. This is because of the
distance from the center at the equator
being greater than that at the poles.
The gravity values also differ according to
the mass of material. The uneven
distribution of mass of material within the
earth influences this value. Such a
difference is called gravity anomaly.
Gravity anomalies give us information
about the distribution of mass of the
material in the crust of the earth.
Magnetic field: The geodynamo effect helps
scientists understand what's happening
inside the Earth's core. Shifts in the
magnetic field also provide clues to the
inaccessible iron core. But their source
remains a mystery.
the
magnetic
field
of
Our planets magnetic field is believed to

be generated deep down in the Earths
core.
Nobody has ever taken the mythical
journey to the centre of the Earth, but by
studying the way shockwaves from
earthquakes travel through the planet,
physicists have been able to work out its
likely structure.
Right at the heart of the Earth is a solid
inner core, two thirds of the size of the
Moon and composed primarily of iron. At a
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hellish 5,700C, this iron is as hot as the

Suns surface, but the crushing pressure
caused by gravity prevents it from
becoming liquid.
Surrounding this is the outer core, a
2,000 km thick layer of iron, nickel, and
small quantities of other metals. Lower
pressure than the inner core means the
metal here is fluid.
Differences in temperature, pressure and
composition within the outer core cause
convection currents in the molten metal as
cool, dense matter sinks whilst warm, less
dense matter rises. The Coriolis force,
resulting from the Earths spin, also
causes swirling whirlpools.
This flow of liquid iron generates electric
currents, which in turn produce magnetic
fields. Charged metals passing through
these fields go on to create electric
currents of their own, and so the cycle
continues. This self-sustaining loop is
known as the geodynamo.
The spiraling caused by the Coriolis force
means that separate magnetic fields
created are roughly aligned in the same
direction, their combined effect adding up
to produce one vast magnetic field
engulfing the planet.
and
The most important indirect source is

seismic activity. The major understanding
of the earths internal structure is mainly
from the study of seismic waves.
Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot

springs, geysers etc. point to an interior
which is very hot.
The high temperatures are attributed to
automatic disintegration of the radioactive
substances.
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Gravitation and the diameter of the earth
helps in estimating pressures deep inside. | 4
Evidence From The Meteorites
Some sources explained in detail

High Levels of Temperature
Pressure Downwards
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When they fall to earth, their outer layer is

burnt during their fall due to extreme
friction and the inner core is exposed.
The heavy material composition of their
cores confirms the similar composition of
the inner core of the earth, as both evolved
from the same star system in the remote
past.
Seismic waves
The study of seismic waves provides a

complete picture of the layered interior.
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What causes earthquakes?
Abrupt release of energy along a fault

causes earthquake waves.
A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rock
layer.
Rocks along a fault tend to move in
opposite directions. But the friction
exerted by the overlying rock strata
prevents the movement of rock layer. With
time pressure builds up.
Under intense pressure, the rock layer, at
certain point, overcomes the friction
offered by the overlying layer and
undergoes
an
abrupt
movement
generating shockwaves.
This causes a release of energy, and the
energy waves travel in all directions.
The point where the energy is released is
called the focus of an earthquake,
alternatively, it is called the hypocentre.
The energy waves travelling in different
directions reach the surface. The point on
the surface, nearest to the focus, is called
epicentre. It is the first one to experience
the waves. It is a point directly above the
focus.
All natural earthquakes take place in the

lithosphere (depth up to 200 km from the
surface of the earth).
An
instrument
called
seismograph
records the waves reaching the surface.
Earthquake waves are basically of two
types body waves and surface waves.
Body waves are generated due to the
release of energy at the focus and move in
all directions travelling through the body
of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
The body waves interact with the surface
rocks and generate new set of waves called
surface waves. These waves move along
the surface.
The velocity of waves changes as they
travel through materials with different
elasticity (stiffness) (Generally density with
few exceptions). The more elastic the
material is, the higher is the velocity. Their
direction also changes as they reflect or

refract when coming across materials with
different densities.
There are two types of body waves. They
are called P and S-waves.
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Behavior of Earthquake Waves
The earthquake waves are measured with

the help of a seismograph and are of three
types
1. the 'P' waves or primary waves

(longitudinal nature),
2. secondary
waves
or
'S'
waves
(transverse in nature) while the
3. surface waves are long or L waves.
Earthquake Waves
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The velocity and direction of the

earthquake waves undergo changes when
the medium through which they are
travelling changes.
When an earthquake or underground
nuclear test sends shock waves through
the Earth, the cooler areas, which
generally are rigid, transmit these waves
at a higher velocity than the hotter areas.
Primary Waves (P waves)
Also called as the longitudinal or

compressional waves.
Particles of the medium vibrate along the
direction of propagation of the wave.
P-waves move faster and are the first to
arrive at the surface.
These waves are of high frequency.
They can travel in all mediums.
Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids >
Gases
Their velocity depends on shear strength
or elasticity of the material.
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[We usually say that the speed of sound

waves depends on density. But there are
few exceptions. For example: Mercury
(liquid metal) has density greater than
Iron but speed of sound in mercury is
lesser compared to that in iron. This is
because the shear strength of mercury is
very low (this is why mercury is liquid)
compared to that of iron.]
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The shadow zone for S waves is an area

that corresponds to an angle between
1030 and 1800
This observation led to the discovery of
liquid outer core. Since S waves cannot
travel through liquid, they do not pass
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through the liquid outer core.
|6
The shadow zone for P waves is an area

that corresponds to an angle between
1030 and 1420
Surface Waves (L waves)
This gives clues about Solid inner core

Secondary Waves (S waves)
Also called as transverse or distortional

waves.
Analogous to water ripples or light waves.
S-waves arrive at the surface with some
time lag.
A secondary wave cannot pass through
liquids or gases.
These waves are of high frequency waves.
Travel at varying velocities (proportional to
shear strength) through the solid part of
the Earth's crust, mantle.
The shadow zone of 'S' waves extends
almost halfway around the globe from the
earthquake's focus.
Also called as long period waves.

They are low frequency, long wavelength,
and transverse vibration.
Generally affect the surface of the Earth
only and die out at smaller depth.
Develop in the immediate neighborhood of
the epicenter.
They cause displacement of rocks, and
hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
These waves are responsible for most the
destructive force of earthquake.
Recoded last on the seismograph.
Propagation of Earthquake Waves
Different types of earthquake waves travel

in different manners. As they move or
propagate, they cause vibration in the
body of the rocks through which they
pass.
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P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of

the wave. This exerts pressure on the
material
in
the
direction
of
the
propagation.
As a result, it creates density differences
in the material leading to stretching and
squeezing of the material.
Other two waves vibrate perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
The direction of vibrations of S-waves is
perpendicular to the wave direction in the
vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs
and crests in the material through which
they pass.
Emergence of Shadow Zone
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epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P

and S-waves.
However,
the
seismographs
located
beyond 145 from epicenter, record the
arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves.
Thus, a zone between 105 and 145
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from epicenter was identified as the
shadow zone for both the types of waves. | 7
The entire zone beyond 105 does not
receive S-waves.
The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger
than that of the P-waves. The shadow zone
of P-waves appears as a band around the
earth between 105 and 145 away from
the epicenter.
The shadow zone of S-waves is not only
larger in extent but it is also a little over
40 per cent of the earth surface.
But how these properties of P

and S waves help in determining
the earths interior?
Earthquake waves get recorded in

seismographs located at far off locations.
However, there exist some specific areas
where the waves are not reported. Such a
zone is called the shadow zone.
The study of different events reveals that
for each earthquake, there exists an
altogether different shadow zone. Figure
3.2 (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P
and S-waves.
It was observed that seismographs located
at any distance within 105 from the
Reflection causes waves to rebound

whereas refraction makes waves move in
different directions.
The variations in the direction of waves
are inferred with the help of their record
on seismograph.
Change in densities greatly varies the
wave velocity.
By observing the changes in velocity, the
density of the earth as a whole can be
estimated.
By the observing the changes in direction
of the waves (emergence of shadow zones),
different layers can be identified.
Not important for exam. But if you are a
science enthusiast and if you want to
know more
Why does sound wave travel faster in a
denser medium whereas light travels
slower?
Sound is a mechanical wave and travels

by compression and rarefaction of the
medium.
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Its velocity in an elastic medium is

proportional to the square root of Tension
in the medium.
A higher density leads to more elasticity in
the medium and hence the ease by which
compression and rarefaction can take
place. This way the velocity of sound
increases by increase in density.
Light on the other hand is a transverse
electromagnetic wave.
It does not depend on the elastic property
of the medium in which it travels.
Its velocity in a medium is determined by
the
electromagnetic
(e.g.
dielectric)
properties of the medium.
Effective path length on the other hand is
increased by an increase in the density
and hence it leads to higher refractive
index and lower velocity.
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The structure of the earth's interior is

made up of several concentric layers.
Broadly three layers can be identified
crust, mantle and the core.
Watch video
understanding
for
better
and
quick
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k-I
Earths Layers based on chemical

properties
1. crust,
2. mantle, and
3. Core.
Why S-waves cannot travel through

liquids?
S-waves are shear waves, which move

particles perpendicularly to their direction
of propagation.
They can propagate through solid rocks
because these rocks have enough shear
strength.
The shear strength is one of the forces
that hold the rock together, and prevent it
from falling into pieces.
Liquids do not have the same shear
strength: that is why, if you take a glass of
water and suddenly remove the glass, the
water will not keep its glass shape and will
just flow away.
In fact, it is just a matter of rigidity: Swaves need a medium rigid enough to
propagate. Hence, S-waves do not
propagate through liquids.
Earths Layers - The Crust
Earths Layers
Earths layers are identified by studying

various direct and indirect sources [we
studied this in previous post: Earths
Interior Earthquake Waves Shadow
Zone].
Crust is the outer thin layer with a total

thickness normally between 30-50 km.
The thickness of the crust varies under
the oceanic and continental areas.
Oceanic crust is thinner (5-30 km
thick) as compared to the continental
crust (50-70 km thick).
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|8
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The continental crust is thicker in the

areas of major mountain systems. It is as
much as 70 -100 km thick in the
Himalayan region.
It forms 5-1.0 per cent of the earths
volume.
Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms
the
boundary between
crust
and
asthenosphere [asthenosphere is a part
of mantle].
The outer covering of the crust is
of sedimentary
material
(granitic
Earths Layers - Mantle
The
mantle
extends
from Mohos
discontinuity (35 km) to a depth of 2,900
km (Moho-Discontinuity to the outer
core).
The crust and the uppermost part of the
mantle
are
called lithosphere. Its
thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
The lower mantle extends beyond the
asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
The density of mantle varies between 2.9
and 3.3.
The density ranges from 3.3 to 5.7 in the
lower part.
It is composed of solid rock and magma.
It forms 83 per cent of the earth's volume.
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rocks) and below that lie crystalline,

igneous and metamorphic rocks which
are acidic in nature.
The lower layer of the crust consists
of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks.
The continents are composed of lighter
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silicatessilica
+
aluminium
(also
called sial) while the oceans have the | 9
heavier silicatessilica + magnesium (also
called sima).
The outer layer of the mantle is

partly simatic while the inner layer is
composed of wholly simatic ultra-basic
rocks.
Earths Layers - Asthenosphere
The upper portion of the mantle is called

asthenosphere.
The word astheno means weak.
It is considered to be extending up to 400
km.
It is the main source of magma that finds
its way to the surface during volcanic
eruptions. It has a density higher than the
crusts.
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Earths Layers - Core
Lies between 2900 km and 6400

km below the earth's surface.
Accounts for 16 per cent of the earth's
volume.
Core has the heaviest mineral materials of
highest density.
It is composed of nickel and iron [nife].
The outer core is liquid while the inner
core is solid.
A zone of mixed heavy metals + silicates
separates the core from outer layers.
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| 10
In this post we will study about the most

basic concepts of geomorphology - Earth
Movements - Endogenetic Movements.
Earths Layers - Seismic Discontinuities

1. Mohorovicic
Discontinuity
(Moho)
separates the crust from the mantle, its
average depth being about 35 km.
2. A soft asthenosphere (highly viscous,
mechanically weak and ductile). Its a part
of mantle.
3. Gutenberg Discontinuity - lies between
the mantle and the outer core. Below
2900 km from earths surface.
Next post
Movements
Watch video
understanding
be
for
on
better
Exogenetic
and
quick
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2lVo9yLk
Qs
Earth Movements
Earths Chemical Composition
Composition of Earths Crust
will
Our earth is undergoing deformations

imperceptibly [so slight, gradual, or subtle
as not to be perceived] but continuously.
These deformations are caused by the
movements generated by various factors
like
1. The heat generated by the radioactive

elements in earth's interior.
2. Movement of the crustal plates due to
tectogenesis.
3. Forces generated by rotation of the
earth.
4. Climatic
factors
like
winds,
precipitation, pressure belts etc.
Isostacy ==> According to this concepts,

blocks of the earth's crust, because of
variations in density would rise to different
levels and appear on the surface as
mountains, plateau, plains or ocean
basins
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Tectonic ==> relating to the structure of

the earth's crust and the large-scale
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processes which take place within it.
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| 11
Geomorphic processes
Geomorphic == relating to the form of the

landscape and other natural features of
The endogenic and exogenic forces
causing physical and chemical changes on
earth surface are known as geomorphic
processes.
Diastrophism and volcanism are
endogenic geomorphic processes.
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and
deposition are
exogenic
geomorphic
processes.
Geomorphic agent == mobile medium (like
running water, moving ice masses, wind,
waves and currents etc.) which removes,
transports and deposits earth materials.
Earth Movements - Endogenetic

Movements
The interaction of matter and temperature

generates these forces or movements
inside the earth's crust. The earth
movements
are
mainly
of
two
types: diastrophism and
the sudden
movements.
The energy emanating from within the
earth is the main force behind endogenic
geomorphic processes.
This
energy
is
mostly
generated
by radioactivity, rotational and tidal
friction and primordial heat from the
origin of the earth. This energy due to
geothermal gradients and heat flow from
within
induces
diastrophism
and
volcanism in the lithosphere.
Diastrophism
Diastrophism is the general term applied

to slow bending, folding, warping and
fracturing.
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Wrap == make or become bent or twisted

out of shape, typically from the action of
heat or damp; make abnormal; distort.
All processes that move, elevate or build
up portions of the earths crust come
under diastrophism. They include:
1. orogenic processes involving mountain

building through severe folding and
affecting long and narrow belts of the
earths crust;
2. epeirogenic processes involving uplift or
warping of large parts of the earths crust;
3. earthquakes involving
local
relatively
minor movements;
4. plate
tectonics involving
horizontal
movements of crustal plates.
earth;
therefore,
they
are
also
called radial movements. Their direction
may be towards (subsidence) or away
(uplift) from the center. The results of
such movements may be clearly defined in
the relief.
Uplift
In the process of orogeny, the crust is

severely deformed into folds. Due to
epeirogeny,
there
may
be
simple
deformation. Orogeny is a mountain
building process whereas epeirogeny is
continental building process.
Through the processes of orogeny,
epeirogeny,
earthquakes
and
plate
tectonics, there can be faulting and
fracturing of the crust. All these processes
cause pressure, volume and temperature
(PVT) changes which in turn induce
metamorphism of rocks.
Epeirogenic
movements
or
continent
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Raised
beaches,
elevated
wave-cut
terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds
above sea level are evidences of uplift.
Raised beaches, some of them elevated as
much as 15 m to 30 m above the present
sea level, occur at several places along
the Kathiawar,
Nellore,
and
Thirunelveli coasts.
Several places which were on the sea some
centuries ago are now a few miles inland.
For example, Coringa near the mouth of
the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the
Kaveri delta and Korkai on the coast of
Thirunelveli, were all flourishing sea
ports about 1,000 to 2,000 years ago.
forming
In geology, Epeirogenic movement refers to

upheavals
or
depressions
of
land
exhibiting long
wavelengths [undulations] and
little
folding.
The broad central parts of continents are
called cratons, and are subject to
epeirogeny.
The movement is caused by a set of forces
acting along an Earth radius, such as
those
contributing
to Isostacy and Faulting in
the
lithosphere
Epeirogenic
or
continent
forming
movements act along the radius of the
Subsidence
Submerged forests and valleys as well as

buildings are evidences of subsidence.
In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh
was submerged as a result of an
earthquake.
Presence of peat and lignite beds below
the sea level in Thirunelveli and the
Sunderbans is an example of subsidence.
The Andamans and Nicobars have been
isolated from the Arakan coast by
submergence of the intervening land.
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the structurally identifiable units are

difficult to recognise.
In general, diastrophic forces which have
uplifted lands have predominated over
forces which have lowered them.
Sudden Movements
On the east side of Bombay island, trees

have been found embedded in mud about
4 m below low water mark. A similar
submerged forest has also been noticed on
the Thirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu.
A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and
Palk Strait is very shallow and has been
submerged in geologically recent times. A
part of the former town of Mahabalipuram
near Chennai (Madras) is submerged in
the sea.
Orogenic or
movements
the
mountain-forming
Orogenic
or
the
mountain-forming
movements act tangentially to the earth
surface, as in plate tectonics.
These movements cause considerable

deformation over a short span of time, and
may be of two types.
Earthquake
It occurs when the surplus accumulated

stress in rocks in the earth's interior is
relieved through the weak zones over the
earth's surface in form of kinetic energy of
wave motion causing vibrations (at times
devastating) on the earth's surface. Such
movements may result in uplift in coastal
areas.
An earthquake in Chile (1822) caused a
one-metre uplift in coastal areas.
An earthquake in New Zealand (1885)
caused an uplift of upto 3 metres in some
areas while some areas in Japan (1891)
subsided by 6 metres after an earthquake.
Earthquakes may cause change in
contours, change in river courses,
'tsunamis' (seismic waves created in sea
by an earthquake, as they are called in
Japan) which may cause shoreline
changes, spectacular glacial surges (as in
Alaska), landslides, soil creeps, mass
wasting etc.
Volcanoes
Tensions produces fissures (since this

type of force acts away from a point in two
directions) and compression produces
folds (because this type of force acts
towards a point from two or more
directions). In the landforms so produced,
Volcanism includes the movement of

molten rock (magma) onto or toward the
earths surface and also formation of many
intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
A volcano is formed when the molten
magma in the earth's interior escapes
through the crust by vents and fissures in
the crust, accompanied by steam,
gases (hydrogen
sulphide,
sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen chloride, carbon
dioxide)
and
pyroclastic
material.
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Depending on chemical composition and

viscosity of the lava, a volcano may take
various forms.
Pyroclastic ==> adjective of or denoting
rock fragments or ash erupted by a
volcano, especially as a hot, dense,
destructive flow.
In this post we will study about

Exogenetic Movements - Weathering.
Endogenetic Movements explained in the
previous post
Watch video
understanding
for
quick
and
better
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VUo_
AX4Qac
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All the exogenic geomorphic processes are

covered under a general term, denudation.
The word denude means to strip off or to
uncover.
Weathering, mass wasting/movements,
erosion and transportation are included
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in denudation.
Denudation mainly depends on rock type | 14
and its structure that includes folds,
faults, orientation and inclination of beds,
presence or absence of joints, bedding
planes,
hardness
or
softness
of
constituent
minerals,
chemical
susceptibility of mineral constituents; the
permeability or impermeability etc.
The effects of most of the exogenic
geomorphic processes are small and slow
but will in the long run affect the rocks
severely due to continued fatigue.
Exogenetic Movements
Exogenic (Exogenetic) processes are a

direct result of stress induced in earth
materials due to various forces that come
into existence due to suns heat.
Force applied per unit area is called
stress. Stress is produced in a solid by
pushing or pulling.
Forces acting along the faces of earth
materials are shear stresses (separating
forces). It is this stress that breaks rocks
and other earth materials.
Earth
materials
become
subjected
to molecular stresses caused due to
temperature changes.
Chemical processes normally lead to
loosening of bonds between grains.
Thus, the basic reason that leads to
weathering, erosion and deposition is
development of stresses in the body of the
earth materials.
Temperature and precipitation are the two
important climatic elements that control
various processes by inducing stress in
earth materials.
Weathering
Weathering is defined as mechanical

disintegration and chemical
decomposition of rocks through the
actions of various elements of weather and
climate.
As very little or no motion of materials
takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ
or on-site process.
There are three major groups of
weathering processes: (i) chemical; (ii)
physical or mechanical; (iii) biological
weathering processes.
Chemical Weathering Processes
Denudation
A group of weathering processes viz;

solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation
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and reduction act on the rocks to

decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a
fine state.
Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
along with heat speed up all chemical
reactions.
Solution
When something is dissolved in water or

acids, the water or acid with dissolved
contents is called solution.
On coming in contact with water many
solids disintegrate. Soluble rock forming
minerals like nitrates, sulphates, and
potassium etc. are affected by this
process.
So, these minerals are easily leached out
without leaving any residue in rainy
climates and accumulate in dry regions.
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate

and bicarbonate with minerals.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and
soil air is absorbed by water, to
form carbonic acid that acts as a weak
acid on various minerals.
Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of

water.
Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the
volume of the material itself or rock.
This process is reversible and long,
continued repetition of this process causes
fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their
disintegration.
The volume changes in minerals due to
hydration will also help in physical
weathering
through exfoliation and granular
disintegration.
Oxidation and Reduction
In weathering, oxidation means a

combination of a mineral with oxygen to
form oxides (rusting in case of iron) or
hydroxides. Red soils appear red due to
the presence of iron oxides.
Oxidation occurs where there is ready
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access to the atmosphere and water.
The minerals most commonly involved in | 15
this process are iron, manganese, sulphur
etc.
When oxidized minerals are placed in an
environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place.
Such conditions exist usually below the
water table, in areas of stagnant water and
waterlogged ground.
Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to
greenish or bluish grey.
These
weathering
processes
are
interrelated. Hydration, carbonation and
oxidation go hand in hand and hasten the
weathering process.
Carbonation
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Biological activity and weathering
Biological weathering is removal of

minerals and ions from the weathering
environment and physical changes due to
growth or movement of organisms.
Burrowing and wedging by organisms like
earthworms, rodents etc., help in exposing
the new surfaces to chemical attack and
assists in the penetration of moisture and
air.
Human beings by disturbing vegetation,
ploughing and cultivating soils, also help
in mixing and creating new contacts
between air, water and minerals in the
earth materials.
Decaying plant and animal matter help in
the production of humic, carbonic and
other acids which enhance decay and
solubility of some elements.
Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth
and help in concentration of iron and
manganese oxides.
Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure
on the earth materials mechanically
breaking them apart.
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Physical Weathering Processes
Physical
or
mechanical
weathering
processes depend on some applied forces
like (i) gravitational forces (ii) expansion
forces due to temperature changes, crystal
growth or animal activity; (iii) water
pressures controlled by wetting and drying
cycles.
Unloading and Expansion
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among the mineral grains takes place

regularly.
This process is most effective in dry
climates and high elevations where
diurnal temperature changes are drastic.
The surface layers of the rocks tend to
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expand more than the rock at depth and
this leads to the formation of stress within | 16
the rock resulting in heaving and
fracturing parallel to the surface.
Exfoliation results in smooth rounded
surfaces in rocks.
Removal of overlying rock load because of

continued erosion causes vertical pressure
release with the result that the upper
layers of the rock expand producing
disintegration of rock masses.
In areas of curved ground surface, arched
fractures tend to produce massive sheets
or exfoliation slabs of rock.
Granular Disintegration
Rocks composed of coarse mineral grains

commonly fall apart grain by grain or
undergo granular disintegration.
Block Separation
This type of disintegration takes place in

rocks with numerous joints acquired by
mountain-making
pressures
or
by
shrinkage due to cooling.
This type of disintegration in rocks can be
achieved by comparatively weaker forces.
Exfoliation - Temperature Changes and

Expansion
With rise in temperature, every mineral

expands and pushes against its neighbor
and as temperature falls, a corresponding
contraction takes place.
Because of diurnal changes in the
temperatures, this internal movement
Shattering
A huge rock may undergo disintegration

along weak zones to produce highly
angular pieces with sharp corners and
edges through the process of shattering.
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down all slopes in different types of earth

and rock movements grouped under the
term mass wasting.
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| 17
Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
During the warm season, the water

penetrates the pore spaces or fractures in
rocks.
During the cold season, the water freezes
into ice and its volume expands as a
result.
This exerts tremendous pressure on rock
walls to tear apart even where the rocks
are massive.
Frost weathering occurs due to growth of
ice within pores and cracks of rocks
during repeated cycles of freezing and
melting.
Effects of Weathering
Weathering and erosion tend to level down

the irregularities of landforms and create a
The strong wind erosion leaves behind
whale-back
shaped
rocks
in
arid
landscape. These are called inselberg or
ruware.
Salt Weathering
Salts in rocks expand due to thermal

action, hydration and crystallisation.
Many
salts
like
calcium,
sodium,
magnesium, potassium and barium have a
tendency to expand.
High temperature ranges in deserts favour
such salt expansion.
Salt crystals in near-surface pores cause
splitting of individual grains within rocks,
which eventually fall off. This process of
falling off of individual grains may result
in granular disintegration or granular
foliation.
Mass Wasting
Since gravity exerts its force on all matter,

both bedrock and the products of
weathering tend to slide, roll, flow or creep
Sometimes a solid layer of chemical

residue covers a soft rock. Sometimes,
differential weathering of soft strata
exposes the domelike hard rock masses,
called tors. Tors are a common feature of
South Indian landscape.
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about 'See Floor Spreading theory' and

'Plate Tectonics' in the future posts.
Watch video
understanding
for
quick
and
better
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysGYLrkrxmo
Continental Drift Theory Tectonics

Tors
Weathering and Erosion
Lead
to
simultaneous
process
of
degradation' and aggradation'.
Erosion is a mobile process while
weathering
is
a
static
process
[disintegrated material do not involve any
motion except the falling down under force
of gravity].
Introduction
Significance of weathering
Weathering is the first step in formation of

soils.
Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in
the enrichment and concentrations of
certain valuable ores of iron, manganese,
aluminium, copper etc.
Weathering helps in soil enrichment.
Without weathering, the concentration of
the same valuable material may not be
sufficient and economically viable to
exploit, process and refine. This is what is
called enrichment.
Another important process in Exogenetic
movements is erosion. We will study about
erosion in Indian Geography.
In
this
post
we
will
study
about Continental Drift Theory. Various
theories were proposed to explain the
present location of continents. Continental
Drift Theory was the earliest. It was later
overshadowed by successful theories
like 'See Floor Spreading theory' and
'Plate
Tectonics'.
We
will
study
Tectonics == Large scale movement of

lithospheric plates.
During WW II, scientists discovered that

the ocean floor was not a flat surface but
had some unique relief features like
ridges, trenches, seamounts, shoals etc.
The most important discoveries were
ridges and trenches which gave insights
into
natural
boundaries
between
various lithospheric
plates (sometime
called
as crustal
plates or tectonic
plates)
These important discoveries led to the
theory of Plate Tectonics.
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the large scale movement

of lithospheric plates due to forces
emanating from earths interior.
Prior to the theory of Plate Tectonics,
there were other theories like Continental
Drift Theory and See Floor Spreading
Theory which tried to explain the large
scale movements on earths surface.
In this post, we will study about
Continental Drift Theory.
Important theories
1. Polar wandering (Similar to Continental
Drift Theory)
2. Continental DriftTheory (CDT)
3. Convectional Current Theory (CCT)
4. Sea Floor Spreading Theory (SFST)
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5. Plate Tectonics (PT)
Polar wandering is the relative movement

of the earth's crust and upper mantle with
respect to the rotational poles of the earth.
Continental drift refers to the movement of
the continents relative to each other.
Convectional current theory forms the
basis of SFST and PT.
This theory was suggested by Alfred
Wegener in 1920s.
According to Wegeners Continental Drift
Theory, there existed one big landmass
which he called Pangaea which was
covered
by
one
big
ocean
called Panthalassa.
A
sea
called Tethys divided
the Pangaea into
two
huge
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Sea
floor
spreading
describes
the
movement of oceanic plates relative to one
another.
Plate tectonics is simply the movement of
crustal plates relative to each other.
Continental Drift Theory (Alfred

Wegener, 1922)
landmasses: Laurentia (Laurasia) to the

north and Gondwanaland to the south of
Tethys.
Drift started around 200 million years
ago (Mesozoic Era), and the continents
began to break up and drift away from one
another.
To get a rough idea about Geologic
timescale,
refer
the
image
below.
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| 19
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from poles towards equator. This increase

in centrifugal force has led to pole fleeing].
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Tidal force is due to the attraction of the
moon and the sun that develops tides in | 20
oceanic waters.
Wegener believed that these forces would
become effective when applied over many
million years.
According to Wegener, the drift is still
continuing.
Evidence in support of
Continental Drift
Force for Continental Drift

The drift was in two directions1. equator wards due to the interaction of
forces
of gravity,
pole-fleeing
force and buoyancy (ship floats in water
due to buoyant force offered by water),
and
2. westwards due to tidal currents because
of the earths motion (earth rotates form
west to east, so tidal currents act from
east to west. Watch video for better
understanding).
Wegener suggested that tidal force also

played a major role.
The polar-fleeing force relates to the
rotation of the earth. You are aware of the
fact that the earth is not a perfect sphere;
it has a bulge at the equator. This bulge is
due to the rotation of the earth. [Greater
Centrifugal
force
at
the
equator.
Centrifugal force increases as we move
Apparent Affinity of Physical Features
South America and Africa seem to fit in

with each other, especially, the bulge of
Brazil fits into the Gulf of Guinea.
Greenland seems to fit in well with
Ellesmere and Baffin islands.
The east coast of India, Madagascar and
Africa seem to have been joined.
North and South America on one side and
Africa and Europe on the other fit along
the mid-Atlantic ridge.
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Coastlines are a temporary feature and are

liable to change.
Several other combinations of fitting in of
landforms could be attempted.
Continental Drift Theory shifts India's
position too much to the south, distorting
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its relation with the Mediterranean Sea
| 21
and the Alps.
The mountains do not always exhibit
geological affinity.
Causes of Drift
The Caledonian and Hercynian

mountains of
Europe
and
the Appalachians of USA seem to be one
continuous series.
Gravity of the earth, buoyancy of the seas

and the tidal currents were given as the
main factors causing the drift, by
Wegener.
Criticism
This is illogical because for these factors to

be able to cause a drift of such a
magnitude, they will have to be millions of
times stronger.
Polar wandering (Shifting of Poles)
The poles drifted constantly.

Criticism
Poles may have shifted, not necessarily the

continents (dont think deep).
Distribution of Fossils
Caledonian mountains
Caledonian and Hercynian mountains
Criticism
The observations that Lemurs occur

in India, Madagascar and Africa led some
to consider a contiguous landmass
Lemuria linking these three landmasses.
Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to
shallow brackish water. The skeletons of
these are found only in South Africa and
Iraver formations of Brazil. The two
localities presently are 4,800 km apart
with an ocean in between them.
Botanical Evidence
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Presence of glossopteris vegetation in

carboniferous rocks of India, Australia,
South Africa, Falkland Islands (Overseas
territory of UK), Antarctica, etc. can be
explained on the basis of the fact that
parts were linked in the past.
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glaciation.
Counter
parts
of
this
succession are found in Africa, Falkland
Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and
Australia besides India.
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| 22
Criticism
Such vegetation is also found in the

northern parts like Afghanistan, Iran and
Siberia.
Similar vegetation found in unrelated
parts of the world.
Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans
Placer Deposits
The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million

years from Brazil coast matches with
those from western Africa.
Criticism
Rocks
of
same
age
and
similar
characteristics are found in other parts of
the world too.
Tillite deposits
It is the sedimentary rock formed out of

deposits of glaciers. The Gondwana
system of sediments from India is known
to have its counter parts in six different
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.
At the base the system has thick Tillite
indicating
extensive
and
prolonged
Overall resemblance of the Gondwana type

sediments clearly demonstrates that these
landmasses had remarkably similar
histories.
The glacial Tillite provides unambiguous
evidence of palaeoclimates and also of
drifting of continents.
Rich placer deposits of gold are found on

the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the
source (gold bearing veins) are in Brazil
and it is obvious that the gold deposits of
the Ghana are derived from the Brazil
plateau when the two continents lay side
by side.
Drawbacks of Continental Drift

Theory
Wegener failed to explain why the drift

began only in Mesozoic era and not
before.
The theory doesnt take oceans into
consideration.
Proofs
heavily
depend
on assumptions and are very general in
nature.
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Forces like buoyancy, tidal currents and

gravity are too weak to be able to move
continents.
Modern theories (PT) accept the existence
of Pangaea and related landmasses but
give a very different explanation to the
causes of drift.
In this post we will study about a very
important concept called See Floor
Spreading. Before jumping directly into
the concept of See Floor Spreading, we
must understand some basic concepts
that form the corner stones for the
concept of See Floor Spreading. These
corner stones are Convectional Current
Theory and Paleomagnetism.
Mapping of the Ocean Floor
Previous Post: Continental Drift Theory

Tectonics [Must Read this post before
trying to understand See Floor Spreading]
These topics are somewhat technical and
it can be hard to understand them just by
reading the post. So I made a video with
all the required explanation. I strong
suggest you to first watch the video before
trying to understand these complex
concepts.
Convectional Current Theory Tectonics
Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the

possibility of convection currents in the
mantle.
These currents are generated due to
radioactive elements causing thermal
differences in mantle.
Detailed research during World Wars

revealed that the ocean floor is not just a
vast plain but it is full of relief with
mountain ranges, deep trenches.
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The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be
most active in terms of volcanic eruptions. | 23
The dating of the rocks from the oceanic
crust revealed the fact that the latter is
much younger than the continental
areas (Rocks on ocean floor are much
younger than those on the continents).
Rocks on either side of the crest of oceanic
ridges and having equidistant locations
from
the
crest
were
found
to
have remarkable
similarities both
in
terms of their constituents and their age.
Distribution of Earthquakes and

Volcanoes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w3xaX
6gkecg
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Volcanism and associated earthquakes at

plate margins are a direct consequence of
convection currents in the mantle.
Dots in the central parts of the Atlantic
Ocean and other oceans are almost
parallel to the coastlines.
In general, the foci of the earthquake in
the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are
at shallow depths whereas along the
Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim
of the Pacific, the earthquakes are deepseated ones (deep focus earthquakes are
more destructive).
The map of volcanoes also shows a similar
pattern. The rim of the Pacific is also
called rim of fire due to the existence of
active volcanoes in this area.
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| 24
These observations (ocean floor and the

distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes)
led to the theory of See Floor Spreading.
Convectional Current Theory is the soul of
See Floor Spreading theory.
Convectional Current Theory
According to this theory, the intense heat

generated by radioactive substances in the
mantle (100-2900 km below the earth
surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives
rise to the formation of convention
currents in the mantle.
Wherever rising limbs of these currents
meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the
sea floor and wherever the failing limbs
meet, trenches are formed.
Paleomagnetism
It is the study of the record of the Earth's

magnetic field in rocks, sediment etc..
Why do we need to study this concept?
Paleomagnetic rocks on either side of the

submarine
ridges
provide
the most
important evidence to the concept of
Sea Floor Spreading.
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Paleo == Rocks; Paleomagnetism

magnetism in rocks.
==
Certain minerals in rocks lock-in a record

of the direction and intensity of the
magnetic field when they form.
This record provides information on the
past behavior of Earth's magnetic field and
the past location of tectonic plates.
Paleomagnetists led the revival of the
continental
drift
hypothesis and its
transformation into plate tectonics.
Paleomagnetic studies of rocks and ocean
sediment have demonstrated that the
orientation of the earth's magnetic field
has frequently alternated over geologic
time.
Periods of "normal" polarity (i.e., when
the north-seeking end of the compass
needle points toward the present north
magnetic pole, as it does today) have
alternated with periods of "reversed"
polarity (when the north-seeking end of
the compass needle points southward)[I
have explained this in detail in the video].
As today's magnetic field is close to the
earth's rotational axis, continental drift
could be tested by ascertaining the
magnetic characteristics of ancient rocks.
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Rocks formed from this underwater

volcanic activity were mainly basalt, which
is low
silica,
iron-rich,
volcanic
rock that makes up most of the ocean
floor.
Basalt contains magnetic minerals and as
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the
rock
is
solidifying,
these
minerals align
themselves
in
the | 25
direction of the magnetic field.
This basically locks in a record of which
way the magnetic field was positioned at
the time that part of the ocean floor was
created.
Paleomagnetists [scientists who study past
magnetic fields], took a look at the ocean
floor going out away from oceanic ridges
(either side of the oceanic ridges), they
found magnetic stripes that were flipped
so that one stripe would be normal
polarity and the next reversed.
How could this be?
Paleomagnetism: Strong evidence

of See Floor Spreading and Plate
Tectonics
Some of the strongest evidence in support

of the theory of see floor spreading and
plate tectonics comes from studying the
magnetic fields surrounding oceanic
ridges.
These oceanic ridges were actually

boundaries with tectonic plates pulling
apart.
This movement of the plates allowed the
magma to rise up and harden into new
rock.
As the new rock was formed near the
ridge, older rock, which formed millions of
years ago when the magnetic field was
reversed, got pushed farther away,
resulting in this magnetic striping.
Rising magma assumes the polarity of
Earths geomagnetic field before it
solidifies into oceanic crust.
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At spreading centres, this crust is

separated into parallel bands of rock by
successive waves of emergent magma.
When Earths geomagnetic field undergoes
a reversal, the change in polarity is
recorded in the magma, which contributes
to the alternating pattern of magnetic
striping on the seafloor.
Concept of Sea Floor Spreading
The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and

carries the continents with it) as it
expands from a central axis was proposed
by Harry Hess.
According to this theory, the intense heat
generated by radioactive substances in the
mantle (100-2900 km below the earth
surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives
rise to the formation of convention
currents in the mantle.
Evidences
The mapping of the ocean floor and

Paleomagnetic studies of rocks from
oceanic regions revealed the following
facts :
1. Volcanic eruptions are common all

along the midoceanic ridges and they
bring huge amounts of lava to the
surface in this area.
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Wherever rising limbs of these currents

meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the sea
floor and wherever the failing limbs meet,
trenches are formed.
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs
at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic
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crust is formed through volcanic activity
and then gradually moves away from the | 26
ridge.
Seafloor
spreading
helps
explain
continental drift in the theory of plate
tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge,
tensional stress causes fractures to occur
in the lithosphere.
Basaltic magma rises up the fractures and
cools on the ocean floor to form new sea
floor.
Older rocks will be found farther away
from the spreading zone while younger
rocks will be found nearer to the
spreading zone.
2. The rocks equidistant on either sides of

the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show
remarkable similarities
3. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges
are normal polarity and are the
youngest.
4. The age of the rocks increases as one
moves away from the crest.
5. The deep trenches have deep-seated
earthquake occurrences while in the
midoceanic ridge areas, the quake foci
have shallow depths.
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It was on the basis of the continental drift

theory, theory of sea floor spreading, that
the
theory
of Plate
Tectonics was
formulatedfirst outlined by Morgan in
1968.
So, next post will be a detailed explanation
on Plate Tectonics.
In this post we will study about one of the
most important concept of geomorphology
called Plate Tectonics. This is the third
post in Tectonics after Continental Drift
Theory and See Floor Spreading Theory.
Plate Tectonics
In 1967, McKenzie and Parker suggested

the theory of plate tectonics. The theory
was later outlined by Morgan in 1968.
By then, the continental drift theory was
completely discarded with the emergence
of convectional current theory and see
floor spreading theory.
Both convectional current theory and see
floor spreading paved the way for the
Theory of Plate Tectonics.
Theory
According to the theory of plate tectonics,

the
earths lithosphere is broken into distinc
t plates which are floating on a ductile
layer called asthenosphere (upper
mantle). Plates move horizontally over
the asthenosphere as rigid units.
The
lithosphere
includes
the crust and top
mantle with
its
thickness range varying between 5-100
km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in
the continental areas.
The oceanic plates contain mainly
the Simatic crust and are relatively
thinner, while the continental plates
contain Sialic material and are relatively
thicker.
Lithospheric
plates
(sometimes
called crustal plates, tectonic plates)
vary
from minor
plates to major
plates, continental plates (Arabian plate)
to oceanic plates (Pacific plate), sometime
a combination of both continental and
oceanic plates (Indo-Australian plate).
The movement of these crustal plates
Page
causes the formation of various landforms
and is the principal cause of all earth | 27
movements.
Rates of Plate Movement
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8hMD
52kUhRk
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The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less

than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise
in the South Pacific [about 3,400 km west
of Chile], has the fastest rate (more than
15 cm/yr).
Indian plates movement during its
journey from south to equator was one of
the fastest plate movements.
Major tectonic plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic
plate
2. North American plate
3. South American plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate
Minor tectonic plates

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and
Pacific plate
2. Nazca plate: Between South America and
Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian
landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and
Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and
Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.
7. Turkish plate,
8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region),
9. Caribbean plate,
10.
Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific
and North American plates)
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11.
Iranian plate.
There are many more minor plates other

than the above mentioned plates. Most of
the these minor plates were formed due to
stress created by converging major plates.
Example: the Mediterranean Sea is divided
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into numerous minor plates due to the

compressive force exerted by Eurasian and
African plates.
The figure below shows the changes in
landform with time due to the interaction
of various plates.
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| 28
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| 29
Plate Tectonics - Interaction of

Plates
Force for the Plate Movement
The slow movement of hot, softened

mantle that lies below the rigid plates is
the driving force behind the plate
movement.
The heated material rises to the surface,
spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks
back into deeper depths (convection
currents explained in the previous post
See Floor Spreading). This cycle is
repeated over and over to generate what
scientists call a convection cell or
convective flow.
Heat within the earth comes from two
main
sources: radioactive
decay and residual heat. Arthur Holmes
first considered this idea in the 1930s,
which later influenced Harry Hess
thinking about seafloor spreading.
Major geomorphological features such as

fold and block mountains, mid-oceanic
ridges, trenches, volcanism, earthquakes
etc. are a direct consequence of interaction
between various lithospheric plates.
There are three ways in which the plates
interact with each other.
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the American Plate(s) is/are separated

from the Eurasian and African Plates.
Convergence forming Convergent

Edge or Destructive Edge
Divergence forming Divergent

Edge or the Constructive Edge
As the name itself suggests, in this kind of

interaction, the plates diverge [move away
from each other].
Mid-oceanic ridges are formed due to this
kind of interaction. Here, the basaltic
magma erupts and moves apart (see floor
spreading).
On continents, East African Rift Valley is
the most important geomorphological
feature
formed
due
to
divergence
of African and Somali plates.
Such edges are sites of earth crust
formation (hence
constructive) and
volcanic earth forms are common along
such edges.
Earthquakes (shallow focus) are common
along divergent edges.
The sites where the plates move away from
each other are called spreading sites.
The best-known example of divergent
boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At
the mid-oceanic ridge in Atlantic ocean,
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In this kind of interaction, two lithospheric
| 30
plates collide against each other (in detail
in the next post).
The zone of collision may undergo
crumpling
and
folding
and
folded
mountains may emerge.
This is an orogenic collision. Himalayan
Boundary Fault is one such example.
When one of the plates is an oceanic plate,
it
gets
embedded
in
the softer
asthenosphere of the continental plate
and as a result, trenches are formed at
the zone of subduction.
The subducted material gets heated, up
and is thrown out forming volcanic islands
and dynamic equilibrium is achieved
There are mainly three ways in which
convergence can occur.
between an oceanic and continental
plate;
between two oceanic plates; and
between two continental plates.
Transcurrent Edge or
Conservative Edge or Transform
Fault
Formed when two plates move past each

other.
In this kind of interaction, two plates grind
against each other and there is no
creation or destruction of landform but
only deformation of the existing landform.
[Crust is neither produced nor destroyed
as the plates slide horizontally past each
other].
In oceans, transform faults are the planes
of separation generally perpendicular to
the midoceanic ridges.
San Andreas Fault along the western coast
of USA is the best example for a
transcurrent edge on continents.
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Evidence in Support of Plate

Tectonics
Evidences for both See Floor Spreading

and
Plate
tectonics
are complimentary (almost
same
evidences).
Paleomagnetic
rocks are
the
most
important evidence. The orientation of iron
grains on older rocks shows an orientation
which points to the existence of the South
Pole, once upon a time, somewhere
between the present-day Africa and
Antarctica (Paleomagnetism).
Older rocks form the continents while
younger rocks are present on the ocean
floor. On continents, rocks of upto 3.5
billion years old can be found while the
oldest rock found on the ocean floor is not
more than 75 million years old (western
part of Pacific floor). As we move, towards
ridges, still younger rocks appear. This
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points to an effective spread of sea floor

(See floor spreading is almost similar to
plate tectonics except that it examines the
interaction between oceanic plates only)
along oceanic ridges which are also the
plate margins.
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The normal temperature gradient on the
sea floor is 9.4C/300 m but near the | 31
ridges it becomes higher, indicating an
upwelling of magmatic material from the
mantle.
In trenches, where subduction has taken
place (convergent edge), the value of
gravitational constant g is less. This
indicates a loss of material. For instance,
gravity
measurements
around
the
Indonesian islands have indicated that
large gravity anomalies are associated with
the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.
The fact that all plate boundary regions
are areas of earthquake and volcanic
disturbances goes to prove the theory of
plate tectonics.
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the spreading site, a little south of New

Zealand.
Significance of Plate Tectonics
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For the earth scientists, it is a

fundamental principle for study. For
physical geographers, this approach is an
aid in interpretation of landforms.
New minerals are thrown up from the core
with
the
magmatic
eruptions.
Economically valuable minerals like
copper and uranium are found more
frequently near the plate boundaries.
On the basis of present knowledge of
crustal plate movement, the shape of
landmasses in future can be guessed. For
instance, if the present trends continue,
North and South America will separate. A
piece of land will separate from the east
coast of Africa. Australia will move closer
to Asia.
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| 32
Movement Of The Indian Plate
The Indian plate includes Peninsular India

and the Australian continental portions.
Indian Plate Boundaries
The
subduction
zone
along
the Himalayas forms the northern plate
boundary in the form of continent
continent convergence.
In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma
Mountains (Arakan Yoma) of Myanmar
towards the island arc along the Java
Trench. The eastern margin is a spreading
site lying to the east of Australia in the
form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific.
The Western margin follows Kirthar
Mountain of Pakistan. It further extends
along the Makrana coast (Pakistan and
Iranian coasts) and joins the spreading
site from the Red Sea rift (Red Sea rift is
formed due to divergence of Somali
plate and Arabian plate) southeastward
along the Chagos Archipelago (Formed
due to hotspot volcanism).
The boundary between India and the
Antarctic plate is also marked by oceanic
ridge (divergent boundary) running in
roughly W-E direction and merging into
Movement
India was a large island situated off the

Australian coast, in a vast ocean.
The Tethys Sea separated it from the
Asian continent till about 225 million
years ago.
India is supposed to have started her
northward journey about 200 million
years
ago
at
the
time
when Pangaea broke.
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India collided with Asia about 40-50

million years ago causing rapid uplift of
the Himalayas.
The positions of India since about 71
million years till the present are shown in
the Figure. It also shows the position of
the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian
plate.
About 140 million years before the
present, the subcontinent was located as
south as 50 S. latitude. The two major
plates were separated by the Tethys
Sea and the Tibetan block was closer to
the Asiatic landmass.
During the movement of the Indian plate
towards the Asiatic plate, a major event
that occurred was the outpouring of lava
and formation of the Deccan Traps. This
started somewhere around 60 million
years ago and continued for a long period
of time.
Note that the subcontinent was still close
to the equator. From 40 million years ago
and thereafter, the event of formation of
the Himalayas took place.
Scientists believe that the process is still
continuing and the height of the
Himalayas is rising even to this date.
In short
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Around 220 million years ago, around the

time that Pangea was breaking apart,
India started to move northwards.
It travelled some 6,000 kilometres before it
finally collided with Asia around 40 to 50
million years ago.
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Then, part of the Indian landmass began
to go beneath the Asian plate, moving the | 33
Asian landmass up, which resulted in the
rise of the Himalayas.
Its thought that Indias coastline was
denser and more firmly attached to the
seabed, which is why Asias softer soil was
pushed up rather than the other way
around.
The mountain range grew very rapidly in
comparison to most mountain ranges, and
its actually still growing today.
The continued growth in the Himalayas is
likely due to the Indian tectonic plate still
moving slowly but surely northward. We
know the plate is still moving in part
because of the frequent earthquakes in
the region.
Comparison: Continental Drift

See Floor Spreading Plate
Tectonics
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3nP
nJffGFM
Continental Drift
See Floor Spreading
Alfred
Wegener in Arthur
1920s
Holmes explains
Convectional Current
Theory in 1930s.
Plate Tectonics
Explained
In 1967, McKenzie and
by
Parker
suggested
the
theory of plate tectonics.
The theory was later
outlined by Morgan in
Based on convectional 1968
current theory, Harry
Hess explains
See
Floor Spreading in
1940s
Theory
Explains Movement of Explains Movement of Explains Movement of
Continents only
Oceanic Plates only
Lithospheric plates that
include both continents
and oceans.
Forces for Buoyancy, gravity, pole Convection currents in Convection currents in
movement
fleeing
force,
tidal the
mantle
drag the mantle drag crustal
currents, tides,
crustal plates
plates
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Evidences
Drawbacks
Acceptance
Usefulness
Apparent
affinity
of
physical
features,
botanical
evidence,
fossil evidence, Tillite
deposits,
placer
deposits, rocks of same
age
across
different
continents etc.
Too general with silly
and sometimes illogical
evidences.
Totally discarded
Helped in the evolution
of convectional current
theory and see floor
spreading theory
Ocean bottom relief, Ocean

bottom
relief,
Paleomagnetic rocks, Paleomagnetic
rocks,
distribution
of distribution
of
earthquakes
and earthquakes
and
volcanoes etc.
volcanoes,
gravitational
anomalies at trenches,
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etc.
| 34
Doesnt explain the --------------------movement
of
continental plates
Not complete
Most widely accepted
Helped
in
the Helped
understand
evolution
of
plate various
geographical
tectonics theory
features.
Questions
a. Polar fleeing force relates to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Revolution of the Earth

Rotation of the earth
Gravitation
Tides
b. Which one of the following is not a
minor plate?
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Nazca
Philippines
Arabia
Antarctica
c. Which one of the following facts was
not
considered
by
those
while
discussing the concept of sea floor
spreading?
1. Volcanic activity along the mid-oceanic

ridges.
2. Stripes of normal and reverse magnetic
field observed in rocks of ocean floor.
3. Distribution
of
fossils
in
different
continents.
4. Age of rocks from the ocean floor.
d. Which one of the following is the
type of plate boundary of the Indian
plate along the Himalayan mountains?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ocean-continent convergence
Divergent boundary
Transform boundary
Continent-continent convergence
Answer in about 30 words.
What were the forces suggested by

Wegener for the movement of the
continents?
How are the convectional currents in the
mantle initiated and maintained?
What is the major difference between the
transform boundary and the convergent or
divergent boundaries of plates?
What was the location of the Indian
landmass during the formation of the
Deccan Traps?
Answer in about 150 words
What are the evidences in support of the

continental drift theory?
Bring about the basic difference between
the drift theory and Plate tectonics.
What were the major post-drift discoveries
that rejuvenated the interest of scientists
in the study of distribution of oceans and
continents?
In this post we will study about Ocean Ocean
Convergence.
Understanding
Ocean - Ocean Convergence helps us in
understanding
the formation
of
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Japanese Island Arc, formation of

Indonesian Archipelago, formation of
Philippine Island Arc and formation of
Caribbean Islands.
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4. Collision of continent and

continent - arc convergence.
arc
or
In this post we will stick to Ocean Ocean

Convergence. Remaining types will be
explained in future posts.
Previous mains question: Explain the

formation of thousands of islands in
Indonesian and Philippines archipelagos.
Basics
In the previous post, we have studied

about Plate Tectonics, Interaction of
plates Convergence, Divergence etc.
In convergence there are subtypes namely:
1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean ocean convergence.
2. Collision of continental and oceanic
plates
or
ocean
continent
convergence.
3. Collision of continental plates or
continent - continent convergence.
Ocean - Ocean Convergence or

The Island - Arc Convergence
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Tmn
bdOglDs
In Ocean - Ocean Convergence, a denser

oceanic plate subducts below a less
denser
oceanic
plate forming
a trench along the boundary.
[We have studies in the previous post on
See Floor Spreading how convectional
currents in the mantle drive the
lithospheric plates]
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| 35
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As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate)

loaded with sediments subducts into the
softer asthenosphere, the rocks on the
continental side in the subduction zone
become metamorphosed under
high
pressure and temperature.
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few years. After some million years Japan

will be a single landmass because
continental crust formation is constantly
replacing the oceanic crust [more and
more volcanism creates much bigger
landform]).
Page
This explanation is common for all the | 36

island arc formations due to ocean - ocean
convergence. In addition, we only need to
know the plates involved with respect to
each island formation.
Formation of Philippine Island

Arc System
After reaching a depth of about 100 km,

plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed
sediments and the melted part of the
subducting plate) has lower density and
is at high pressure. It rises upwards due
to
the
buoyant
force
offered
by
surrounding denser medium. The magma
flows out, sometimes violently to the
surface.
A continuous upward movement of
magma
creates
constant
volcanic
eruptions at the ocean floor.
Constant volcanism above the subduction
zone creates layers of rocks. As this
process continues for millions of years, a
volcanic landform is created which in
some cases rises above the ocean waters.
Such volcanic landforms all along the
boundary form a chain of volcanic islands
which are collectively called as Island Arcs
(Indonesian Island Arc or Indonesian
Archipelago,
Philippine
Island
Arc,
Japanese Island Arc etc.).
Orogenesis sets in motion the process
of building
continental
crust
by
replacing oceanic crust (this happens at
a much later stage. For example, new
islands are born around Japan in every
For the study of the formation of the

Philippine islands, the most important of
the
major
plates
are:
the Sunda
Plate (major continental shelf of Eurasian
plate) and the Philippine Sea plate.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/b/b4/Plate_tectonics_map.gif
[The extreme southeastern portion of the
Eurasian plate, which is a part of
Southeast Asia, is a continental shelf.
The region is called the Sunda Shelf. The
Sunda Shelf and its islands is known as
the Sundaland block of the Eurasian
plate].
Philippine Island Arc system is formed due

to
subduction
of Philippine
Sea
plate under Sunda Plate (part of Eurasian
Plate). The trench formed here is
called Philippine Trench.
Formation of Indonesian
Archipelago
In case of Indonesian Archipelago, IndoAustralian plate subducts below Sunda

Plate (part of Eurasian Plate). The trench
formed here is called Sunda trench (Java
Trench is a major section of Sunda
trench).
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| 37
Formation of Caribbean Islands
Formation of Caribbean Islands is also

similar but here the plate interaction is
complex due to the involvement of many
minor plates.
North American Plate subducts under
the Caribbean plate and forms the Puerto
Rico Trench. There is trough formation on
the other side as well.
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| 38
Formation of Japanese Island Arc
Japan's volcanoes are part of three

volcanic arcs.
The arcs meet at a triple junction on the
island of Honshu.
Northern arc is formed due to the
subduction of the Pacific Plate under
the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed
is Japan Trench.
Central arc is formed due to the
subduction of the Pacific Plate under
the Philippine Plate (island formation is
not significant along this arc). The trench
formed is Izu Trench.
Southern Arc is formed due to the
subduction of the Philippine Plate under
the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed
is Ryukyu Trench.
Japanese island arc was very close to the

mainland.
The force exerted by the Pacific plate and
the Philippine plate tilted the arc towards
its east giving rise to the Sea of Japan.
Explain the formation of

thousands of islands in
Indonesian and Philippines
archipelagos
[20 marks - Mains 2014]
I suggest you to rely on mrunal.org answer
key to know how to write an answer.
Archipelago: an extensive group of
islands. [All the above mentioned ones and
+ few more]
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Island arc: narrow chain of islands which

are volcanic in origin. Island arc is usually
curved. The convex side will have a trench
if its an oceanic arc. Japan, Philippines,
Hawaii etc. are oceanic arcs. Cascade
range, Western Chile range etc. are
examples of continental arcs.
Indonesian archipelago and Philippine

archipelago are located along the plate
margins. Both the archipelagoes were
formed
due
to ocean
ocean
convergence.
Indonesian archipelago was formed due to
convergence between Sunda oceanic plate
(part of Eurasian plate) and Indo
Australian
plate
whereas
Philippine
archipelago
was
formed
due
to
convergence between Sunda oceanic plate
and Philippine Sea plate. [if you cant
remember names, you should avoid these
kind of points]
In ocean ocean convergence, two oceanic
plates converge or collide. The denser
plate
subducts
into
the asthenosphere below the convergence
zone and forms a trench at the surface.
This region below the convergence zone is
called the zone of subduction.
In the zone of subduction, due to high
temperature and pressure, the rocks
undergo metamorphosis and
the sediments in the oceanic plate melt to
form magma.
The magma being lighter moves upwards.
It is at high pressure due to the buoyant
force offered by the surrounding denser
medium. At the surface magma escapes
in the form of volcanic eruptions.
The magma solidifies creating a volcanic
layer. Subsequent volcanism builds layer
over layer and a volcanic mountain if
formed. Such mountains are formed all
along the converging edge above the less
denser plate.
Over time the mountains merge and

oceanic
crust gets
transformed into
continental crust.
And this is how Indonesian archipelago
and Philippine archipelago are formed.
[Figure must for this answer]
Model Answer [May not be ideal, there

is always scope for optimization] [I
followed the formula 20 marks = 200
words]
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[211 words] [you can always optimize an

answer by addition or deletion] [I tried my
best to keep this answer relevant]
If asked for 10 marks = 100 words.
Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos

are formed due to ocean ocean
convergence.
In ocean ocean convergence, the denser
plate subducts into the asthenosphere.
This region below the convergence zone is
called the zone of subduction.
In the zone of subduction the rocks
undergo metamorphosis and
the sediments in the oceanic plate melt to
form magma.
At the surface magma escapes in the form
of volcanic eruptions.
constant volcanism builds layer over layer
and a volcanic mountain if formed.
Such mountains are formed all along the
converging edge.
Over time the mountains merge and
oceanic
crust gets
transformed into
continental crust.
And this is how Indonesian archipelago
and Philippine archipelago are formed.
Related question
In spite of extensive volcanism,

there is no island formation along
the divergent boundary (mid
oceanic ridge)
Basaltic magma flows out along the

divergent edge (Fissure type volcano).
Basaltic magma = less silica = less
viscosity = flows over a large distance and
hence causes see floor spreading but not
volcanic islands.
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| 39
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On the other hand, along convergent

boundary, andesitic or acidic magma flows
out.
Andesitic or acidic magma = more
silica content = higher viscosity = doesnt
move quick and also solidifies quickly.
This helps in building layer over layer in a
narrow region = huge volcanic mountain.
the
mantle
drive
the
lithospheric
plates. Rising vertical limbs of the
convection currents in the mantle create a
divergent plate boundary and falling limbs
create a convergent plate boundary.
In this post we will study about Continent

- Ocean Convergence. Understanding
Continent - Ocean Convergence is
important to understand the Formation
of The Rockies, the Formation of the
Andes and other similar fold mountain
systems.
1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean ocean convergence. [Explained in the

previous post]
2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates
or ocean - continent convergence [This
post].
3. Collision of continental plates or continent
- continent convergence [Next Post].
4. Collision of continent and arc or continent
- arc convergence [Next Post].
[Previous
post: Ocean
Ocean
Convergence - Island Arc Formation.
Formation of Japanese Island Arc,
formation of Indonesian Archipelago,
formation of Philippine Island Arc and
formation of Caribbean Islands]
In convergence
namely:
there
are
sub-types
In all types of convergence, denser plate

subducts and the less denser plate is
either up thrust or folded or both [up
thrust and folded].
We
have
studied
in See
Floor
Spreading how convectional currents in
Continent - Ocean Convergence

Or The Cordilleran Convergence
Continent - Ocean Convergence is also

called Cordilleran Convergence because
this kind of convergence gives rise to
extensive mountain systems. A cordillera

is an extensive chain of mountains or
mountain ranges. Some mountain chains
in North America and South America are
called cordilleras.
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| 40
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Continent - Ocean Convergence is similar

to ocean - ocean convergence. One
important difference is that in continent ocean convergence mountains are formed
instead of islands.
When oceanic and continental plates
collide or converge, the oceanic plate
(denser plate) subducts or plunges below
the continental plate (less denser plate)
forming a trench along the boundary. The
trenches formed here are not as deep as
those
formed
in
ocean
ocean
convergence.
As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate)
loaded with sediments subducts into the
softer asthenosphere, the rocks on the
continental side in the subduction zone
become metamorphosed under
high
pressure and temperature.
After reaching a certain depth, plates melt.
Magma (metamorphosed sediments and
the melted part of the subducting plate)
has lower density and is at high pressure.
It rises upwards due to the buoyant force
offered by surrounding denser medium.
The magma flows out, sometimes violently
to the surface.
A continuous upward movement of
magma
creates
constant
volcanic
eruptions at the surface of the continental
plate along the margin.
Such volcanic eruptions all along the
boundary form a chain of volcanic
mountains which are collectively called
as continental arc.
Continental arc: A narrow chain of

volcanic
mountains
on
continents. Cascade range (parallel to
Rockies), Western Chile range (parallel
to Andes) etc. are examples of continental
arcs. They are formed due to continent Page
ocean convergence]
| 41
Continental margins are filled with thick
geoclinal sediments brought by the rivers.
As a result of convergence, the buoyant
granite [geoclinal sediments] of the
continental crust overrides (is placed
above) the oceanic crust [continental crust
in up thrust by the oceanic crust]. As a
result the edge of the deformed
continental margin is thrust above sea
level.
The advancing oceanic plate adds more
compressive stress on the up thrust
continental
margin
and
leads
to
its folding creating a fold mountain
system.
In some cases, the advancing oceanic
plate compresses the continental arc
(orogenic
belt) leading
to
its
folding (Rockies and Andes).
[As the oceanic plate subducts, the
sediments brought by it accumulates in
the trench region. These accumulated
sediments are called as accretionary
wedge. The accretionary wedge is
compressed into the continental margin
leading to crustal shortening.
Convergence == Crustal Shortening
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Tmn
bdOglDs
Divergence == Crustal Widening
[Arc: narrow chain of volcanic islands or

mountains.
Island arc: A narrow chain of volcanic
islands. Island arc is usually curved. The
convex side will have a trench if its an
oceanic
arc. Japan,
Philippines,
Hawaii (hotspot island arc) etc. are
oceanic arcs. They are formed due to
ocean - ocean convergence.
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Crustal Shortening at one place is

compensated by Crustal Widening in some
other place]
With the formation of the orogenic belt

(fold mountain belt), resistance builds up
which effectively stops convergence. Thus,
the subduction zone progresses seaward.
With the culmination of compression,
erosion continues to denude mountains.
This results in isostatic adjustment which
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causes ultimate exposure of the roots of

mountains.
Examples are found in the Rockies,
deformed in late Mesozoic and early
Tertiary period, and the Andes, where the
deformation begun in the Tertiary Period
is still going on.
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| 42
Formation of the Andes Continent - Ocean Convergence
The Andes are formed due to convergence

between Nazca plate (oceanic plate) and
the South American plate (continental
plate). Peru Chile trench is formed due
to subduction of Nazca plate.
Andes are a continental arc (narrow,
continental volcanic chain) formed due to
the volcanism above the subduction zone.
The pressure offered by the accretionary
wedge folded the volcanic mountain,
raising the mountains significantly.
The folding process in Andes is still
continuing and the mountains are
constantly rising.
Volcanism is still active. Ojos del Salado
active volcano on the Argentina Chile
border is the highest active volcano on
earth at 6,893 m. (Olympus Mons on
Mars is the highest volcano in the solar
system. It is 26 27 km high)
Mount Aconcagua (6,960 m, Argentina),
the highest peak outside Himalayas and
the highest peak in the western
hemisphere is an extinct volcano.
Formation of the Rockies Continent - Ocean Convergence
The North American plate (continental

plate) moved west wards while the Juan
de
Fuca
plate (minor oceanic plate) and the Pacific
plate (major
oceanic
plate)
moved
eastwards. The convergence gave rise to a
series of parallel mountain ranges.
Unlike the Andes, the Rockies are formed
at a distance from the continental margin
due to the less steep subduction by the
oceanic plates.
Trenching is less conspicuous as the
boundary is filled with accretionary wedge
and there are a series of fault zones that
makes the landforms a bit different from
Andes.
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Such earthquakes are common around

the subduction zone.
Page
| 43
Chile, Japan, Himalayan belt see high

intensity disastrous earthquakes due to
the subduction process.
We will study about the formation of
Himalayas in the next post.
San Andreas fault - Blanco - Mendokino Murray fracture zones
Wadati - Benioff zone:

Earthquakes along Convergent
boundary
A WadatiBenioff zone is a zone of

seismicity corresponding with the downgoing slab in a subduction zone (the
intensity of earthquakes increases with
depth of subduction).
Differential motion along the zone
produces numerous earthquakes, the foci
of which may be as deep as about 670
kilometres.
WadatiBenioff zone earthquakes develop
beneath
volcanic
island
arcs
and
continental
margins
above
active
subduction zones.
They can be produced by slip along the
subduction thrust faultor slip on faults
within the down going plate.
Most disastrous earthquakes are deep
seated ones or deep focus earthquakes.
In this post we will study about Continent

- Continent Convergence. Understanding
Continent - Continent Convergence is
important to understand the Formation of
the Himalayas, the Alps, the Urals and the
Atlas mountains.
We
have
studied
in See
Floor
Spreading how convectional currents in
the
mantle
drive
the
lithospheric
plates. Rising vertical limbs of the
convection currents in the mantle create a
divergent plate boundary and falling limbs
create a convergent plate boundary.
In convergence
namely:
there
are
sub-types
1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean ocean convergence. [Explained in the

previous posts]
2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates
or
ocean
continent
convergence
[Explained in the previous post].
3. Collision of continental plates or continent
- continent convergence [This Post].
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www.pmfias.com
4. Collision of continent and arc or continent

- arc convergence [This Post].
In all types of convergence, denser plate
subducts and the less denser plate is
either up thrust or folded or both [up
thrust and folded].
Page
| 44
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=puOa
Cr93ORI
Continent - Continent
Convergence or The Himalayan
Convergence
In ocean ocean convergence and

continent ocean convergence, at least
one of the plates is denser and hence
the subduction zone is quite deep [few
hundred kilometers].
At continental continental convergent
margins, due to lower density, both of the
continental crustal plates are too light [too
buoyant]
to
be
carried
downward
(subduct) into a trench. In most cases,
neither plate subducts or even if one of the
plates subducts, the subduction zone will
not go deeper than 40 50 km.
The two plates converge, buckle up [The
subduction of the continental crust is not
possible beyond 40 km because of the
normal buoyancy of the continental crust.
Thus, the fragments of oceanic crust are
plastered against the plates causing
welding of two plates known as suture
zone. Example:
TheIndus-Tsangpo
suture zone], fold, and fault.
Geoclinal sediments are found along the
continental margins. As the continental
plates
converge,
the
ocean
basin
(geosynclinical basin) is squeezed between
the two converging plates. Huge slivers of
rock, many kilometers wide are thrust on
top of one another, forming a towering
mountain ranges.
With the building up of resistance,
convergence comes to an end. The
mountain belt erodes and this is followed
by isostatic adjustment.
As two massive continents weld, a single

large continental mass joined by a
mountain range is produced.
Examples: The Himalayas, Alps, Urals,
Appalachians and the Atlas mountains.
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| 45
Volcanism and Earthquakes in

Continent - Continent
Convergence
Oceanic crust is only 5 30 km thick. But

the continental crust is 50 70 km thick.
Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust,
so there are no volcanoes, although the
magma stays in the crust.
Convergent boundary = More deep focus
earthquakes. Example: Kachchh region,
Himalayan region.
Formation of Himalayans and

Tibet
The Himalayan mountains are also known

as the Himadri, Himavan or Himachal.
The Himalayas are a part of Alpine
mountain Chain.
Metamorphic rocks are common because

of the stress the continental crust
experiences.
With enormous slabs of crust smashing
together, continent continent collisions
bring
on
numerous
and large
earthquakes.
[Earth
Quakes
in
Himalayan and North Indian Region]
The
Himalayas
are
the youngest
mountain chain in the world.
Indo-Australian Plate
Indo Australian plate Indian plate +

Australian plate + Some parts of Indian
Ocean.
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Indo Australian Plate boundary
North ==> Himalayas

East
==>
Purvanchal,
Rakinyoma
Mountains, Arakan coast, Andaman &
Nicobar islands and Java Trench, South
western Pacific plate.
West ==> Suleiman and Kirthar ranges,
Makrana coast, western margin of Red Sea
Himalayan mountains have come out of

a great geosyncline called the Tethys
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rift, Spreading site between Indio

Australian plate and African plate
South ==> Spreading site between Indio
Australian plate and Antarctic plate
Explain the formation of

Himalayas
Sea and that the uplift has taken place in

different phases.
During Permian Period (250) million
years ago, there was a super continent
known as
Page
| 46
www.pmfias.com
Its northern part consisted of the present

day North America and Eurasia (Europe
and Asia) which was called Laurasia or
Angaraland or Laurentia.
The southern part of Pangaea consisted of
present day South America, Africa, South
India, Australia and Antarctica. This
landmass was called
In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland,
there was a long, narrow and shallow sea
known as the Tethys Sea (All this was
explained in detail in Continental Drift
Theory).
There were many rivers which were
flowing into the Tethys Sea (Older than
Himalayas. We will see this in detail while
studying Antecedent and Subsequent
Drainage).
Sediments were brought by these rivers
and were deposited on the floor of the
Tethys Sea.
These sediments were subjected to
powerful
compression
due
to
the
northward movement of the Indian Plate.
This resulted in the folding of sediments.
Once the Indian plate started plunging
below the Eurasian plate, these sediments
were further folded and raised. This
process is still continuing (India is moving
northwards at the rate of about five cm
per year and crashing into rest of the
Asia).
And the folded sediments, after a lot of
erosional activity, appear as present day
Himalayas.
Tibetan plateau was formed due to up
thrusting of the Eurasian Plate. And the
Indo-Gangetic plain was formed due to
consolidation of alluvium brought down by
the rivers flowing from Himalayas.
The curved shape of the Himalayas convex
to the south, is attributed to the
maximum push offered at two ends of the
Indian Peninsula during its northward
drift.
Himalayas do not comprise a single range
but a series of at least three ranges
running more or less parallel to one
another.
Therefore, the Himalayas are supposed to
have emerged out of the Himalayan
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Geosyncline i.e. the Tethys Sea in three

different phases following one after the
other.
The first phase commenced about 50-40
million years ago, when the Great
Himalayas were formed. The formation of
Page
the Great Himalayas was completed about
| 47
30 million years ago.
The second phase took place about 25 to
30 million years ago when the Middle
Himalayas were formed.
The Shiwaliks were formed in the last
phase of the Himalayan orogeny say
about two million to twenty million years
ago.
Some of the fossil formations found in the
Shiwalik hills are also available in the
Tibet plateau. It indicates that the past
climate of the Tibet plateau was somewhat
similar to the climate of the Shiwalik hills.
There are evidences to show that the
process of uplift of the Himalayas is not
yet complete and they are still rising.
[Recent
studies
have
shown
that
convergence of the Indian plate and the
Asian plate has caused a crustal
shortening of about 500 km in the
Himalayan region. This shortening has
been compensated by sea floor spreading
along the oceanic ridge in the Indian
Ocean]
Formation of Himalayas in Short
Pangeas breakup starts in Permian

period [225 million years ago].
India started her northward journey
about 200 million years
It travelled some 6,000 kilometres before it
finally collided with Asia.
India collided with Asia about 40-50
million years ago.
Convergent boundary gave rise to
Himalayas 40 50 million years
ago [Tertiary
Period] [Formation
of
Deccan Traps began 70-60 million years
ago]
Scientists believe that the process is still
continuing and the height of the
Himalayas is rising even to this date.
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Evidences for the rising

Himalayas
Todays satellites that use high precision

atomic clocks can measure accurately
even a small rise of one cm. The heights of
various places as determined by satellites
indicate that the Himalayas rise by few
centimeters every year. The present rate of
uplift of the Himalayas has been
calculated at 5 to 10 cm per year.
Due to uplifting, lakes in Tibet are
desiccated (lose water) keeping the gravel
terraces at much higher levels above the
present water level. This could be possible
only in the event of uplift of the region.
The frequent tectonic activity (occurrence
of earthquakes) in the Himalayan region
shows that the Indian plate is moving
further northwards and plunging into
Eurasian plate. This means that the
Himalayas are still being raised due to
compression
and
have
not
yet
attained isostatic equilibrium.
The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful
stage and have been rejuvenated [make or
cause to appear younger or more vital] in
recent times. This shows that the
Himalayan Landmass is rising keep the
rivers in youth stage since a long time.
Formation of Alps, Urals,

Appalachians and the Atlas
mountains
The formation of each of these mountains

is similar to the formation of the
Himalayas.
Alps are young fold mountains which were
formed due to collision between African
Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
Atlas mountains are also young folded
mountains which are still in the process of
formation. They are formed due to
collision between African Plate and the
North American, Eurasian Plates.
Urals are very old fold mountains which
were formed even before the breakup of
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Pangaea. They were formed due to

collision between Europe and Asia.
Appalachians are also very old fold
mountains which were formed even before
the breakup of Pangaea. They were formed
due to collision between North America
Page
and Europe.
| 48
Mains Question on Fold

Mountains
Why are the worlds fold mountain
systems located along the margins of
continents? Bring out the association
between the global distribution of Fold
Mountains and the earthquakes and
volcanoes.
Why fold
margin?
mountains
at
continental
Fold mountains are formed due to

convergence between two continental
plates (Himalayas) or between an oceanic
and
a
continental
plate
(Rockies.
Explained in previous post).
In
Continent
Continent
(C-C)
convergence,
oceanic
sediments
are
squeezed and up thrust between the
plates and these squeezed sediments
appear as fold mountains along the plate
margins.
In Continent Ocean (C-O) convergence,
the continental volcanic arc formed along
the
continental
plate
margin
is
compressed and is uplifted by the colliding
oceanic plate giving rise to fold mountains
along the continental plate margin.
Association
In both C-C convergence and C-O

convergence, there is formation of fold
mountains and frequent occurrence of
earthquakes.
This is because of sudden release of
friction between the subducting plate and
up thrust plate. In C-C convergence, the
denser plate pushes in to the less denser
plate creating a fault zone along the
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margin. Further collision leads to sudden

release of energy along this fault zone
generating
disastrous
earthquakes
(Himalayan Region).
In C-O regions the subducting oceanic
plate grinds against the surrounding
denser medium producing mostly deep
focus earthquakes.
Volcanism is observed only in C-O
convergence and is almost absent in C-C
Continent Arc Convergence or

New Guinea Convergence
New Guinea came into being about 20

million years ago as a result of continent
arc collision.
The continental plate pushes the island
arc towards the oceanic crust. The oceanic
plate plunges under the island arc.
A trench occurs on the ocean side of the
island arc and, ultimately, the continental
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convergence. This is because of the thick

continental crust in C-C convergence
which prevents the outflow of magma.
Magma lies stocked within the crust.
In C-O convergence, metamorphosed
sediments and melting of the subducting
Page
plate form magma which escapes to the
surface
through
the
less
thicker | 49
continental crust.
margin is firmly welded against the island

arc.
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In this post we will study about different

Types of Mountains which are classified
based on various factors.
sediments, faulting and metamorphism

[Geology (of rock) that has undergone
transformation by heat, pressure, or other
natural agencies].
This post will be helpful to answer location

based questions.
Formation of Fold Mountains already

Page
explained
in Continent
Ocean
Convergence Formation of Andes, | 50
Rockies and Continent
Continent
Convergence: Formation of Himalayas
Orogeny
Orogeny (Geology) is a process in which a

section of the earth's crust is folded and
deformed by lateral compression to form
a mountain range.
Orogenic
movements
are
Tectonic
movements of the earth which involve
the folding
of
On the basis of location

Continental mountains
Types of Mountains Classification of Mountains

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WUwr
vmFQE38
Coastal mountains
the Rockies,
the Appalachians,
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the Alpine mountain chains,

the Western Ghats and
the Eastern Ghats (India);
Inland mountains
the Vosges and the Black Forest (Europe),
www.pmfias.com
the Kunlun, Tienshan, Altai mountains of

Asia,
the Urals of Russia, the Aravallis,
the Himalayas, the Satpura, and the
Maikal of India.
Oceanic mountains
Oceanic
mountains
are
found
on
continental shelves and ocean floors.
If the height of the mountains is
considered from the ocean floor, Mauna
Kea
(9140) would
be
the
highest
mountain.
A total of nine orogenic or mountain

building movements have taken place so
far.
Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambrian
times between 600-3,500 million years
ago.
The three more recent orogenies are
the Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine.
They originated due to the great

mountain-building
movements
and
associated tectonic movements of the
late Silurian
and
early
Devonian
periods.
Caledonian
mountains
came
into
Page
existence
between
approximately 430
million years and 380 million years ago. | 51
Examples
are
the Appalachians,
Aravallis, Mahadeo etc.
Hercynian mountains
On the basis of period of origin
These mountains originated during the

upper Carboniferous to Permian Period in
Europe.
Hercynian mountains came into existence
between approximately 340 million ears
and 225 million years ago.
Some examples are the mountains
of Vosges and Black Forest, Altai, Tien
Shan
mountains
of
Asia,
Ural
Mountains etc.
Precambrian mountains
They belong to the Pre-Cambrian period, a

period that extended for more than 4
billion years.
The rocks have been subjected to
upheaval,
denudation
and
metamorphosis. So the remnants appear
as residual mountains.
Some of the examples are Laurentian
mountains, Algoman mountains.
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Caledonian and Hercynian mountains
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| 52
Original or Tectonic mountains
Alpine system
Has its origin in the Tertiary Period which

consists of the Palaeocene, Eocene,
Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs.
The mountains
were formed from
about 65 million years to 7 million
years ago.
Examples are
the Rockies of North America, the

Alpine mountains of Europe,
the Atlas mountains of north-western
Africa,
the
Himalayas
of
the
Indian
subcontinent in mountains radiating
from Pamir knot like Pauntic, Taurus,
Elburz, Zagros and Kunlun etc.
Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual

mountains
Being the most recently formed, these

ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas,
Andes and Rockies are the loftiest with
rugged terrain.
On the basis of mode of origin
Original or Tectonic mountains are the

product of tectonic forces.
The
tectonic
mountains
may
be
categorized
into fold
mountains (Himalayas, Rockies, Andes
etc.), block
mountains (Vosges
mountains in France, Black Forest in
Germany, Vindhya and Satpuras in
India
etc.)
and volcanic
mountains (Cascade Range in USA,
Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro,
Mount Fujiyama etc.).
Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual

mountains (Aravalis in India, Urals in
Russia etc.) are the remnants of old fold
mountains
derived
as
a
result
of denudation [strip
of
covering
or
possessions; make bare].
Based on the formation process
Fold mountains
Block mountains
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Volcanic mountains
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WUwr
vmFQE38
These will be explained in detail in the

next post: Fold Mountains Block
Mountains
In this post we will study about Fold
Mountains and Block Mountains.
www.pmfias.com
Fold Mountains
Fault in Geology
Fold
mountains
are
formed
when Page
sedimentary
rock
strata
in geosynclines are
subjected
to | 53
compressive forces.
Formation of Fold Mountains was
explained previously in Continent Ocean
Convergence Formation of Andes,
Rockies And Continent
Continent
They are the loftiest mountains and they

are
generally
concentrated
along
continental margins.
Fold mountains can be divided into two
broad types on the basis of the nature of
folds.
Simple fold mountains
Fold in geology
Simple fold mountains with open folds in

which
well-developed
systems
of synclines and anticlines are found and
folds are of wavy patterns.
Complex fold mountains
Complex fold mountains in which the rock

strata are intensely compressed to
produce a complex structure of folds.
In
the
Himalayas, over
folds and recumbent
folds are
often
found detached from their roots and
carried few hundred kilometres away by
the tectonic forces. These detached folds
are called nappe.
On the basis of period of origin, fold
mountains are divided into very old fold
mountains,
old
fold
mountains and Alpine fold mountains.
Very Old Fold Mountains
www.pmfias.com
They are more than 500 million years old.

Rounded features (due to denudation).
Low elevation.
The Appalachians in North America and
the Ural mountains in Russia.
www.pmfias.com
Alpine fold mountains belonging to the

Tertiary period can be grouped under the
new fold mountains category since they
originated in the Tertiary period.
Examples are the Rockies, the Andes,
the Alps, the Himalayas, etc.
Page
| 54
Old Fold Mountains
Old fold mountains had their origin before

the Tertiary period (70 million years).
The fold mountain systems belonging
to Caledonian and Hercynian mountainbuilding periods fall in this category.
They are also called as Thickening relict
fold
mountains because
of
lightly
rounded features and medium elevation.
Top layers worn out due to erosional
activity.
Example: Aravali Range in India.
The Aravali Range in India are the oldest
fold mountain systems in India. The
range has considerably worn down due to
the processes of erosion. The range rose in
post
Precambrian
event
called
the Aravalli-Delhi orogeny (Silurian and
early Devonian periods).
Characteristics
Characteristics of Fold Mountains
Alpine or young fold mountains
Rugged relief.
Imposing height (lofty).
High Conical Peaks.
Fold mountains belong to the group

of youngest mountains of the earth.
The presence of fossils suggest that the
sedimentary rocks of these folded
mountains
were
formed
after
accumulation and consolidation of silts
and sediments in a marine environment.
Fold
mountains
extend
for great
lengths whereas
their width
is
considerably small.
Generally, fold mountains have a concave
slope on one side and a convex slope on
the other.
Fold
mountains
are
found
along
continental margins facing oceans.
Fold
mountains
are
characterized
by granite intrusions on a massive scale.
Recurrent
seismicity is a common
feature in folded mountain belts .
High heat flow often finds expression
in volcanic activity.
These mountains are by far the most
widespread and also the most important.
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They also contain rich mineral resources

such as tin, copper, gold.
Some relevant definitions

Ridge
Mountain ridges refer to mountains which

originated as a result of local folding and
faulting.
Generally, the slope of one side of the
ridge is steep in contrast to the moderate
slope on the other side [In case of
Himalayas, the southern slope is steeper
compared to the northern slope].
In some cases a ridge may have a
symmetrical slope on both sides.
Mountain range
It refers to a series of ridges which

originated in the same age and underwent
the same processes. The most prominent
or characteristic feature of mountain
ranges is their long and narrow extension.
Example: Himalayas are a mountain range
with Himadri ridge, Himachal ridge and
Shiwalik ridge.
A group of mountain ranges formed in a

single period, similar in their form,
structure and extension, is termed a
mountain system.
Examples are the Basin Range of Nevada
(USA), the Rocky mountain system of
North America and the Appalachian.
Cordillera refers to several mountain

groups and systems.
Cordillera is a community of mountains
which includes ridges, ranges, mountain
chains and mountain systems.
The best example is the Western Cordillera
Page
in the western part of the USA and in
| 55
British Columbia of Canada.
Block Mountains
Block mountains are created when large

areas or blocks of earth are broken
and displaced vertically.
The
uplifted
blocks
are
termed
as horsts and the lowered blocks are
called graben.
The Great African Rift Valley (valley
floor is graben), The Rhine Valley and
the Vosges mountain in Europe are
examples.
Block mountains are also called fault
block mountains since they are formed
due to faulting as a result of tensile and
compressive forces.
Block mountains are surrounded by faults
on either side of rift valleys or grabens.
There are two basic types.
Mountain System
www.pmfias.com
Tilted block mountains have one steep

side contrasted by a gentle slope on the
other side.
Lifted block mountains have a flat top

and extremely steep slopes.
Mountain Chain
It consists of mountain ranges which differ

in size and periods of formation.
It refers to highlands composed of different
types of mountains viz., fold, block or
volcanic mountains although there is a
proper arrangement of the mountains.
Cordillera
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Sometimes,
the
surrounding
blocks
subside
leaving
the
middle
block
stationary. Such cases are found in high
plateau regions.
Block mountains may originate when the
middle block moves downward and
Page
becomes
a
rift
valley
while
the
surrounding blocks stand higher as block | 56
mountains.
Volcanic mountains
Compression and Tension
When the earths crust bends folding

occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes
place.
The faulted edges are very steep, e.g. the
Vosges and Black Forest of the Rhineland.
Tension may also cause the central
portion to be let down between two
adjacent fault blocks forming a graben or
rift valley, which will have steep walls.
The East African Rift Valley system is the
best example. It is 3,000 miles long,
stretching from East Africa through the
Red Sea to Syria.
Compressional forces set up by earth
movements may produce a thrust or
reverse fault and shorten the crust. A
block may be raised or lowered in relation
to surrounding areas.
In general large-scale block mountains
and rift valleys are due to tension rather
than compression.
The faults may occur in series and be
further complicated by tilting and other
irregularities.
Denudation through the ages modifies
faulted landforms.
A majority of geologists argue that block
mountains are the product of faulting.
Volcanic mountains are formed due to

volcanic activity.
Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt.Fujiyama in
Japan are examples of such mountains.
These are, in fact, volcanoes which are
built up from material ejected from
fissures in the earths crust.
The materials include molten lava,
volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and
liquid mud.
They fall around the vent in successive
layers, building up a characteristic
volcanic cone.
Volcanic mountains are often called
mountains of accumulation.
They are common in the Circum-Pacific
belt and include such volcanic peaks as
Mt. Fuji (Japan) Mt. Mayon (Philippines),
Mt. Merapi (Sumatra) etc.
Residual mountains
These
are
mountains
evolved
by denudation.
Where the general level of the land has
been lowered by the agents of denudation
some very resistant areas may remain and
these form residual mountains, e.g. Mt.
Manodnock in U.S.A.
Residual mountains may also evolve from
plateaus which have been dissected by
rivers into hills and valleys.
Examples of dissected plateaux, where the
down-cutting streams have eroded the
uplands into mountains of denudation,
are
the
Highlands
of
Scotland,
Scandinavia and the Deccan Plateau.
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Significance of mountains
The mountains are a storehouse of water.

Many rivers have their source in the
glaciers in the mountains.
Water from the mountains is also used for
irrigation and generation of hydroelectricity.
The river valleys and terraces are ideal for
cultivation of crops.
Mountains have a rich variety of flora and
fauna.
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| 57
To know about the formation of

different mountains, follow these links
Continent Ocean Convergence

Formation of Andes, Rockies
Continent Continent Convergence:
Formation of Himalayas
To know about types of mountains,
follow these links
Types of Mountains Classification of

Mountains
Fold Mountains Block Mountains
Important mountain ranges
The highest known mountain on any

planet in the Solar System is Olympus
Mons on Mars (~26 km in elevation). It is
also the highest active volcano in the Solar
System.
1. Andes - 7,000 km
2. Rocky Mountains - 4,830 km
3. Great Dividing Range - 3,500 km
4. Transantarctic Mountains - 3,500 km
5. Ural Mountains - 2,500 km
6. Atlas Mountains - 2,500 km
7. Appalachian Mountains - 2,414 km
8. Himalayas - 2,400 km
9. Altai Mountains - 2,000 km (1,243 mi)
10.
Western Ghats - 1,600 km
11.
Alps - 1,200 km
12.
Drakensberg - 1,125 km
13.
Aravalli Range - 800 km
Andes
The Andes is the longest continental

mountain range in the world.
Formed due to Ocean-Continent collision.
Average height of about 4,000 m.
Spread
along Venezuela,
Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and
Argentina.
The Andes is the world's highest mountain
range outside of Asia.
The highest peak, Mount Aconcagua,
rises to an elevation of about 6,962 m
above sea level
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World's highest volcanoes are in the

Andes. Ojos del Salado (6,893 m) on
the Chile-Argentina border is the highest
volcano on earth.
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Geology of the Rocky Mountains
Formed due to Ocean - Continent

collision.
The rocks making up the mountains were
formed before the mountains were raised.
The Rocky Mountains took shape during
an intense period of plate tectonic activity
that resulted in much of the rugged
landscape of the western North America.
Great Dividing Range
Geology
Caused by the subduction of oceanic crust

beneath the South American plate.
Formed due to compression of western rim
of the South American Plate due to the
subduction of the Nazca Plate and the
Antarctic Plate.
Rocky Mountains
Mountain range in western North America.

The Rocky Mountains stretch more than
3,000 miles.
Spread along northernmost part of British
Columbia, in western Canada, to New
Mexico, in the southwestern U.S.
The Great Dividing Range, or the Eastern

Highlands, is Australia's most substantial
mountain range and the third longest
land-based range in the world.
It is also known as the Australian Alps.
I was formed due to rifting (divergent
boundary).
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Since the 18th century the mountains

have been a major mineral base of
Russia.
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Geology
Transantarctic Mountains
Ural Mountains
Mountain range that runs approximately

from north to south through western
Russia, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean
to
the Ural
River and
northwestern
Kazakhstan.
Their eastern side is usually considered
the natural boundary between Europe and
Asia.
They are rich in various deposits,
including metal ores, coal, precious and
semi-precious stones.
The Urals are among the world's oldest

extant mountain ranges.
Formed due to Continent Continent
collision.
They were formed during the Uralian
orogeny due to the collision of the eastern
edge of the supercontinent Laurussia with
the
young
and
weak
continent
of Kazakhstania, which now underlies
much of Kazakhstan. The collision lasted
nearly 90 million years in the late
Carboniferous early Triassic.
Unlike the other major orogens of the
Paleozoic (Appalachians, Caledonides), the
Urals have not undergone post-orogenic
extensional collapse and are unusually
well preserved for their age. For its age of
250 to 300 million years, the elevation of
the mountains is unusually high.
Atlas Mountains
Mountain range across the northwestern

stretch of Africa extending about 2,500 km
(1,600 mi) through Algeria, Morocco and
Tunisia.
The highest peak is Toubkal, with an
elevation of 4,165 metres (13,665 ft) in
southwestern Morocco.
The
Atlas
ranges
separate
the
Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines
from the Sahara Desert.
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These mountains were formed when Africa

and America collided, and were once a
chain rivaling today's Himalayas.
Some remnants can also be found in the
later formed Appalachians in North
America.
Appalachian Mountains
System of mountains in eastern North

America.
One of the major mineral bases of
America.
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Himalayan or Himachal or Mahabharat

Range.
Nepal, Bhutan, India, China, Afghanistan
and Pakistan, with the first three
countries having sovereignty over most of
the range.
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The Himalayas are bordered on the
northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu | 60
Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan
Plateau, and on the south by the IndoGangetic Plain.
Three of the world's major rivers, the
Indus, the Ganges and the TsangpoBrahmaputra,
all
rise
near Mount
Kailash and cross and encircle the
Himalayas. Their combined drainage basin
is home to some 600 million people.
Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies
just south of the northernmost bend of
Indus river, its eastern anchor, Namcha
Barwa, just west of the great bend of the
Tsangpo river.
The range varies in width from 400
kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in
the east.
Geology
Himalayas
They separate the plains of the Indian

subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.
The Himalayan range is home to the
planet's highest peaks, including the
highest, Mount Everest.
By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia
Aconcagua, in the Andes is 6,961
metres tall.
The first foothills, reaching about a
thousand meters along the northern edge
of the plains, are called the Shiwalik Hills
or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north
is a higher range reaching two to three
thousand meters known as the Lower
The Himalaya are among the youngest

mountain ranges on the planet and
consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary and
metamorphic rock.
According to the modern theory of plate
tectonics, their formation is a result of a
continental collision or orogeny along the
convergent boundary between the IndoAustralian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a
result of this collision.
During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70
million years ago, the north-moving IndoAustralian Plate was moving at about 15
cm per year.
About 50 million years ago, this fast
moving
Indo-Australian
plate
had
completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the
existence of which has been determined by
sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean
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floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its

edges.
Since both plates were composed of low
density
continental
crust,
they
were thrust faulted and folded into
mountain ranges rather than subducting
into the mantle along an oceanic trench.
An often-cited fact used to illustrate this
process is that the summit of Mount
Everest is made of marine limestone from
this ancient ocean.
Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues
to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan
plateau, which forces the plateau to
continue to move upwards.
The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at
67 mm per year, and over the next 10
million years it will travel about 1,500 km
into Asia.
About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia
convergence is absorbed by thrusting
along the Himalaya southern front. This
leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5
mm per year, making them geologically
active.
The movement of the Indian plate into the
Asian plate also makes this region
seismically active, leading to earthquakes
from time to time.
Hydrology
The Himalayas have the third largest

deposit of ice and snow in the world, after
Antarctica and the Arctic. The Himalayan
range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers.
Its glaciers include the Siachen glacier,
Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand)
and Khumbu glaciers
(Mount
Everest
region), and Zemu (Sikkim).
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Impact on climate
The Himalayas are also believed to play an

important part in the formation of Central
Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan
and Gobi.
Alps
Mountain range systems of Europe

stretching approximately 1,200 kilometres
and spread across eight Alpine countries
from Austria and Slovenia in the east,
France, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and
south east Germany, to the west. Monaco
and Italy to the south
The mountains were formed over tens of
millions of years as the African and
Eurasian tectonic plates collided.
Extreme shortening caused by the event
resulted in marine sedimentary rocks
rising by thrusting and folding into high
mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and
the Matterhorn.
Mont Blanc spans the FrenchItalian
border, and at 4,810 m is the highest
mountain in the Alps.
The Alpine region area contains about a
hundred peaks higher than 4,000 m,
known as the "four-thousanders".
The altitude and size of the range affects
the climate in Europe; in the mountains
precipitation levels vary greatly and
climatic conditions consist of distinct
zones.
Lakes
The Himalayan region is dotted with

hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at
altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the
size of the lakes diminishing with altitude.
Tilicho Lake in Nepal in the Annapurna
massif is one of the highest lakes in the
world.
Mountain ranges By height
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Himalayas - Asia: India, China, Nepal,

Pakistan, Bhutan; highest point- Everest;
8848 meters above sea level.
Karakoram (part of Greater Himalayas) Asia: Pakistan, India, China; highest
point- K2, 8611 meters above sea level.
Hindu
Kush Asia:
Afghanistan,
Pakistan, India (claim due to Kashmir
dispute); highest point- Tirich Mir, 7708
meters above sea level.
Pamir
Asia:
Tajikistan,
China,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (claim due to
Kashmir dispute); highest point - Ismail
Samani Peak, 7495 meters above sea
level.
Tian Shan - Asia: China, Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, Kyrgyztan, India, Pakistan;
highest point- Jengish Chokusu, 7439
meters above sea level.
Why are world's highest

mountains are at the equator?
Ice and glacier coverage at lower altitudes

in cold climates is more important than
collision of tectonic plates. [Glacial erosion
is very strong because of huge boulders of
rocks carried by the glacial ice that graze
the surface. Though ice moves only few
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meters a day, it can take along it huge

rocks that can peal the outer layers.]
Scientists have solved the mystery of why
the world's highest mountains sit near the
equator.
Colder climates are better at eroding
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peaks. In colder climates, the snowline on
mountains starts lower down, and erosion | 62
takes place at lower altitudes.
In general, mountains only rise to around
1,500m above their snow lines, so it is the
altitude of these lines which depends on
climate and latitude which ultimately
decides their height.
At low latitudes, the atmosphere is warm
and the snowline is high. Around the
equator, the snowline is about 5,500m at
its highest so mountains get up to
7,000m.
There are a few exceptions [that are
higher], such as Everest, but extremely
few.
When you then go to Canada or Chile, the
snowline altitude is around 1,000m, so
the mountains are around 2.5km.
Highest mountain peaks of the

world
Highest peak of each continent
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In this post we will study about Divergent

Boundary (Divergent
plate
boundary
or Constructive Edge). We will study
about the important land forms created
due to divergent boundary. These
important land forms include the East
African Rift System, Rift Lakes, Great
Rift System etc.. We will also study the
formation and evolution of Rift Valley,
Linear Sea, Oceans etc..
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssrmd
GtcoNA
Interaction of Plates
Major geomorphological features such as

fold mountains, block mountains, midoceanic ridges, trenches, volcanism,
earthquakes etc. are a direct consequence
of interaction between various lithospheric
plates.
There are three ways in which lithospheric
plates interact with each other.
1. Divergence: Divergent boundary is also

called as constructive edge. Mid-oceanic
ridges, rift valleys, block mountains, etc.
are the common landforms formed due to

divergence.
2. Convergence: Convergent boundary is
also called as destructive edge. Fold
mountains,
trenches,
island
arcs,
continental arcs, etc. are the common
landforms formed due to convergence.
3. Transcurrent boundary or transform
edge: Here the landform is deformed due
to the horizontal grinding (plates slide past
each other horizontally) of the lithospheric
plates. Example: San Anderas Fault,
USA.
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I
have
already
explained
about
Convergence and types of convergence in
these posts:
1. Ocean Ocean Convergence Island Arc

Formation
2. Continent Ocean Convergence
3. Continent Continent Convergence:
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this positive pressure (pushing force)

creates a divergent boundary.
Divergence
(divergent
boundary)
is
responsible
for
the evolution
and
creation of new seas and oceans just like
convergent boundaries are responsible for
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the formation of fold mountains, volcanic
| 64
arcs (few exceptions like Hawaii) etc..
The whole concept of tectonic plates can

be studied from these posts:
1. Continental Drift Theory Tectonics
2. See Floor Spreading Paleomagnetism
3. Plate Tectonics Indian Plate Movement
Spreading Plate Tectonics
Divergent boundary
In the See Floor Spreading theory, we have

studied how divergent boundaries below
the oceans are responsible for the
spreading of the see floor. In Plate
Tectonics, we have learnt about the major
and minor lithospheric plates and how
these
plates
moved
thorough
the
geological
past.
We
have
studied
about convection currents in the mantle
which are the primary reason behind plate
movements
divergence
(divergent
boundary) and convergence (convergent
boundary) of the lithospheric plates.
The horizontal limbs of the convection
currents, just below the lithosphere, drag
the plates horizontally.
The falling limbs of the convection
currents create a negative pressure on the
lithosphere and this negative pressure
(pulling force) is responsible for the
formation the convergent boundary.
The rising limbs on the other hand create
positive pressure on the lithosphere and
Evolution Formation of Rift

Lakes, Seas and Oceans
The formation of atmosphere and the

oceans took millions of years. They were
formed due to continuous degassing of
the Earth's interior [denser elements
settled at the center of the earth and the
lighter elements at the surface].
After the Earth's surface temperature
came down below the boiling point of
water, rain began to fall.
Water began to accumulate in the hollows
and basins and the primeval [of the
earliest time in history] water bodies were
formed.
The primeval water bodies evolved to form
seas and oceans.
The process of formation of a new sea
begins with the formation of a divergent
boundary.
New lithosphere is created at the
divergent boundary and old lithosphere
is destroyed somewhere else at the
convergent boundary.
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| 65
valleys). Rifting is followed by flood basalt

volcanism in some places that spread
around
the
rift creating
plateaus,
highlands etc.. East African Rift Valley is
at this stage of evolution.
Basic Terms
Up warp: Geology a broad elevated area of

Plume: Geology a column of magma rising
by convection in the earth's mantle.
Rift Valley: A rift valley is a linear-shaped
lowland between several highlands or
mountain ranges created by the action of
a geologic rift or fault.
[Narmada and Tapti Rift Valleys (fault

zones) are formed from a mechanism
different from the one explained above.
They are formed due to bending of the
northern part of the Indian plate during
the formation of Himalayas.]
Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea

or Rift Lakes
Stage 1: Upwarping, fault zones
Rising limbs of the convectional currents

create a mantle plume that tries to escape
to the surface by upwarping the
lithosphere. During upwarping, a series of
faults are created. Both normal and thrust
faults (reverse fault) occur during
upwarping. Divergence of plates begin.
Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation
Faulting due to divergence creates

extensive rift system (fault zones, rift
Rift valley deepens due to further

divergence and makes way for ocean
waters. If the rift valleys are formed deeper
within the continents, rains waters
accumulate forming rift lakes. Rift lakes
form some of the largest fresh water lakes
on earth.
Rift valleys evolve into volcanic vent. Block
mountains on either side of the rift evolve
into oceanic ridges. Successive volcanism
and see floor spreading creates spreading
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sites where new crust is formed (This is

the reason that a Divergent Boundary is
called a Constructive Edge). Oceanic
crust starts to replace continental crust.
This stage is the formation of linear seas.
Example: Red Sea. Most of the narrow
seas are at this stage.
Rift valley lakes
Stage 4: Linear Sea transforms

into Ocean
Intense outpouring of basaltic magma

accentuates see floor spreading and
oceanic crust formation. Oceanic crust
replaces the continental crust and a
mighty ocean is formed.
Crust formation along the mid-oceanic
ridge (divergent boundary) is compensated
by crust destruction (crustal shortening)
along
the
convergent
boundary (Destructive Edge).
This is exactly how the continents and
oceans get transformed.
Major Lakes of the World
East African Rift Valley
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A rift lake is a lake formed as a result of

subsidence related to movement on faults
within a rift zone, an area of extensional
tectonics in the continental crust.
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They are often found within rift valleys
and may be very deep. Rift lakes may be | 66
bounded by large steep cliffs along the
fault margins.
Many of the world's largest lakes are
located in rift valleys.
Lake Baikal in Siberia lies in an active rift
valley. Lake Baikal is the largest (by
volume) freshwater lake in the world,
containing roughly 20% of the world's
unfrozen surface fresh water.
Lake
Tanganyika, second
by
both
measures, is in the Albertine Rift, the
westernmost arm of the active East
African Rift.
Lake
Superior
in
North
America,
the largest freshwater lake by area, lies
in the ancient and dormant Midcontinent
Rift.
The East African Rift (EAR) is an active

continental rift zone in East Africa.
The EAR began developing around the
onset of the Miocene, 2225 million years
ago.
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In the past, it was considered to be part of

a larger Great Rift Valley.
The rift is a narrow zone that is a
developing
divergent
tectonic
plate
boundary, in which the African Plate is in
the process of splitting into two tectonic
plates,
called
the Somali
Plate and
the Nubian Plate (African Plate), at a rate
of 67 mm annually.
As extension continues, lithospheric
rupture will occur within 10 million years,
the Somalian plate will break off, and a
new ocean basin will form.
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The East African Rift Zone includes a

number of active as well as dormant
volcanoes,
among
them: Mount
Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya.
Although most of these mountains lie
outside of the rift valley, the EAR created
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them.
The EAR is the largest seismically active | 67
rift system on Earth today.
The majority of earthquakes occur near
the Afar Depression, with the largest
earthquakes typically occurring along or
near major border faults.
Great Rift Valley
The Eastern Rift Valley (also known

as Gregory Rift) includes the Main
Ethiopian Rift, running eastward from the
Afar Triple Junction, which continues
south as the Kenyan Rift Valley.
The
Western
Rift
Valley
includes
the Albertine Rift, and farther south, the
valley of Lake Malawi.
To the north of the Afar Triple Junction,
the rift follows one of two paths: west to
the Red Sea Rift or east to the Aden
Ridge in the Gulf of Aden.
The EAR transects through Ethiopia,
Kenya,
Uganda,
Rwanda,
Burundi,
Zambia,
Tanzania,
Malawi
and
Mozambique.
Prior to rifting, enormous continental flood
basalts erupted on the surface and uplift
of the Ethiopian, Somalian, and East
African plateaus
Volcanism and seismicity along

East African Rift Valley
The Great Rift Valley is a geographical

feature running north to south for around
6,400 kilometers from northern Syria to
central Mozambique in East Africa.
The northernmost part of the Rift forms
the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
Farther south, the valley is the home of
the Jordan River which continues south
through the Jordan Valley into the Dead
Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border.
From the Dead Sea southward, the Rift is
occupied by the Gulf of Aqaba and the
Red Sea.
The Afar Triangle of Ethiopia and
Eritrea is the location of a triple junction.
The Gulf of Aden is an eastward
continuation of the rift and from this point
the rift extends southeastward as part of
the mid-oceanic ridge of the Indian Ocean.
In a southwest direction the fault
continues as the Great Rift Valley, which
split the older Ethiopian highlands into
two halves.
In eastern Africa the valley divides into the
Eastern Rift and the Western Rift. The
Western Rift, also called the Albertine
Rift contains some of the deepest lakes in
the world (up to 1,470 meters deep at
Lake Tanganyika).
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Fault on the Pacific coast of the United

States.
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| 68
In this post we will study about Volcanism

Causes and Distribution, Andesitic and
Basaltic Lava and Geysers and Hot Water
Springs.
Transcurrent boundary or
transform edge
A transform fault or transform boundary,

also
known
as
conservative
plate
boundary since these faults neither create
nor destroy lithosphere.
Here the movement of the plates is
predominantly
The effect of a fault is to relieve strain,
which can be caused by compression,
extension, or lateral stress in the rock
layers at the surface or deep in the Earths
subsurface.
Most transform faults are hidden in the
deep oceans. Many transform faults are
located on the continental margins as well.
The best example is the San Andreas
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnIYk
8vRmXc
Volcanism
A volcano is a vent in the earth's crust

from which molten rock material (magma),
explosive bursts of gases and volcanic
ashes erupt..
or
A mountain or hill having a crater or vent

through which lava, rock fragments, hot
vapour, and gas are or have been erupted
from the earth's crust.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnIYk
8vRmXc
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Fissure Vent
A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic

fissure or eruption fissure, is a linear
Causes of Volcanism
The chemical reactions of radioactive

substances deep within the interior of the
earth generate tremendous amount of
heat. Some heat is already present in the
form of residual heat (heat captured at
the center during earths formation) is
already present at the earths interior.
volcanic
vent through
which
lava
erupts, usually without any explosive
activity.
The vent is often a few meters wide and
may be many kilometers long.
There
is
a huge
temperature
difference between the inner layers and
the outer layers of the earth due to
differential amount of radioactivity. This
temperature
difference
gives
rise
to convectional currents in the outer
core as well as the mantle.
The convectional currents in the mantle
create
convergent
and
divergent
boundaries.
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Know more Follow links below
See Floor Spreading Paleomagnetism

Plate Tectonics Indian Plate Movement
At the divergent boundary, molten, semimolten and sometimes gaseous material

appears on earth at the first available
opportunity (the best available weak zone
usually a plate margin). The earthquakes
may expose fault zones through which
magma may escape (This happens in
fissure type volcano).
At
the
convergent
boundary,
the
subduction of denser plate creates magma
at high pressure which will escape to the
surface. Because of high pressure, the
magma and gases escape with great
velocity as the pressure is released
through eruptions.
Volcanism at convergent boundary: Ocean
Ocean Convergence Island Arc
Formation
Volcanism
at
divergent
boundary: Divergent Boundary African
Rift System Formation
Lava types in Volcanism

Andesitic or Acidic or Composite
or Stratovolcanic lava
These lavas are highly viscous with a

high melting point.
They are light-colored, of low density, and
have a high percentage of silica.
They flow
slowly
and
seldom
travel far before solidifying. The resultant
cone is therefore steep sided.
The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent
obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava,
resulting in loud explosions, throwing out
many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
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Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that

they form a spine or plug at the crater like
that of Mt. Pelee in Martinique.
Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava
These are the hottest lavas, about

1,000C. (1,830F.) and are highly fluid.
They are dark colored like basalt, rich in
iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and
are not very explosive.
Due to their high fluidity, they flow
readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per
hour.
They affect extensive areas, spreading out
as thin
sheets over great
distances before they solidify (This is
how Deccan Traps were formed).
The
resultant
volcano
is gently
sloping with a wide diameter and forms a
flattened shield or dome.
Destructive Effects of Volcanoes
Volcanism can be a greatly damaging

natural disaster. The damage is caused by
advancing lava which engulfs whole cities.
Showers of cinders and bombs can cause
damage to life.
Violent earthquakes associated with the
volcanic activity and mudflows of volcanic
ash saturated by heavy rain can bury
nearby places.
Sometimes ash can precipitate under the
influence of rain and completely cover
whole cities.
In coastal areas, seismic sea waves (called
tsunamis in Japan) are an additional
danger which are generated by submarine
earth faults where volcanism is active.
The volcanic gases that pose the greatest
potential hazard to people, animals,
agriculture, and property are sulfur
dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
fluoride. Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can
lead to acid rain and air pollution
downwind from a volcano.
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Globally, large explosive eruptions that

inject a tremendous volume of sulfur
aerosols into the stratosphere can lead to
lower surface temperatures and promote
depletion of the Earth's ozone layer.
Positive Effects of Volcanoes
Volcanism creates new landforms like

islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains etc.
The volcanic ash and dust are very
fertile for farms and orchards.
Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon
weathering and decomposition.
Although steep volcano slopes prevent
extensive agriculture, forestry operations
on
them
provide
valuable
timber
resources.
Mineral resources, particularly metallic
ores are brought to the surface by
volcanoes. Sometimes copper and other
ores fill the gas-bubble cavities. The famed
Kimberlite rock of South Africa, source of
diamonds, is the pipe of an ancient

volcano.
In the vicinity of active volcanoes, waters
in the depth are heated from contact with
hot magma giving rise to springs and
geysers. The heat from the earth's interior
in areas of volcanic activity is used to
generate geothermal
electricity.
Countries producing geothermal power
include USA, Russia, Japan, Italy, New
Zealand and Mexico.
The Puga
valley
in
Ladakh region
and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) are
promising spots in India for the generation
of geothermal electricity.
Geothermal potential can also be used for
space heating.
As scenic features of great beauty,
attracting a heavy tourist trade, few
landforms outrank volcanoes.
At several places, national parks have
been set up, centered around volcanoes.
As a source of crushed rock for concrete
aggregate or railroad ballast, and other
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engineering purposes, lava rock is often

extensively used.
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expansion and gets converted to steam

resulting in high pressure.
Geysers and Hot Springs
Almost all the worlds geysers are confined

to three major areas: Iceland, New
Zealand and Yellowstone Park of U.S.A.
Iceland has thousands of hot springs.
Some of them have been harnessed to
heat houses, swimming pools and for
other domestic purposes.
Hot springs and geysers have become
tourist attractions e.g. in Japan and
Hawaii.
Water that percolated into the porus rock
is subjected to intense heat by the
underlying hard rock which is in contact
with hot magma in the mantle or the lower
part of crust.
Under the influence of intense heat the
water in the capillaries and narrow roots
in the porous rock undergoes intense
When this steam or water at high pressure

finds a path to the surface through narrow
Geyser
Steam or water at high pressure, along
its path, gets accumulated in small
reservoirs, fissures and fractures. Once
the pressure exceeds the threshold limit,
the steam bursts out to the surface
disrupting the water at the mouth.
Hence the name geyser.
Usually a carter like structure is created
at the mouth.
Silicate deposits at mouth gives them
their distinct colours
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vents and weak zones, appear at the

surface as geysers and hot water springs.
Hot water spring
Steam or water at high pressure
smoothly flows to the top through the
vent and condense at the surface giving
rise to a spring.
Usually a carter like structure is created
at the mouth of the spring.
Some springs are very colorful because
of the presence of cyanobacteria of
different colors.
Found all across the world
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Found in very few regions. Iceland is

famous for its geysers.
Distribution of Volcanoes across

the World
Since the 16th century, around 480

volcanoes have been reported to be active.
Of these, nearly 400 are located in and
around the Pacific Ocean and 80 are in
the
mid-world
belt
across
the
Mediterranean Sea, Alpine-Himalayan belt
and in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
The belts of highest concentration
are Aleutian-Kurile
islands arc, Melanesia and New ZealandTonga belt.
Circum-Pacilic region, popularly termed

the 'Pacific Ring of Fire', has the greatest
concentration of active volcanoes. Volcanic
belt and earthquake belt closely overlap
along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'.
Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all

volcanic activity is above sea and
terrestrial volcanic mountains are small
when compared to their submarine Page
counterparts.
Most known volcanic activity and the | 73
earthquakes
occur along
converging
plate margins and mid-oceanic ridges.
There is a strikingly close agreement
between volcanic and earthquake zones of
the earth.
Pacific Ring of Fire
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'Pacific Ring of Fire' is estimated to

include two-thirds of
the
worlds
volcanoes.
Regions with active volcanism along
'Pacific Ring of Fire'
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Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,

the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and
Sumatra in particular),
Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides,
Tonga and North Island, New Zealand.
Andes to Central America (particularly
Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua),
Mexico and right up to Alaska.
It is said that there are almost 100 active
volcanoes in the Philippines, 40 in the
Andes, 35 in Japan, and more than 70 in
Indonesia.
Along the Atlantic coast
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the Mediterranean) and those of the

Aegean islands.
A few continue into Asia Minor (Mt.
Ararat, Mt. Elbruz). The Himalayas have,
surprisingly, no active volcano at all.
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Why? Know Here: Continent Continent
| 74
In contrast, the Atlantic coasts have

comparatively few active volcanoes but
many dormant or extinct volcanoes, e.g.
St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and
Canary Islands etc..
But
the
volcanoes
of Iceland and
the Azores are active.
The volcanism of this broad region,

stretching from Spain to the Caucasus, is
largely the result of convergence between
the Eurasian Plate and the northwardmoving African Plate.
This type of volcanism is mainly due to
breaking up of Mediterranean plate into
multiple plates due to interaction of
African and Eurasian plate.
Great Rift region
In Africa some volcanoes are found along

the
East
African
Rift
Valley,
e.g. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya, both
probably extinct. The only active volcano
of West Africa is Mt. Cameroon.
There are some volcanic cones in
Madagascar, but active eruption has not
been known so far.
The West Indian islands
The West Indian islands have experienced

some violent explosions in recent times.
E.g. Pelee.
The Lesser Antilles (Part of West Indies
Islands) are made up mainly of volcanic
islands and some of them still bear signs
of volcanic liveliness.
Mediterranean volcanism
Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are

mainly associated with the Alpine folds,
e.g. Vesuvius, Stromboli (Light House of
Other regions
Elsewhere in the interiors of continents

Asia,
North
America,
Europe
and
Australia, active volcanoes are rare.
There are no volcanoes in Australia.
The Distribution of Earthquakes
The worlds distribution of earthquakes

coincides very closely with that of
volcanoes.
Regions of greatest seismicity are CircumPacific areas, with the epicentres and the
most frequent occurrences along the
'Pacific Ring of Fire.
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It is said that as many as 70 per cent of

earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific
belt.
Another 20 per cent of earthquakes take
place in the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt
including Asia Minor, the Himalayas and
parts of north-west China.
Elsewhere, the earths crust is relatively
stable and is less prone to earthquakes,
though nowhere can be said to be immune
to earth tremors.
Volcanos in India
There
are no volcanoes
Himalayan region or in
peninsula.
Before a volcano becomes extinct, it

passes through a waning stage during
which steam and other hot gases and
vapours are exhaled. These are known
as fumaroles or solfataras.
The Barren Island in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands of India, Vesuvius (Italy)
and Krakatao (Indonesia) which were
thought to be extinct, erupted recently
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Barren Island, lying 135 km north-east of

Port Blair became active again in 1991
and 1995. After its activity in the
nineteenth century, it passed through a
mild solfataric stage as evidenced by the
sublimations of sulphur on the walls of
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the crater.
The other volcanic island in Indian | 75
territory is Narcondam, about 150 km
north-east of Barren Island; it is probably
extinct. Its crater wall has been completely
destroyed.
Extinct, Dormant and Active

volcanoes
in
the
the Indian
and stayed active for few years and are

now in dormant stage.
Krakatao volcano became active in 1883,
killing 36,000 people in West Java. Today,
Krakatao is no more than a low island
with a caldera lake inside its crater.
Some significant Volcanic

Eruptions
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In the history of mankind perhaps the

most disastrous eruptions were those
of Vesuvius, Mt. Krakatau and Mt.
Pelee.
In this post we will study about Extrusive

and Intrusive Volcanic Landforms.
Previous Post: Volcanism Andesitic,
Basaltic-Geyser,Hot Water Spring
Mt. Vesuvius
Vesuvius is a Stratovolcano (composite

volcano) in Italy.
Vesuvius, standing 4,000 feet above the
Bay of Naples, erupted violently in A.D.
79.
The city of Pompeii, located to the southwest, was buried beneath twenty feet of
volcanic ashes cemented by the torrential
downpours of heavy rain.
Fertility of the solidified Volcanic ashes
tempted many farmers to begin anew on
the slopes of Vesuvius.
Then came the catastrophic eruption of
December 1631, ruined fifteen towns and
killed inhabitants.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6GUY
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QMx1GiY
Volcanic Landforms
The greatest volcanic explosion known to

men is perhaps that of Mt. Krakatau in
August 1883.
Krakatau is a small volcanic island in the
Sunda
Straits,
between
Java
and
Sumatra.
The explosion could be heard in Australia,
almost 3,000 miles away.
Though Krakatau itself was not inhabited
and nobody was killed by the lava flows,
the vibration set up enormous waves over
100 feet high which drowned 36,000
people in the coastal districts of Indonesia.
The eruption of Mt. Pelee of the West

Indies in May 1902 was the most
catastrophic of modem times.
Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying on
the path of the lava, was completely
destroyed within minutes.
Its entire population of 30,000 was killed
almost instantly.
Extrusive landforms are formed from

material thrown out during volcanic
activity.
The materials thrown out during volcanic
activity includes lava flows, pyroclastic
debris, volcanic bombs, ash and dust and
gases such as nitrogen compounds,
sulphur compounds and minor amounts
of chlorine, hydrogen and argon.
Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
Mt. Pelee
Volcanic
landforms
are
divided
into extrusive
and
intrusive
landforms based on weather magma cools
within the crust or above the crust.
Rocks formed by cooling of magma within
the crust are called Plutonic rocks.
Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the
surface are called Igneous rocks.
In general, the term Igneous rocks is
used to refer all rocks of volcanic origin.
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
Mt. Krakatau
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A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent

through which magma flows out violently.
Conical vents are common in andesitic
(composite or stratovolcano) volcanism.
A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic
fissure or eruption fissure, is a narrow,
linear volcanic vent through which lava
erupts, usually without any explosive
activity. The vent is often a few meters
wide and may be many kilometers long.
Fissure vents are common in basaltic
volcanism.
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Read
more: Volcanism
Andesitic,
Basaltic-Geyser, Hot Water Spring
Mid-Ocean Ridges
Shield Type Volcanic Landforms
These volcanoes occur in the oceanic

areas. There is a system of mid-ocean
ridges more than 70,000 km long that
stretches through all the ocean basins.
The central portion of this ridge
experiences frequent eruptions.
The lava is basaltic in nature (Less silica
and hence less viscous).
Cools slowly and flows through longer
distances.
The lava here is responsible for see floor
spreading.
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The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most

famous examples.
These volcanoes are mostly made up of
basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid Page
when erupted.
| 77
These volcanoes are not steep.
They become explosive if somehow water
gets into the vent; otherwise, they are less
explosive.
Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).
Read more: See Floor Spreading

Paleomagnetism Convectional Current
Theory
Composite Type Volcanic

Landforms
They are conical or central type volcanic

landforms.
Along with andesitic lava, large quantities
of pyroclastic material and ashes find their
way to the ground.
Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic
material accumulates in the vicinity of the
vent openings leading to formation of
layers, and this makes the mounts appear
as composite volcanoes.
The highest and most common volcanoes
have composite cones.
They are often called strato - volcanoes.
Stromboli
'Lighthouse
of
the
Mediterranean, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji
etc. are examples.
Fissure Type Flood Basalt

Landforms [Lava Plateaus]
Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes

through cracks and fissures in the earth's
surface and flows after intervals for a long
time, spreading over a vast area, finally
producing a layered, undulating (wave
like), flat surface.
Example: Deccan
traps (peninsular
India), Snake Basin, U.S.A, Icelandic
Shield, Canadian Shield etc..
Caldera Lake
After the eruption of magma has ceased,

the crater frequently turns into a lake at a
later time. This lake is called a 'caldera'.
Examples: Lonar
in
Maharashtra and Krakatao in Indonesia.
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Cinder cone
A cinder cone is a steep conical hill of

loose pyroclastic fragments, such as either
volcanic clinkers, cinders, volcanic ash, or
scoria that has been built around a
volcanic vent.
Batholiths
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
Intrusive landforms are formed when

magma cools within the crust [Plutonic
rocks (intrusive igneous rock)].
The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives
rise to various forms.
These are large rock masses formed due to

cooling down and solidification of hot
magma inside the earth.
They appear on the surface only after the
denudation
processes
remove
the
overlying materials.
Batholiths form the core of huge
mountains and may be exposed on surface
after erosion.
These are granitic
Laccoliths
These are large dome-shaped intrusive

bodies connected by a pipe-like conduit
from below.
These are basically intrusive counterparts
of an exposed domelike batholith.
The Karnataka plateau is spotted with
dome hills of granite rocks. Most of these,
now exfoliated, are examples of laccoliths
or batholiths.
Lapolith
As and when the lava moves upwards, a

portion of the same may tend to move in
a horizontal direction wherever it finds a
weak plane. It may get rested in different
forms. In case it develops into a saucer
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shape, concave to the sky body, it is called

Lapolith.
Volcanic Landforms
Intrusive
Phacolith
Basically, four types of volcanism can be

identified.
A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times,

is found at the base of synclines or at the
top of anticline in folded igneous country.
Such wavy materials have a definite
conduit to source beneath in the form of
magma chambers (subsequently developed
as batholiths). These are called the
Phacoliths.
These are solidified horizontal lava layers

inside the earth.
The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive
igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
depending on the thickness of the
material.
The thinner ones are called sheets while
the thick horizontal deposits are called
sills.
When the lava makes its way through

cracks and the fissures developed in the
land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to
the ground.
It gets cooled in the same position to
develop a wall-like structure. Such
structures are called dykes.
These are the most commonly found
intrusive
forms
in
the
western
Maharashtra area. These are considered
the feeders for the eruptions that led to
the development of the Deccan traps.
In
this
post
we
will
study
about Volcanism Types Exhalative,
Effusive, Explosive and Subaqueous
Volcanism.
Previous Posts
Volcanism
Andesitic,
Geyser,Hot Water Spring
Extrusive
and
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solid
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Em0G
Qw-Pc6w
Exhalative (vapor or fumes)
Dykes
1. Exhalative (vapor or fumes)

2. Effusive (Lava outpouring)
3. Explosive
(Violent
ejection
material)
4. Subaqueous Volcanism
Sills
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Basaltic-
This includes the discharge of material

in gaseous form, such as
steam, fumes and

Hydrochloric acid
Ammonium chloride
Sulphur dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide.
Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
These gases may escape through vents
which are in the form of hot springs,
geysers, fumaroles and solfataras.
This kind of volcanism indicates the
volcano is reaching its
Associated landforms ==> sinter mounds,
cones of precipitated minerals and mud
volcanoes.
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Effusive (Lava outpouring)
Effusive: Geology relating to or denoting

igneous rocks poured out as lava and later
solidified.
This type of activity refers to abundant
outpourings of lava from a vent or
fissure.
Lava is silica poor basic one like basalt.
Hence flows through larger distances.
The Deccan traps, which are composed of
such lavas today, cover an area of
5,00,000 square km. The original extent of
the formation must have been at least 14
lakh square km.
Columnar
structure
is
sometimes
developed in fine-grained plateau basalts.
Columnar basalts are seen in the Deccan
traps near Bombay.
Explosive (Violent ejection of

solid material)
This
type
of
activity
results
in
fragmentation and ejection of solid
material through vents.
Volcanic eject that settle out of air or
water are sometimes called pyroclastic
sediments.
Tephra: all fragmented ejects from the
volcanoes.
Ash: The finest sand-sized tephra
Lappilli: These are gravel sized particles
either in molten or solid state.
Blocks: Cobble or boulder-sized solid
ejecta.
Bombs: a lump of lava thrown out by a
volcano.
Tuff: Layers of volcanic dust and ashes
Smaller particles like lapilli and ash travel
through air for many kilometres and may
remain suspended in the air for a long
time.
The heavier particles like bombs and
blocks fall only as far from the vent or
fissure as the explosive force is able to
hurl them.
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Volcanism Acid Rain and Ozone

Destruction
The volcanic gases that pose the greatest

potential hazard to people, animals,
agriculture, and property are sulfur
dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
fluoride etc..
Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead to acid
rain and air pollution downwind from a
volcano.
Globally, large explosive eruptions that
inject a tremendous volume of sulfur
aerosols into the stratosphere can lead to
lower surface temperatures and promote
depletion of the Earth's ozone layer.
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This type of volcanic activity takes

places below the surface of water.
When lava flows over the deep ocean floor
or is otherwise in contact with water, it
consolidates to produce a structure like
that of a heap of pillows
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Pillow lava of Pre-Cambrian Age are found
| 81
in parts of Karnataka.
Highly viscous lavas erupted at lesser
depths develop glassy margins on pillows.
The
related
volcanic
product
is
hyaloclastite. Most hyaloclastites identified
are in Iceland.
Eruptive Volcanism Types
Based on the typical pattern or mode of

eruptions:
Hawaiian Eruption or Icelandic

Eruption
Subaqueous Volcanism
It involves the effusive outpouring

of basalt lava from craters, lava lakes or
fissures.
A single flow spreads widely over open
slopes or flows down the valleys as lava
rivers.
Little gas or tephra is produced.
Examples: The great basalt plateaus of
Columbia and Iceland.
Strombolian Eruption
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In this case, more viscous lava is ejected

upward in a fountain like fashion from a
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lava lake in the crater at regular intervals

of around 15 minutes.
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Stromboli lies in the Lipari Islands near

Italy.
It is called the lighthouse of the
Mediterranean.
Vulcanian Eruption
The eruption in this mode is

The molten lava which fills the crater
solidifies and is explosively ejected as a
great cauliflower cloud of dark tephra.
Bombs, blocks, lapilli and other ejecta fall
in the surrounding area.
Only minor lava flows result.
After each eruption cycle, the volcano is
dormant for decades or for centuries.
Pelean Eruption
This type of eruption is the result of very

viscous, gas-rich, acidic lava flowing
violently over the crater rim or breaking
out laterally.
Hot gas and lava mixture is not carried
skyward to become cold tephra but
spreads downslope as a nuce ardente,
continuing to evolve gas that cushions the
flowing fragments.
Icelandic volcano
The Icelandic type is characterized by

effusions of molten basaltic lava that flow
from
long,
parallel
fissures.
Such
outpourings often build lava plateaus.
In this post we will study about Hotspot
Volcanism.
Understanding
Hotspot
volcanism is important to understand the
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Formation of Hawaiian Islands and

Islands of Indian Ocean such as the
Lakshadweep islands, Reunion islands,
Chagos archipelago etc.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QIMQ
SwiHCDw
Previous posts on Volcanism:
Volcanism Andesitic, Basaltic-Geyser,

Hot Water Spring
Volcanic Landforms Extrusive and
Intrusive
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A hot spot is a region within the Earths

mantle from which heat rises through the
process of convection.
This heat facilitates the melting of rock at
the base of the lithosphere, where the
brittle, upper portion of the mantle meets
Page
the Earths crust.
The melted rock, known as magma, often | 83
pushes through cracks in the crust to
form volcanoes.
Volcanism Types Exhalative, Effusive,

Explosive, Subaqueous
Hotspot Volcanism
In the previous posts, we have studied

about volcanism at convergent and
divergent boundaries.
Ocean Ocean Convergence Island Arc
Formation
Continent Ocean Convergence
Continent Continent
Mantle plumes
Convergence:
Divergent Boundary African Rift System

Formation
Hotspot Volcanism is somewhat different

from the other types because this type of
volcanism occurs not at the margins but
at the interior parts of the lithospheric
plates.
Well known examples include Hawaiian
Hotspot
Volcanism,
Yellowstone
Hotspot
Volcanism
and
Reunion
Hotspot Volcanism.
Hot spot
Hot spot volcanism is unique because it

does not occur at the boundaries of
Earths tectonic plates, where all other
volcanism occurs.
Instead it occurs at abnormally hot
centers known as mantle plumes. Mantle
plumes are exceptionally hot areas fixed
deep below the Earths crust.
Hotspot volcano chain
A volcano above a hot spot does not erupt

forever. Attached to the tectonic plate
below, the volcano moves and is
eventually cut off from the hot spot.
Without any source of heat, the volcano
becomes extinct and cools. This cooling
causes the rock of the volcano and the
tectonic plate to become more dense.
Over time, the dense rock sinks and
erodes. A new and active volcano develops
over the hot spot creating a continuous
cycle of volcanism, forming a volcanic
arc.
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Hotspot volcanic landforms
Volcanic activity at hot spots can create

submarine mountains known as
Hot spot seamounts that reach the surface
of the water can create entire chains of
islands, such as the U.S. state of Hawaii.
Reunion islands near Madagascar is also
an example of volcanic hotspot.
Hot spots can also develop beneath
continents. The Yellowstone hot spot, for
example, has produced a series of volcanic
features that extend in a northeastern
direction.
Reunion Hotspot Volcanism
The Reunion hotspot is a volcanic hotspot

which currently lies under the Island of
Reunion in the Indian Ocean.
The
Chagos-Laccadive
Ridge
(Lakshadweep is a part of this ridge) and
the southern part of the Mascarene
Plateau are volcanic traces of the Reunion
hotspot.
The hotspot is believed to have been active
for over 66 million years. A huge eruption
of this hotspot 66 million years ago is
thought to have laid down the Deccan
Traps, a vast bed of basalt lava that covers
part of central India, and opened a rift
which separated India from the Seychelles
Plateau.
As the Indian plate drifted north, the
hotspot continued to punch through the
plate, creating a string of volcanic islands
and undersea plateaus.
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The Laccadive Islands, the Maldives, and

the Chagos Archipelago are atolls resting
on former volcanoes created 60-45 million
years ago that subsequently submerged
below sea level.
About 45 million years ago the mid-ocean
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rift crossed over the hotspot, and the
| 84
hotspot passed under the African Plate.
The hotspot appears to have been
relatively quiet from 45-10 million years
ago, when activity resumed, creating the
Mascarene
Islands,
which
include
Mauritius, Reunion, and Rodrigues.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYms_
bVDnOw
Terms associated with

earthquakes
Focus
The place of origin of an earthquake inside

the earth.
Epicenter
Distribution of Hotspot Volcanism
Point on the earths surface vertically

above the focus.
Maximum damage is caused at the
epicenter.
Wave Velocity
5 to 8 km per second through the outer

part of the crust but travel faster with
depth.
Isoseismic Line
A line connecting all points on the surface

of the earth where the intensity is the
same.
In this post we will study about

Earthquakes Types of Seismic Waves or
Earthquake waves.
Earthquakes
An earthquake is the shaking or trembling

of the earths surface, caused by the
sudden movement of a part of the earths
crust. They result from the sudden release
of energy in the Earth's crust that creates
seismic waves or earthquake waves.
About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to
be noticed without the aid of instruments
occur annually over the entire Earth. Of
these, approximately 100 are of sufficient
size to produce substantial damage if their
centers are near areas of habitation.
Causes of Earthquakes
Most earthquakes are causally related to

compressional or tensional stresses built
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| 85
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up at the margins of the huge moving

lithospheric plates.
The immediate cause of most shallow
earthquakes is the sudden release of
stress along a fault, or fracture in the
earth's crust.
Sudden slipping of rock formations along
faults and fractures in the earths crust
happen due to constant change in volume
and density of rocks due to intense
temperature and pressure in the earths
interior.
Volcanic activity also can cause an
earthquake but the earthquakes of
volcanic origin are generally less severe
and more limited in extent than those
caused by fracturing of the earths crust.
Earthquakes occur most often along
geologic faults, narrow zones where rock
masses move in relation to one another.
The major fault lines of the world are
located at the fringes of the huge tectonic
plates that make up Earths crust.
Plate tectonics: Slipping of land along the
fault line along, convergent, divergent and
transform boundaries cause earthquakes.
Example: San Andreas Fault is a
transform fault where Pacific plate and
North American plate move horizontally
relative to each other causing earthquakes
along the fault lines.
earthquakes, after fault

lubricated by the liquid.
Some earthquakes are human induced.

Earthquakes in the reservoir region,
mining sites etc. are human induced.
Some Earthquake
activities
inducing
are
A separate type of earthquake is Page

associated with volcanic activity and is
| 86
called a volcanic earthquake.
Yet it is likely that even in such cases the
disturbance is the result of a sudden slip
of rock masses adjacent to the volcano
and the consequent release of elastic
strain energy.
The stored energy, however, may in part
be of hydrodynamic origin due to heat
provided by magma moving in reservoirs
beneath the volcano or to the release of
gas under pressure.
There is a clear correspondence between
the geographic distribution of volcanoes
and major earthquakes, particularly in the
Circum-Pacific Belt and along oceanic
ridges.
Volcanic vents, however, are generally
several hundred kilometres from the
epicenters
of
most
major
shallow
earthquakes, and many earthquake
sources occur nowhere near active
volcanoes.
Even in cases where an earthquakes
focus occurs directly below structures
marked by volcanic vents, there is
probably no immediate causal connection
between the two activities; most likely
both are the result of the same tectonic
processes.
Seismic Waves or Earthquake

Waves
human
Deep mining
Underground nuclear tests
Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS)
Extraction of fossil fuels
Groundwater extraction
Artificial induction
In fluid injection, the slip is thought to be
induced by premature release of elastic
strain, as in the case of tectonic
surfaces
Volcanic Earthquakes
Human Induced Earthquakes
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The slipping of land generates seismic

waves and these waves travel in all
directions.
Earthquake is any sudden shaking of the
ground caused by the passage of seismic
waves through Earths rocks. (Earthquake
is caused by vibrations in rocks. And the
vibrations in rocks are produced by
seismic waves)
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Seismic waves are produced when some

form of energy stored in Earths crust is
suddenly released, usually when masses
of rock straining against one another
suddenly fracture and slip.
Types of Seismic Waves
Earthquake waves are basically of two

types body waves and surface waves.
Body waves are generated due to the
release of energy at the focus and move in
all directions travelling through the body
of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
The body waves interact with the surface
rocks and generate new set of waves called
surface waves. These waves move along
the surface.
The velocity of waves changes as they
travel through materials with different
elasticity (stiffness) (Generally density with
few exceptions). The more elastic the
material is, the higher is the velocity. Their
direction also changes as they reflect or
refract when coming across materials with
different densities.
There are two types of body waves. They
are called P and S-waves.
1. Primary waves or P waves

(longitudinal)(fastest)
2. Secondary waves or S waves
(transverse)(least destructive)
3. Surface waves or L waves
(transverse)(slowest)(most destructive)
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Particles of the medium vibrate along the

direction of propagation of the wave.
P-waves move faster and are the first to
arrive at the surface.
These waves are of high frequency.
They can travel in all mediums.
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Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids >
| 87
Gases.
Their velocity depends on shear strength
or elasticity of the material.
[We usually say that the speed of sound
waves depends on density. But there are
few exceptions. For example: Mercury
(liquid metal) has density greater than
Iron but speed of sound in mercury is
lesser compared to that in iron. This is
because the shear strength of mercury is
very low (this is why mercury is liquid)
compared to that of iron.]
Secondary Waves (S waves)
Also called as transverse or distortional

waves.
Analogous to water ripples or light
waves.
S-waves arrive at the surface with some
time lag.
A secondary wave cannot pass through
liquids or gases.
These waves are of high frequency waves.
Travel at varying velocities (proportional to
shear strength) through the solid part of
the Earth's crust, mantle.
Surface Waves (L waves)
Primary Waves (P waves)
Also called as the longitudinal

compressional waves.
Analogous to sound waves.
or
Also called as long period waves.

They
are low
frequency,
long
wavelength, and transverse vibration.
Generally affect the surface of the Earth
only and die out at smaller depth.
Develop in the immediate neighborhood of
the epicenter.
They cause displacement of rocks, and
hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
These waves are the most destructive.
Recoded last on the seismograph.
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Earthquakes based on the depth

of Focus
Wadati Benioff zone is a zone of

subduction along which earthquakes are
common.
A WadatiBenioff zone is a zone of
seismicity corresponding with the downgoing slab in a subduction zone
(Convergent Boundary).
Differential motion along the zone
produces numerous earthquakes.
Shallow focus earthquakes (most common
at submarine ridges. Hardly felt)
Intermediate
focus
earthquakes
(somewhat severe)
Deep focus earthquakes (Occurs at
trenches convergent boundary. Very
powerful. Japan lies along trench line.
Hence it faces devastating earthquakes).
Shallow
focus
earthquakes
are
called crustal earthquakes as they exist
in the earths crustal layer.
Deep focus earthquakes are known
as intra plate earthquakes, as they are
triggered off by collision between plates.
Shallow-focus earthquakes occur at
depths less than 70 km, while deep-focus
earthquakes occur at greater focal depths
of 300 700 km.
Shallow focus earthquakes are found
within the earths outer crustal layer,
while deep focus earthquakes occur within
the deeper subduction zones of the earth.
Shallow focus earthquakes are of smaller

magnitudes, of a range 1 to 5, while deep
focus
earthquakes
are
of
higher
magnitudes, 6 to 8 or more.
Distribution of Earthquakes
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Earths major earthquakes occur mainly | 88

in belts coinciding with the margins of
tectonic plates.
The most important earthquake belt is
the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects
many populated coastal regions around
the Pacific Oceanfor example, those of
New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the
Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western
coasts of North and South America.
The seismic activity is by no means
uniform throughout the belt, and there are
a number of branches at various points.
Because at many places the CircumPacific Belt is associated with volcanic
activity, it has been popularly dubbed the
Pacific Ring of Fire. The Pacific Ring of
Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all
earthquakes.
A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt
(Himalayas and Alps). The energy released
in earthquakes from this belt is about 15
percent of the world total. The mid-world
mountain belt (Alpine Belt) extends
parallel to the equator from Mexico across
the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea
from Alpine-Caucasus ranges' to the
Caspian, Himalayan mountains and the
adjoining lands. This zone has folded
mountains, large depressions and active
volcanoes.
There also are striking connected belts of
seismic activity, mainly along oceanic
ridgesincluding those in the Arctic
Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the
western Indian Oceanand along the rift
valleys of East Africa.
Effects of Earthquakes
Page
Earthquakes cause landslides, damming

of rivers, depressions which form lakes.
www.pmfias.com
They can cause submergence and

emergence of landforms along coastal
regions. Example: Coastline of Kutch.
Lead to change in surface drainage and
underground circulation of water.
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More devastating features of earthquakes

are fires and seismic waves (tsunamis).
Formation of cracks or fissures especially
in the region of the epicenter is common.
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| 89
Similar Posts on Volcanism:
Tsunami

Hot Water Spring
Volcanic Landforms
Intrusive
Extrusive
and

Post 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the
word Tsunami took a center stage among
all natural calamities. Though their
number is small compared to other
calamities, the havoc they cause is
considerable. The latest is the Japan
Earthquake & Tsunami of 2011 which
caused a death of more than 15,000
individuals. The tsunami caused nuclear
accidents, primarily the meltdowns at
three reactors in the Fukushima Daiichi
Nuclear Power Plant complex, raising
questions about nuclear safety in the
events of natural calamities.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V78K
KmkPtbM
Tsunami is a Japanese word for Harbour

wave. They are also known as seismic sea
waves.
They are very long-wavelength water
waves in oceans or seas. They are
commonly
referred
to
as tidal
waves because
of long
wavelengths,
although the attractions of the Moon and
Sun play no role in their formation.
They sometimes come ashore to great
heights tens of metres above mean tide
level and may be extremely destructive.
Similar Post on Earthquakes, another
major natural calamity.
Earthquakes Seismic Waves
What causes Tsunami?
A tsunami can be caused by any

disturbance that displaces a large water
mass from its equilibrium position.
The usual immediate cause of a tsunami
is sudden displacement in a seabed due to
submarine earthquakes sufficient to cause
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the sudden raising or lowering of a large

body of water. The tsunami on December
26, 2004 was caused after an earthquake
displaced the seabed off the coast of
Sumatra, Indonesia.
Large volcanic eruptions along shorelines,
such as Krakatoa (1883 CE), have also
produced notable tsunamis.
A marine volcanic eruption can generate
an impulsive force that displaces the water
column and gives birth to a tsunami.
During a submarine landslide, the
equilibrium sea-level is altered by
sediment moving along the floor of the sea.
Gravitational forces then propagate a
tsunami.
Landslides along the coast, high intensity
explosions can also cause tsunami.
Most destructive tsunamis can be caused
due to the fall of extra-terrestrial objects
on to the earth.
Mechanism in Earthquake
induced Tsunamis
Propagation of tsunami waves
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An undersea earthquake causes buckling

of the sea floor, something that occurs at
subduction zones, places where drifting Page
plates that constitute the outer shell of the
| 90
earth converge and the heavier oceanic
plate
subducts
below
the
lighter
continents.
As a plate plunges into the interior of the
earth it gets stuck against the edge of a
continental plate for a while, when
stresses build up, then the locked zone
gives way. Parts of the ocean floor then
snap upward and other areas sink
downward.
In the instant after the quake, the sea
surface shape resembles the contours of
the seafloor. But then gravity acts to
return the sea surface to its original
shape. The ripples then race outward and
a tsunami is caused.
The long gravity tsunami waves

caused by two interacting processes.
are
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1. There is the slope of the sea surface which

creates a horizontal pressure force.
2. Then there is the piling up or lowering of
sea surface as water moves in varying
speeds in the direction that the wave form
is moving. These processes together create
propagating waves.
As a tsunami leaves deep waters and

propagates into the shallow waters, it
transforms. This is because as the depth
of the water decreases, the speed of the
tsunami reduces. But the change of total
energy of the tsunami remains constant.
With decrease in speed, height of the
tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which
Properties of Tsunami Waves
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was imperceptible in deep water may grow

to many metres high and this is called
the shoaling effect.
Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw
a breath but then this withdrawal is
followed by arrival of the crest of a
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tsunami wave. Tsunamis have been
known to occur suddenly without | 91
warning.
In some cases there are several great
waves separated by intervals of several
minutes or more. The first of these waves
is often preceded by an extraordinary
recession of water from the shore, which
may commence several minutes or even
half an hour beforehand.
Tsunamis are a series of waves of very,

very long wavelengths and period created
in oceans by an impulsive disturbance.
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Tsunamis are different from the windgenerated waves which usually have a
period of five to twenty seconds.
Tsunamis
behave
as shallow-water
waves because of their long wavelengths.
They have a period in the range of ten
minutes to two hours and a wavelength
exceeding 500 km.
The rate of energy loss of a wave is
inversely related to its wavelength. So
tsunamis lose little energy as they
propagate because of their very large
wavelength.
So they will travel at high speeds in deep
waters and travel great distances as well
losing little energy. A tsunami that occurs
1000 metres deep in water has a speed of
356 km per hour.
At 6000 m, it travels at 873 km per hour.
It travels at different speeds in water: it
travels slow in water that is shallow and
fast in deep water.
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And, when the depth of water is less

than half the wavelength of the wave,
the wave breaks (dies).
The largest waves are found in the open

oceans. Waves continue to grow larger as
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they move and absorb energy from the
| 92
wind.
When a breeze of two knots or less blows
over calm water, small ripples form and
grow as the wind speed increases until
white caps appear in the breaking waves.
Waves may travel thousands of km before
rolling ashore, breaking and dissolving as
surf. A waves size and shape reveal its
origin.
Waves
The horizontal and vertical motions are

common
in
ocean
water
bodies.
The horizontal
motion refers
to
the ocean
currents
and
waves.
The vertical motion refers to tides.
Water moves ahead from one place to
another through ocean currents while
the water in the waves does not move,
but the wave trains move ahead.
Waves are actually the energy, not the
water as such, which moves across the
ocean surface. Water particles only travel
in a small circle as a wave passes.
Wind provides energy to the waves. Wind
causes waves to travel in the ocean and
the energy is released on shorelines.
The motion of the surface water seldom
affects the stagnant deep bottom water of
the oceans.
As a wave approaches the beach, it slows
down. This is due to the friction occurring
between the dynamic water and the sea
floor.
Animations: View in MS Power Point in full

screen
mode
or
view
on
blog
www.pmfias.com
Steep waves are fairly young ones and
are probably formed by local wind. Slow
and steady waves originate from
faraway places, possibly from another
hemisphere.
Waves travel because wind pushes the

water body in its course while gravity pulls
the crests of the waves downward.
The falling water pushes the former
troughs upward, and the wave moves to a
new position.
The actual motion of the water beneath
the waves is circular. It indicates that
things are carried up and forward as the
wave approaches, and down and back as
it passes.
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Characteristics of Waves
Wave crest and trough: The highest and

lowest points of a wave are called the crest
and trough respectively.
Wave height: It is the vertical distance
from the bottom of a trough to the top of a
crest of a wave.
Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave
height.
Wave period: It is merely the time interval
between two successive wave crests or
troughs as they pass a fixed point.
2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
As tsunami waves are long wavelength

waves, they cannot be perceived in deep
oceans. Their amplitude is negligible when
compared with their wavelength and
hence the waves go unnoticed in deep
oceans.
When tsunamis approach shallow water,
however, the wave amplitude increases
(conservation of energy). The waves may
occasionally reach a height of 20 to 30
metres above mean sea level in U- and Vshaped harbours and inlets (funneling
effect).
Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance

between two successive crests.
Wave speed: It is the rate at which the
wave moves through the water, and is
measured in knots.
Wave frequency: It is the number of waves
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passing a given point during a one second
| 93
time interval.
Normal waves vs Tsunami waves
Tsunami waves are not noticed by

ships far out at sea
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Tsunami or the Harbour wave struck

havoc in the Indian Ocean on the 26th of
December 2004.
The wave was the result of earthquake
that had its epicenter near western
boundary of Sumatra.
The magnitude of the earthquake was 9.0
on the Richter scale.
Plate tectonics
Indian plate went under the Burma

plate, there was a sudden movement of
the sea floor, causing the earthquake.
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The ocean floor was displaced by about 10

20m and tilted in a downwardly
direction.
A huge mass of ocean water flowed to fill
in the gap that was being created by the
displacement.
This marked the withdrawal of the water
mass from the coastlines of the
landmasses in the south and Southeast
Asia.
After thrusting of the Indian plate below
the Burma plate, the water mass rushed
back towards the coastline as tsunami.
Tsunami waves
Tsunami traveled at a speed of about 800

km. per hour, comparable to speed of
commercial
aircraft
and
completely
washed away some of the islands in the
Indian ocean.
The Indira point in the Andaman and
Nicobar
islands
that
marked
the
southernmost point of India got completely
submerged.
As the wave moved from earthquake
epicenter from Sumatra towards the
Andaman Islands and Sri Lanka the wave
length decreased with decreasing depth
of water. The travel speed also declined
from 700-900 km. per hour to less than
70 km. per hour.
Tsunami waves traveled up to a depth of 3
km from the coast killing more than
10,000 people and affected more than
lakh of houses.
In India, the worst affected were the
coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Occurrence
Subduction zones off Chile, Nicaragua,

Mexico and Indonesia have created killer
tsunamis.
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The Pacific among the oceans has

witnessed most number of tsunamis (over
790 since 1990).
Shifts in Geography
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Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause
| 94
changes in geography.
The December 26 earthquake and
tsunami shifted the North Pole by 2.5 cm
in the direction of 145 degrees East
longitude and reduced the length of the
day by 2.68 microseconds.
This in turn affected the velocity of earths
rotation and the Coriolis force which plays
a strong role in weather patterns.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands may
have (moved by about 1.25 m owing to the
impact of the colossal earthquake and the
tsunami.
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| 95
Warning Systems
While the earthquake cannot be predicted

in advance, it is possible to give a threehour notice of a potential tsunami.
Such early warning systems are in place
across the Pacific Ocean. Post 2004, they
were installed in Indian Ocean as well.
In 1965, early warning system was started
by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). The member
states of the NOAA include the major
Pacific Rim countries.
NOAA has developed the Deep Ocean
Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
(DART) gauge.
Each gauge has a very sensitive pressure
recorder on the sea floor. Data is
generated whenever changes in water
pressure occur.
The
data
is
transmitted
to
a
surface buoy which then relays it over
satellite.
Computer systems at the Pacific Tsunami

Warning
Centre
(PTWC)
in
Hawaii monitors data.
Based on the data, warnings are issued.
Indias preparedness
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The
Deep Ocean Assessment and
Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in
the Indian Ocean post 2014.
The Indian government plans to set up a
network with Indonesia, Myanmar and
Thailand etc..
A National Tsunami Early Warning
Centre, which has the capability to detect
earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude in
the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in
2007 in India.
Set up by the Ministry of Earth
Sciences in the Indian National Centre
for
Ocean
Information
Services
(INCOIS),
Hyderabad,
the
tsunami
warning system would take 10-30 minutes
to analyze the seismic data following an
earthquake.
There are three important Rock Types Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
Rocks. We will study them in detail.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EcDv2
u9y2vM
Igneous Rocks
You must first know about volcanism
Extrusive
and

Feldspar and quartz are

the
common minerals found in rocks.
Petrology is science of rocks.
Plutonic Rocks or intrusive rocks
ROCKS
most
Igneous Rocks solidified from magma

and lava.
Sedimentary Rocks the result of
deposition of fragments of rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks formed out of
existing
rocks
undergoing
recrystallization.
Sometimes, the molten matter is not able

to reach the surface and instead cools
down very slowly at great depths.
Slow cooling allows big-sized crystals
(large grains) to be formed.
Granite is a typical example. These rocks
appear on the surface only after being
uplifted and denuded.
Lava or Volcanic Rocks or Extrusive
rocks
Rock Types
Formed out of magma and lava and are Page

known as primary rocks.
If molten material is cooled slowly at great | 96
depths, mineral grains may be very large.
Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in
small and smooth grains.
Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, etc.are
some of the examples of igneous rocks.
There
are
two
types
of
igneous
rocks: intrusive
rocks
(Granite) and extrusive rocks (BasaltDeccan Traps).
Having their origin under conditions of
high temperatures, the igneous rocks are
Acid igneous rocks, such as granite, are
less dense and are lighter in colour than
basic rocks.
Based on place and time taken in
cooling of the molten matter, igneous
rocks can be divided into Plutonic and
Volcanic rocks.

Hot Water Spring
Volcanic Landforms
Intrusive
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These are formed by rapid cooling of the

lava thrown out during volcanic eruptions.
Rapid cooling prevents crystallization, as a
result such rocks are fine-grained.
Basalt is a typical example. The Deccan
traps in the peninsular region is of
basaltic origin.
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Basic rocks contain a greater proportion

of basic oxides, e.g. of iron, aluminium or
magnesium, and are thus denser and
darker in colour.
Plutonic rocks
Intrusive rocks
Volcanic rocks
Extrusive rocks
Granite
Basalt
Slow cooling allows

Rapid
cooling
big-sized
crystals prevents
(large grains)
crystallization, as a
result such rocks
are fine-grained
Less dense and are

Denser and Darker
lighter in colour in colour
than basic rocks
Rocks
or
These rocks occupy an intermediate

position between the deep-seated plutonic
bodies and the surface lava flows.
Dyke rocks are semi-crystalline in
structure.
Based on the presence of acid forming
radical, silicon, igneous rocks are
divided into Acid Rocks and Basic
Rocks.
These are characterized by high content of

silicaup to 80 per cent, while the rest is
divided
among
aluminium,
alkalis,
magnesium, iron oxide, lime etc..
These rocks constitute the sial portion of
the crust.
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Due to the excess of silicon, acidic magma
cools fast and it does not flow and spread | 97
far away.
High mountains are formed of this type of
rock.
These rocks have a lesser content of
heavier minerals like iron and magnesium
and normally contain quartz and feldspar.
Add rocks are hard, compact, massive and
resistant to weathering.
Basic Rocks
Hypabyssal
or
Dyke
Intermediate rocks
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These rocks are poor in silica (about 40

per cent); magnesia content is up to 40
per cent and the remaining 40 per cent is
spread over iron oxide, lime, aluminium,
alkalis, potassium etc.
Due to low silica content, the parent
material of such rocks cools slowly and
thus, flows and spreads far away. This
flow and cooling gives rise to plateaus.
Presence of heavy elements imparts to
these rocks a dark colour.
Basalt is a typical example, others being
gabbro and dolerite.
Not being very hard, these rocks are
weathered relatively easily.
Acid Rocks
Acidic rocks
Basic rocks
High content of silicaupto 80 per
Poor in silica; magnesia content (40 per
cent
cent)
Due to the excess of silicon, acidic

Due to low silica content, the parent
magma cools fast
material of such rocks cools slowly
High Volcanic mountains are formed

Forms plateaus. Deccan Traps
of this type of rock. Mt Fuji, Japan
Lesser content of heavier minerals like

Presence of heavy elements imparts to
iron and magnesium and normally these rocks a dark colour.
contain quartz and feldspar. Hence
they are lighter in colour
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Granite, quartz, feldspar etc.
Add rocks are hard, compact, massive

Not being very hard, these rocks are
and resistant to weathering.
weathered relatively easily.
Significance
of
Basalt, gabbro, dolerite etc..
Mechanically Formed
Sedimentary Rocks
Igneous
Since magma is the chief source of metal

ores, many of them are associated with
igneous rocks.
The minerals of great economic value
found in igneous rocks are magnetic iron,
nickel, copper, lead, zinc, chromite,
manganese, gold, diamond and platinum.
Amygdales are almond-shaped bubbles
formed in basalt due to escape of gases
and are filled with minerals.
The old rocks of the great Indian
peninsula are rich in these crystallised
minerals or metals.
Many igneous rocks like granite are used
as building material as they come in
beautiful shades.
Sedimentary or detrital rocks.

Formed as a result of denudation
(weathering and erosion).
These deposits through compaction turn
into rocks. This process is called
Cover 75 per cent of the earths crust but
volumetrically occupy only 5 per cent.
They are layered or stratified of varying
thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc.
Till or Tillite == Ice deposited sedimentary
rocks.
Loess == Wind deposited sediments.
Depending upon the mode of formation,
they are classified into
mechanically
formed
sandstone,
conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc.
organically formed geyserite, chalk,
limestone, coal etc.
chemically formed chert, limestone,
halite, potash etc..
Formed by mechanical agents like running

water, wind, ocean currents, ice, etc.
Arenaceous rocks == More sand and big
sized particles, and are hard. E.g.
sandstone.
Argillaceous rocks == More clay and are
fine-grained, softer, impermeable and nonporous. They are easily weathered and
eroded. E.g. shale.
Chemically Formed Sedimentary

Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
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Economic
Rocks
Water containing minerals evaporate at

the mouth of springs or salt lakes and give
rise to Stalactites and stalagmites
(deposits of lime left over by the limemixed water as it evaporates in the
underground caves.
Organically Formed Sedimentary

Rocks
The remains of plants and animals are

buried under sediments and due to heat
and pressure from overlying layers, their
composition undergoes a change.
Coal and limestone are well-known
examples.
Plant remains give rise to coals of different
grades depending upon the proportion of
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| 98
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carbon and the degree of overlying

pressure.
The peat and lignite (brown coal) is the
first stage of coal having below 45 per cent
of carbon; the bituminous variety is the
next stage with 60 per cent carbon.
Limestone is composed of shells and
skeletons of dead marine animals that
once lived in shallow, warm and clear
waters of a sea or lake.
Depending on the predominance of
calcium content or the carbon content,
sedimentary rocks may be calcareous
(limestone,
chalk,
dolomite)
or
carbonaceous (coal).
Chief Characteristics of
Sedimentary Rocks
These rocks consist of a number of layers

or strata
These rocks are characterized by marks
left behind by water currents and waves
etc..
These rocks have fossils of plants and
animals.
These rocks are generally porous and
allow water to percolate through them.
Spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India
Alluvial deposits in the Indo-Gangetic
plain and coastal plains is of sedimentary
accumulation.
These deposits contain loam and clay.
Different varieties of sandstone are spread
over Madhya Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan,
parts of Himalayas, Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar and Orissa.
The great Vindhyan highland in central
India consists of sandstones, shales,
limestones.
Coal deposits occur in river basins of the
Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari in the
Gondwana sedimentary deposits.
Economic Significance of
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in

minerals of economic value as the igneous
rocks.
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But important minerals such as hematite

iron ore, phosphates, building stones,
coals, petroleum and material used in
cement industry are found.
The decay of tiny marine organisms yields
petroleum. Petroleum occurs in suitable
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structures only.
Important
minerals
like
bauxite, | 99
manganese, tin are derived from other
rocks but are found in gravels and sands
carried by water. Sedimentary rocks also
yield some of the richest soils.
Metamorphic Rocks
The word metamorphic means change of

form.
Form under the action of pressure, volume
and temperature (PVT) changes.
Metamorphism occurs when rocks are
forced down to lower levels by tectonic
processes or when molten magma rising
through the crust comes in contact with
the crustal rocks.
Metamorphism is a process by which
already
consolidated
rocks
undergo
recrystallization and reorganization of
materials within original rocks.
In the process of metamorphism in some
rocks grains or minerals get arranged in
layers or lines. Such an arrangement is
called foliation or lineation.
Sometimes minerals or materials of
different groups are arranged into
alternating thin to thick layers. Such a
structure in is called banding.
Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite
etc. are some examples of metamorphic
rocks.
Causes of Metamorphism
Orogenic
Movements
(Mountain
Building)
Such movements often take place with

interplay of folding, warping, crumpling
and high temperatures. These processes
give existing rocks a new appearance.
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Lava Inflow The molten magmatic material

inside the earths crust brings the
surrounding rocks under the influence of
intense temperature pressure and causes
changes in them.
Geodynamic Forces
The omnipresent geodynamic forces such

as plate tectonics also play an important
role in metamorphism.
Dynamic Metamorphism
On the basis of the agency of

metamorphism, metamorphic rocks can
be of two types
Thermal Metamorphism
The change of form or re-crystallisation of

minerals of sedimentary and igneous
rocks under the influence of high
temperatures is known as thermal
metamorphism.
There may be various sources of the'high
temperatureshot magma, hot gases,
vapours and liquids, geothermal heat etc.
A magmatic intrusion causing thermal
metamorphism is responsible for the peak
of
Mt.
Everest
consisting
of
metamorphosed limestone.
As a result of thermal metamorphism,
sandstone changes into quartzite and
limestone into marble.
Igneous or Sedimentary rock
Influence
Granite
Pressure
Clay, Shale
Pressure
Sandstone
Heat
Clay, Shale
Heat
Coal
Heat
Limestone
Heat
Metamorphic Rocks in India

The gneisses and schists are commonly
found in the Himalayas, Assam, West
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh
and Rajasthan.
Quartzite is a hard rock found over
Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and areas surrounding Delhi.
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This
refers
to
the
formation
of
metamorphic rocks under the stress of
pressure.
Sometimes high pressure is accompanied Page
by high temperatures and the action of
|
chemically charged water.
The combination of directed pressure and 100
heat is very powerful in producing
metamorphism because it leads to more or
less complete recrystallisation of rocks
and the production of new structures.
This is known as dynamothermal
metamorphism.
Under high pressure, granite is converted
into
gneiss;
clay
and
shale
are
transformed into schist.
Some examples of Metamorphosis
Metamorphosed rock
Gneiss
Schist
Quartzite
Slate ==> Phyllite
Anthracite ==> Graphite
Marble
Marble occurs near Alwar, Ajmer, Jaipur,
Jodhpur in Rajasthan and parts of
Narmada Valley in Madhya Pradesh.
Slate, which is used as a roofing material
and for writing in schools, is found over
Rewari (Haryana), Kangra (Himachal
Pradesh) and parts of Bihar.
Graphite is found in Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh.
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101
Rock cycle
Rock cycle is a continuous process

through which old rocks are transformed
into new ones.
Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other
rocks form from these rocks.
Igneous rocks can be changed into
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
The fragments derived out of igneous and
metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary
rocks.
Sedimentary
and
igneous
rocks
themselves can turn into metamorphic
rocks
The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic
and sedimentary) may be carried down
into the mantle (interior of the earth)
through subduction process and the same
melt down and turn into molten magma,
the original source for igneous rocks.
Some Rock-Forming Minerals
Feldspar: Half the crust is composed of

feldspar. It has a light colour and its main
constituents are silicon, oxygen, sodium,
potassium, calcium, aluminium.
Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and
oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline
structure. It is uncleavaged, white or
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colorless. It cracks like glass and is

present in sand and granite. It is used in
manufacture of radio and radar.
Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it
is the Ore of aluminium. It is noncrystalline and occurs in small pellets.
Cinnabar: It is mercury sulphide and
mercury is derived from it. It has a
brownish colour.
Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium
and magnesium. It is used in cement and
iron and steel industries. It is white in
colour.
Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate
and is used in cement, fertilizer and
chemical industries.
Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron
oxide) of iron.
Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms

created by the erosional activity of rivers.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OHZE
tlraGA8
Various Aspects of Fluvial Erosive

Action
Fluvial landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Erosional Landforms [This Post] and
Depositional Landforms [Next Post: Fluvial
Depositional Landforms Alluvial Fan
Levee Delta Types].
Corrasion or abrasion == solid river load

striking against rocks and wearing them
down.
Hydration == force of running water
wearing down rocks.
Attrition == river load particles striking,
colliding against each other and breaking
down in the process.
Downcutting == Erosion in vertical
direction (downcutting leads to valley
deepening) or
Lateral erosion == Erosion in horizontal
direction, especially the walls of the
stream.
Corrosion == Chemical action that leads to
weathering.
River Valley Formation
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|
The landforms created as a result 102

of degradational
action
(erosion) or aggradational
work
(deposition) of running water are called
fluvial landforms.
The fluvial processes may be divided into
three
physical
phases
erosion,
transportation and deposition.
Fluvial Erosional Landforms
Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Glacial landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Marine landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Karst landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of

Erosion
Multiple choice questions.

1. Which one of the following are the two
main constituents of granite? (a) Iron and
nickel (c) Silica and aluminium (b) Iron
and silver (d) Iron Oxide and potassium
2. Which one of the following is the salient
feature of metamorphic rocks? (a)
Changeable (c) Crystalline (b) Quite (d)
Foliation
3. Which one of the following is not a single
element mineral? (a) Gold (c) Mica (b)
Silver (d) Graphite
4. Which one of the following is the hardest
mineral? (a) Topaz (c) Quartz (b) Diamond
(d) Feldspar
5. Which one of the following is not a
sedimentary rock? (a) Tillite (c) Breccia (b)
Borax (d) Marble
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The extended depression on ground

through which a stream flows throughout
its course is called a river valley.
At different stages of the erosional cycle
the valley acquires different profiles.
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At a young stage, the valley is deep,

narrow with steep wall-like sides and a
convex slope. The erosional action here is
characterized by predominantly vertical
downcutting The profile of valley here is
typically V shaped.
A deep and narrow V shaped valley is
also referred to as gorge and may result
due to downcutting erosion and because
of recession of a waterfall. Most Himalayan
rivers pass through deep gorges (at times
more than 500 metres deep) before they
descend to the plains.
An extended form of gorge is called a The
Grand Canyon of the Colorado river in
Arizona (USA) runs for 483 km and has a
depth of 2.88 km.
A tributary valley lies above the main
valley and is separated from it by a steep
slope down which the stream may flow as
a waterfall or a series of rapids.
As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral
erosion becomes prominent and the valley
floor flattens out. The valley profile now
becomes typically U shaped with a broad
base and a concave slope.
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|
103
Youth
Young rivers (A) close to their source tend

to
be
fast-flowing,
high-energy
environments
with
rapid
headward
erosion, despite the hardness of the rock
over which they may flow.
Steep-sided "V-shaped' valleys, waterfalls,
and rapids are characteristic features.
Maturity
Mature rivers (B) are lower-energy

systems. Erosion takes place on the
outside of bends, creating looping
meanders in the soft alluvium of the river
plain. Deposition occurs on the inside of
bends and on the river bed.
Old Age
River course
At a river's mouth (C), sediment is

deposited as the velocity of the river slows.
As the river becomes shallower more
deposition occurs, forming islands and
braiding the main channel into multiple,
narrower channels.
As the sediment is laid down, the actual
mouth of the river moves away from the
source into the sea or lake, forming a
delta.
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Head ward erosion == Erosion at the

origin of a stream channel, which causes
the origin to move back away from the
direction of the stream flow, and so causes
the stream channel to lengthen.
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said mechanism. The potholes go on

increasing in both diameter and depth.
Page
Waterfalls
A waterfall is simply the fall of an

enormous volume of water from a great
height.
They are mostly seen in youth stage of
river.
Relative resistance of rocks, relative
difference in topographic reliefs, fall in the
sea level and related rejuvenation, earth
movements etc. are responsible for the
formation of waterfalls.
For example, Jog or Gersoppa falls on
Sharavati (a tributary of Cauveri) has a
fall of 260 metres.
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104
Terraces
Stepped benches along the river course in

a flood plain are called terraces.
Terraces represent the level of former
valley floors and remnants of former
(older) flood plains.
Gulleys/Rills
Pot Holes
The kettle-like small depressions in the

rocky beds of the river valleys are called
pot holes which are usually cylindrical in
shape.
Potholing or pothole-drilling is the
mechanism through which the grinding
tools (fragments of rocks, e.g. boulders
and angular rock fragments) when caught
in the water eddies or swirling water start
dancing in a circular manner and grind
and drill the rock beds of the valleys like a
drilling machine.
They thus form small holes which are
gradually enlarged by the repetition of the
Gulley is an incised water-worn channel,

which is particularly common in semi-arid
areas.
It is formed when water from overlandflows down a slope, especially following
heavy rainfall, is concentrated into rills,
which merge and enlarge into a gulley.
The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central
India and the Chos of Hoshiarpur in
Punjab are examples of gulleys.
Meanders
A meander is defined as a pronounced

curve or loop in the course of a river
channel.
The outer bend of the loop in a meander is
characterized by intensive erosion and
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vertical cliffs and is called the cliff-slope

side. This side has a concave slope.
The inner side of the loop is characterized
by deposition, a gentle convex slope, and
is called the slip-off side.
Morphologically, the meanders may be
wavy, horse-shoe type or ox-bow/ bracelet
type.
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would be produced by fluvial erosion that

would, in the course of geologic time,
reduce the land almost to baselevel (sea
level), leaving so little gradient that
essentially no more erosion could occur.
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105
Drainage Patterns
Ox-Bow Lake
Sometimes, because of intensive erosion

action, the outer curve of a meander gets
accentuated to such an extent that the
inner ends of the loop come close enough
to get disconnected from the main channel
and exist as independent water bodies.
These water bodies are converted into
swamps in due course of time.
In the Indo-Gangetic plains, southwards
shifting of Ganga has left many ox-bow
lakes to the north of the present course of
the Ganga.
Peneplane (Or peneplain)
This refers to an undulating featureless

plain punctuated with low-lying residual
hills of resistant rocks. It is considered to
be an end product of an erosional cycle.
Peneplain, gently undulating (wave like),
almost featureless plain that, in principle,
The typical shape of a river course as it

completes its erosional cycle is referred to
as the drainage pattern of a stream.
A drainage pattern reflects the structure of
basal rocks, resistance and strength,
cracks or joints and tectonic irregularity, if
any.
Dendric or Pinnate
This is an irregular tree branch shaped

Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi,
Cauvery, Krishna.
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Trellis
In this type of pattern the short

subsequent streams meet the main stream
at right angles, and differential erosion
through soft rocks paves the way for
tributaries.
Examples: Seine and its tributaries in
Paris basin (France).
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The tributaries join the main stream

at acute angles.
This pattern is common in Himalayan
foothill regions.
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106
Parallel
Rectangular
The main
stream
bends
at
right
angles and the tributaries join at right
angles creating rectangular patterns.
This pattern has a subsequent origin
(subsequent drainage you will study this
in
Indian
drainage
systems).
Example: Colorado river (USA).
The tributaries seem to be running

parallel to each other in a uniformly
sloping region.
Example: rivers of lesser Himalayas.
Radial
Angular
The tributaries from a summit follow the

slope downwards and drain down in all
directions.
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Examples: streams
of
Saurashtra
region and the Central French Plateau,
Mt. Kilimanjaro etc..
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|
107
Fluvial
Depositional
Landforms
are
landforms created by the depositional
activity of rivers.

Fluvial landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Erosional
Landforms
[Previous
Post: Fluvial
Erosional
Landforms
Drainage Patterns River Valley] and

Depositional Landforms [This Post].
Annular
When the upland has an outer soft

stratum, the radial streams develop
subsequent tributaries which try to follow
a circular drainage around the summit.
Example: Black Hill streams of South
Dakota.

Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of

Erosion
The landforms created as a result

of degradational
action
(erosion) or aggradational
work
(deposition) of running water are called
fluvial landforms.
The fluvial processes may be divided into
three
physical
phases
erosion,
transportation and deposition.
Fluvial Depositional Landforms

Centripetal
In a low lying basin the streams converge

from all sides.
Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and
the Baghmati and its tributaries in
Nepal.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_j8bAv
UF130
The depositional action of a stream is

influenced by stream velocity and the
volume of river load.
The decrease in stream velocity reduces
the transporting power of the streams
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which are forced to leave some load to

settle down.
Increase in river load is effected through
accelerated rate of erosion in the source
catchment
areas
consequent
upon
deforestation.
Various landforms resulting from fluvial
deposition are as follows:
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sudden floods in adjoining areas, as it

happens in the case of the Hwang Ho
river of China.
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|
108
Alluvial Fans and Cones
When a stream leaves the mountains and

comes down to the plains, its velocity
decreases due to a lower gradient.
As a result, it sheds a lot of material,
which it had been carrying from the
mountains, at the foothills.
This deposited material acquires a conical
shape and appears as a series of
continuous fans. These are called alluvial
fans.
Such
fans
appear
throughout
the Himalayan foothills in the north
Indian plains.
Delta
A delta is a tract of alluvium at the mouth

of a river where it deposits more material
than can be carried away.
The river gets divided into distributaries
which may further divide and rejoin to
form a network of channels.
A delta is formed by a combination of two
processes:
Alluvial Fans-Cones
1. load-bearing capacity of a river is reduced

as a result of the check to its speed as it
enters a sea or lake, and
2. clay particles carried in suspension in the
river coagulate in the presence of salt
water and are deposited.
Natural Levees
These are narrow ridges of low height on

both sides of a river, formed due to
deposition action of the stream, appearing
as natural embankments.
These act as a natural protection against
floods but a breach in a levee causes
The finest particles are carried farthest to

accumulate as bottom-set beds.
Depending on the conditions under which
they are formed, deltas can be of many
types.
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109
Arcuate or Fan-shaped
This type of delta results when light

depositions give rise to shallow, shifting
distributaries and a general fan-shaped
profile. Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus.
The distributaries seem to be flowing over

projections of these deposits which appear
as a birds foot.
The currents and tides are weak in such
areas and the number of distributaries
lesser as compared to an arcuate delta.
Example: Mississippi river.
Birds Foot Delta
This type of delta emerges when limestone

sediment deposits do not allow downward
seepage of water.
Estuaries
Sometimes the mouth of the river appears

to be submerged. This may be due to a
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drowned valley because of a rise in sea

level.
Here fresh water and the saline water get
mixed. When the river starts filling its
mouth with sediments, mud bars,
marshes and plains seem to be developing
in it.
These are ideal sites for fisheries, ports
and industries because estuaries provide
access to deep water, especially if
protected from currents and tides.
Example: Hudson estuary.
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Elongate delta is represented by the birdfoot delta of the Mississippi River.

Lobate delta is represented by the
Godavari River.
Lobate: Shaped like a lobe.
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110
Godavari Lobate
Krishna Arcuate
Kaveri Quadrilateral
Nile,
Indus,
Arcuate
Cuspate Delta
This is a pointed delta formed generally

along strong coasts and is subjected to
strong wave action. There are very few or
no distributaries in a cuspate delta.
Example: Tiber river on west coast of Italy.
Develops
when
fluvial
action
and
depositional process dominate the system.
All the above are more or less the same

kind of deltas.
High-constructive deltas Elongate and

Lobate Delta
Ganga-Brahmaputra
Both of these types have a large sediment

supply that tend to disperse sediment
along the shoreline.
A lobate delta (a sub type of fan shaped
delta) is formed if the river water is as
dense as the seawater (precipitation or
coagulation of river sediments occur
immediately and hence the delta is not
elongated).
A bird-boot delta (elongated delta) is
formed when the river water is lighter than
sea water (precipitation or coagulation of
river sediments can occur at a distance
from shore and hence the delta is
elongated).
High-destructive deltas
Shoreline energy is high and much of the

sediment delivered by the river is reworked
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by wave action or currents before it is

finally deposited.
Deltas formed by rivers such as the Nile
and the Rhne have been classified as
wave-dominated.
In this class of high-destructive delta,
sediment is finally deposited as arcuate
sand barriers near the mouth of the river.
Glacial Landforms - Erosional Landforms:

Cirque/Corrie, Glacial Trough, Hanging
Valley,
Arete,
Horn
and
D-Fjord;
Depositional Landforms: Outwash Plain,
Esker, Kame Terraces, Drumlin, Kettle
Holes and Moraine.
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The largest of Indian glaciers occur in the

Karakoram
range,
viz. Siachen
(72
km), while Gangotri in Uttar Pradesh
(Himalayas) is 25.5 km long.
A
glacier
is
charged
with rock
debris which are used for erosional
Page
activity by moving ice.
A glacier during its lifetime creates various |
landforms which may be classified into
111
erosional and depositional landforms.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rclSW
D-sL0U
Glacial Erosional Landforms
Fluvial Erosional Landforms [Done]

Fluvial Depositional Landforms [Previous
Post]
[This Post]
[Next Post]
Glacial Landforms and Cycle of

Erosion
A glacier is a moving mass of ice at speeds

averaging few meters a day.
Types of Glaciers: continental glaciers,
ice caps, piedmont glaciers and valley
glaciers.
The continental glaciers are found in the
Antarctica and in Greenland. The biggest
continental ice sheet in
Ice caps are the covers of snow and ice on
mountains from which the valley or
mountain glaciers originate.
The piedmont glaciers form a continuous
ice sheet at the base of mountains as in
southern Alaska.
The valley glaciers, also known as Alpine
glaciers, are found in higher regions of the
Himalayas in our country and all such
high mountain ranges of the world.
Cirque/Corrie
Hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge.

It has steep sided slope on three sides, an
open end on one side and a flat bottom.
When the ice melts, the cirque may
develop into a tarn lake.
Glacial Trough
Original
stream-cut
valley,
further
modified by glacial action.
It is a U Shaped Valley. It at mature stage
of valley formation.
Since glacial mass is heavy and slow
moving, erosional activity is uniform
horizontally as well as vertically.
A steep sided and flat bottomed valley
results, which has a U shaped profile.
Hanging Valley
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Formed when smaller tributaries are

unable to cut as deeply as bigger ones and
remain hanging at higher levels than the
main valley as discordant tributaries.
A valley carved out by a small tributary
glacier that joins with a valley carved out
by a much larger glacier.
Esker
Arete
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Winding ridge of un-assorted depositions

of rock, gravel, clay etc. running along a
glacier in a till plain.
The eskers resemble the features of an Page
embankment and are often used for
|
making roads.
112
Steep-sided, sharp-tipped summit with the

glacial activity cutting into it from two
Horn
Ridge that acquires a horn shape when

the glacial activity cuts it from more than
two sides.
D-Fjord
Steep-sided narrow entrance-like feature

at the coast where the stream meets the
coast.
Fjords are common in Norway, Greenland
and New Zealand.
Kame Terraces
Broken ridges or un-assorted depositions

looking like hump in a till plain.
Drumlin
Inverted boat-shaped deposition in a till

plain caused by deposition.
Kettle Holes
Glacial Depositional Landforms

Outwash Plain
When the glacier reaches its lowest point

and melts, it leaves behind a stratified
deposition material, consisting of rock
debris, clay, sand, gravel etc. This layered
surface is called till plain or an outwash
plain.
Formed when the deposited material in a

till plain gets depressed locally and forms
a basin.
Moraine
General term applied to rock fragments,

gravel, sand, etc. carried by a glacier.
Depending on its position, the moraine
can be ground moraine and end moraine.
Glacial Cycle of Erosion

Youth
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The stage is marked by the inward cutting

activity of ice in a cirque.
Aretes and horns are emerging. The
hanging valleys are not prominent at this
stage.
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There are a few exceptions [that are

higher], such as Everest, but extremely
few.
When you then go to Canada or Chile, the
snowline altitude is around 1,000m, so
the mountains are around 2.5km.
Maturity
Hanging valleys start emerging. The

opposite cirques come closer and the
glacial trough acquires a stepped profile
which is regular and graded.
Old Age
Emergence of a U-shaped valley marks

the beginning of old age.
An outwash plain with features such as
eskers, kame terraces, drumlins, kettle
holes etc. is a prominent development.
|
Marine Landforms or Coastal Landforms
1. Erosional Landforms: Chasms, Wave-Cut
Platform, Sea Cliff, Sea Caves, Sea Arches,
Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock, Blow
Holes or Spouting Horns etc..
2. Depositional
Landforms: Beach,
Bar,
Barrier, Spit and Hook, Tombolos etc..
3. Coastlines: Coastline
of
Emergence,
Coastline
of
Submergence,
Neutral
coastline, Compound coastline and Fault
coastline
Why are world's highest

mountains at the equator?
Ice and glacier coverage at lower altitudes

in cold climates is more important than
collision of tectonic plates. [Glacial erosion
is very strong because of huge boulders of
rocks carried by the glacial ice that graze
the surface. Though ice moves only few
meters a day, it can take along it huge
rocks that can peal the outer layers.]
Scientists have solved the mystery of why
the world's highest mountains sit near the
equator.
Colder climates are better at eroding
peaks. In colder climates, the snowline on
mountains starts lower down, and erosion
takes place at lower altitudes.
In general, mountains only rise to around
1,500m above their snow lines, so it is the
altitude of these lines which depends on
climate and latitude which ultimately
decides their height.
At low latitudes, the atmosphere is warm
and the snowline is high. Around the
equator, the snowline is about 5,500m at
its highest so mountains get up to
7,000m.
Page

Fluvial Depositional Landforms [Done]
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Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion [Next
Post]
Marine Landforms and Cycle of

Erosion
Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides

and storms carry on the erosional and
depositional processes.
The erosive work of the sea depends upon
size and strength of waves, slope, height of
the shore between low and high tides,
shape of the coast, composition of rocks,
depth of water, human activity etc.
The wave pressure compresses the air
trapped inside rock fissures, joints, faults,
etc. forcing it to expand and rupture the
rocks along weak points. This is how rocks
undergo weathering under wave action.
113
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114
Waves also use rock debris as instruments

of erosion (glaciers are quite good at this).
These rock fragments carried by waves
themselves get worn down by striking
against the coast or against one another.
The solvent or chemical action of waves is
another mode of erosion, but it is
pronounced only in case of soluble rocks
like limestone and chalk.
vertical planes of weakness in the rocks by

wave action.
With time, further headward erosion is
hindered by lateral erosion of chasm
mouth, which itself keeps widening till a
bay is formed.
D-sL0U
Marine Erosional Landforms

Chasms
These are narrow, deep indentations (a

deep recess or notch on the edge or
surface of something) carved due to
headward erosion (downcutting) through
Wave-Cut Platform
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When the sea waves strike against a cliff,

the cliff gets eroded (lateral erosion)
gradually and retreats.
Sea Cliff
Shoreline marked by
(escarpment, scarp).
The waves level out the shore region to

carve out a horizontal plane or a wave-cut
platform.
Blow Holes or Spouting Horns

a
steep
bank
Sea Caves
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Page
The burst of water through a small hole on
a sea cave due to the compression of air in |
the cave by strong waves. They make a
115
peculiar noise.
Differential erosion by sea waves through

a rock with varying resistance across its
structure produces arched caves in rocks
called sea caves.
Sea Arches
When waves from opposite directions

strike a narrow wall of rock, differential
erosion of the rock leaves a bridge like
structure called Sea arch.
Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock
Plane of Marine
Erosion/Peneplain
When a portion of the sea arch collapses,

the remaining column-like structure is
called a stack, skarry or chimney rock.
The eroded plain left behind by marine

action is called a plain of marine erosion.
If the level difference between this plain
and the sea level is not much, the agents
of weathering convert it into a peneplain.
Hanging Valleys
Marine Depositional Landforms
If the fluvial erosion of a stream at the

shore doesnt match the retreat of the sea,
the rivers appear to be hanging over the
sea. These river valleys are called hanging
valleys.The bottom of the cliff suffers the
maximum intensive erosion by waves and,
as a result, a notch appears at this
position.
Beach
This is the temporary covering of rock

debris on or along a wave-cut platform.
Bar
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Currents and tidal currents deposit rock

debris and sand along the coast at a
distance from the shoreline.
The resultant landforms which remain
submerged are called bars.
The enclosed water body so created is
called a
A spit is a projected deposition joined at

one end to the headland, with the other
end free in the sea.
The mode of formation is similar to a bar
or barrier.
A shorter spit with one end curved
towards the land is called a
Tombolos
Sometimes, islands are connected to each

other by a bar called tombolo.
Marine Cycle of Erosion

Youth
The waves are very active.

Sea caves, arches and stalks begin to
develop.
Cliff undercutting is pronounced and
wavecut platform begins to emerge due to
wave erosion.
By the end of youth, an irregular coastline
remains.
Maturity
The cliff and wave-cut platform are

conspicuous.
Stream deposition is taking place. These
valleys may be normal or of the hanging
type.
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Irregularities, such as caves and arches
|
disappear.
116
Coastlines
It is the overwater counterpart of a bar.
Spit and Hook
Various landforms indicating continuous

deposition are visible, such as bars,
barriers and spits.
Old Age
Barrier
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The boundary between the coast (the part

of the land adjoining or near the sea) and
the shore (the land along the edge of a sea)
is known as the coastline.
Coastlines can be
following classes:
divided
into
the
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Coastline of Emergence
Coastline of Submergence
Neutral coastline
Compound coastline
Fault coastline
Coastline are modified either due to rise or

fall in sea levels or upliftment or
subsidence of land, or both.
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Coastlines of Emergence
These are formed either by an uplift of the

land or by the lowering of the sea level.
Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
typical features.
The east coast of India, especially its
south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
appears to be a coast of emergence.
The west coast of India, on the other
hand, is both emergent and submergent.
The northern portion of the coast is
submerged as a result of faulting and the
southern portion, that is the Kerala
coast, is an example of an emergent
coast.
Coramandal coast == Tamil Nadu Coast
== Coastline of emergence
Malabar coast == Kerala Coast ==
Coastline of emergence
Konkan coast == Maharashtra and Goa
Coast == Coastline of submergence.
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submergence produces a highly irregular

shoreline called ria coastline.
The coast of south-west Ireland is a typical
example of ria coastline.
Fjord
Some coastal regions have been heavily |

eroded by glacial action and the valley 117
glacier troughs have been excavated below
sea level.
After the glaciers have disappeared, a fjord
coastline emerges.
These coasts have long and narrow inlets
with very steep sides.
The fjord coasts of Norway are a typical
example.
Coastlines of Submergence
A submerged coast is produced either by

subsidence of land or by a rise in sea level.
Ria, fjord, Dalmatian and drowned
lowlands are its typical features.
Dalmatian
Ria
When a region is dissected by streams into

a system of valleys and divides,
Page
The
Dalmatian
coasts
result
by
submergence of mountain ridges with
alternating crests and troughs which run
parallel to the sea coast.
The Dalmatian coast of Yugoslavia is a
typical example.
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Arid Landforms
Drowned lowland
A drowned lowland coast is low and free

from indentations, as it is formed by the
submergence of a low-lying area.
It is characterized by a series of bars
running parallel to the coast, enclosing
lagoons.
The Baltic coast of eastern Germany is an
example of this type of coastline.
Neutral Coastlines
These are coastlines formed as a result of

new materials being built out into the
water.
The word neutral implies that there need
be no relative change between the level of
sea and the coastal region of the
continent.
Neutral coastlines include the alluvial fan
shaped coastline, delta coastline, volcano
coastline and the coral reef coastline.
Such coastlines show the forms of two of

the previous classes combined, for
example,
submergence
followed
by
emergence or vice versa.
The coastlines of Norway and Sweden are
examples of compound coastlines.

[Done]
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Arid Landforms and Cycle of

Erosion
Fault Coastlines
Water Eroded Arid Landforms - Rill,

Gully, Ravine, Badland Topography,
Bolsons, Playas, Pediments, Bajada
etc..
Page
Wind Eroded Arid Landforms - Deflation
basins, Mushroom rocks, Inselbergs, |
Demoiselles, Demoiselles, Zeugen ,
118
Wind bridges and windows.
Depositional Arid Landforms - Ripple
Marks, Sand dunes, Longitudinal dunes,
Transverse dunes, Barchans, Parabolic
dunes, Star dunes and Loess.
Compound Coastlines
www.pmfias.com
Arid regions are regions with scanty

rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid regions fall
under arid landforms.
D-sL0U
Such coastlines are unusual features and

result from the submergence of a
downthrown block along a fault, such that
the uplifted block has its steep side (or the
faultline) standing against the sea forming
a fault coastline.
Erosional Arid Landforms

Water Eroded Arid Landforms
Rill
In hill slope geomorphology, a rill is a

narrow and shallow channel cut into soil
by the erosive action of flowing water.
Gully
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A gully is a landform created by running

water. Gullies resemble large ditches or
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small valleys, but are metres to tens of

metres in depth and width.
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119
Ravine
A ravine is a landform narrower than a

canyon and is often the product of stream
cutting
erosion. Ravines are
typically
classified as larger in scale than gullies,
although smaller than valleys.
Bolsons
Badland Topography
In
arid
regions occasional rainstorms produce
numerous rills and channels which
extensively erode weak sedimentary
formations.
Ravines and gullies are developed by

linear fluvial erosion leading to the
formation of badland topography.
Example: Chambal Ravines.
The intermontane basins in dry regions

are generally known as bolsons.
Playas
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Three unique landforms viz. pediments,

bajadas and playas are typically found in
bolsons.
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Small streams flow into bolsons, where

water is accumulated. These temporary
lakes are called playas.
After the evaporation of water, salt-covered
playas are called salinas.
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120
Wind Eroded Arid Landforms
Pediments
In form and function there is no difference

between a pediment and an alluvial fan;
however, pediment is an erosional
landform while a fan is a constructional
one.
A true pediment is a rock cut surface at
the foot of mountains.
Bajada
Bajadas
are moderately
sloping
depositional
plains located
between
pediments and playa.
Several alluvial fans coalesce to form a
bajada.
The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place

in the following ways, viz. deflation,
abrasion, and attrition.
Deflation == removing, lifting and carrying
away dry, unsorted dust particles by
winds. It causes depressions known as
blow outs.
Abrasion == When wind loaded with sand
grains erodes the rock by grinding against
its
walls
is
called
abrasion
or
sandblasting.
Attrition == Attrition refers to wear and
tear of the sand particles while they are
being transported.
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Following are the major

produced by wind erosion.
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landforms
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121
Demoiselles
Deflation basins
Deflation basins,
hollows formed by
by wind. Blowouts
may be up to
diameter.
called blowouts, are

the removal of particles
are generally small, but
several kilometers in
Zeugen
Mushroom rocks
A mushroom rock, also called rock

pedestal or a pedestal rock, is a
naturally occurring rock whose shape, as
its name implies, resembles a mushroom.
The rocks are deformed in a number of
different ways: by erosion and weathering,
glacial action, or from a sudden
disturbance. Mushroom rocks are related
to, but different from, yardang.
Inselbergs
A monadnock or inselberg is an isolated

hill, knob, ridge, outcrop, or small
mountain that rises abruptly from a gently
sloping or virtually level surrounding
plain.
These are rock pillars which stand as

resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result
of differential erosion of hard and soft
rocks.
A table-shaped area of rock found in arid

and semi-arid areas formed when more
resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate
than softer rocks around it.
Yardangs
Ridge of rock, formed by the action of the

wind, usually parallel to the prevailing
wind direction.
Wind bridges and windows
Powerful wind continuously abrades stone

lattices, creating holes. Sometimes the
holes are gradually widened to reach the
other end of the rocks to create the effect
of a windowthus forming a wind
window. Window bridges, are formed when
the holes are further widened to form an
arch-like feature.
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Sand dunes are heaps or mounds of sand

found in deserts. Generally their heights
vary from a few metres to 20 metres but in
some cases dunes are several hundred
metres high and 5 to 6 km long.
Some of the forms are discussed below:
Longitudinal dunes
Arid Depositional Landforms
Landforms are also created by the

depositional force of wind. These are as
follows.
Ripple Marks
These are depositional features on a small

scale formed by saltation (he transport of
hard particles over an uneven surface in a
turbulent flow of air or water).
Formed parallel to the wind movement.

The windward slope of the dune is gentle
whereas the leeward side is steep. These
dunes are commonly found at the heart of
trade-wind deserts like the Sahara,
Australian, Libyan, South African and
Thar deserts.
Dunes
deposited
(transverse) to the
direction.
perpendicular
prevailing wind
Barchans
Crescent shaped dunes. The windward

side is convex whereas the leeward side is
concave and steep.
Parabolic dunes
Sand dunes
They are U-shaped and are much longer

and narrower than barchans.
Star dunes
Have a high central peak,

extending three or more arms.
radically
Loess
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122
Transverse dunes
Page
In some parts of the world, windblown

dust and silt blanket the land. This layer
of fine, mineral-rich material is called
loess.
Extensive loess deposits are found
in northern China, the Great Plains of
North America, central Europe, and
parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
www.pmfias.com
The thickest loess deposits are near

the Missouri River in the U.S. state of
Iowa and along the Yellow River in
China.
Loess accumulates, or builds up, at the
edges of deserts. For example, as wind
blows across the Gobi, a desert in Asia, it
picks up and carries fine particles. These
particles include sand crystals made of
quartz or mica. It may also contain
organic material, such as the dusty
remains of skeletons from desert animals.
Loess often develops into extremely
fertile agricultural soil. It is full of
minerals and drains water very well. It is
easily tilled, or broken up, for planting
seeds.
Loess usually erodes very slowly Chinese
farmers have been working the loess
around the Yellow River for more than a
thousand years.
www.pmfias.com
Karst Landforms - Cavern, Arch/Natural

Bridge, Sink Hole/Swallow Hole, Karst
Window, Sinking Creeks/Bogas, Stalactite
and Stalagmite.
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123
[Done]
[Done]
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Karst Landforms and Cycle of

Erosion
D-sL0U
Karst is a landscape which is underlain by
limestone which has been eroded by
dissolution, producing towers, fissures,
sinkholes, etc.
It is so named after a province

of Yugoslavia on the Adriatic sea coast
where
such
formations
are
most
noticeable.
Karst topography is a landscape formed
from the dissolution of soluble rocks such
as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum.
It is characterized by underground
drainage systems with sinkholes, caves
etc..
Conditions
Essential
for
Development of Karst Topography
Page
Full
Presence of soluble rocks, preferably

limestone at the surface or sub-surface
level.
These rocks should be dense, highly
jointed and thinly bedded.
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Cavern
This is an underground cave formed by

water action by various methods in a
limestone or chalk area.
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When a number of adjoining sink holes

collapse, they form an open, broad area
called a karst window.
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124
Sinking Creeks/Bogas
Arch/Natural Bridge
When a part of the cavern collapses the

portion which keeps standing forms an
arch.
In a valley, the water often gets lost

through cracks and fissures in the bed.
These are called sinking creeks, and if
their tops are open, they are called bogas.
Sink Hole/Swallow Hole
Sink holes are funnel-shaped depressions

having an average depth of three to nine
metres.
These holes are developed by enlargement
of the cracks found in such rocks, as a
result of continuous solvent action of the
rainwater.
The surface streams which sink disappear
underground through swallow holes.
Stalactite and Stalagmite
Karst Window
The water containing limestone in

solution, seeps through the roof in the
form of a continuous chain of drops.
A portion of the roof hangs on the roof and
on evaporation of water, a small deposit of
limestone is left behind contributing to the
formation
of
a
stalactite,
growing
downwards from the roof.
The remaining portion of the drop falls to
the floor. This also evaporates, leaving
behind a small deposit of limestone aiding
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the formation of a stalagmite, thicker and

flatter, rising upwards from the floor.
Sometimes, stalactite and stalagmite join
together to form a complete pillar known
as the column.
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which maintain a lake's average level by

allowing the drainage of excess water
Other lakes are found in endorheic basins.
Some lakes do not have a natural outflow
and lose water solely by evaporation or
underground seepage or both. They are
Page
termed endorheic lakes.
The majority of lakes on Earth are fresh |
water, and most lie in the Northern
125
Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Canada,
Finland and Siberia contain most of the
fresh water lakes.
Classification of Lakes
In this post: Lake Classification of Lakes.
Temporary lakes
Next Post: Important Lakes on Earth.
Lakes
A lake is a body of water of considerable

size, localized in a basin, that is
surrounded by land apart from a river or
other outlet that serves to feed or drain
the lake.
Lakes lie on land and are not part of the
ocean, and therefore are distinct from
lagoons, and are also larger and deeper
than ponds.
Natural lakes are generally found in
mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas
with ongoing glaciation.
Most lakes have at least one natural
outflow in the form of a river or stream,
Lakes may exist temporarily filling up the

small depressions of undulating ground
after a heavy shower.
In this kind of lakes, Evaporation >
Precipitation.
Example: Small lakes of deserts.
Permanent lakes
In this kind of lakes, Evaporation <

Precipitation.
These lakes are deep and carry more water
than could ever be evaporated.
Example: Great Lakes of North America,
East African Rift Lakes.
Divergent Boundary African Rift System
Formation
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Fresh water lakes
Most of the lakes in the world are freshwater lakes fed by rivers and with outflowing streams e.g. Great Lakes of North
America.
Saline lakes
Salt lakes (also called saline lakes) can

form where there is no natural outlet or
where the water evaporates rapidly and
the drainage surface of the water table has
a higher-than-normal salt content.
Because of the intense evaporation
(negative freshwater balance == more
water is lost in evaporation than gained
from rivers) these lakes are saline.
Examples of salt lakes include Great Salt
Lake, the Aral Sea and the Dead Sea.
For example the Dead Sea has a salinity
(salt content) of 250 parts per thousand,
and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, U.S.A.
has a salinity of 220 parts per thousand.
Playas or salt lakes, are a common
feature of deserts (recall desert landforms).
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block slide downwards. Or, its a sunken

land between two parallel faults.
Rift valleys are deep, narrow and
elongated. Hence the lakes formed along
rift valleys are also deep, narrow and very
long.
Page
Water collects in troughs (Valley in the rift)
and their floors are often below sea level. |
The best known example is the East
126
African Rift Valley which runs through
Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and
Ethiopia, and extends along the Red Sea
to Israel and Jordan over a total distance
of 3,000 miles.
It
includes
such
lakes
as Lakes
Tanganyika, Malawi, Rudolf, Edward,
Albert, as well as the Dead Sea 1,286 feet
below mean sea level, the worlds lowest
lake.
Lakes Formed by Earth Movement

Tectonic lakes
Due to the warping (simple deformation),

subsidence (sliding downwards), bending
and fracturing (splitting) of the earths
crust, tectonic depressions occur. (We
have studied all these terms in previous
posts)
Such depressions give rise to lakes of
immense sizes and depths.
They
include Lake
Titicaca,
and
the Caspian Sea.
Lakes Formed by Glaciation

Cirque lakes or tarns
Glacial Landforms
Depositional
Plate Tectonics Indian Plate Movement

Rift valley lakes
A rift valley is formed when two blocks of

earth move apart letting the in between
Cirque is a hollow basin cut into a

mountain ridge. It has steep sided slope
on three sides, an open end on one side
and a flat bottom.
When the ice melts, the cirque may
develop into a tarn lake.
Erosional
and
Rock-hollow lakes
The advance and retreat of glaciers can

scrape depressions in the surface where
water accumulates; such lakes are
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common in Scandinavia, Patagonia,

Siberia and Canada.
These are formed by ice-scouring (eroding)
when ice sheets scoop out (dig) hollows on
the surface.
Such lakes of glacial origin are abundant
in Finland - Land of Lakes. It is said that
there are over 35,000 glacial lakes in
Finland.
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The collapse of limestone roofs of

underground caverns may result in the
exposure of long, narrow- lakes that were
once underground.
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127
Lakes due to morainic damming of

valleys
Valley glaciers often deposit morainic

debris across a valley so that lakes are
formed when water accumulates behind
the barrier.
Karst Landforms
Stalactite, Stalagmite
Lakes Formed by Volcanic

Activity
During a volcanic explosion the top of the

cone may be blown off leaving behind a
natural hollow called a crater.
This may be enlarged by subsidence into a
caldera.
In dormant or extinct volcanoes, rain falls
straight into the crater or caldera which
has no superficial outlet and forms a
crater or caldera lake.
Examples: Lonar
in
Maharashtra and Krakatao in Indonesia.
Extrusive
Lakes due to river deposits
Karst lakes
The solvent action of rain-water on

limestone carves out solution hollows.
When these become clogged with debris
lakes may form in them.
Ox-bow lake, e.g. those that occur on the

flood-plains of Lower Mississippi, Lower
Ganges etc..
Fluvial Depositional Landforms Alluvial
Fan Levee Delta Types
and
Lakes Formed by Erosion
The winds in deserts creates hollows.

These may reach ground water which
seeps out forming small, shallow lakes.
Excessive evaporation causes these to
become
salt
lakes
and
playas.
Example: Great Basin of Utah, U.S.A.
Lakes Formed by Deposition
Others are Lava-blocked lakes and

Lakes due to subsidence of a volcanic
land surface.
Volcanic Landforms
Intrusive
Bogas,
Wind-deflated lakes
Crater and caldera lakes
Cavern,
Lakes due to Marine deposits
Also called Lagoons.

Example: Lake Chilka
Marine Landforms
Depositional Coastines
Erosional
Lakes due to damming of water
and
www.pmfias.com
Lakes formed by these processes are also

known as barrier lakes. Landslides,
avalanches may block valleys so that
rivers are dammed. Such lakes are shortlived.
Example: Lakes that are formed in
Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas). Dehradun
(all Duns) were lakes few centuries ago.
Water storage
Besides the natural lakes, man has now

created artificial lakes by erecting a
concrete dam across a river valley so that
the river water can be kept back to form
reservoirs.
Example: Lake Mead above the Hoover
Dam on the Colorado River, U.S.A.
Mans mining activities, e.g. tin mining in
West Malaysia, have created numerous
lakes. Inland fish culture has necessitated
the creation of many fishing-lakes.
Lakes and Man
In countries where they are found in

abundance, such as Finland, Canada,
U.S.A., Sweden and the East African
states, lakes are used as inland
waterways.
Means of communication
Large lakes like the Great Lakes of North

America provide a cheap and convenient
form of transport for heavy and bulky
goods such as coal, iron, machinery,
grains and timber.
The
Great
Lakes-St.
Lawrence
waterways penetrate more than 1,700
miles into the interior. They are thus used
as the chief arteries of commerce.
Economic and industrial development
The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways

were responsible for the development of
the interior wheat farms and lakeside
industries.
Example: Kolleru lake in Andhra Pradesh.

Hydro-electric power generation
Artificial lakes like Hirakud.

Agricultural purposes
Man-made lakes
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Many dams are built across artificial

lakes.
Bhakra Nangal Dam. Its reservoir, known
as the Gobind Sagar Lake and Hirakud
Dam (Madhya Pradesh) on the Mahanadi
in India.
Regulating river flows
Hoover Dam on the River Colorado and

the Bhakra and Nangal Dams on the
Sutlej in India.
The Hirakud dam was originally conceived
as a flood control measure. But the project
is criticized for doing more damage than
good.
Moderation of climate
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128
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No lake is permanent over

geologic time
Land and see breeze (we will see this in

future posts).
Source of food
Many large lakes have important supplies

of protein food in the form of freshwater
fish. Sturgeon is commercially caught in
the Caspian Sea, salmon and sea trout in
the Great Lakes.
Source of minerals
Salt lakes provide valuable rock

the Dead Sea, the highly saline
being evaporated and produces
salt. Borax is mined in the salt
the Mojave Desert.
Lake Chilka, Leh, Dead Sea etc..
Lakes are only temporary features of the

earths crust; they will eventually be
eliminated by the double process of Page
draining and silting up.
|
The process of lake elimination may not be
completed within our span of life, it takes 129
place relatively quickly in terms of
geological time.
Important Lakes - Caspian Sea, Dead
Sea, Lake Baikal, Lake Tanganyika, Lake
Titicaca, Lake
Victoria, Lake
Superior, Great Lakes, Aral Sea, African
Great Lakes etc..
salts. In
water is
common
lakes of
Previous Post:
Tourist attraction and health resorts
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Lake Classification of Lakes
Important Lakes on Earth
Note
1: Black
Sea is
not
a
lake since Bosporus and Dardanelles
Straits connect
it
to
the
Mediterranean Sea. Many big rivers fall
into the Black Sea, making the salinity of
its surface water half that of the ocean:
17.
Note 2: Caspian Sea and Dead Sea are

lakes. The surface and shores of the
Dead Sea are 423 metres below sea
level,
making
it
Earths
lowest
elevation on land.
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Note 3: While writing facts about lakes,

people ignore Caspian Sea because for
them it is too big to be considered a lake.
But it is still a lake.
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Note 4: Just like everybody else, even I

have ignored Caspian Sea while stating
the below facts.
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130
Lake Baikal - Deepest Lake
Located in Siberia, Russia.

The deepest lake in the world [1,637
metres deep]
It is the world's largest lake by volume.
It is the second longest.
Lake Tanganyika - Longest Lake
The longest lake in the world. [660

kilometres long]
It is also the second largest by volume.
It is the second deepest lake in the world,
after lake Baikal.
Worlds Highest and Lowest Lakes
The world's highest lake, if size is not a

criterion, may be the crater lake of Ojos
del Salado, at 6,390 metres. It is in
Andes.
The highest large lake in the world is

the Pumoyong Tso (Pumuoyong Tso), in
the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
[5,018 metres above sea level]
The world's
highest
commercially
navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru
and Bolivia border at 3,812 m. It is also
the largest lake in South America.
The world's lowest lake is the Dead Sea,
bordering Israel and Jordan at 418 metres
below sea level. It is also one of the lakes
with highest salt concentration.
The Largest Lakes (surface area)

by Continent
Australia Lake Eyre (salt lake)

Africa Lake Victoria, also the thirdlargest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one
of the Great Lakes of Africa.
Antarctica Lake Vostok (subglacial)
Asia Lake Baikal (if the Caspian Sea is
considered a lake, it is the largest in
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Eurasia, but is divided between the two

geographic continents)
Europe Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake
Onega, both located in northwestern
Russia.
North America Lake Superior.
South America Lake Titicaca, which is
also the highest navigable body of water
on Earth at 3,812 metres above sea level.
The much larger Lake Maracaibo is a
contiguous body of water with the sea, so
it is ignored. ,
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Dead Sea
Also called the Salt Sea.

Lake bordering Jordan to the east, and
Palestine and Israel to the west.
It Earth's lowest elevation on land.
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131
Great Lakes
Great Lakes of North America are a series

of interconnected freshwater lakes which
connect to the Atlantic Ocean through
the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan,
Huron, Erie, and Ontario [in the order of
west to east]. Superior, Huron, Michigan,
Erie, and Ontario [In the order of largest
to smallest].
Lake Superior is the largest continental
lake in
the
world
by
area,
and
Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is
entirely within one country.
Aral Sea
It was a lake lying between Kazakhstan in

the north and Uzbekistan, in the south.
Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since
the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were
diverted by Soviet irrigation projects.
Shipping
The Great Lakes are today used as a major

water transport corridor for bulk goods.
The Great Lakes Waterway connects all
the lakes; the smaller Saint Lawrence
Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic
oceans.
The Aral Sea in 1989 (left) and 2008 (right)
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Lake Tanganyika, the world's second

largest in volume as well as the second
deepest.
Largest Lakes by Surface Area

[Caspian Sea Excluded in all facts]
1.
2.
3.
4.
Lake
Lake
Lake
Lake
Superior - North America

Victoria - Africa
Huron - North America
Michigan - North America
Largest Lakes by Volume

1. Baikal - Asia
2. Tanganyika - Africa
3. Superior - North America
Deepest Lakes in the World

1. Lake Baikal - Asia
2. Lake Tanganyika
African Great Lakes
Series of lakes constituting the part of the

Rift Valley lakes in and around the East
African Rift.
They include Lake Victoria, the second
largest fresh water lake in the world, and
Primary Reference: Wikipedia
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132
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In this post: Plateau Plateau Formation:

Thermal expansion, Crustal
shortening, Volcanic Flood Basalts
Traps Economic Significance of Plateaus
Types: Dissected plateau, Volcanic
plateau etc. Major Plateaus of The World:
Tibetan Plateau, Columbia Snake
Plateau, Colorado Plateau, Deccan
Plateau, Kimberley Plateau, Katanga
Plateau, Mascarene Plateau, Laurentian
Plateau, Mexican Plateau, Patagonian
Plateau, Altiplano Plateau or Bolivian
Plateau, Massif Central, Spanish Plateau
or Iberian Plateau, Loess Plateau, Potwar
Plateau, Bavarian Plateau, Ahaggar
Plateau etc..
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133
Model question on Plateaus

Plateaus
are
of
great
economic
significance. Comment with reference
to India And World.
Previous Posts
Important Lakes on Earth Facts About

Lakes
Lake Classification of Lakes
Plateau
A plateau is a flat-topped table land.

Plateaus occur in every continent and take
up a third of the Earths land.
They are one of the four major landforms,
along with mountains, plains, and hills.
Plateaus, like mountains may be young or
old. The Deccan plateau in India is one of
the oldest plateaus.
Valleys form when river water cuts
through the plateau. The Columbia
Plateau, between the Cascade and Rocky
mountains in the northwestern United
States, is cut through by the Columbia
River.
Sometimes, a plateau is so eroded that it
is broken up into smaller raised sections
called Many outlier plateaus are composed
of very old, dense rock formations. Iron
ore and coal often are found in plateau
outliers.
Plateaus are very useful because they are
rich in mineral deposits. As a result, many
of the mining areas in the world are
located in the plateau areas.
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The plateaus are famous for minerals. The

plateau of France [Massif Central], the
Deccan plateau of India, Katanga plateau
of Congo [Copper mines], Western
Australian plateau [Kimberly Plateau
Diamond mines] and Brazilian plateau
[Brazilian Highlands] are very good
sources of minerals. Iron, copper, gold,
diamonds, Manganese, coal, etc., are
found in these plateaus.
East African plateau is famous for gold
and diamond mining.
In India huge reserves of iron, coal and
manganese are found in the Chotanagpur
plateau.
In the plateau areas, there may be several
waterfalls as the river falls from a great
height. In India, the Hundru Falls in
the Chotanagpur
plateau on
the
river Subarnarekha and the Jog Falls in
Karnataka are
examples
of
such
waterfalls. These sites are ideal for hydroelectric power generation. Angel falls in
Venezuela is also a waterfall that descends
down a plateau.
[Plateaus are not very useful from the
point of view of agriculture. The hard
rocks on plateaus cannot form fertile soil
but agricultural activities are promoted
where lava soils have developed. It is
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difficult to dig wells and canals

plateaus. This hampers irrigation.]
in
The lava plateaus like Deccan traps are

rich in black soil that is fertile and good
for cultivation. Example: Maharashtra has
good cotton growing soils called regurs.
Loess plateau in China has very fertile
soils that are good for many kind of crops.
Many plateaus have scenic spots and are
of great attraction to tourists. (Grand
Canyon, USA, many waterfalls)
Plateau Formation
Tectonic plateaus are formed from

processes that create mountain ranges
volcanism (Deccan Plateau), crustal
shortening (thrusting of one block of crust
over
another,
and
folding
occurs.
Example: Tibet),
and
thermal
expansion (Ethiopian Highlands).
Thermal expansion of the lithosphere

means the replacement of cold mantle
lithosphere by hot asthenosphere).
Those caused by thermal expansion of the
lithosphere are usually associated with
hot spots. The Yellowstone Plateau in
the United States, the Massif Central in
France, and the Ethiopian Plateau in
Africa are prominent examples.
When the lithosphere underlying a broad
area is heated rapidly e.g., by an
upwelling of hot material in the underlying
asthenosphere the consequent warming
and thermal expansion of the uppermost
mantle causes an uplift of the overlying
surface. The high plateaus of East Africa
and Ethiopia were formed this way.
Hotspot
Reunion
Volcanism
Crustal shortening
Hawaiian
The great heights of some plateaus, such

as the Plateau of Tibet is due to crustal
shortening.
Crustal shortening, which thickens the
crust as described above, has created high
mountains along what are now the
Page
margins of such plateaus.
Plateaus that were formed by crustal |
shortening and internal drainage lie within
134
major mountain belts and generally in arid
climates. They can be found in North
Africa, Turkey, Iran, and Tibet, where the
African, Arabian, and Indian continental
masses have collided with the Eurasian
continent.
Volcanic Flood Basalts - Traps
Thermal expansion
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and

Volcanic Landforms Extrusive and
Intrusive
Volcanism
Andesitic,
BasalticGeyser,Hot Water Spring
A third type of plateau can form where
extensive lava flows (called flood basalts
or traps) and volcanic ash bury
preexisting terrain, as exemplified by
the Columbia Plateau in the northwestern
United
States, Deccan
Traps of
peninsular India, Laurentian plateau or
The Canadian Shield and the Siberian
Traps of Russia.
Volcanic
plateaus
are
commonly
associated with eruptions that occurred
during the Cenozoic or Mesozoic.
Eruptions on the scale needed to produce
volcanic plateaus are rare, and none
seems to have taken place in recent time.
The volcanism involved in such situations
is commonly associated with hot spots.
The lavas and ash are generally carried
long distances from their sources, so that
the topography is not dominated by
volcanoes or volcanic centers.
The thickness of the volcanic rock can be
tens to even hundreds of metres, and the
top surface of flood basalts is typically
very flat but often with sharply incised
canyons and valleys.
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The volcanic eruptions that produce lava

plateaus tend to be associated with hot
spots. For example, the basalts of the
Deccan Traps, which cover the Deccan
plateau in India, were erupted 6065
million years ago when India lay in the
Southern Hemisphere, probably over the
same hot spot that presently underlies the
volcanic island of Reunion.
In North America the Columbia River
basalts may have been ejected over the
same hot spot that underlies the
Yellowstone area today. Lava plateaus of
the scale of those three are not common
features on Earth.
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135
Volcanic plateau
Others
Some plateaus, like the Colorado Plateau,

the Ordos Plateau in northern China, or
the East African Highlands, do not seem
to be related to hot spots or to vigorous
upwelling in the asthenosphere but
appear to be underlain by unusually hot
material. The reason for localized heating
beneath such areas is poorly understood,
and thus an explanation for the
distribution of plateaus of that type is not
known.
There are some plateaus whose origin is
not known. Those of the Iberian Peninsula
and north-central Mexico exhibit a
topography that is largely high and
relatively flat.
A volcanic plateau is formed by numerous

small volcanic eruptions that slowly build
up over time, forming a plateau from the
resulting lava flows.
The Columbia
Plateau in
the
northwestern United States of America
and Deccan Traps are two such plateaus.
Others
Plateau Types
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There are two kinds of plateaus: dissected

plateaus and volcanic plateaus.
Dissected plateau
A dissected plateau forms as a result of

upward movement in the Earths crust.
The uplift is caused by the slow collision of
tectonic plates. The Colorado Plateau, in
the western United States, Tibetan plateau
etc. are examples.
Intermontane plateaus are the highest in

the world, bordered by mountains.
The Tibetan Plateau is one such plateau.
Continental plateaus are bordered on all
sides by the plains or seas, forming away
from mountains.
Major plateaus of the World

Tibetan Plateau
Highest and largest plateau in the world

and hence called the roof of the world.
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Formed due to collision of the IndoAustralian and Eurasian tectonic plates.

The plateau is sufficiently high enough to
reverse the Hadley cell convection cycles
and to drive the monsoons of India
towards the south. [We will learn this in
future posts]
It covers most of the Autonomous Tibetan
Region, Qinghai Province of Western
China, and a part of Ladakh in Jammu
and Kashmir.
It is surrounded by mountains to the
south by the Himalayan Range, to the
northeast by the Kunlun Range, and to
the west by the Karakoram Range.
This
plateau
is
an
example
of
intermontane plateau. Mesas and buttes
are found here at many places [Arid
Landforms].
The plateau is known for the groundwater
which is under positive pressure and
causes
the
emergence
of
springs
called Artesian wells.
Deccan Plateau
Deccan Plateau is a large plateau which

forms most of the southern part of India.
River Columbia and its tributary Snake

meet in this plateau.
It
is
bordered
by
the Cascade
Range and Rocky Mountains and divided
by the Columbia River.
This plateau has been formed as the result
Page
of volcanic eruptions with a consequent
coating of basalt lava (Flood Basalt |
Plateau).
136
Colorado Plateau
Columbia Snake Plateau
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It is lying to western part of U.S.A. It is the

largest plateau in America.
It is divided by the Colorado River and
the Grand Canyon.
It is bordered by two mountain ranges, the

Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
The plateau includes the Deccan Traps
which is the largest volcanic feature on
Earth.
Made of multiple basalt layers or lava
flows, the Deccan Traps covers 500,000
square kilometers in area.
The Deccan Traps are known for
containing some unique fossils.
The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary
mineral ores found in this region are mica
and iron ore in the Chotanagpur region,
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Altiplano Plateau or Bolivian

Plateau
and diamonds, gold and other metals in

the Golconda region.
Kimberley Plateau
Lies in the northern part of Australia.

This plateau is made of volcanic eruption.
Many minerals like iron, gold, lead, zinc,
silver and diamond are found here.
Diamond is also found here.
Katanga Plateau
It is lying in Congo.
It is famous for copper production.
Other minerals like Cobalt, Uranium,
Zinc, Silver, Gold and Tin are also mined
here.
Plateaus also form in the ocean, such as

the Mascarene Plateau in the Indian
Ocean.
It extends between the Seychelles and
Mauritius Islands.
Laurentian Plateau
Lying in the eastern part of Canada, it is a

part of Canadian Shield.
Fine quality of iron-ore is found here.
It is called as Mineral Store. Different

types of metallic minerals like silver,
copper etc. are obtained from here.
Worlds biggest silver mine Chihuahua is
situated in the plateau.
It is a Piedmont plateau (Arid Landforms)

lying in southern part of Argentina.
It is a rain shadow desert plateau.
It is an important region for sheep rearing.
Also known as Asia Minor, most of Turkey

lies on this plateau.
It is an intermontane plateau lying
between Pontiac and Taurus Mountain
ranges.
Tigris Euphrates Rivers flow through
this plateau.
Precious wool producing Angora goats are
found here.
Others
Spanish Plateau or Iberian Plateau: It is

situated in the middle of Spain. It is a lava
plateau. It is rich in minerals like Iron.
Loess Plateau: It is in China. The soil
here is made of fine particles brought by
the wind. This fine loamy soil is extremely
productive. Crops grown in this soil along
the Yellow River give great yields.
Arid Landforms Erosional, Depositional
Wind, Water Eroded
Patagonian Plateau
This plateau lies in the central France.

It is famous for Grapes cultivation.
Anatolian Plateau
Mexican Plateau
It is an intermontane plateau which is

located between two ranges of Andes
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Mountain.
It is a major area of Tin reserves.
|
Massif Central
Mascarene Plateau
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Potwar Plateau: It is situated in northern

plateau (Punjab) region of Pakistan. Its
average Salt Range is located to the
south-west of the plateau.
Bavarian Plateau: Southern part of
Germany.
Ahaggar Plateau: A small plateau located
in Algeria, Sahara.
137
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Table of Contents
www.pmfias.com
Pressure belts in January .................36
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems

........................................................36
Table of Contents ............................... 1
Latitudes and Longitudes................... 3
Factors affecting Wind Movement......38
Latitude ............................................. 3
Longitude .......................................... 4
Indian Standard Time ........................ 7
More about Coriolis effect .................41 Page

General circulation of the atmosphere
|1
........................................................42
Questions .......................................... 7
Classification of Winds......................44
Motions of the earth: Rotation and

Revolution ......................................... 8
Rotation of Earth ............................... 8
Primary Winds or Prevailing Winds or

Permanent Winds or Planetary Winds
........................................................44
Why are days always longer than

nights at the equator? ........................ 9
Secondary Winds or Periodic Winds ..45
Tertiary Winds or Local Winds ..........47
Revolution ......................................... 9
Questions .........................................48
Atmosphere ......................................11
Temperature Inversion ......................49
Role of Earths Atmosphere ...............11
Types of Temperature Inversion ........50
Composition of Atmosphere ..............12
Major Greenhouse Gases ..................14
Economic Implications of Temperature

Inversion ..........................................51
Structure of Atmosphere ...................14
Geostrophic Wind .............................52
Temperature Distribution on Earth ...17
Jet streams.......................................52
Factors
Affecting
Temperature
Distribution ......................................17
Permanent jet streams ......................55
Temporary jet streams ......................56
Latitudinal Heat Balance ..................19
Influence of Jet Streams on Weather .57
Heat Budget .....................................20
The
Mean
Annual
Temperature
Distribution ......................................20
Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate

Regions.............................................57
Jet Streams and Aviation ..................58
Seasonal Temperature Distribution ...21
Air Masses ........................................59
Questions from NCERT .....................23
Classification of Air Masses...............61
Lapse Rate ........................................23
Fronts ..............................................61
Adiabatic Lapse rate .........................24
Classification of Fronts .....................62
Latent Heat of Condensation .............27
Water Cycle - Hydrological cycle........66
Pressure Systems .............................29
Water Vapour in Atmosphere ............67
Air Pressure ......................................29
Humidity ..........................................67
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or

Doldrums ........................................32
Evaporation ......................................69
Condensation ...................................69
Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or

Horse Latitudes ................................33
Forms of Condensation .....................71
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt .............34
Smog ................................................75
Polar High Pressure Belt ...................35
Sulfurous smog ................................75
Pressure belts in July .......................35
Photochemical smog .........................76
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Effects of Smog .................................76
States Vulnerable to Cyclones .........101
Question: UPSC Mains 2015 .............77
Precipitation .....................................78
Which sector of the cyclone experiences

strongest winds? .............................101
Types of Rainfall ...............................78
World Distribution of Rainfall ...........80
What is the normal movement of a

Tropical Cyclone? ...........................102
Questions .........................................81
Thunderstorm ..................................81
Types of Thunderstorms ...................83
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What is the role of upper tropospheric
westerly trough ? ............................102 | 2
What is 4-stage warning system for

Tropical Cyclones? ..........................102
Lightning and thunder ......................84
Modifying cyclones? ........................103
Tornado ............................................85
Tropical Cyclones..............................87
How are Tropical Cyclones monitored

by IMD? ..........................................103
Conditions Favourable for Tropical

Cyclone Formation ............................87
Origin and Development of Temperate

Cyclones .........................................103
Origin and Development of Tropical

Cyclones ...........................................89
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones

......................................................105
Structure of a tropical cyclone ..........92
Categories of Tropical Cyclones .........94
Tropical Cyclones and Temperate

Cyclones -Comparison ....................106
Favorite Breeding Grounds for Tropical

Cyclones ...........................................95
El Nino ...........................................109
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones ..95
El Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO]

......................................................112
Warning of Tropical Cyclones ............96
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El

Nino year is same in India)..............113
What is a Storm Surge? ....................96
The El Nio Modoki ........................113
Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate

counter-clockwise (clockwise) in the
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere? .....97
La Nina ...........................................114
Polar Vortex ....................................115
Polar Vortex Cold Wave ...................115
Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South

Pole] ...............................................117
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)...118
Why there are fewer cyclones over the

Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of
Bengal? ............................................98
Why there are very few Tropical

Cyclones during southwest monsoon
season? ............................................98
What are the causes of disaster during

cyclone? ...........................................98
Mains 2013: Naming of Cyclones ......99
Polar or Arctic Cyclones ..................100
Maximum Sustained Wind ..............100
Low Pressure, Depression and Cyclone

......................................................100
Central Dense Overcast (CDO) ........101
Annual frequency of Cyclones over the

Indian Seas ....................................101
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In this post: Latitudes and Longitudes Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth Longitude and Time - Standard Time and
Time Zones - The International Date Line Indian Standard Time - Chaibagaan Time.
Latitudes and Longitudes
Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary

lines used to determine the location of a
place on earth.
The shape of the earth is Geoid. And the
location of a place on the earth can be
mentioned in terms of latitudes and
longitudes.
Example: The location of New Delhi is 28
N, 77 E.
latitude at the pole is a little longer

than that at the equator.
For example at the equator (0) it is
68.704 miles, at 45 it is 69.054 miles and
at the poles it is 69.407 miles. The average
is taken as 69 miles (111km).
Page
1 mile = 1.607 km.
|3
Important parallels of latitudes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DuTy6
zFRl4s
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Besides the equator (0), the north pole

(90N) and the south pole (90 S), there
are four important parallels of latitudes
Tropic of Cancer (23 N) in the
northern hemisphere.
Tropic of Capricorn (23 S) in the
southern hemisphere.
Arctic circle at 66 north of the
equator.
Antarctic circle at 66 south of the
equator.
Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth
Latitude
Latitude is the angular distance of a point

on the earths surface, measured in
degrees from the center of the earth.
As the earth is slightly flattened at the
poles, the linear distance of a degree of
The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at

least once a year on all latitudes in
between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore,
receives the maximum heat and is called
the torrid zone.
The mid-day sun never shines overhead
on any latitude beyond the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The
angle of the suns rays goes on decreasing
towards the poles. As such, the areas
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bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the

Arctic circle in the northern hemisphere,
and the Tropic of Capricorn and the
Antarctic
circle
in
the
southern
hemisphere, have moderate temperatures.
These are, therefore, called temperate
zones.
Longitude
Longitude is an angular distance,

measured in degrees along the equator
east or west of the Prime (or First)
Meridian.
On the globe longitude is shown as a
series of semi-circles that run from pole to
pole passing through the equator. Such
lines are also called
Unlike the equator which is centrally
placed between the poles, any meridian
could have been taken to begin the
numbering of longitude. It was finally
decided
in
1884,
by
international
agreement, to choose as the zero meridian
the one which passes through the Royal
Astronomical
Observatory
at
Greenwich, near London.
This is the Prime Meridian (0) from
which
all
other
meridians
radiate
eastwards and westwards up to 180.
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Areas lying between the Arctic circle and

the north pole in the northern hemisphere
and the Antarctic circle and the south pole
in the southern hemisphere, are very cold.
It is because here the sun does not raise
much above the horizon. Therefore, its
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rays are always slanting. These are,
|4
therefore, called frigid zones.
As the parallels of latitude become shorter

poleward, so the meridians of longitude,
which converge at the poles, enclose a
narrower space.
They have one very important function,
they determine local time in relation to
G.M.T. or Greenwich Mean Time, which
is sometimes referred to as World Time.
Longitude and Time
Since the earth makes one complete

revolution of 360 in one day or 24 hours,
it passes through 15 in one hour or 1
in 4 minutes.
The earth rotates from west to east, so
every 15 we go eastwards, local time is
advanced by 1 hour. Conversely, if we go
westwards, local time is retarded by 1
hour.
We may thus conclude that places east of
Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain
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time, whereas places west of Greenwich

see the sun later and lose time.
If we know G.M.T., to find local time, we
merely have to add or subtract the
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difference in the number of hours from the

given longitude.
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Standard Time and Time Zones
If each town were to keep the time of its

own meridian, there would be much
difference in local time between one town
and the other.
Travelers going from one end of the
country to the other would have to keep
changing their watches if they wanted to
keep
their
appointments.
This
is
impractical and very inconvenient.
To avoid all these difficulties, a system of
standard time is observed by all countries.
Most countries adopt their standard time
from the central meridian of their
countries.
In larger countries such as Canada,
U.S.A., China, and U.S.S.R, it would be
inconvenient to have single time zone. So
these countries have multiple time zones.
Both Canada and U.S.A. have five time

zonesthe Atlantic, Eastern, Central,
Mountain and Pacific Time Zones. The
difference between the local time of the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five
hours.
S.S.R had eleven time zones before its
disintegration. Russia now
has nine
time zones.
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|6
The International Date Line
A traveler going eastwards gains time from

Greenwich until he reaches the meridian
180E, when he will be 12 hours ahead of
G.M.T.
Similarly in going westwards, he loses 12
hours when he reaches 180W. There is
thus a total difference of 24 hours or a
whole day between the two sides of the
180 meridian.
This is the International Date Line where
the date changes by exactly one day when
it is crossed. A traveler crossing the date
line from east to west loses a day (because
of the loss in time he has made); and while
crossing the dateline from west to east he
gains a day (because of the gain in time he
encountered).
The International Date Line in the midPacific curves from the normal 180
meridian at the Bering Strait, Fiji,
Tonga and other islands to prevent
confusion of day and date in some of the
island groups that are cut through by the
meridian.
Some of them keep Asiatic or New Zealand

standard time, others follow the American
date and time.
Why is the international dateline

drawn in a zigzag manner?
The International Date Line (IDL) passes

through the Pacific Ocean. It is an
imaginary line, like longitudes and
latitudes.
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The time difference on either side of this

line is 24 hours. So, the date changes as
soon as one crosses this line.
Some groups of Islands (Polynesia,
Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either of
the dateline. So if the dateline was
straight, then two regions of the same
Island Country or Island group would fall

under different date zones. Thus to avoid
any confusion of date, this line is drawn
through where the sea lies and not land.
Hence, the IDL is drawn in a zig-zag
manner.
The Indian Government has accepted the

meridian of 82*5 east for the standard
time which is 30 mins, ahead of
Greenwich Mean Time.
back to Chaibagaan time to conserve

energy and improve productivity.
Indian government didnt accept to such a
proposal.
Questions
1. Statements
Chaibagaan Time
150
years
ago British
colonialists
introduced chaibagaan time or bagaan
time, a time schedule observed by tea
planters, which was one hour ahead of
IST.
This was done to improve productivity by
optimizing the usage of daytime.
1. The shape of the Earth is Geoid.

2. The region that lies between Tropic of
Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is called
Torrid Zone.
3. The temperature decreases from equator
to poles because of the shape of the earth.
4. North Poles is a latitude.
Which of the above statements are
true?
a.
b.
c.
d.
1 and 2 only
1, 3 and 4 only
1, 2 and 3 only
All
2. Which of the following statements is
false?
After Independence, Assam, along with the

rest of India, has been following IST for
the past 66 years.
The administration of the Indian state of
Assam now wants to change its time zone
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|7
Indian Standard Time
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a. Both Longitudes and Latitudes are

necessary to determine time at a location.
b. Both Longitudes and Latitudes are
necessary to determine a location.
c. GMT is a reference time zone. All other
time zones make use of GMT to specify
time at a location.
d. Places to the east of Greenwich gain time
while those to the west lose.
3. Statements
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1. A person travelling from Japan to USA

across International Date Line will gain a
day.
2. A person travelling from Hawaii to New
Zealand across International Date Line
will lose a day.
3. It is not convenient for a country of greater
latitudinal extent but smaller longitudinal
extent to have multiple time zones.
4. On a 24 hour clock, the time is 00:00 in
London. Then the time in Mumbai on a 12
hour clock will be 05:30 AM.
Which of the above statements are
false?
a.
b.
c.
d.
None
2 and 4 only
1, 2 and 3 only
3 only
Previous Post: Longitudes and Latitudes.
Motions of the earth: Rotation and

Revolution
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DuTy6 Page
zFRl4s
|8
2-a
3-a
This post: Rotation and Revolution of
Earth. This is the 2nd post in Climatology.
Primarily two
Revolution.
motions: Rotation
and
Rotation of Earth
Answers
1-d
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Earth rotates along its axis from west to

east.
It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete
on rotation.
Days and nights occur due to rotation of
the earth.
The circle that divides the day from night
on the globe is called the circle of
illumination.
Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earths
rotational axis makes an angle of 5 with
the normal i.e. it makes an angle
of 66.5 with the orbital plane. Orbital
plane is the plane of earths orbit around
the Sun.
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Page
|9
Why temperature falls with

increasing latitude (as we move
from equator towards poles)?
Why are days always longer than

nights at the equator?
If there was no atmosphere, there would

be no refraction and the daytime and
nighttime would be near equal at the
equator, at least during equinoxes.
But due to atmosphere, the suns rays
gets refracted (bending of light). Refraction
is particularly stronger during the
morning and the evening time when the
suns rays are slant.
Even though the actual sun is below the
horizon, its apparent image would appear
above the horizon due to refraction. This
makes the days longer than nights at the
equator.
Because of the spherical (Geoid) shape of

the earth and the position of the sun.
Because the energy received per unit area
decreases from equator to poles.
Because Equator receives direct sunlight
while Poles receive slant or oblique rays of
the Sun.
Revolution
The second motion of the earth around the

sun in its orbit is called revolution. It
takes 365 days (one year) to revolve
around the sun.
Six hours saved every year are added to
make one day (24 hours) over a span of
four years. This surplus day is added to
the month of February. Thus every fourth
year, February is of 29 days instead of 28
days. Such a year with 366 days is called
a leap year.
Solstice
On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is

tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun
fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a
result, these areas receive more heat.
The areas near the poles receive less heat
as the rays of the sun are slanting.
The north pole is inclined towards the sun
and the places beyond the Arctic
Circle experience continuous daylight for
about six months.
Since a large portion of the northern
hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it
is summer in the regions north of the
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equator. The longest day and the

shortest night at these places occur
on 21st June.
At this time in the southern hemisphere
all these conditions are reversed. It is
winter season there. The nights are longer
than the days. This position of the earth is
called the summer solstice.
as the south pole tilts towards it. As the

suns rays fall vertically at the Tropic of
Capricorn (23 s), a larger portion of the
southern hemisphere gets light. Therefore,
it is summer in the southern hemisphere
with longer days and shorter nights. The
Page
reverse
happens
in
the
northern
hemisphere. This position of the earth is | 10
called the winter solstice.
On 22nd December, the Tropic of

Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun
Equinox
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On 21st March and September 23rd,

direct rays of the sun fall on the equator.
At this position, neither of the poles is
tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth
experiences equal days and equal nights.
This is called an equinox.
On 23rd September, it is autumn season
[season after summer and before the
beginning of winter] in the northern
hemisphere and spring season [season
after winter and before the beginning of
summer] in the southern hemisphere. The
opposite is the case on 21st March, when
it is spring in the northern hemisphere
and autumn in the southern hemisphere.
Thus, you find that there are days and
nights and changes in the seasons
because of the rotation and revolution
of the earth respectively.
Rotation === Days and Nights.
Revolution === Seasons.
Why regions beyond the Arctic

circle receive sunlight all day long
in summer?
This is because of the tilt of the earth.

Earths axis at the north pole is tilted
towards the sun in summer.
So the whole of Arctic region falls within
the zone of illumination all day long in
summer.
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Daylight saving in some temperate

regions
This is 3rd post in Climatology. In this

post:
Atmosphere
Structure:
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
Thermosphere
and
Exosphere;
Composition: Major gasses and other
constituents of atmosphere.
Daylight saving time (DST) or summer

time is
the
practice
of advancing
clocks during summer months by one
hour.
In DST, evening time is increased by
sacrificing the morning hours.
Previous posts:
Latitudes and Longitudes Standard Time
International Date Line
[Normal days = Start office at 10 AM and

close at 5 PM
Rotation and Revolution of Earth Days

and Nights, Seasons
In DST = Advance clock by one hour (can

be more) = Start office at 9 AM and Close
at 4 PM]
Typically, users in regions with summer

time (Some countries in extreme north
and south) adjust clocks forward one hour
close to the start of spring and adjust
them backward in the autumn to standard
time.
Advantage: Putting clocks forward benefits
retailing, sports, and other activities that
exploit sunlight after working hours.
Reduces evening use of incandescent
lighting, which was formerly a primary use
of electricity.
Problems: DST clock shifts sometimes
complicate timekeeping and can disrupt
travel, billing, record keeping, medical
devices, heavy equipment, and sleep
patterns.
Atmosphere
1. Variations in the length of daytime

and night time from season to season
are due to
1. the earths rotation on its axis
2. the earths revolution round the sun in an
elliptical manner
3. latitudinal position of the place
4. revolution of the earth on a tilted axis
Hint: Revolution + Rotation on a Tilted
Axis = = Variation in seasons = =
Variation in Day time and Night time
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Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep

blanket of gases extending several
thousands of kilometres above its surface.
This gaseous cover of the earth is known
as the atmosphere.
Like
land
(lithosphere)
and
water
(hydrosphere), the atmosphere is an
integral part of the earth.
Compared to the earths radius, the
atmosphere appears to be only a very thin
layer of gases. However, because of the
force of gravity, it is inseparable from the
earth.
Atmospheric pressure: The air exerts
pressure on earths surface by virtue of its
weight.
This
pressure
is
called
atmospheric
pressure.
Atmospheric
pressure is the most important climatic
element. The atmospheric pressure at sea
level is 1034 gm per square centimeter.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QiZ1ie
6F80M
Role of Earths Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains various gases

like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc.
Plants require carbon dioxide to survive
while animals and many other organisms
need oxygen for their survival. The
atmosphere supplies these life giving
gases.
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| 11
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All life forms need a particular range of

temperature and a specific range of
frequencies of solar radiation to carry out
their
biophysical
processes.
The
atmosphere absorbs certain frequencies
and lets through some other frequencies of
solar radiation. In other words, the
atmosphere regulates the entry of solar
radiation.
The
atmosphere
also
keeps
the
temperature over the earths surface
within certain limits. In the absence of the
atmosphere extremes of temperature
would exist between day and night over
the earths surface.
Harmful ultraviolet radiation would find
its way through, if the atmosphere (ozone
in stratosphere to be specific) were absent.
The atmosphere also takes care of extraterrestrial objects like meteors which get
burnt up while passing through the
atmosphere (mesosphere to be precise)
due to friction.
Weather
is
another
important
phenomenon which dictates the direction
of a number of natural and man-made
processes like plant growth, agriculture,
soil-formation, human settlements, etc.
Various climatic factors join together to
create weather.
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| 12
Composition of Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of many

gases. In addition, it contains huge
numbers of solid and liquid particles,
collectively called aerosols.
Some of the gases may be regarded
as permanent
atmospheric
components which
remain
in fixed
proportion to the total gas volume.
Other constituents vary in quantity from
place to place and from time to time. If the
suspended particles, water vapour and
other variable gases were excluded from
the atmosphere, then the dry air is very
stable all over the earth up to an altitude
of about 80 kilometres.
The proportion of gases changes in the
higher layers of the atmosphere in such a
way that oxygen will be almost in
negligible quantity at the height of 120
km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water
vapour are found only up to 90 km from
the surface of the earth.
Nitrogen
and
oxygen make
up
nearly 99% of the clean, dry air. The
remaining gases are mostly inert and
constitute about 1% of the atmosphere.
Besides these gases, large quantities of
water vapour and dust particles are also
present in the atmosphere. These solid
and liquid particles are of great climatic
significance.
Different constituents of the atmosphere,
with their individual characteristics, are
discussed below.
Oxygen
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Oxygen, although constituting only 21% of

total volume of atmosphere, is the most
important component among gases. All
living organisms inhale oxygen. Besides,
oxygen can combine with other elements
to form important compounds, such
as, oxides. Also, combustion is not
possible without oxygen.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
accounts
for 78% of
total
atmospheric volume. It is a relatively
inert gas, and is an important constituent
of all organic compounds. The main
function
of
nitrogen
is
to control
combustion by diluting oxygen. It also
indirectly helps in oxidation of different
kinds.
The third important gas is Carbon Dioxide

which constitutes only about 03% of the
dry air and is a product of combustion.
Green plants, through photosynthesis,
absorb
carbon
dioxide
from
the
atmosphere and use it to manufacture
food
and
keep
other
bio-physical
processes going.
Being an efficient absorber of heat,
carbon dioxide is considered to be of great
climatic significance. Carbon dioxide is
considered to be a very important factor in
the heat energy budget.
With increased burning of fossil fuels oil,
coal and natural gas the carbon dioxide
percentage in the atmosphere has been
increasing at an alarming rate.
More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
means more heat absorption. This could
significantly raise the temperature at
lower levels of the atmosphere thus
inducing drastic climatic changes.
Ozone (03)
Ozone (03) is another important gas in the

atmosphere, which is actually a type of
oxygen molecule consisting of three,
instead of two, atoms. It forms less

than 00005% by
volume
of
the
atmosphere and is unevenly distributed.
It is between 20 km and 25 km altitude
that the greatest concentrations of ozone
are found. It is formed at higher altitudes
Page
and transported downwards.
Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking | 13
the harmful ultraviolet radiation from
the sun.
Other gases found in almost negligible
quantities in the atmosphere are argon,
neon,
helium,
hydrogen,
xenon,
krypton, methane etc.
Water Vapour
Carbon Dioxide
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Water Vapour is one of the most variable

gaseous
substances
present
in
atmosphere constituting between 02%
and 4% of the total volume (in cold dry
and humid tropical climates respectively).
90% of moisture content in the
atmosphere exists within 6 km of the
surface of the earth. Like carbon dioxide,
water vapour plays a significant role in the
insulating action, of the atmosphere.
It absorbs
not
only
the long-wave
terrestrial radiation (infrared or heat
emitted by earth during nights), but also
a part of the incoming solar radiation.
Water vapour is the source of precipitation
and
clouds.
On
condensation,
it
releases latent heat of condensation
the ultimate driving force behind all
storms.
The moisture carrying capacity of air
is directly proportional to the air
temperature.
Solid Particles
The Solid Particles present in the

atmosphere consist of sand particles (from
weathered rocks and also derived from
volcanic ash), pollen grains, small
organisms, soot, ocean salts; the upper
layers of the atmosphere may even have
fragments of meteors which got burnt up
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in the atmosphere. These solid particles

perform the function of absorbing,
reflecting and scattering the radiation.
The solid particles are, consequently,
responsible for the orange and red
colours at sunset and sunrise and for
the length of dawn (the first appearance
of light in the sky before sunrise) and
twilight (the soft glowing light from the
sky when the sun is below the horizon,
caused by the reflection of the sun's rays
by the atmosphere. Dusk: the darker stage
of twilight.). The blue colour of the sky is
also due to selective scattering by dust
particles.
Some of the dust particles are hygroscopic
(i.e. readily absorbing moisture from air) in
character, and as such, act as nuclei of
condensation. Thus, dust particles are an
important contributory factor in the
formation of clouds, fog and hailstones.
Ozone is another important greenhouse

gas. But it is very small proportions at the
surface.
Water vapour
Water vapour is also a variable gas in the

atmosphere,
which
decreases
with
altitude. Water vapour also decreases from
the equator towards the poles.
In the warm and wet tropics, it may
account for four per cent of the air by
volume, while in the dry and cold areas of
The atmosphere can be studied as a

layered entity each layer having its own
peculiar characteristics. These layers are
systematically discussed below.
Troposphere
Ozone
One of the most important greenhouse

gases. It is produced from decomposition
of animal wastes and biological matter.
Structure of Atmosphere
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very
important gas as it is transparent to the
incoming solar radiation but opaque to
the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It
absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and
reflects back some part of it towards the
earths surface. It is largely responsible for
the greenhouse effect.
desert and polar regions, it may be less

than one per cent of the air.
It also absorbs parts of the insolation from
the sun and preserves the earths radiated
heat.
It thus, acts like a blanket allowing the
Page
earth neither to become too cold nor too
hot. Water vapour also contributes to the | 14
stability and instability in the air.
Methane
Major Greenhouse Gases
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It is the atmospheric layer between the

earths surface and an altitude of 8 km at
the poles and 18 km at the equator.
The thickness is greater at the equator,
because the heated air rises to greater
heights.
The
troposphere
ends
with
the Tropopause.
The temperature in this layer, as one goes
upwards, falls at the rate of 5C per
kilometer, and reaches -45C at the poles
and -80C over the equator at Tropopause
(greater fall in temperature above equator
is because of the greater thickness of
troposphere 18 km).
The fall in temperature is called lapse
rate. (more about this in future posts)
The
troposphere
is
marked
by temperature inversion, turbulence
and eddies.
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Page
| 15
Stratosphere
It is also meteorologically the most

significant zone in the entire atmosphere
(Almost all the weather phenomena like
rainfall, fog and hailstorm etc. are
confined to this layer).
It is also called the convective region,
since all
convection
stops
at
Tropopause.
The troposphere is the theatre for weather
because all cyclones, anticyclones, storms
and precipitation occur here, as all water
vapours and solid particles lie within this.
The troposphere is influenced by seasons
and jet streams.
Ozonosphere
Tropopause
Top most layer of troposphere.

It acts as a boundary between troposphere
and stratosphere.
This layer is marked by constant
temperatures.
It lies beyond troposphere, up to an

altitude of 50 km from the earths surface.
The temperature in this layer remains
constant for some distance but then rises
to reach a level of 0C at 50 km altitude.
This rise is due to the presence of
ozone (harmful ultraviolet radiation is
absorbed by ozone).
This layer is almost free from clouds and
associated weather phenomenon, making
conditions most
ideal
for
flying
aeroplanes. So aeroplanes fly in lower
stratosphere,
sometimes
in
upper
troposphere where weather is calm.
Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at
lower levels in this layer.
It lies at an altitude between 30 km and

60 km from the earths surface and spans
the stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
Because of the presence of ozone
molecules, this layer reflects the harmful
ultraviolet radiation.
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The
ozonosphere
is
also
called chemosphere because, a lot of
chemical activity goes on here.
The temperature rises at a rate of 5C per
kilometer through the ozonosphere.
Mesosphere
This is an intermediate layer beyond the

ozone layer and continues upto an altitude
of 80 km from the earths surface.
The temperature gradually falls to -100C
at 80 km altitude.
Meteorites burn up in this layer on
entering from the space.
Thermosphere
In thermosphere temperature rises very

rapidly with increasing height.
Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It
extends between 80-400 km.
This layer helps in radio transmission. In
fact, radio waves transmitted from the
earth are reflected back to the earth by
this layer.
Person would not feel warm because of
the thermosphere's extremely low
pressure.
The International Space Station and
satellites orbit in this layer. (Though
temperature is high, the atmosphere is
extremely rarified gas molecules are
spaced hundreds of kilometers apart.
Hence a person or an object in this layer
doesnt feel the heat)
Auroras are observed in lower parts of
this layer.
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Temperature again starts increasing with

height because of radiation from the sun.
Exosphere
This is the uppermost layer of the Page

atmosphere
extending
beyond
the
ionosphere above a height of about 400 | 16
km.
The air is extremely rarefied and the
temperature gradually increases through
the layer.
Light
gases
like helium
and
hydrogen float into the space from here.
Temperature gradually increases through
the layer. (As it is exposed to direct
sunlight)
This layer coincides with space.
Speed of sound follows

temperature profile
This is because speed of sound is directly

proportional to temperature as we move
away from earth.
Ionosphere
This layer is located between 80 km and

400 km and is an electrically charged
layer.
This layer is characterized by ionization
of atoms.
Because of the electric charge, radio waves
transmitted from the earth are reflected
back to the earth by this layer.
In this Post: Temperature Distribution on

Earth,
Insolation,
Factors
Affecting
Temperature
Distribution,
Latitudinal
Heat Balance, Heat Budget, Mean Annual
Temperature Distribution and Seasonal
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Temperature Distribution January and

July.
Previous Posts on Climatology:
Latitudes and Longitudes Standard Time

International Date Line
Rotation and Revolution of Earth Days
and Nights, Seasons
Atmosphere Role, Structure and
Composition
Temperature Distribution on Earth
Sun is the ultimate source of heat. And

the differential heat received from sun by
different regions on earth is the ultimate
reason behind all climatic features. So
understanding the patterns of distribution
of temperature in different seasons is
important for understanding various
climatic features like wind systems,
pressure systems, precipitation etc..
Page
| 17
Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JO7h
UIMvb88
Insolation
Earth intercepts only one in two billion

parts of solar radiation. This intercepted
radiation is called Insolation.
Insolation == Proportion of Solar energy
received or intercepted by earth.
Some heat within the core and mantle is
transferred to the surface and ocean
bottoms through volcanoes, springs and
geysers. But this heat received at the
surface form interiors of the earth is
negligible compared to that received from
sun.
Earth receives Suns radiation (heat) in the
form of short waves (visible light +
wavelengths below visible light most
of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are of
electromagnetic nature. The earth absorbs
short wave radiation during daytime and
reflects back the heat received into space
as long-wave radiation (mostly infrared
radiation) during night.
The heat energy from the solar radiation is

received by the earth through three
mechanisms
Radiation == Heat transfer from one body
to another without actual contact or
movement. It is possible in relatively
emptier space, for instance, from the sun
to the earth through space.
Conduction == Heat transfer through
matter by molecular
activity. Heat
transfer in iron and other metals is by
conduction. Generally, denser materials
like water are good conductors and a
lighter medium like air is a bad conductor
of heat.
Convection == Transfer of heat energy
by actual transfer of matter or substance
from one place to another. (heat transfer
by convection cycles in atmosphere as well
as oceans)
Factors Affecting Temperature

Distribution
The Angle of Incidence
Inclination of the Suns Rays
Duration of Sunshine
or
the
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Heat received depends on day or night;

clear sky or overcast, summer or winter
etc..
Transparency of Atmosphere
Aerosols (smoke, sooth), dust, water

vopour, clouds etc. effect transparency.
If the wavelength (X) of the radiation is
more than the radius of the obstructing
particle (such as a gas), then scattering of
radiation takes place.
If the wavelength is less than the
obstructing particle (such as a dust
particle), then total reflection takes place.
Absorption of solar radiation takes place
if the obstructing particles happen to be
water vapour, ozone molecules, carbon
dioxide molecules or clouds.
Most of the light received by earth
is scattered light.
Average penetration of sunlight is more in

water up to 20 metres, than in land
where it is up to 1 metre only. Therefore,
land cools or becomes hot more rapidly
compared
to
oceans.
In
oceans,
continuous convection cycle helps in heat
Page
exchange between layers keeping diurnal
and annual temperature ranges low. (more | 18
while studying salinity and temperature
distribution of oceans)
The specific heat of water is 2.5 times
higher than landmass, therefore water
takes longer to get heated up and to cool
down.
Prevailing Winds
Land-Sea Differential
Albedo of land is much greater than
albedo of oceans and water bodies.
Especially snow covered areas reflect up to
70%-90% of insolation.
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Winds transfer heat from one latitude to

another. They also help in exchange of
heat between land and water bodies.
The oceanic winds have the capacity to
take the moderating influence of the sea to
coastal areas reflected in cool summers
and
mild
winters.
This
effect
is
pronounced only on the windward side
(the side facing the ocean).
The leeward side or the interiors do not get
the moderating effect of the sea, and
therefore
experience
extremes
of
temperature.
Aspects of Slope
The direction of the slope and its angle

control the amount of solar radiation
received locally. Slopes more exposed to
the sun receive more solar radiation than
those away from the suns direct rays.
Slopes that receive direct Suns rays are
dry due to loss of moisture through excess
evaporation. These slopes remain barren if
irrigational facilities are absent. But slopes
with good irrigational facilities are good for
agriculture due to abundant sunlight
available. They are occupied by dense
human settlements.
Slopes that are devoid of direct sunlight
are usually well forested.
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| 19
Ocean Currents
Ocean currents influence the temperature

of adjacent land areas considerably. (more
while studying ocean currents).
Altitude
With increase in height, pressure falls, the

effect of greenhouse gases decreases and
hence temperature decreases (applicable
only to troposphere).
The normal lapse rate is roughly 1 C for
every 165 metres of ascent.
Earths Distance form Sun
During its revolution around the sun, the

earth is farthest from the sun (152
million km on 4th July). This position of
the earth is called
On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest
to the sun (147 million km). This position
is called
Therefore, the annual insolation received
by the earth on 3rd January is slightly
more than the amount received on 4th
July.
However, the effect of this variation in the
solar output is masked by other factors
like the distribution of land and sea and

the atmospheric circulation.
Hence, this variation in the solar output
does not have great effect on daily weather
changes on the surface of the earth.
Latitudinal Heat Balance
The amount of insolation received varies

from latitude to latitude.
Regions within the equator and 40 N and
S latitudes receive abundant sunlight and
hence more heat will be gained than lost.
Hence they are energy surplus regions.
Regions beyond 40 N and S latitudes lose
more heat than that gained from sunlight.
Hence
they
are energy
deficit
regions (This is because of slant sunlight
and high albedo of polar regions).
Going by this logic, the tropics should
have been getting progressively hotter and
the poles getting progressively cooler. And
the planet would have been inhospitable
except for few regions near mid-latitudes.
But, in reality, this does not happen.
The atmosphere (planetary winds) and
the
oceans (ocean
currents) transfer
excess heat from the tropics (energy
surplus region) towards the poles (energy
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deficit regions) making up for heat loss at

higher latitudes.
And most of the heat transfer takes
place across the mid-latitudes (30 to
50)[more while studding jet streams
and cyclones], and hence much of the
stormy weather is associated with this
region.
Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from
the lower latitudes to the deficit energy
zone of the higher latitudes, maintains an
overall balance over the earths surface.
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The earth receives a certain amount of

Insolation (short waves) and gives back
heat
into
space
by
terrestrial
radiation (longwave radiation). Through
this give and take, or the heat budget, the
earth maintains a constant temperature.
| 20
Gif Image: Copy Paste and view in

Power Point in Full screen Mode
The Mean Annual Temperature

Distribution
Isotherm == An imaginary line joining

places having equal temperatures.
The horizontal or latitudinal distribution
of temperature is shown with the help of a
map with isotherms.
Effects of altitude is not considered while
drawing an isotherm. All the temperatures
are reduced to sea levels.
General characteristics of
isotherms.
Heat Budget
Page
Generally follow the parallels: Isotherms

have close correspondence with the
latitude parallels mainly because the same
amount of insolation is received by all the
points located on the same latitude.
Sudden bends at ocean continent
boundaries: Due to differential heating of
land and water, temperatures above the
oceans and landmasses vary even on the
same latitude. (we have seen how land sea
differential
effects
temperature
distribution)
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Narrow
spacing between
isotherms
indicate rapid
change in
temperature
(high thermal gradient).
Wide
spacing between
isotherms
indicate small
or
slow
change in
temperatures (low thermal gradient).
General Temperature Distribution
The highest temperatures occur over

tropics and sub-tropics (high insolation).
The lowest temperatures occur in polar
and sub polar regions. in continents due
to the effect of continentiality.
Diurnal and annual range of temperatures
are highest in the interiors of continents
due to the effect of continentiality (in
continental interiors these will no
moderating effect of oceans).
Diurnal and annual range of temperatures
are least in oceans. [high specific heat of
water and mixing of water keep the range
low]
Low temperature gradients are observed
over tropics (sun is almost overhead the
entire year) and high temperature
gradients over middle and higher latitudes
(suns apparent path varies significantly
from season to season).
Temperature gradients are usually low
over the eastern margins of continents.
(This is because of warm ocean currents)
Temperature gradients are usually high
over the western margins of continents.
(This is because of cold ocean currents)
The isotherms are irregular over the
northern hemisphere due to an enhanced
land-sea
contrast. Because
of
predominance of land over water in the
north, the northern
hemisphere
is
warmer. The thermal equator (ITCZ) lies
generally to the north of geographical
equator.
While passing through an area with warm
ocean currents, the isotherms show a
poleward shift. (North Atlantic Drift and
Gulf Stream combined with westerlies in
Northern Atlantic; Kurishino Current and
North Pacific current combined with
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westerlies in Northern Pacific) (we will see

about ocean currents in detail later.)
Mountains also affect the horizontal
distribution of temperature. For instance,
the Rockies and the Andes stop the
oceanic influence from going inwards into
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North and South America.
| 21
Seasonal Temperature Distribution
The global distribution of temperature can

well be understood by studying the
temperature distribution in January and
July.
The temperature distribution is generally
shown on the map with the help of
isotherms. The Isotherms are lines joining
places having equal temperature.
In general the effect of the latitude on
temperature is well pronounced on the
map, as the isotherms are generally
parallel to the latitude. The deviation from
this general trend is more pronounced in
January than in July, especially in the
In the northern hemisphere the land
surface area is much larger than in the
southern hemisphere. Hence, the effects of
land mass and the ocean currents are well
pronounced.

January
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During January, it is winter in the

northern hemisphere and summer in the
The western margins of continents are
warmer
than
their
eastern
counterparts, since the Westerlies are
able to carry high temperature into the
landmasses.
The temperature gradient is close to the
eastern margins of continents. The
isotherms exhibit a more regular behavior
in the southern hemisphere.
has shifted southwards with the apparent

southward movement of the sun).

July
Northern Hemisphere
The isotherms deviate to the north over

the ocean and to the south over the
continent. This can be seen on the North
Atlantic Ocean.
The presence of warm ocean currents,
Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift,
make the Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer
and the isotherms show a poleward shift
indicating that the oceans are warmer and
are able to carry high temperatures
poleward.
An equator ward bend of the isotherms
over the northern continents shows that
the landmasses are overcooled and that
polar cold winds are able to penetrate
southwards, even in the interiors. It is
much pronounced in the Siberian plain.
Lowest temperatures are recorded over
northern Siberia and Greenland.
The effect of the ocean is well pronounced

in the southern hemisphere. Here the
isotherms are more or less parallel to the
latitudes and the variation in temperature
is more gradual than in the northern
hemisphere.
The high temperature belt runs in the
southern hemisphere, somewhere along
30S latitude.
The thermal equator lies to the south of
geographical
equator
(because
the
Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ
Page
During July, it is summer in the northern
| 22
hemisphere and winter in the southern
hemisphere. The isothermal behavior is
the opposite of what it is in January.
In July the isotherms generally run
parallel to the latitudes. The equatorial
oceans record warmer temperature, more
than 27C. Over the land more than 30C
is noticed in the subtropical continental
region of Asia, along the 30 N latitude.
Northern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
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The highest range of temperature is more

than 60 C over the north-eastern part of
Eurasian continent. This is due to
continentiality. The least range of
temperature, 3C, is found between 20 S
and 15 N.
Over the northern continents, a poleward
bend of the isotherms indicates that the
landmasses are overheated and the hot
tropical winds are able to go far into the
northern interiors.
The isotherms over the northern oceans
show an equator ward shift indicating that
the oceans are cooler and are able to carry
the moderating effect into tropical
interiors. The lowest temperatures are
experienced over Greenland.
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The highest temperature belt runs

through northern Africa, west Asia, northwest India arid southeastern USA. The
temperature gradient is irregular and
follows a zig-zag path over the northern
hemisphere.
The gradient becomes regular over the

southern hemisphere but shows a slight
bend towards the equator at the edges of
continents. Thermal equator now lies to
the north of the geographical equator.
Questions from NCERT
1. The atmosphere is mainly heated by

the:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Short wave solar radiation

Long wave terrestrial radiation
Reflected solar radiation
Scattered solar radiation
All the explanation below is meant to

explain Adiabatic Lapse Rate and Latent
Heat of Condensation. These two terms
occur frequently in almost all the future
topics of climatology. They wont be
specifically asked in the exam. But
understanding them once for all will help
immensely in understanding the future
posts on climatology.
a. Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud

cover than equatorial areas.
b. Subtropical areas have longer day hours
in the summer than the equatorial.
c. Subtropical areas have an enhanced
greenhouse effect compared to equatorial
areas.
d. Subtropical areas are nearer to the
oceanic areas than the equatorial
locations.
Previous posts on Climatology [Follow

Link]
All Posts on Geomorphology [Follow Link]
30 words
How does the unequal distribution of heat

over the planet earth in space and time
cause variations in weather and climate?
What are the factors that control
temperature distribution on the surface of
the earth?
How do the latitude and the tilt in the axis

of rotation of the earth affect the amount
of radiation received at the earths
surface?
Discuss the processes through which the
earth-atmosphere system maintains heat
balance.
Compare the global distribution of
temperature in January over the northern
and the southern hemisphere of the earth.
Condensation
of
water
vapour,
thunderstorms, cyclonic and anticyclonic
conditions etc. depend on Adiabatic
Lapse Rate. Adiabatic Lapse Rate
determines
the Rate
Of
Condensation and
the
rate
of
condensation determines the amount
of Latent
Heat
of
Condensation Released.
2. The main reason that the earth

experiences highest temperatures in
the
subtropics
in
the
northern
hemisphere rather than at the equator
is:
In India, why is the day temperature

maximum in May and why not after the
summer solstice?
Why is the annual range of temperature
high in the Siberian plains
150 words
Southern Hemisphere
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Lapse Rate
Lapse rate is rate of change in

temperature
observed
while
moving
upward through the Earths atmosphere
(troposphere to be specific).
Page
| 23
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The
lapse
rate
is
considered positive when the temperature
decreases with elevation, zero when the
temperature is constant with elevation,
and negative when
the
temperature
increases with elevation (temperature
inversion).
The lapse rate
of non-rising
air
commonly referred to as the normal,
or Environmental, Lapse Rate (ELR) is
highly
variable,
being
affected
by radiation,
convection, and condensation;
it
averages about 5 C per kilometer in the
lower atmosphere (troposphere).
This sort of fall in temperature with

elevation
is
called Temperature
Lapse and the rate at which it happens is
called Temperature Lapse Rate or simply
Lapse rate.
Adiabatic Lapse rate
Lapse rate is the rate of fall in temperature

of atmosphere with elevation.
According to gas law Pressure P is

directly proportional to Temperature T
when Volume V is a constant.
Just for understanding
Example 1: A balloon
When we move up a hill, we notice a fall in

temperature. This fall in temperature with
elevation is primarily due to two reasons.
1. With
increase
in
elevation,
the atmospheric pressure falls. Fall in
pressure implies that the temperature also
falls [Pressure is directly proportional to
Temperature and vice versa]
2. With
increase
in
elevation,
the concentration
of
greenhouse
gases decrease (Water vapor and carbon
dioxide fall sharply with elevation). Hence
the
heat
absorption
capacity
of
atmosphere will also decrease.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall in

temperature of a rising or a falling air
parcel adiabatically.
Adiabatic
or
adiabatically: Heat doesnt enter or leave
the system. All temperature changes are
Page
internal.
Adiabatic Lapse rate is governed by Gas | 24
law.
Gas law
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OiAPN
pdD4Z4
Why does temperature fall with

elevation
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When we blow air into a balloon, pressure

increases
but
temperature
doesnt
increase due to proportionate increase in
volume (here V is not constant). When
excess air is blown, balloon bursts as it
cannot with stand the pressure.
Example 2: Vehicle tube
In a vehicle tube, volume remains

constant. When air is blown, pressure
increases and hence the temperature.
We are usually advised not to have full
blown tubes because when vehicle travels
on a road, the friction between the tire and
the road increases the temperature of the
air in the tube. As temperature is directly
proportional to pressure, increase in
temperature leads to increase in pressure
and at certain pressure threshold, the tire
bursts.
The above examples explain the relation
between Pressure, Temperature and
Volume. They are both non-adiabatic
processes as there is (will be) heat
exchange between the system and the
external environment.
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Adiabatic Process: A Parcel of

Rising or Falling Air
Lapse Rate
falling].
When an air parcel is subjected to

differential heating compared to the
surrounding air, it becomes lighter (less
denser)
or
heavier
(more
denser)
depending on whether the air parcel is
heated or cooled.
When an air parcel receives more heat
than the surrounding air, its temperature
increases leading to an increase in volume
(Increase in Volume == Fall in Density).
The air parcel becomes lighter than the
surrounding air and it starts to rise. This
process is non-adiabatic (there is heat
exchange between the air parcel and the
external environment).
But when the air parcel starts to rise, the
ambient pressure on it starts to fall [The
atmospheric pressure decreases with
height, so the pressure on the air parcel
decreases with height]. With the fall in
ambient pressure, the temperature falls
and
the
volume
increases.
This
is adiabatic [there is no heat exchange
between the air parcel and the external
environment. All the temperature changes
are internal. Temperature changes are
only due to change in pressure or volume
or both].
This fall in temperature with the rising of
the
air
parcel
is
called Adiabatic
Temperature Lapse. And the rate at
which it happens is called Adiabatic
Lapse Rate [This is Positive Adiabatic
the
Temperature
is
[Lapse Rate == fall in temperature with

height. Adiabatic Lapse Rate == Fall in
temperature in a rising parcel of air
Page
without losing any internal heat]
| 25
Rising of a parcel of air (and associated
Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate) is the
first
step
in
the
formation
of
Thunderstorms,
Tornadoes
and
Cyclones. [We will see this in detail in
future posts]
An air bubble rises in water whereas stone

sinks. This is obvious. The stone is denser
(heavier than water) and it sinks whereas
the air bubble is less denser (lighter than
water) and it rises.
Similarly, a parcel of air rises when it is
less denser than the surrounding
environment and it falls when its density
becomes greater than the surrounding
environment.
A Parcel of Rising Air
as
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A Parcel of Falling Air
An air parcels falls to the lower levels of

troposphere when it is cooled sufficiently.
When an air parcel is in the upper levels,
it gets cooled due to lower temperatures
(Lapse Rate). Its volume falls and its
density increases. When it becomes more
denser than the surroundings, it starts to
fall.
This also happens when an air parcel is in
contact with cooler surfaces like mountain
slopes. We will see more about this in
temperature inversion.
The beginning of fall is a non-adiabatic
process as there is an exchange of heat
between
the
air
parcel
and
the
surrounding environment.
When an air parcel is falling, the
atmospheric pressure acting on it will
increase and its internal temperature will
increase adiabatically. [This is Negative
Adiabatic
Lapse
Rate
as
the
Temperature is rising].
Katabatic Wind is a hot dry wind that
blows down a mountain slope. It is an
example for a falling parcel of air in which
the
temperature
changes
happen
adiabatically.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate in simple

terms
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Adiabatic change refers to the change in

temperature with pressure.
On descent through atmosphere, the lower
layers are compressed under atmospheric
pressure. As a result, the temperature
increases.
On ascent, the air expands as pressure
decreases. This expansion reduces the
temperature and aids condensation of
water vapour. Condensation of water
vapour releases the Latent Heat of
Condensation in the process.
This latent heat of condensation is
the major driving force behind tropical
cyclones, convectional rains.
Wet and Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate
Adiabatic
lapse
rates
are
usually
differentiated as dry or wet (moist).
The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is

the rate of fall in temperature with altitude
for a parcel of dry or unsaturated air (air
with less moisture, to keep it simple)
rising under adiabatic conditions.
Unsaturated air has less than 100%
relative humidity (we will study about
Humidity in future posts).
[Saturated air == The air that cannot
hold any more moisture. Its stomach is
full Unsaturated air == Its stomach is
not full. It can accommodate some
more moisture.]
When a rising air parcel has little

moisture, condensation during upliftment
is low, the latent heat of condensation
released is low [Less additional heat from
inside]. As a result, the fall in temperature
with height is greater compared to
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (normal parcel of
air). [I have explained in detail in my
videos]
The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earths

atmosphere equals 8 C per kilometre.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly
associated
with stable
conditions [because
it
has
less
moisture].
Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate
Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate
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When an air parcel that is saturated

(stomach full) with water vapour rises,
some of the vapour will condense and
release latent heat [Additional Heat from
inside]. This process causes the parcel to
cool more slowly than it would if it were
not saturated.
The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies
considerably because the amount of water
vapour in the air is highly variable. The
greater the amount of vapour, the smaller
the adiabatic lapse rate [because the
condensation process keeps on adding
more latent heat of condensation]. On an
average it is taken as 4 C per kilometre.
Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly
associated
with unstable
conditions
[because it has more moisture].
As an air parcel rises and cools, it may
eventually lose its moisture through
condensation; its lapse rate then increases
and approaches the dry adiabatic value.
Significance in meteorology
The difference between the normal lapse

rate in the atmosphere and the dry and
moist adiabatic lapse rates determines the
vertical stability of the atmosphere.
For this reason, the lapse rate is of prime
importance
to
meteorologists
in
forecasting
certain
types
of
cloud
formations,
the
incidence
of
thunderstorms, and the intensity of
atmospheric turbulence.
Weather conditions at
different adiabatic lapse rates
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| 26
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| 27
1. Absolute stability: ALR < WALR < DALR

== Little moisture in the air parcel == It
wont rain
2. Conditional stability: WALR < ALR <
DALR == Normal moisture conditions ==
It may or may not rain
3. Absolute instability: WALR < DALR <
ALR == Excess moisture in the air
parcel == It will rain violently.
Absolute stability: ALR < WALR <

DALR
The above condition simply means that

there is little moisture in air.
When
there
is
little
moisture,
condensation of water vapour is low, so
latent of condensation released will be low,
and the rising parcel of air gets cold
quickly, and it falls to the ground once it
becomes denser.
So there will be no cloud formation and
hence
there
will
be
no
rain
(thunderstorms).
This simply means that the condition is
stable.
Conditional stability: WALR < ALR <
DALR

there is enough moisture in air and there
are chances of thunderstorms.
When there is considerable moisture in
the air parcel, condensation of water
vapour will be reasonably high, so latent
of condensation released will be adequate
to drive a thunderstorm. The occurrence
of thunderstorm depends on external
factors. So the weather will be associated
with conditional stability (it may rain or it
may not rain)
Absolute instability: WALR < DALR <
ALR

there is more moisture in air and there
will be thunderstorms.
When there is unusually high moisture in
the air parcel, condensation of water
vapour will be very high, so latent of
condensation released will be great
enough to drive a violent thunderstorm.
So the weather will be associated with
absolute instability.
Latent Heat of Condensation
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Latent heat of condensation is the

driving force behind all tropical
cyclones.
Latent Heat
It is the heat released or absorbed during

phase change.
Latent heat, characteristic amount of
energy absorbed or released by a
substance during a change in its physical
state that occurs without changing its
temperature.
The latent heat associated with melting a
solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat
of fusion; that associated with vaporizing
a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapour
is called the heat of vaporization.
The latent heat is normally expressed

as the amount of heat (in units of joules
or calories) per mole or unit mass of the
substance undergoing a change of state.
On Y Axis: Temperature change in the

system.
From the above graph, we can observe

that there is no change in temperature in
the system during change of state or
phase change (solid to liquid, liquid to
solid, liquid to gas and gas to liquid). Then
where did the heat supplied go?
Initially the heat supplied is used to raise
the temperature of the system (A B & C
D)
During phase change, the heat supplied is
consumed to turn water into liquid and
For example, when a pot of water is kept

Page
boiling, the temperature remains at 100
C until the last drop evaporates, because | 28
all the heat being added to the liquid is
absorbed as latent heat of vaporization
and carried away by the escaping vapour
molecules.
Similarly, while ice melts, it remains at 0
C, and the liquid water that is formed
with the latent heat of fusion is also at 0
C.
Explanation
On X axis: Heat supplied to the system.
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then liquid into gas. So the heat supplied

in used in phase change. Hence
temperature of the system remains
constant during phase change process. (B
C & D E)
But when gas turns into liquid or liquid
into solid, heat is released. (this heat is
the heat that was used during the phase
change process)
So latent heat of condensation is the
heat released when gases turn into
liquid.
In this Post - Pressure Systems and
Pressure Belts: Equatorial Low Pressure
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Belt or Doldrums, Sub-Tropical High

Pressure Belts or Horse Latitudes, SubPolar Low Pressure Belts and Polar High
Pressure Belts.
Previous Post:
Adiabatic Lapse Rate Latent Heat of

Condensation
Pressure Systems
Air expands when heated and gets

compressed when cooled. This results in
variations in the atmospheric pressure.
The differences in atmospheric pressure
causes the movement of air from high
pressure to low pressure, setting the air in
motion.
Atmospheric
pressure
also
determines when the air will rise or sink.
Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind
redistributes the heat and moisture across
latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole.
The vertical rising of moist air forms
clouds and bring precipitation.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8pK
QYViJYY
Air Pressure
Since air has mass, it also has weight. The

pressure of air at a given place is defined
as a force exerted in all directions by
virtue of the weight of all the air above it.
The weight of a column of air contained in
a unit area from the mean sea level to the
top of the atmosphere is called the
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
pressure is expressed in various units.
Measurement of Air Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the

column of air at any given place and time.
It is measured by means of an instrument

called barometer.
The units used by meteorologists for this
purpose are called millibars (mb).
One millibar is equal to the force of one
gram on a square centimeter. A
Page
pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to
the weight of 1.053 kilograms per | 29
square centimeter.
In other words, it will be equal to the
weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high.
The normal pressure at sea level is taken
to be about 76 centimeters (1013.25
millibars).
Vertical Variation of Pressure
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nEsKy
z0Cc6w
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In the lower atmosphere the pressure

decreases rapidly with height.
At the height of Mt. Everest, the air
pressure is about two-thirds less than
what it is at the sea level.
The decrease in pressure with altitude,
however, is not constant. Since the factors
controlling air density temperature,
amount of water vapour and gravity are
variable, there is no simple relationship
between altitude and pressure.
In general, the atmospheric pressure
decreases on an average at the rate of
about 34 millibars every 300 metres of
height.
The vertical pressure gradient force is
much larger than that of the horizontal
pressure gradient. But, it is generally
balanced by a nearly equal but
opposite gravitational force. Hence, we
do not experience strong upward winds.
Due to gravity the air at the surface is
denser and hence has higher pressure.
Since air pressure is proportional
to density as well as temperature, it
follows
that
a
change
in
either
temperature or density will cause a
corresponding change in the pressure.
The pressure decreases with height. At
any elevation it varies from place to place
and its variation is the primary cause of
air motion, i.e. wind which moves from
high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
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A rising pressure indicates fine, settled

weather, while a falling pressure
indicates unstable and cloudy weather.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
Small differences in pressure are highly

significant in terms of the wind direction
and velocity. Horizontal distribution of
pressure is studied by drawing isobars at
constant levels.
Isobars are lines connecting places having
equal pressure. In order to eliminate the
effect of altitude on pressure, it is
measured at any station after being
reduced to sea level for purposes of
comparison.
The spacing of isobars expresses the rate
and direction of pressure changes and is
referred to as pressure gradient.
Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep
or strong pressure gradient, while wide
spacing suggests weak gradient. The
pressure gradient may thus be defined as
the decrease in pressure per unit distance
in the direction in which the pressure
decreases most rapidly.
There are distinctly identifiable zones of

homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes
or pressure
belts. On
the
earths
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surface, there are in all seven pressure

belts.
The seven pressure belts are :
1.
2.
3.
4.
equatorial low,
the sub-tropical highs,
the sub-polar lows, and
the polar highs.
Except the equatorial low, all others form

matching pairs in the northern and
southern hemispheres.
Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure

centers
Low pressure system is enclosed by one or

more isobars with the lowest pressure in
the centre. High-pressure system is also
enclosed by one or more isobars with the
highest pressure in the centre.
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World Distribution of Sea Level

Pressure
The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034

gm per square cm at sea level. This
amount of pressure is exerted by the
atmosphere at sea level on all animals,
plants, rocks, etc.
Near the equator the sea level pressure is
low and the area is known as equatorial
low. Along 30 N and 30 S are found
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or

Doldrums
Lies between 10N and 10S latitudes.

Width may vary between 5N and 5S and
20N and 20S.
This belt happens to be the zone of
convergence of trade winds from two
As this region lies along the equator, it

receives highest amount of insolation.
Due to intense heating, air gets warmed
up and rises over the equatorial region
(convection).
Whenever there is vertically upward
movement of air, the region at the surface
will be at low pressure. Thus the belt
the high-pressure areas known as the

subtropical highs. Further pole wards
along 60 N and 60 S, the low-pressure
belts are termed as the sub polar
lows. Near the poles the pressure is high
and it is known as the polar high.
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These
pressure
belts
are not
permanent in nature. They oscillate with | 32
the apparent movement of the sun. In the
northern hemisphere in winter they move
southwards
and
in
the
summer
northwards.
hemispheres from sub-tropical high

pressure belts.
This belt is also called the Doldrums,
because of the extremely calm air
movements.
The position of the belt varies with the
apparent movement of the Sun.
along the equator is called equatorial low

pressure belt.
Formation
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Climate
This belt is characterized by extremely

low pressure with calm conditions.
This is because of the absence of Surface
winds since winds approaching this belt
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begin to rise near its margin. Thus, only

vertical currents are found.
As the larger part of the low pressure belt
passes along the oceans, the winds obtain
huge amount of moisture.
Vertical
winds
(convection)
carrying
moisture form cumulonimbus clouds and
lead to thunderstorms (convectional
rainfall).
Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones
are not formed at the equator because
of zero coriolis force. (we will see more
later)
Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or

Horse Latitudes
The sub-tropical highs extend from near

the tropics to about 35N and S.
After
saturation
(complete
loss
of
moisture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away
from equatorial low pressure belt in the
upper troposphere becomes dry and cold.
This dry and cold wind subsides at 30N
and S.
So the high pressure along this belt is due
to subsidence of air coming from the
equatorial region which descends after
becoming heavy.
The high pressure is also due to the
blocking effect of air at upper levels
because of the Coriolis force.
The subsiding air is warm and dry,

therefore, most of the deserts are
present along this belt, in both
hemispheres.
The corresponding latitudes of subtropical

high
pressure
belt
are
called horse latitudes.
In early days, the sailing vessels with
cargo of horses found it difficult to sail
under calm conditions of this high
pressure belt.
They used to throw horses into the sea
when fodder ran out. Hence the name
horse latitudes.
Question mains 2013

Major
hot
deserts
in
northern
hemisphere are located between 20-30
degree north and on the western side of
the continents. Why?
Why between 20 30 degree?
Climate
A
calm
condition (anticyclonic) with
feeble winds is created in this high
pressure belt.
The descending air currents feed the
winds blowing towards adjoining low
pressure belts.
Page
This belt is frequently invaded by
tropical
and
extra-tropical | 33
disturbances.
Horse Latitudes
Formation
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Answer: The subsiding air is warm and

dry, therefore, most of the deserts are
present along this belt, in both
hemispheres.
Why on western side of the continents?
We will get answer for this while studying

ocean currents.
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| 34
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
Located
between 45N
and
S
latitudes and
the Arctic
and
the
Antarctic circles (66.5 N and S
latitudes).
Owning to low temperatures in these
latitudes the sub polar low pressure belts
are not very well pronounced year long.
On long-term mean climatic maps, the
sub polar low-pressure belts of the
northern hemisphere are grouped into two

centers
of
atmospheric
activity:
the Iceland
low and
the Aleutian
depression (Aleutian low).
Such belts in the southern hemisphere
surround the periphery of Antarctica and
are not as well differentiated.
Formation
These are dynamically produced due to
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1. Coriolis Force produced by rotation of

the earth on its axis, and.
2. Ascent of air as a result of convergence
of westerlies and polar easterlies (we
will more about these in next topic
wind systems).
During winter, because of a high contrast

between land and sea, this belt is broken
into two distinct low centers one in the
vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and the
other between Iceland and Greenland.
During summer, a lesser contrast results
in a more developed and regular belt.
Climate
Polar High Pressure Belt
Sub polar low-pressure belts are mainly

encountered above
Seasonal behavior
The area of contrast between cold and

warm air masses produces polar jet
streams which encircles the earth at 60
degrees latitudes and is focused in these
low pressure areas.
Due to a great contrast between the
temperatures of the winds from subtropical and polar source regions, extra
tropical cyclonic storms or lows
(temperate cyclones or frontal cyclones)
are produced in this region.
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The polar highs are small in area and

extend around the poles.
They lie around poles between 80 90 N
and S latitudes.
Page
Formation
The air from sub-polar low pressure belts

after saturation becomes dry. This dry air
becomes cold while moving towards poles
through upper troposphere.
The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles
subsides creating a high pressure belt at
the surface of earth.
Climate
The lowest temperatures are found over

the poles.
Pressure belts in July
In the northern hemisphere, during

summer, with the apparent northward
shift of the sun, the thermal equator (belt
of highest temperature) is located north of
the geographical equator.
The pressure belts shift slightly north of
their annual average locations.
| 35
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| 36
Factors Controlling Pressure

Systems
Pressure belts in January
During winter, these conditions are

completely reversed and the pressure belts
shift south of their annual mean locations.
Opposite conditions prevail in the
southern hemisphere. The amount of shift
is, however, less in the southern
hemisphere due to predominance of water.
Similarly, distribution of continents and
oceans have a marked influence over the
distribution of pressure. In winter, the
continents are cooler than the oceans and
tend to develop high pressure centres,
whereas in summer, they are relatively
warmer and develop low pressure. It is
just the reverse with the oceans.
There are two main causes, thermal and

dynamic, for the pressure differences
resulting in high and low pressure
systems.
Thermal Factors
When air is heated, it expands and, hence,

its density decreases. This naturally leads
to low pressure. On the contrary, cooling
results in contraction. This increases the
density and thus leads to high pressure.
Formation of equatorial low and polar
highs are examples of thermal lows and
thermal
highs,
respectively.
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| 37
Dynamic Factors
Apart from variations of temperature, the

formation of pressure belts may be
explained by dynamic controls arising out
of pressure gradient forces and rotation
of the earth (Coriolis force).
Example
After saturation (complete loss of mosture)

at the ITCZ, the air moving away from
equatorial low pressure belt in the upper
troposphere becomes dry and cold. This
dry and cold wind subsides at 30N and S.
So the high pressure along this belt is due
to subsidence of air coming from the
equatorial region which descends after
becoming heavy.
The rate of deflection increases with the
distance from the equator (Coriolis
force). As a result, by the time the
poleward directed winds reach 25
latitude, they are deflected into a nearly
west-to-east flow. It produces a blocking

effect and the air piles up. This causes a
general subsidence in the areas between
the tropics and 35N and S, and they
develop into high pressure belts.
The location of pressure belts is further
affected by differences in net radiation
resulting from apparent movement of the
sun and from variations in heating of land
and water surfaces.
Thus
formation
of sub-tropical
high and sub-polar
low
pressure
belts are
due
to dynamic
factors like pressure gradient forces,
apparent movement of sun and rotation
of the earth (Coriolis force)
In this post: Wind Movement Factors
Affecting
Wind
movement:
Pressure
Gradient Force, Coriolis Force, Frictional
Force,
Centripetal
Acceleration
and
Geostrophic Wind. Coriolis effect: Causes,
Impact and Myth about Coriolis Effect.
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Must read post before this one:
Pressure Belts Equatorial Low, SubTropical High, Sub-Polar Low and Polar
High
Factors affecting Wind Movement
Wind == horizontal movement of air

Currents == vertical movement of air.
Winds balance uneven distribution of
pressure globally.
Winds help in transfer of heat, moisture
etc. from one place to another.
Sun is the ultimate force that drives
winds. Pressure differences force winds to
flow from high pressure are to low
pressure area. Pressure differences in turn
are caused by unequal heating of the
earths surface by solar radiation.
The
wind
at
the
surface
experiences friction. In addition, rotation
of the earth also affects the wind
movement. The force exerted by the
rotation of the earth is known as
the Coriolis force.
Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth
surface respond to the combined effect of
three forces the pressure gradient
force,
the frictional
force and
the Coriolis force.
In addition, the gravitational force acts
downwards. Centripetal
acceleration produces a circular pattern
of flow around centers of high and low
pressure.
QYViJYY
The differences in atmospheric pressure

produces pressure gradient force.
The rate of change of pressure with
respect to distance is the pressure
gradient.
Pressure Gradient Force operates from the

high pressure area to a low pressure area
and causes wind movement.
The pressure gradient is strong where the
isobars are close to each other and is
weak where the isobars are apart.
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Since a closely spaced gradient implies a
steep pressure change, it also indicates a | 38
strong wind speed.
The wind direction follows the direction of
change of pressure, i.e. perpendicular to
the isobars.
Coriolis Force and Wind Movement
Pressure Gradient Force and Wind

Movement
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The rotation of the earth about its axis

affects the direction of the wind. This force
is called the Coriolis force. It has great
impact on the direction of wind movement.
Due to the earths rotation, winds do not
cross the isobars at right angles as the
pressure gradient force directs, but get
deflected from their original path.
This deviation is the result of the earths
rotation and is called the Coriolis effect or
Coriolis force.
Due to this effect, winds in the northern
hemisphere get deflected to the right of
their path and those in the southern
hemisphere
to
their
left,
following Farrells Law (the law that wind
is deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere, derived from the
application of the Coriolis effect to air
masses).
This deflection force does not seem to exist
until the air is set in motion and increases
with wind
velocity,
air
mass and
an increase in latitude.
The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to
the pressure gradient force (pressure
gradient force is perpendicular to an
isobar)
As a result of these two forces operating
perpendicular to each other, in the lowpressure areas the wind blows around
it (cyclonic conditions).
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Why are there no tropical cyclones at

the equator?
The Coriolis force is directly proportional

to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at
the poles and is absent at the equator.
At
the equator
(Coriolis
force
is
zero) wind blows perpendicular to the
isobars. The low pressure gets filled
instead of getting intensified i.e., there is
no spiraling of air due to zero Coriolis
effect. The winds directly gets uplifted
vertically to form thunderstorms.
Frictional Force and Wind

Movement
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| 39
The irregularities of the earths surface

offer resistance to the wind movement in
the form of friction.
It affects the speed of the wind. It is
greatest at the surface and its influence
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generally extends up to an elevation of 1 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is
minimal.
Over uneven terrain, however, due to high
friction, the wind direction makes high
angles with, isobars and the speed gets
retarded.
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The wind movement around a low is

called cyclonic circulation. Around a
high it is called anti cyclonic circulation.
The direction of winds around such
systems changes according to their
location in different hemispheres.
| 40
Centripetal Acceleration
It acts only on air that is flowing around

centers of circulation.
Centripetal acceleration creates a force
directed at right angles to the wind
movement and inwards towards the
centers of rotation (e.g., low and high
pressure centers).
This force produces a circular pattern of
flow around centers of high and low
pressure.
Centripetal acceleration is more important
for circulations smaller than the midlatitude cyclone.
Pressure and Wind: Geostrophic

Wind
The velocity and direction of the wind are

the net result of the wind generating
forces.
The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3
km above the surface, are free from
frictional effect of the surface and are
controlled by the pressure gradient and
the Coriolis force.
When isobars are straight and when there
is no friction, the pressure gradient force
is balanced by the Coriolis force and the
resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar.
This wind is known as the geostrophic
wind.
Page
The wind movement or wind circulation at

the earths surface around low and high
on many occasions is closely related to the
wind circulation at higher level. Generally,
over low pressure area the air will
converge and rise. Over high pressure area
the air will subside from above and diverge
at the surface.
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| 41
Apart from convergence, some eddies,

convection currents, orographic uplift and
uplift along fronts cause the rising of air,
which is essential for the formation of
clouds and precipitation. (more about this
later)
More about Coriolis effect
The Coriolis effect is the apparent

deflection of objects (such as airplanes,
wind, missiles, sniper gun bullets and
ocean currents) moving in a straight
path relative to the earth's surface.
The "apparent" portion of the Coriolis
effect's definition is also important to take
into consideration.
This means that from the object in the air
(i.e. an airplane) the earth can be seen
rotating slowly below it. From the earth's
surface that same object appears to curve
off of its course. The object is not actually
moving off of its course but this just
appears to be happening because the
earths surface is rotating beneath the
object.
Gif Image: View Image in a New Window

or In Power Point [Full Screen Mode]
Causes of the Coriolis Effect
The main cause of the Coriolis effect is

the earth's rotation. As the earth spins in
a counter-clockwise direction on its axis
anything flying or flowing over a long
distance above its surface appears to be
deflected.
This occurs because as something moves
freely above the earth's surface, the earth
is moving east under the object at a faster
speed.
As latitude increases and the speed of the

earth's rotation decreases, Coriolis effect
increases.
A plane flying along the equator itself
would be able to continue flying on the
equator without any apparent deflection. A
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little to the north or south of the equator,

the plane would be deflected.
In addition to the speed of the earths
rotation and latitude, the faster the object
itself is moving, the more deflection there
will be.
The Trade Winds, The Westerlies, The

Polar easterlies; Secondary or Periodic
Winds: Monsoons, Land Breeze and Sea
Breeze, and Valley Breeze and Mountain
Breeze; Tertiary or Local Winds: Loo,
Foehn or Fohn, Chinook, Mistral and
Page
Sirocco.
| 42
Must Read Posts Before This One:
Impacts of the Coriolis Effect
Some of the most important impacts of the

Coriolis effect in terms of geography are
the deflection of winds and currents in the
ocean. It also has a significant effect on
man-made items like planes and missiles.
Myth about Coriolis Effect
One of the biggest misconceptions

associated with the Coriolis effect is that it
causes the rotation of water down the
drain of a sink or toilet. This is not truly
the cause of the water's movement. The
water itself is simply moving too fast down
the drain to allow for the Coriolis effect to
have any significant impact.
In This Post: Winds - General circulation
of the atmosphere: Hadley Cell, Ferrel Cell,
Polar Cell and Walker Cell; Classification
of Winds: Permanent winds or Primary
winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary
Winds, Secondary or Periodic Winds and
Local winds; Primary or Prevailing Winds:
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High
Wind Movement Factors Affecting Wind
Coriolis Force
General circulation of the

atmosphere
The pattern of planetary winds depend on:

latitudinal
variation
of
atmospheric
heating;
emergence of pressure belts;
the migration of belts following apparent
path of the sun;
the distribution of continents and oceans;
the rotation of earth.
The pattern of the movement of the
planetary winds is called the general
circulation of
the
atmosphere.
The
general circulation of the atmosphere also
sets in motion the ocean water circulation
which influences the earths climate.
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| 43
vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in

the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
Hadley Cell
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence

Zone (ITCZ) rises because of the
convection currents caused by low
pressure. Low pressure in turn occurs due
to high insolation. The winds from the
tropics converge at this low pressure zone.
The converged air rises along with the
convective cell. It reaches the top of the
troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km,
and moves towards the poles. This causes
accumulation of air at about 30 N and S.
Part of the accumulated air sinks to the
ground and forms a subtropical high.
Another reason for sinking is the cooling
of air when it reaches 30 N and S
latitudes.
Down below near the land surface the air
flows towards the equator as the
easterlies. The easterlies from either side
of the equator converge in the Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such
circulations from the surface upwards and
Ferrel Cell
In the middle latitudes the circulation is

that of sinking cold air that comes from
the poles and the rising warm air that
blows from the subtropical high. At the
surface these winds are called westerlies
and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
Polar Cell
At polar latitudes the cold dense air

subsides near the poles and blows
towards middle latitudes as the polar
easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
These three cells set the pattern for
the general
circulation
of
the
atmosphere. The transfer of heat energy
from lower latitudes to higher latitudes
maintains the general circulation.
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The general circulation of the atmosphere

also affects the oceans. The large-scale
winds of the atmosphere initiate large and
slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans
in turn provide input of energy and water
vapour into the air. These interactions
take place rather slowly over a large part
of the ocean.
Permanent winds or Primary winds or

Prevailing winds or Planetary Winds
Walker Cell
Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean

is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation.
The warm water of the central Pacific
Ocean slowly drifts towards South
American coast and replaces the cool
Peruvian current. Such appearance of
warm water off the coast of Peru is known
as the El Nino.
The El Nino event is closely associated
with the pressure changes in the Central
Pacific and Australia. This change in
pressure condition over Pacific is known
as the southern oscillation.
The combined phenomenon of southern
oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO.
In the years when the ENSO is strong,
large-scale variations in weather occur
over the world. The arid west coast of
South America receives heavy rainfall,
drought
occurs
in
Australia
and
sometimes in India and floods in China.
This phenomenon is closely monitored and
is used for long range forecasting in major
parts of the world. (El-Nino in detail later)
Gif Image
Classification of Winds
The trade
easterlies.
winds,
westerlies
and
Secondary or Periodic Winds
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Seasonal winds: These winds change their

direction in different seasons. For
example monsoons in India.
Periodic winds: Land and sea breeze,
mountain and valley breeze.
Local winds
These blow only during a particular period

of the day or year in a small area.
Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora.
Primary Winds or Prevailing Winds

or Permanent Winds or Planetary
Winds
These are the planetary winds which blow

extensively over continents and oceans.
The two most well- understood and
significant winds for climate and human
activities are trade winds and westerly
winds.
QYViJYY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nEsKy
z0Cc6w
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| 44
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Trade Winds
The trade winds are those blowing from

the sub-tropical
high
pressure areas
towards the equatorial low pressure belt.
Therefore, these are confined to a region
between 30N and 30S throughout the
earths surface.
They flow as the north-eastern trades in
the northern hemisphere and the southeastern
trades in
the
southern
hemisphere.
This deflection in their ideally expected
north-south direction is explained on the
basis of Coriolis force and Farrels law.
Trade winds are descending and stable in
areas of their origin (sub-tropical high
pressure belt), and as they reach the
equator,
they
become humid
and
warmer after picking up moisture on their
way.
The trade winds from two hemispheres
meet at the equator, and due to
convergence they rise and cause heavy
rainfall.
The eastern parts of the trade winds
associated with the cool ocean currents
are drier and more stable than the western
parts of the ocean.
The westerlies are the winds blowing from

the sub-tropical
high
pressure
belts towards the sub polar low pressure
belts.
They blow from southwest to northeast in
the
northern
hemisphere
and north-west to south-east in the
The westerlies of the southern hemisphere
are stronger and persistent due to the
vast expanse of water, while those of the
northern
hemisphere
are irregular because of uneven relief of
vast land-masses.
The
westerlies
are
best
developed
between 40 and 65S latitudes. These
latitudes are often called Roaring Forties,
Furious Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties

dreaded terms for sailors.
The poleward boundary of the westerlies is
highly fluctuating. There are many
seasonal and short-term fluctuations.
These winds produce wet spells and
Page
variability in weather.
| 45
Polar easterlies
The Polar easterlies are dry, cold

prevailing winds blowing from north-east
to south-west direction in Northern
Hemisphere and south-east to northwest in Southern Hemisphere.
They
blow
from
the polar
highpressure areas of the sub-polar lows.
Secondary Winds or Periodic Winds
Westerlies
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These winds change their direction with

change in season.
Monsoons are the best example of largescale modification of the planetary wind
system.
Other examples of periodic winds
include land and sea breeze, mountain
and valley breeze, cyclones and
anticyclones, and air masses.
Monsoons
Monsoons were traditionally explained

as land and sea breezes on a large
scale. Thus,
they
were
considered
a convectional circulation on a giant
scale.
The
monsoons
are
characterized
by seasonal reversal of wind direction.
During summer, the trade winds of
southern
hemisphere
are
pulled
northwards by an apparent northward
movement of the sun and by an intense
low pressure core in the north-west of the
Indian subcontinent.
While crossing the equator, these winds
get deflected to their right under the effect
of Coriolis force.
These winds now approach the Asian
landmass as south-west monsoons. Since
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they travel a long distance over a vast

expanse of water, by the time they reach
the south-western coast of India, they are
over-saturated with moisture and cause
heavy rainfall in India and neighboring
countries.
During winter, these conditions are
reversed and a high pressure core is
created to the north of the Indian
subcontinent. Divergent
winds are
produced
by
this anticyclonic
movement which
travels
southwards
towards the equator. This movement is
enhanced by the apparent southward
movement of the sun. These are north-
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
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east or winter monsoons which are

responsible for some precipitation along
the east coast of India.
The monsoon winds flow over India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma),
Sri Lanka, the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal,
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southeastern
Asia, northern
| 46
Australia, China and
Outside India, in the eastern Asiatic
countries, such as China and Japan,
the winter monsoon is stronger than the
summer monsoon. (we will study about
monsoons in detail while studying Indian
Climate)
up faster and becomes warmer than the

sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas
the sea is relatively cool and the pressure
over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure
gradient from sea to land is created and
the wind blows from the sea to the land as
the sea breeze. In the night the reversal of
condition takes place. The land loses heat
faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the
sea and hence land breeze results.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kMIS
OalQfpQ
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze
The land and sea absorb and transfer heat

differently. During the day the land heats
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In mountainous regions, during the day

the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air
from the valley blows up the valley. This
wind is known as the valley breeze. During
the night the slopes get cooled and the
dense air descends into the valley as the
mountain wind. The cool air, of the high
plateaus and ice fields draining into the
valley is called katabatic wind.
Another type of warm wind (katabatic
wind) occurs on the leeward side of the
mountain ranges. The moisture in these
winds, while crossing the mountain ranges
condense and precipitate. When it
descends down the leeward side of the
slope the dry air gets warmed up
by adiabatic process. This dry air may
melt the snow in a short time.
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Page
| 47
Loo
Harmful Wind
In the plains of northern India and
Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry
wind blows from the west in the months
of May and June, usually in the
afternoons. It is known as Its temperature
invariably ranges between 45C and 50C.
It may cause sunstroke to people.
Foehn or Fohn
Beneficial Wind
Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in
the Alps. It is a strong, gusty, dry and
warm wind which develops on the leeward
side of a mountain range. As the
windward side takes away whatever
moisture there is in the incoming wind in
the form of orographic precipitation, the
air that descends on the leeward side is
dry and warm (Katabatic Wind).
The temperature of the wind varies
between 15C and 20C. The wind helps
animal grazing by melting snow and aids
the ripening of grapes.
Chinook
Tertiary Winds or Local Winds
Local differences of temperature and

pressure produce local winds.
Such winds are local in extent and are
confined to the lowest levels of the
troposphere. Some examples of local
winds are discussed below.
Beneficial Wind
Foehn
like
winds
in USA
and
Canada move down the west slopes of
the Rockies and are known as chinook.
It is beneficial to ranchers east of the
Rockies as it keeps the grasslands clear of
snow during much of the winter.
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Page
| 48
Mistral
Harmful Wind
Mistral is one of the local names given to
such winds that blow from the Alps over
France towards the Mediterranean Sea.
It is channeled through the Rhine valley. It
is very cold and dry with a high speed.
It brings blizzards into southern France.
Sirocco
Harmful Wind
Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that
comes from the Sahara and reaches
hurricane speeds in North Africa and
Southern Europe.
It arises from a warm, dry, tropical air
mass that is pulled northward by lowpressure cells moving eastward across the
Mediterranean Sea, with the wind
originating in the Arabian or Sahara
deserts. The hotter, drier continental air
mixes with the cooler, wetter air of the
maritime cyclone, and the counterclockwise circulation of the low propels
the mixed air across the southern coasts
of Europe.
The
Sirocco
causes
dusty
dry
conditions along the northern coast of
Africa, storms in the Mediterranean
Sea, and cool wet weather in Europe.
Questions
Multiple choice questions
1. Multiple choice questions. (i) If the surface
air pressure is 1,000 mb, the air pressure
at 1 km above the surface will be: (a) 700
mb (c) 900 mb (b) 1,100 mb (d) 1,300 mb
2. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
normally occurs: (a) near the Equator (b)
near the Tropic of Cancer (c) near the
Tropic of Capricorn (d) near the Arctic
Circle
3. The direction of wind around a low
pressure in northern hemisphere is: (a)
clockwise
(c)
anti-clock
wise
(b)
perpendicular to isobars (d) parallel to
isobars
4. Which one of the following is the source
region for the formation of air masses? (a)
the Equatorial forest (c) the Siberian Plain
(b) the Himalayas (d) the Deccan Plateau
30 words
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1. While the pressure gradient force is from

north to south, i.e. from the subtropical
high pressure to the equator in the
northern hemisphere, why are the winds
north easterlies in the tropics.
2. What are the geostrophic winds?
3. Explain the land and sea breezes.
Inversion (Advectional type of Temperature

Inversion ); Economic Implications of
Temperature Inversion .
UPSC mains 2013 question.
Page
What
do
you
understand
by
phenomenon
of
temperature | 49
inversion in meteorology? How does it
affect weather and habitants of the
place?
150 words
Discuss the factors affecting the speed

and direction of wind.
Draw a simplified diagram to show the
general circulation of the atmosphere over
the globe. What are the possible reasons
for the formation of subtropical high
pressure over 30 N and S latitudes?
Why does tropical cyclone originate over
the seas? In which part of the tropical
cyclone do torrential rains and high
velocity winds blow and why?
Temperature
Inversion
Types:
Temperature Inversion in Intermontane
Valley (Air Drainage Type of Inversion),
Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature
Inversion), Subsidence Inversion (Upper
Surface Temperature Inversion), Frontal
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Must read first: Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Latent Heat of Condensation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3CGh
mAFFhiI
Temperature Inversion
Temperature inversion, is a reversal of the

normal behavior of temperature in the
troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at
the surface is overlain by a layer of
warmer air. (Under normal conditions,
temperature usually decreases with
height).
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Temperature Inversion in
Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage
Type of Inversion)
Effects
Inversions play an important role in

determining cloud forms, precipitation,
and visibility.
An inversion acts as a cap on the upward
movement of air from the layers below. As
a result, convection produced by the
heating of air from below is limited to
levels below the inversion. Diffusion of
dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is
likewise limited.
In regions where a pronounced low-level
inversion
is
present,
convective
clouds cannot grow
high
enough to
produce showers.
Visibility may be greatly reduced below the
inversion due to the accumulation of dust
and smoke particles. Because air near the
base of an inversion tends to be
cool, fog is frequently present there.
Inversions also affect diurnal variations in
temperature. Diurnal variations tend to be
very small.
Sometimes, the temperature in the lower

layers of air increases instead of Page
decreasing
with
elevation.
This | 50
happens commonly along a sloping
surface.
Here, the surface radiates heat back to
space rapidly and cools down at a faster
rate than the upper layers. As a result the
lower cold layers get condensed and
become heavy.
The sloping surface underneath makes
them move towards the bottom where the
cold layer settles down as a zone of low
temperature while the upper layers are
relatively warmer.
This condition, opposite to normal vertical
distribution of temperature, is known as
Temperature Inversion.
In other words, the vertical temperature
gets
inverted
during
temperature
inversion.
This kind of temperature inversion is very
strong in the middle and higher latitudes.
It can be strong in regions with high
mountains or deep valleys also.
Ideal Conditions For Temperature

Inversion
1. Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation
is greater than the incoming radiation.
2. Clear skies, which allow unobstructed
escape of radiation.
3. Calm and stable air, so that there is no
vertical mixing at lower levels.
Types of Temperature Inversion
Ground Inversion (Surface

Temperature Inversion)
A ground inversion develops when air is

cooled by contact with a colder surface
until it becomes cooler than the overlying
atmosphere; this occurs most often on
clear nights, when the ground cools off
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rapidly by radiation. If the temperature of

surface air drops below its dew point, fog
may result.
This kind of temperature inversion is very
common in the higher latitudes.
Surface temperature inversion in lower
and middle latitudes occurs during cold
nights and gets destroyed during daytime.
Page
| 51
Frontal Inversion (Advectional

type of Temperature Inversion )
Subsidence Inversion (Upper

Surface Temperature Inversion)
A subsidence inversion develops when a

widespread layer of air descends.
The layer is compressed and heated by the
resulting
increase
in
atmospheric
pressure, and as a result the lapse rate of
temperature is reduced.
If the air mass sinks low enough, the air
at higher altitudes becomes warmer than
at
lower
altitudes,
producing
a
temperature inversion.
Subsidence inversions are common over
the northern continents in winter (dry
atmosphere) and over the subtropical
oceans; these regions generally have
subsiding air because they are located
under large high-pressure centers.
This temperature inversion is called upper
surface temperature inversion because it
takes place in the upper parts of the
atmosphere.
A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air

mass undercuts a warm air mass (Cold
and Warm Fronts: we will study in detail
later) and lifts it aloft; the front between
the two air masses then has warm air
above and cold air below.
This kind of inversion has considerable
slope, whereas other inversions are nearly
horizontal. In addition, humidity may be
high, and clouds may be present
immediately above it.
This types of inversion is unstable and is
destroyed as the weather changes.
Economic Implications of
Temperature Inversion
Sometimes, the temperature of the air at

the valley bottom reaches below freezing
point, whereas the air at higher altitude
remains comparatively warm. As a result,
the trees along the lower slopes are bitten
by frost, whereas those at higher levels are
free from it.
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Due to inversion of temperature, air

pollutants such as dust particles and
smoke do not disperse in the valley
bottoms. Because of these factors, houses
and farms in intermontane valleys are
usually situated along the upper slopes,
avoiding the cold and foggy valley bottoms.
For instance, coffee growers of Brazil and
apple growers and hoteliers of mountain
states of Himalayas in India avoid lower
slopes.
Fog lowers visibility affecting vegetation
and human settlements.
Less rainfall due to stable conditions.
happens, the wind

as geostrophic wind.
The velocity and direction of the wind are

the net result of the wind generating
forces.
The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3
km above the surface, are free from
frictional effect of the surface and are
controlled by the pressure gradient and
the Coriolis force.
An air parcel initially at rest will move
from high pressure to low pressure
because of the Pressure Gradient Force
(PGF).
However, as that air parcel begins to
move, it is deflected by the Coriolis force to
the right in the northern hemisphere (to
the left in the southern hemisphere).
As the wind gains speed, the deflection
increases until the Coriolis force equals
the pressure gradient force (2 3 km
above the ground, friction is low and
winds travel at greater speeds).
At this point, the wind will be blowing
parallel to the isobars (perpendicular to
Pressure Gradient Force). When this
referred
to
| 52
Why winds dont flow from tropical high

pressure (in upper troposphere) to polar
low (in upper troposphere) directly as
shown in figure below?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRrM
6Inrhn4
Geostrophic Wind
is
Page
Jet Streams Geostrophic Wind Upper

Level Westerlies.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huweo
hIh_Bw
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Because these winds are geostrophic, i.e.,

they flow at great speeds due to low
friction and are subjected to greater
Coriolis force.
So they deflect greatly giving rise to three
distinct cells called Hadley cell, Ferrel Cell
and Polar cell.
Instead of one big cell (as shown in fig) we
have three small cells that combinedly
produces the same effect.
Jet streams
Jet streams are
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Circumpolar
(situated
around
or
inhabiting around one of the earth's
poles),
narrow, concentrated bands of
meandering,
upper tropospheric,
high velocity,
geostrophic streams,
bounded by low speed winds and
are a part of upper level westerlies.
Narrow, concentrated bands
Page
When the temperature contrast is | 53

maximum, jet stream flows in near
straight path.
But when temperature contrast reduces,
the jet stream starts to follow a
meandering path.
So meandering depends on temperature
contrast (temperature gradient).
A meander is called peak or ridge if it is
towards poles and trough if it is towards
equator.
Rossby Waves
Circumpolar
Jet streams are winds that circle around
the earth with poles as their centers.
The stream of air is very narrow (50 -150

km across) and, the air in the stream is
directed towards the axis of the stream
making it very narrow.
Meandering
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The
meandering
jet
streams
are
called Rossby Waves.
Rossby waves are natural phenomenon in
the atmosphere and oceans due to
rotation of earth.
In planetary atmospheres, they are due to
the variation in the Coriolis effect (When
temperature contrast is low, speed of jet
stream is low, and Coriolis force is weak
leading to meandering) with latitude.
Rossby waves are formed when polar air
moves toward the Equator while tropical
air is moving poleward.
The existence of these waves explains the
low-pressure cells (cyclones) and highpressure cells (anticyclones).
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Page
| 54
Polar jet streams flow 6 9 km above the

ground and Sub-tropical jet streams
flows 10 16 km above the grounds.
Why this difference in height?
Recall that troposphere is thicker at

equator 17 to 18 km, than at poles 8
to 9 km.
Pressure gradient increases with altitude

and creates high velocity winds at higher
altitudes.
The friction in the upper troposphere is
quite low due to less denser air. Hence the
Jet streams flow at great velocities.
Temperature also influences the velocity of
the jet stream. The greater the difference
in air temperature, the faster the jet
stream, which can reach speeds of up to
Upper Tropospheric
Jet streams
Tropopause.
High velocity
flow
just
below
the
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250 mph (402 kph) or greater, but average

about 110 mph (177 kph).
The jet streams have an average velocity of
120 kilometres per hour in winter and 50
km per hour in summer. These jet streams
also have cores where the speed is much
greater.
Geostrophic streams
Direction of the jet stream is determined

by pressure gradient force (temperature
contrast creates pressure gradients) and
Coriolis force.
The
direction
of
jet
stream
is
perpendicular to the pressure gradient
force.
Jet streams when weak move in the

direction of westerlies in a wavy, irregular
manner with a poleward or equator ward
component.
Types of Jet streams Permanent Jet
Page
Streams: Subtropical Jet Stream and Polar
Jet Stream; Temporary Jet Streams: | 55
Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly
Jet and Somali Jet. Impact of Jet Streams
on Weather; Jet Streams and Aviation.
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Both
the
Northern
and
Southern
hemispheres have jet streams, although
the jet streams in the north are more
forceful
due
greater
temperature
gradients.
Previous Post: Jet Streams Geostrophic
Wind Upper Level Westerlies
Permanent jet streams
There are two permanent jet streams

subtropical
jets at
lower
latitudes and polar front jets at midlatitudes.
Bounded by low speed winds
The winds surrounding jet streams are of

comparatively low velocities.
Are a part of upper level westerlies
Jet streams are produced due to winds

flowing from tropics towards poles (In
polar jet streams wind flows from
temperate region towards polar region,
and in sub-polar jet streams winds flow
from sub-tropics towards temperate
region).
Anything moving from tropics towards
poles deflects towards their right in the
northern hemisphere and towards their
left in the southern hemisphere due to
Coriolis effect. So jet streams flow from
west to east in both the hemispheres and
hence they are called westerlies or upper
level westerlies.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huweo
hIh_Bw
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRrM
6Inrhn4
Subtropical jet stream (STJ)
The sub-tropical jet stream is produced by

the earths rotation (Coriolis force) and
temperature contrast between tropical
and sub tropical regions.
At the equator, the rotation produces
greatest velocity in the atmosphere.
As a result, the rising air which spreads
out northwards and southwards, moves
faster than the latitudes over which it is
blowing.
It is deflected to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere, and at about 30 latitude, it
becomes concentrated as the subtropical
jet streams.
During winter, the STJ is nearly
continuous in both hemispheres. The STJ
exists all year in the southern hemisphere.
However, it is intermittent in the northern
hemisphere during summer when it
migrates north.
The STJ can be temporarily displaced
when strong mid-latitude troughs extend
into subtropical latitudes. When these
displacements occur, the subtropical jet
can merge with the polar front jet (Related
to Cloudbursts. We will study this in
Indian Monsoons).
STJ is closely connected to the Indian and
African summer monsoons (We will study
this in Indian Monsoons)
The polar front jet is produced by a

temperature difference and is closely
related to the polar front (more about
fronts later).
It has a more variable position than the
sub-tropical jet. In summer, its position
shifts towards the poles and in winter
towards the equator.
The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
It greatly influences climates of regions
lying close to 60 degree latitude.
It determines the path and speed and

intensity of temperate cyclones.
Temporary jet streams
While the polar and subtropical jet Page

streams are the best known and most
studied, other jet streams can form when | 56
wind speeds are above 94 kph in the
upper atmosphere at about 9 - 14.5 km
above the surface.
They are few. Important ones are Somali
Jet and The African Easterly jet.
The Tropical Easterly Jet or

African Easterly Jet
Polar front jet (PFJ)
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There are also major high velocity winds in

the lower troposphere called low-level jets
(LLJs). In the tropics, the most prominent
of these are the Somali Jet and the African
Easterly Jet.
The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature
of the northern hemispheric summer over
southern Asia and northern Africa. The
TEJ is found near between 5 and 20N.
It is fairly persistent in its position,
direction, and intensity from June through
the beginning of October.
During the south Asian summer monsoon,
the TEJ induces secondary circulations
that enhance convection over South India
and nearby ocean.
The establishment and maintenance of the
TEJ is not fully understood but it is
believed that the jet may be caused by the
uniquely high temperatures and heights
over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.
The TEJ is the upper-level venting system
for the strong southwest monsoon.
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influence on distribution of precipitation

by the temperate cyclones.
Sub-tropical jet stream and some
temporary jet streams together influence
Indian Monsoon patterns. (more about
this while studying India Monsoons in
Page
Indian geography)
Jet streams also exercise an influence on | 57
movement of air masses which may
cause prolonged
drought
or
flood conditions.
The Somali Jet
Among the most well-known of the tropical

LLJs is the Somali Jet, a southwesterly
The Somali jet occurs during the summer
over northern Madagascar and off the
coast of Somalia. The jet is most intense
from June to August.
It is a major cross-equatorial flow from the
southern Indian Ocean to the central
Arabian Sea.
A split in the axis of the jet over the
Arabian Sea, the more northern branch
intersecting the west coast of India near
17N, while the southerly branch moves
eastward just south of India.
The jet remains relatively steady from
June to September before moving
southward to the southern Indian Ocean
during the winter.
Influence of Jet Streams on

Weather
Jet
streams
help
in
maintenance
of latitudinal
heat
balance by
mass
exchange of air.
PFJ influence the mid-latitude weather
disturbances. Usually there are severe
storms when jet streams interfere with
surface wind systems.
Jet streams also influence the path of
temperate cyclones. They have an
Jet Streams and Weather in

Temperate Regions
How does jet streams affect the weather
in temperate regions?
PFJ play a key role in determining the

weather because they usually separate
colder air and warmer air.
Jet streams generally push air masses
around, moving weather systems to new
areas and even causing them to stall if
they have moved too far away.
PFJ play a major role in determining the
path and intensity of frontal precipitation
and frontal cyclones or temperate
cyclones.
Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar
vortex into temperate regions. (More later)
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winds rush inwards. The Coriolis effect

creates the cyclonic rotation that is
associated with depressions.
The winds entering the jet streak are
rapidly converging, creating a high
pressure at the upper level (Tropopause)
Page
in the atmosphere. This convergence at
upper troposphere leads to divergence | 58
(high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic
condition).
The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic
rotation that is associated with clear
weather.
Jet Streams and Aviation
Explanation
Polar jet has distinct peaks (ridges) and

troughs.
Ridges occur where the warm air (at high
pressure) pushes against the cold air.
Troughs occur where cold air (at lower
pressure) drops into warm air.
This condition occurs due to weak jet
stream which is weak due to lesser
temperature contrast between sub-tropics
and temperate region.
These ridges and troughs give rise to jet
streaks which are the main reason behind
cyclonic
and
anticyclonic
weather
conditions at the surface.
The winds leaving the jet streak are
rapidly diverging, creating a lower
in the atmosphere. The air below rapidly
replaces the upper outflowing winds. This
in turn creates the low pressure at the
surface. This surface low pressure creates
conditions where the surrounding surface
Jet streams are used by aviators if they

have to fly in the direction of the flow of
the jet streams, and avoid them when
flying in opposite direction.
Jet streams can also cause a bumpy flight,
because the jet stream is sometimes
unpredictable and can cause sudden
movement, even when the weather looks
calm and clear.
During volcanic eruptions plumes of
volcanic ash have a tendency to get
sucked into the same jet stream that
airplanes use for travel.
Jet streams on other planets
Other planets have jet streams as well,

notably Jupiter and Saturn.
Air masses - Source regions, Cold Air
Mass, Warm Air Mass; Influence of Air
Masses on World Weather; Classification
of Air Masses: Continental Polar Air
Masses (CP), Maritime Polar Air Masses
www.pmfias.com
(MP), Continental Tropical Air Masses (CT)

and Maritime Tropical Air Masses (MT).
Previous Posts:
Jet Streams Geostrophic Wind Upper

Level Westerlies
Subtropical Jet Stream, Polar Jet Stream,

Tropical Easterly Jet, Somali Jet
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDcjqv
r13Sg
Air Masses
When the air remains over a homogenous

area for a sufficiently longer time, it
acquires the characteristics of the area.
The homogenous regions can be the vast
ocean surface or vast plains and plateaus.
The air with distinctive characteristics in
terms
of temperature and humidity is
called an air mass. It is a large body of air
having little
horizontal
variation in
temperature and moisture.
Air masses form an integral part of
the global
planetary
wind
system.
Therefore, they are associated with one or
other wind belt.
High
Wind Movement Factors Affecting Wind
Coriolis Force
Winds General Circulation Permanent,
Secondary, Local Winds
They extend from surface to lower
stratosphere and are across thousands of
kilometers.
Source regions
The homogenous surfaces, over which air

masses form, are called the source
regions.
The main source regions are the high
pressure belts in the sub tropics (giving
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rise to tropical air masses) and around

the poles (the source for polar air
masses).
Source Region establishes heat and
moisture equilibrium with the overlying
air mass.
Page
When an air mass moves away from a
source region, the upper level maintains | 59
the physical characteristics for a longer
period. This is possible because air
masses are stable with stagnant air
which do not facilitate convection.
Conduction and radiation in such
stagnant air is not effective.
Conditions for the formation of Air

masses
Source region should be extensive

with gentle,
divergent
air
circulation (slightly at high pressure).
Areas with high pressure but little

pressure difference or pressure gradient
are ideal source regions.
There are no major source regions in
the mid-latitudes as these regions are
dominated by cyclonic and other
disturbances.
Air masses based on Source

Regions
1.
2.
3.
4.
There are five major source regions. These

are:
Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;

The subtropical hot deserts;
The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
The very cold snow covered continents in
high latitudes;
5. Permanently ice covered continents in the
Arctic and Antarctica.
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Accordingly, following types of airmasses

are recognised:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maritime tropical (mT);

Continental tropical (cT);
Maritime polar (mP);
Continental polar (cP);
Continental arctic (cA).
| 60
A cold air mass is one which is colder than

the underlying surface and is associated
with instability and atmospheric
turbulence.
Cold source regions (polar air masses)
Arctic Ocean - cold and moist

Siberia - cold and dry
Northern Canada - cold and dry
Southern Ocean - cold and moist
A warm air mass is one which is warmer

than the underlying surface and is
associated with stable weather conditions.
Warm source
masses)
regions
(tropical
air
Sahara Desert - warm and dry

Tropical Oceans - warm and moist
Influence of Air Masses on World

Weather
Warm Air Mass
Tropical air masses are warm and polar

air masses are cold.
The heat transfer processes that warms or
cools the air takes place slowly.
Page
Cold Air Mass
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The properties of an air mass which

influence the accompanying weather
are vertical
distribution
temperature (indicating its stability and
coldness or warmness) and the moisture
content.
The air masses carry atmospheric
moisture from oceans to continents and
cause precipitation over landmasses.
They transport latent heat, thus removing
the latitudinal heat balance.
Most of the migratory atmospheric
disturbances such as cyclones and storms
originate at the contact zone between
different air masses and the weather
associated with these disturbances is
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determined by characteristics of the air

masses involved.
Classification of Air Masses
Broadly, the air masses are classified into

polar and tropical air masses.
Both the polar and the continental air
masses can be either of maritime or
continental types.
Continental Polar Air Masses (CP)
Source regions of these air masses are the

Arctic basin, northern North America,
Eurasia and Antarctica.
These air masses are characterized by dry,
cold and stable conditions.
The weather during winter is frigid, clear
and stable.
During summer, the weather is less stable
with lesser prevalence of anticyclonic
winds, warmer landmasses and lesser
snow.
The source region of these air masses are

the
oceans
between 40
and
60
latitudes.
These are actually those continental polar
air masses which have moved over the
warmer oceans, got heated up and have
collected moisture.
The conditions over the source regions
are cool, moist and unstable. These are
the regions which cannot lie stagnant for
long.
The
weather
during
winters
is
characterized by high humidity, overcast
skies and occasional fog and precipitation.
During summer, the weather is clear, fair
and stable.
Continental Tropical Air Masses

(CT)
The source-regions of the air masses

include tropical and sub-tropical deserts
of Sahara in Africa, and of West Asia and

Australia.
These air masses are dry, hot and stable
and do not extend beyond the source.
They are dry throughout the year.
Maritime Tropical Air Masses (MT)
The source regions of these air masses

include the oceans in tropics and subtropics such as Mexican Gulf, the Pacific
and the Atlantic oceans.
These air masses are warm, humid and
unstable.
The weather during winter has mild
temperatures, overcast skies with fog.
During
summer,
the
weather
is
characterized by high temperatures, high
humidity,
cumulous
clouds
and
convectional rainfall.
Fronts - Front Formation: Frontogenesis;
Front
Dissipation:
Frontolysis;
Classification of Fronts: Stationary Front,
Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded
Front.
Maritime Polar Air Masses (MP)
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Understanding Front Formation and Types

of Fronts is important to understand the
formation
of Mid-latitude
cyclones
[temperate cyclones or extra-tropical
cyclones] and the dominant weather
patterns of mid latitudes.
Must read: Air
Classification
Mass
Air
Masses
Fronts
Fronts
are
the
typical
features
of midlatitudes
weather
(temperate
region 30 - 65 N and S). They are
uncommon (unusual) in tropical and polar
regions.
Front is a three dimensional boundary
zone formed between two converging
air
masses with different
physical
properties (temperature,
humidity,
density etc.).
Page
| 61
www.pmfias.com
The
two
air
masses dont
merge
readily due to the effect of the converging
atmospheric circulation, relatively low
diffusion coefficient and a low thermal
conductivity.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDcjqv
r13Sg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKbqcKmnpU
Front Formation
The process of formation of a front is

known as Frontogenesis (war between
two air masses), and dissipation of a front
is known as Frontolysis (one of the air
masses win against the other).
Frontogenesis
involves convergence of
two distinct air masses. Frontolysis
involves overriding of one of the air mass
by another.
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The temperature contrast influences the

thickness of frontal zone in an inversely
proportional manner, i.e., two air masses
with higher temperature difference do not
merge readily. So the front formed is less
thick.
Page
With a sudden change in temperature
through a front, there is a change in | 62
pressure also.
Front experiences wind shift, since the
wind motion is a function of pressure
gradient and Coriolis force.
Wind Shift: A change in wind direction of
45 degrees or more in less than 15
minutes with sustained wind speeds of 10
knots or more throughout the wind shift.
1 knot = 1.852 kmph
1 Nautical Mile = 1.852 km
The frontal activity is invariably associated

with cloudiness
and
precipitation because of ascent of warm
air which cools down adiabatically,
condenses and causes rainfall.
Condensation
Gif image: View in power point or on the

website www.pmfias.com [Under
respective post]
In
northern
hemisphere Frontogenesis (convergence
of air masses) happens in anti-clockwise
direction and
in
southern
hemisphere, clockwise direction. This is
due to Coriolis effect.
Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate
cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones
occur due to frontogenesis.
General Characteristics of Fronts
The intensity of precipitation depends on

the slope of ascent and amount of water
vapour present in ascending air.
Classification of Fronts
Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis

and the associated weather, the fronts can
be studied under the following types.
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Stationary Front
When the surface position of a front does

not change (when two air masses are
unable to push against each other; a
draw), a stationary front is formed.
The wind motion on both sides of the front
is parallel to the front.
Warm or cold front stops moving, so the
name stationary front.
Once this boundary resumes its forward
motion, becomes a warm front or cold
front.
Weather along a stationary front
Cumulonimbus
clouds
are
formed.
Overrunning of warm air along such a
front causes frontal precipitation.
Cyclones migrating along a stationary
front can dump heavy amounts of
precipitation,
resulting
in significant
flooding along the front.
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| 63
Gif Image View on website or View in
Power Point [Full Screen Mode]
Weather along a cold front
The weather along such a front depends

on a narrow band of cloudiness and
precipitation.
Severe storms can occur. During the
summer
months thunderstorms are
common in warm sector.
In some regions like USA tornadoes occur
in warm sector.
Produce sharper changes in weather.
Temperatures can drop more than 15
degrees within the first hour.
Cold Front
Such a front is formed when a cold air

mass replaces a warm air mass by
advancing into it or that the warm air
mass retreats and cold air mass advances
(cold air mass is the clear winner).
In such a situation, the transition zone
between the two is a cold front.
Cold front moves up to twice as quickly
as warm fronts.
Frontolysis begin when the warm air mass
is completely uplifted by the cold air mass.
Cloud formation along a cold front
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The approach of a cold front is marked by

increased wind activity in warm sector and
the appearance of cirrus clouds, followed
by lower, denser altocumulous and
At actual front, dark nimbus and
cumulonimbus
clouds cause
heavy
showers. A cold front passes off rapidly,
but the weather along it is violent.
www.pmfias.com
unlike a cold front, the temperature and

wind direction changes are
Such fronts cause moderate to gentle
precipitation over a large area, over
several hours.
The passage of warm front is marked
Page
by rise in temperature, pressure and
| 64
change in weather.
Clouds along a warm front
Warm Front
It is a sloping frontal surface along which

active movement of warm air over cold air
takes place (warm air mass is too weak to
beat the cold air mass).
Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin when
the warm air mass makes way for cold air
mass on the ground, i.e. when the warm
air mass completely sits over the cold air
mass.
With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds

is-cirrus, stratus and nimbus. [No
cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is
gentle]
Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm
front create a halo around sun and moon.
Occluded Front
Gif Image - View in Power Point [Full

Screen Mode]
Weather along a warm front
As the warm air moves up the slope, it

condenses and causes precipitation but,
Occlusion: Meteorology a process by

which the cold front of a rotating lowpressure system catches up the warm
front, so that the warm air between them
is forced upwards.
Such a front is formed when a cold air
mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes
underneath it.
Frontolysis begin when warm sector
diminishes and the cold air mass
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completely undertakes the warm sector on

ground.
Thus, a long and backward swinging
occluded front is formed which could be
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a warm front type or cold front type

occlusion.
Page
| 65
Weather along an occluded front
and warm front type weather. Such

fronts are common in west Europe.
The
formation Mid-latitude cyclones
[temperate cyclones or extra-tropical
cyclones]
involve
the
formation
of occluded front.
Clouds along an occluded front
Weather along an occluded front is

complexa mixture of cold front type
A combination of clouds formed at cold

front and warm front.
Warm front clouds and cold front clouds
are on opposite side of the occlusion.
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Page
| 66
Stationary Front
Tie = No clear Winner
Cold Front
Cold Air mass is the clear winner.
Warm Front
The warm air mass picks up a fight. But fails

to beat the cold air mass.
Cold Air mass is the winner.
Occluded Front
Cold Front + Warm Front

Double win for cold air mass
Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are examples of Temperature Inversion.
In this post: Atmospheric Moisture,
Significance of Atmospheric Moisture;
Humidity: Absolute Humidity, Relative
Humidity, Dew point and Specific
Humidity.
Understanding
these
concepts
is important to understand Forms of
Condensation and Precipitation which will
be discussed in future posts.
Previous Post:
Fronts Frontogenesis Stationary Front,
Cold Front, Warm Front, Occluded Front
Water Cycle - Hydrological cycle
There is a continuous exchange of water

between the atmosphere, the oceans and
the continents through the processes
of evaporation,
transpiration,
condensation and precipitation.
The moisture in the atmosphere is derived
from
water
bodies
through evaporation and
from
plants
through transpiration
(evapotranspiration).
Evaporated
water
undergoes condensation and
forms
clouds.
When saturation is reached, clouds give
away water in the form of
Since the total amount of moisture in the
entire system remains constant, a balance
is required between evapotranspiration
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and precipitation. The hydrological cycle

maintains this balance.
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The highest annual evaporation occur in

the sub-tropics of the western North
Atlantic and North Pacific because of the
influence
of
the Gulf
Stream and
the Kurishino Current, and in the trade
wind zone of the southern oceans.
Page
The land maximum occurs in equatorial
region because of high insolation and | 67
luxuriant
Humidity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tRLdN
3FfLZM
Water Vapour in Atmosphere
Water vapour in air varies from zero to

four per cent by volume of the
atmosphere (averaging around 2% in the
atmosphere). Amount of water vapour
(Humidity) is measured by, an instrument
called Hygrometer.
Significance of Atmospheric
Moisture
1. Water vapour absorbs radiationboth
incoming and terrestrial. It thus plays a
crucial role in the earths heat budget.
2. The amount of water vapour present
decides
the quantity
of
latent
energy stored up in the atmosphere for
development of storms and cyclones.
3. The atmospheric moisture affects the
human bodys rate of cooling by
influencing the sensible temperature.
Absolute Humidity
The oceans covering 71% of the earths

surface hold 97% of all the earths water
reserves.
Evapotranspiration may be taken as the
starting point in the hydrological cycle.
The oceans contribute 84% of the annual
total and the continents 16%.
The actual amount of the water vapour

present in the atmosphere is known as
the absolute humidity.
It is the weight of water vapour per unit
volume of air and is expressed in terms of
grams per cubic metre.
The absolute humidity differs from place
to place on the surface of the earth.
The ability of the air to hold water vapour
depends entirely on its Warm air can hold
more moisture than cold air.
Relative Humidity
Evaporation
Water vapour present in the air is known

as Humidity.
The percentage of moisture present in

the atmosphere as compared to its full
capacity at a given temperature is
known as the relative humidity.
With the change of air temperature, the
capacity to retain moisture increases or
decreases and the relative humidity is
also affected.
It is greater over the oceans and least
over the continents.
Relative humidity can be changed in either
of the two ways
1. By
adding
moisture
through
evaporation: if moisture is added by
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evaporation, the relative humidity will

increase and vice versa.
2. By changing temperature of air: a
decrease in temperature (hence, decrease
in moisture-holding capacity) will cause a
decrease in relative humidity and vice
versa.
Now to make the air saturated (100 %

relative humidity), we can add that
additional 0.3 kg of water vapor by
evaporation.
OR
If we decrease the temperature,

saturation point will come down.
Now the new saturation point = 0.5 kg

0.2 kg = 0.3 kg.
Now new saturation point (relative
humidity = 100%) occurs when the water
vapor content is 0.3 kg for 1 kg of air.
i.e. relative humidity will be 100% if 1

m3 of atmosphere contains 0.5 kg of water
vapor at temperature T.
Now we can saturate 1 m3 of air by adding

just 0.1 kg instead of 0.3 kg as in the
earlier case.
Imagine that 1 m3 of atmosphere at a

given time is made up of 0.2 kg of water
vapor at a temperature T.
Dew point
Absolute Humidity = 0.2 kg/ m3 and
So, relative humidity is expressed as %

whereas absolute humidity is expressed in
absolute terms.
the
Now for 2 C, the fall in water holding

capacity is 0.1 kg x 2 = 0.2 kg.
Let us assume that saturation occurs

when 0.5 kg of water vapor is present in 1
m3 of air
Relative Humidity = 20 %
| 68
Let us image that the temperature of 1

m3 of air is decreased by 2 C. The water
holding capacity will fall due to decrease
in temperature. Let us say it decreases by
0.1 kg per 1 C fall in temperature.
Consider 1 m3 of air at a temperature T.
Here,
Page
We can decrease the temperature.
The relative
humidity determines
the amount and rate of evaporation and
hence it is an important climatic factor.
Air containing moisture to its full capacity
at a given temperature is said to
be saturated. At this temperature, the
air cannot hold any additional amount of
moisture. Thus, relative humidity of the
saturated air is 100%.
If the air has half the amount of moisture
that it can carry, then it is unsaturated
and its relative humidity is only 50%.
Now the relative humidity = 40 % ===>

0.2 kg of water vapor per 1 m3 of
atmosphere ===> the atmosphere can still
hold 0.3 kg of water vapor since saturation
occurs at 0.5 kg.
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The air containing moisture to its full

capacity at a given temperature is said to
be
It means that the air at the given
temperature is incapable of holding any
additional amount of moisture at that
stage.
The temperature at which saturation
occurs in a given sample of air is known
as dew point.
Dew point occurs when Relative
Humidity = 100%.
Specific Humidity
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It is expressed as the weight of water

vapour per unit weight of air.
Since it is measured in units of weight
(usually grams per kilogram), the specific
humidity is not affected by changes in
pressure or temperature.
Absolute
Humidity
and
Relative
Humidity are Variable whereas Specific
Humidity is a constant.
In this post: Evaporation: Factors Affecting
Rate of Evaporation; Condensation Forms of Condensation: Dew, White Frost,
Fog, Mist, Smog, Haze (similar to smog but
there is no condensation in haze); Clouds:
Cirrus clouds, Cumulus clouds, Stratus
clouds, Nimbus clouds; High clouds
cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; Middle
clouds altostratus and altocumulus; Low
clouds stratocumulus and nimbostratus
and Clouds with extensive vertical
development
cumulus
and
cumulonimbus.
Previous Posts: Must read posts:

1. Humidity Absolute Humidity Relative
Humidity Dew point Specific Humidity
2. Adiabatic Lapse Rate Latent Heat of
Condenstion
Evaporation is a process by which water is

transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
Heat is the main cause for evaporation.
Movement of air replaces the saturated
layer with the unsaturated layer.
Hence, the greater the movement of
air, the greater is the evaporation.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoO_x
DAm2mI
Factors Affecting Rate of

Evaporation
Amount of water available.

Temperature.
Relative humidity. [explained in previous
post]
Area of evaporating surface.

Wind speed: A high wind speed removes
the saturated air from the evaporating
surface and replaces it with dry air which
favors more evaporation.
Whenever there is a combination of high
Page
temperature,
very low
relative
humidity and strong winds, the rate of | 69
evaporation is exceptionally high. This
leads to dehydration of soil to a depth of
several inches.
Air Pressure: Evaporation is also affected
by the atmospheric pressure exerted on
the evaporating surface. Lower pressure
over open surface of the liquid results in a
higher rate of evaporation.
Composition
of
water: Evaporation
is inversely proportional to salinity of
water.
Rate of evaporation is always greater over
fresh water than over salt water. [Because
of the reduction in the water vapor
pressure at the water surface due to
salinity.]
Under similar conditions, ocean water
evaporates about 5% more slowly than
fresh water.
More evaporation by plants: Water from
plants generally evaporates at a faster rate
than from land.
Condensation
Evaporation
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The transformation of water vapour into

water is called condensation.
Condensation is caused by the loss of
heat (latent heat of condensation,
opposite of latent heat of vaporization).
When moist air is cooled, it may reach a
level when its capacity to hold water
vapour ceases (Saturation Point = 100%
Relative Humidity = Dew Point reached).
Then, the excess water vapour condenses
into liquid form. If it directly condenses
into
solid
form,
it
is
known
as sublimation.
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| 70
In free air, condensation results from

cooling around very small particles termed
as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.
Particles
of dust,
smoke,
pollen and salt from
the
ocean
are
particularly good nuclei because they
absorb water.
Condensation also takes place when the
moist air comes in contact with some
colder object and it may also take place
when the temperature is close to the dew
point.
Condensation, therefore, depends upon
the amount of cooling and the relative
humidity of the air.
Condensation takes place:
1. when the temperature of the air

is reduced to dew point with its volume
remaining constant (adiabatically),
2. when
both
the
volume
and
the
temperature are reduced,
3. when moisture is added to the air through
evaporation,
After condensation the water vapour or

the moisture in the atmosphere takes one
of the following forms dew, frost, fog
and clouds.
Condensation takes place when the dew
point is lower than the freezing point as
well as higher than the freezing point.
Processes of Cooling for Producing

Condensation
These processes can be studied under the"

headings, adiabatic and non-adiabatic.
Adiabatic Temperature Changes
(Explained in detail in previous posts)
When the air rises, it expands. Thus, heat
available per unit volume is reduced and,
therefore, the temperature is also reduced.
Such a temperature change which does
not involve any subtraction of heat, and
cooling of air takes place only by ascent
and expansion, is termed adiabatic
change.
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The vertical displacement of the air is the

major
cause
of adiabatic
and
katabatic (cold, dense air flowing down a
slope) temperature changes.
Near the earths surface, most processes of
change
are non-adiabatic because
horizontal movements often produce
mixing
of
air
and
modify
its
characteristics.
Non-Adiabatic Temperature Changes
Non-adiabatic processes include cooling

by radiation, conduction or mixing with
colder air. The air may be cooled due to
loss of heat by radiation.
In case there is direct radiation from moist
air, the cooling produces fog or clouds,
subject to presence of hygroscopic nuclei
in the air.
Cooling by contact with a cold surface
produces dew, frost or fog depending on
other atmospheric conditions.
But the effect of cooling produced by
radiation, conduction and mixing is
confined to a thin layer of the atmosphere.
The non-adiabatic processes of cooling
produce only dew, fog or frost. They
are incapable of producing a substantial
amount of precipitation.
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Forms of condensation may also be

classified on the basis of their location, i.e.
at or near the earths surface and in free
air.
Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in
the first category, whereas clouds are in
Page
the second category.
| 71
Dew
When the moisture is deposited in the

form of water droplets on cooler surfaces
of solid objects (rather than nuclei in air
above the surface) such as stones, grass
blades and plant leaves, it is known as
dew.
The ideal conditions for its formation
are clear sky, calm air, high relative
humidity, and cold and long nights.
For the formation of dew, it is necessary
that the dew point is above the freezing
point.
Forms of Condensation
The forms of condensation can be

classified on the basis of temperature at
which the dew point is reached.
Condensation can take place when the
dew point is
White Frost
1. lower than the freezing point,

2. higher than the freezing point.
White frost, snow and some clouds

(cirrus clouds) are produced when the
temperature is lower than the freezing
point.
Dew, fog and clouds result even when the
temperature is higher than the freezing
point.
Frost forms on cold surfaces when

condensation takes place below freezing
point (0 C), i.e. the dew point is at or
below the freezing point.
The excess moisture is deposited in the
form of minute ice crystals instead of
water droplets.
The ideal conditions for the formation of
white frost are the same as those for the
formation of dew, except that the air
temperature must be at or below the
freezing point.
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Precipitation in the warm air mass

condenses to produce fog at the boundary
of the two air masses. These are
called frontal or precipitation fog.
Page
| 72
In fog visibility is less than one
kilometer.
Fog
When the temperature of an air mass

containing a large quantity of water
vapour falls all of a sudden, condensation
takes place within itself on fine dust
particles.
So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or
very near to the ground. Because of
the fog and mist, the visibility becomes
poor to zero.
In urban and industrial centers smoke
provides plenty of nuclei which help the
formation of fog and mist. Such a
condition when fog is mixed with smoke,
is described as smog (will be discussed
in detail in next post). [Related Question
Asked in Mains 2015: Mumbai, Delhi and
Kolkata are the three mega cities of the
country but the air pollution is much
more serious problem in Delhi as
compared to the other two. Why is this
so?]
Radiation fog results from radiation,
cooling of the ground and adjacent air.
These fogs are not very thick. Usual in
winters.
Fogs formed by condensation of warm air
when it moves horizontally over a cold
surface, are known as advectional fog.
These fogs are thick and persistent.
Occurs over warm and cold water mixing
zones in oceans.
Frontal or precipitation fog is produced
due to convergence of warm and cold air
masses where warm air mass is pushed
under by the heavier cold air mass.
Mist
The difference between the mist and fog is

that mist contains more moisture than
fog.
In mist each nuclei contains a thicker
layer of moisture.
Mists are frequent over mountains as the
rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold
surface.
Mist is also formed by water droplets, but
with less merging or coalescing. This
means mist is less dense and quicker to
dissipate.
Fogs are drier than mist and they are
prevalent where warm currents of air
come in contact with cold currents.
In mist visibility is more than one
kilometer but less than two kilometres.
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Haze
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Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by

the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes
(Primary pollutants).
We will study about smog in detail in the
Page
next post.
| 73
Clouds
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric

phenomenon where dust, smoke and other
dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky
(No condensation. Smog is similar to haze
but there is condensation in smog).
Sources for haze particles include farming
(ploughing in dry weather), traffic,
industry, and wildfires.
Smog
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets

or tiny crystals of ice formed by the
condensation of the water vapour in free
air at considerable elevations.
Clouds
are
caused
mainly
by
the adiabatic cooling of air below its
dew point.
As the clouds are formed at some height
over the surface of the earth, they take
various shapes.
According to their height, expanse, density
and transparency or opaqueness clouds
are grouped under four types : (i) cirrus;
(ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.
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| 74
Cirrus Clouds
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes

(8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and
detached clouds having a feathery
appearance. They are always white in
colour.
Cumulus Clouds
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.

They are generally formed at a height of
4,000 -7,000 m. They exist in patches and
can be seen scattered here and there.
They have a flat base.
Stratus Clouds
As their name implies, these are layered

clouds covering large portions of the sky.
These clouds are generally formed either
due to loss of heat or the mixing of air
masses with different temperatures.
Nimbus Clouds
Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray.

They form at middle levels or very near to
the surface of the earth.
These are extremely dense and opaque to
the rays of the sun.
Sometimes, the clouds are so low that
they seem to touch the ground.
Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of
thick vapour.
A combination of these four basic types
can give rise to the following types of
clouds:
1. High clouds cirrus, cirrostratus,

cirrocumulus;
2. Middle
clouds
altostratus
and
altocumulus;
3. Low clouds stratocumulus and
nimbostratus (long duration rainfall
cloud) and
4. Clouds
with
extensive
vertical
development
cumulus
and
cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud)
Suns halo is produced by the refraction
of light in: [2002]
(a) water vapour in Stratus clouds
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(b) ice crystals in Cirro-Cumulus clouds

(c) ice crystals in Cirrus clouds
(d) dust particles in Stratus clouds
In this Post: Smog - Primary and
secondary pollutants; Types of Smog:
Sulfurous smog [London Smog] and
Photochemical smog [Los Angeles Smog];
Effects of Smog; Question UPSC Mains
2015: Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the
three mega cities of the country but the air
pollution is much more serious problem in
Delhi as compared to the other two. Why
is this so?] [200 words]
Previous
post:
Must
post: Condensation
Forms
Condensation Types of Clouds
Books for UPSC IAS
Examination[Follow Link]
Civil
read
of
Primary and secondary pollutants
Sulfurous smog
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoO_x
DAm2mI
Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused

by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular
emission and industrial
fumes (Primary pollutants).
Smog
contains
soot
particulates
like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide and other components.
At least two distinct types of smog are
recognized: sulfurous
smog and photochemical smog.
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant

emitted directly from a source.
A secondary pollutant is not directly
emitted as such, but forms when other Page
pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the
| 75
atmosphere.
Examples of a secondary pollutant
include ozone, which is formed when
1. hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides

(NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight;
2. NO combines with oxygen in the air; and
3. acid rain, which is formed when sulfur
dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with
water.
Services
Smog
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Sulfurous smog is also called London

smog, (first formed in London).
Sulfurous smog results from a high
concentration of SULFUR OXIDES in the
air and is caused by the use of sulfurbearing
fossil
fuels,
particularly
coal (Coal was the mains source of power
in London during nineteenth century. The
effects of coal burning were observed in
early twentieth century).
This type of smog is aggravated
by dampness and a high concentration
of suspended particulate matter in the
air.
www.pmfias.com
Photochemical smog
Photochemical smog is also known

as Los Angeles smog.
Photochemical
smog
occurs
most
prominently in urban areas that have
large numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen
oxides are the primary emissions).
Photochemical (summer
smog) forms
when
pollutants
such
as nitrogen
oxides (primary pollutant) and organic
compounds (primary pollutants) react
together in the presence of SUNLIGHT. A
gas called OZONE (Secondary pollutant) is
formed.
Nitrogen
Dioxide + Sunlight
Ozone (Ozone in
beneficial, but near
it results in global
greenhouse gas)
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Haze
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric

phenomenon where dust, smoke and other
dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky
(No condensation. Smog is similar to haze Page
but there is condensation in smog).
Sources for haze particles include farming | 76
(ploughing in dry weather), traffic,
industry, and wildfires.
+ Hydrocarbons =
stratosphere it is
the earths surface
warming as it is a
The resulting smog causes a light

brownish coloration of the atmosphere,
reduced visibility, plant damage, irritation
of the eyes, and respiratory distress.
Effects of Smog
The atmospheric pollution levels of Los

Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Mexico City and
other
cities
are
increased
by inversion that traps pollution close to
the ground.
Temperature Inversion Types Effects
on Weather
Reactions involved
It is usually highly toxic to humans and

can cause severe sickness, shortened life
or death.
Smog is a combination of airborne
particulate matter, like soot, and invisible
toxic gases including ozone (O3), carbon
monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
which are carcinogens (cancer causing
agents).
Temperature inversions are accentuated
and precipitation is reduced.
Smog related Haze lowers visibility.
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| 77
again, Delhi is worst hit due to its

geography and climate.
Question: UPSC Mains 2015

Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the
three mega cities of the country but the
air pollution is much more serious
problem in Delhi as compared to the
other two. Why is this so?] [200 words]
In spite of similar urbanization, air

pollution is much more severe in Delhi
compared to that in Mumbai and Kolkata.
This is because of
Polluting Industry in close vicinity in
Delhi.
Delhi and its immediate neighborhood is

the hot bed of polluting industries which
are primarily coal fueled. Burning coal
releases Oxides of sulphur which forms
sulphurous smog. This type of smog is
more pronounced in Delhi than in the
other two cities due to geography and
climate.
Vehicular Emissions
All the three cities contribute nearly equal

vehicular emissions rich in CO2 and NO2.
NO2 results in phochemical smog. Here
Geography and Climate
This the most detrimental factor. Delhi

is a continental city while the other two
are coastal. Land and See Breezes in
Mumbai and Kolkata carry pollutants
away from the city. There is no such
advantage to Delhi as it is land locked.
Also, the duration of monsoon winds is
short in Delhi compared to the other two.
Delhi faces severe cold wave in winter
compared to the other two. Cold climate
here creates temperature inversion which
traps the pollutants, mainly smog, for a
longer duration.
Farm Straw Burning
Delhi is at the heart of major agricultural

region. Burning of farm straw in the
surrounding regions also adds to Delhis
pollution levels.
226 words. Cutting those 26 words will be
detrimental for success.
Precipitation;
Conventional
Types
of
Rainfall:
Rainfall,
Orographic
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Rainfall, Frontal Rainfall, Cyclonic Rain

and
Monsoonal
Rainfall;
World
Distribution of Rainfall.
Previous Post: Condensation Forms of
Condensation Types of Clouds
Precipitation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9cK
m8T_DD0
The process of continuous condensation

in free air helps the condensed particles to
grow in size. When the resistance of the
air fails to hold them against the force of
gravity, they fall on to the earths surface.
So after the condensation of water vapour,
the release of moisture is known as
precipitation. This may take place in liquid
or solid form.
Precipitation in the form of drops of water
is called rainfall, when the drop size is
more than 5 mm.
It
is
called virage when
raindrops
evaporate before reaching the earth while
passing through dry air.
Drizzle is light rainfall with drop size
being less than 0.5 mm, and when
evaporation occurs before reaching the
ground, it is referred to as
When the temperature is lower than the 0
C, precipitation takes place in the form of
fine flakes of snow and is called snowfall.
Moisture is released in the form of
hexagonal crystals. These crystals form
flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow,
other
forms
of
precipitation
are sleet and hail (more about hail while
studying thunderstorms), though the
latter are limited in occurrence and are
sporadic in both time and space.
Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen
melted snow-water. When a layer of air
with the temperature above freezing point
overlies a subfreezing layer near the
ground, precipitation takes place in the
form of sleet.
Raindrops, which leave the warmer air,
encounter the colder air below. As a
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result, they solidify and reach the ground

as small pellets of ice not bigger than the
raindrops from which they are formed.
Sometimes, drops of rain after being
released by the clouds become solidified
into small rounded solid pieces of ice and
Page
which reach the surface of the earth are
called hailstones. These are formed by the | 78
rainwater passing through the colder
layers.
Hailstones
have
several concentric layers of ice one over
the other.
Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm.
Virage: raindrops
evaporate
before
reaching the earth.
Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than
0.5 mm.
Mist: evaporation occurs before reaching
the ground leading to foggy weather.
Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the
temperature is less than 0C.
Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen
melted snow; mixture of snow and rain or
merely partially melted snow.
Hail: precipitation in the form of hard
rounded pellets is known as hail; 5 mm
and 50 mm.
Types of Rainfall
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be

classified into three main types
the convectional,
orographic
or
relief and the cyclonic or frontal.
Conventional Rainfall
The, air on being heated, becomes light

and rises up in convection currents. As it
rises, it expands and loses heat and
consequently, condensation takes place
and cumulous clouds are formed. This
process
releases latent
heat
of
condensation which further heats the air
and forces the air to go further up.
Convectional precipitation is heavy but
of short duration, highly localised and is
associated with minimum amount of
cloudiness.
It
occurs
mainly
during summer and
is
common
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over equatorial doldrums in the Congo

basin, the Amazon basin and the islands
of south-east Asia.

Condensation
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The chief characteristic of this sort of rain

is that the windward slopes receive
greater rainfall. After giving rain on the
windward side, when these winds reach
the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises. Then their capacity to
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take in moisture increases and hence,
these leeward slopes remain rainless and | 79
dry. The area situated on the leeward side,
which gets less rainfall is known as
the rain-shadow area (Some arid and
semi-arid regions are a direct consequence
of
rain-shadow
effect.
Example: Patagonian
desert
in
Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western
Ghats). It is also known as the relief rain.
Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the
Western Ghats, receives more than 600
cm of rainfall, whereas Pune, lying in the
rain shadow area, has only about 70 cm.
The Wind Descending on the Leeward Side
is
heated
adiabatically
and
is
called Katabatic Wind.
Orographic Rainfall
When the saturated air mass comes

across a mountain, it is forced to ascend
and as it rises, it expands (because of fall
in pressure); the temperature falls, and
the moisture is condensed.
This type of precipitation occurs when
warm, humid air strikes an orographic
barrier (a mountain range) head on.
Because of the initial momentum, the air
is forced to rise. As the moisture laden air
gains height, condensation sets in, and
soon saturation is reached. The surplus
moisture falls down as orographic
precipitation along the windward slopes.
Frontal Precipitation
When two air masses with different

temperatures meet, turbulent conditions
are produced. Along the front convection
occurs and causes precipitation (we
studied this in Fronts). For instance, in
north-west Europe, cold continental air
and warm oceanic air converge to produce
heavy rainfall in adjacent areas.
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| 80
World Distribution of Rainfall
Cyclonic Rain
Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall

on a large scale. (we will see this in detail
later)
The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of
convectional type while that in a
temperate cyclone is because of frontal
activity.
Monsoonal Rainfall
This type of precipitation is characterized

by seasonal reversal of winds which
carry oceanic moisture (especially the
south-west monsoon) with them and
cause extensive rainfall in south and
southeast Asia. (More while studying
Indian Monsoons).
Different places on the earths surface

receive different amounts of rainfall in a
year and that too in different seasons. In
general, as we proceed from the equator
towards the poles, rainfall goes on
decreasing steadily.
The coastal areas of the world receive
greater amounts of rainfall than the
interior of the continents. The rainfall is
more over the oceans than on the
landmasses of the world because of being
great sources of water.
Between the latitudes 35 and 40 N and S
of the equator, the rain is heavier on the
eastern coasts and goes on decreasing
towards the west. But, between 45 and
65 N and S of equator, due to
the westerlies, the rainfall is first received
on the western margins of the continents
and it goes on decreasing towards the
east.
Wherever mountains run parallel to the
coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
plain, on the windward side and it
decreases towards the leeward side.
On the basis of the total amount of annual
precipitation, major precipitation regimes
of the world are identified as follows.
The equatorial belt, the windward slopes
of the mountains along the western coasts
in the cool temperate zone and the coastal
areas of the monsoon land receive heavy
rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.
Interior continental areas receive moderate
rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per
annum. The coastal areas of the
continents receive moderate amount of
rainfall.
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The central parts of the tropical land and

the eastern and interior parts of the
temperate lands receive rainfall varying
between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the
interior of the continents and high
latitudes receive very low rainfall - less
than 50 cm per annum.
Questions
1. Which one of the following process is
responsible for transforming liquid into
vapour? (a) Condensation (c) Evaporation
(b) Transpiration (d) Precipitation
2. The air that contains moisture to its full
capacity : (a) Relative humidity (c)
Absolute humidity (b) Specific humidity (d)
Saturated air
3. Which one of the following is the highest
cloud in the sky? (a) Cirrus (c) Nimbus (b)
Stratus (d) Cumulus
150 words
Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides

an important aspect to judge its
effectiveness. In some regions rainfall is
distributed evenly throughout the year
such as in the equatorial belt and in the
western parts of cool temperate regions.
Page
| 81
1. Discuss the salient features of the world

distribution of precipitation.
2. What are forms of condensation? Describe
the process of dew and frost formation.
Click Here for More Posts on Climatology

Click Here for All Posts on Geomorphology
How to Study Geography General Studies
UPSC IAS
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CSE
In this post: Thunderstorm, Types of
Thunderstorms, Lightning and Thunder,
Tornado and Waterspout.
30 words
1. Name the three types of precipitation.
2. Explain relative humidity.
3. Why does the amount of water vapour
decreases rapidly with altitude?
4. How are clouds formed? Classify them
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Thunderstorm
Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe

local storms. They are of short duration,
occurring
over
a small
area but
are violent.
Thunderstorm is a storm with thunder
and lightning and typically also heavy
rain or hail.
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Thunderstorms mostly
occur
on
ground where the temperature is high.
Thunderstorms are less frequent on water
bodies due to low temperature.
Worldwide, there are an estimated 16
million thunderstorms each year, and at
any given moment, there are roughly
2,000 thunderstorms in progress.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9cK
m8T_DD0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysh4fuOwBI
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Ground is significantly heated due to solar

insolation.
A low pressure starts to establish due to
intense upliftment of an air parcel
(convention).
Air from the surroundings start to rush in
Page
to fill the low pressure.
Intense convection of moist hot air builds | 82
up a towering cumulonimbus cloud. [I
have explained how condensation occurs
in previous post]
Mature stage
Characterized by intense updraft of rising

warm air, which causes the clouds to grow
bigger and rise to greater height.
Later, downdraft brings down to earth the
cool air and rain.
The incoming of thunderstorm is indicated
by violent gust of wind. This wind is due to
the intense downdraft.
The updraft and downdraft determine the
path of the thunderstorm. Most of the
time, the path is erratic.
Dissipating stage
How does a thunderstorm form?
When the clouds extend to heights where

sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are
formed and they come down as hailstorm.
Intense precipitation occurs.
In a matter of few minutes, the storm
dissipates and clear weather starts to
prevail.
Motion of a thunderstorm
Cumulus stage
Path of a thunderstorm is erratic. Motion

is primarily due to interactions of its
updrafts and downdrafts.
The speed of isolated storms is typically
about 20 km (12 miles) per hour, but
some storms move much faster.
In extreme circumstances, a supercell
storm may move 65 to 80 km (about 40 to
50 miles) per hour.
Downbursts
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Downdrafts are referred to as macrobursts

or microbursts.
Macroburst is more than 4 km in diameter
and can produce winds as high as 60
metres per second, or 215 km per hour.
A microburst is smaller in dimension but
produces winds as high as 75 metres per
second, or 270 km per hour
They
are seriously
hazardous
to
aircrafts, especially during takeoffs and
landings.
Orographic thunderstorm
Types of Thunderstorms
Convectional,
Frontal,
Orographic
Thunderstorms.
Isolated
Thunderstorms,
Multiple-Cell
Thunderstorms, Supercell thunderstorms.
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Forceful upliftment of warm moist air

parcel when it passes over a mountain
barrier creates cumulonimbus cloud
causing heavy precipitation on the Page
windward side.
Orographic Cloud bursts are common | 83
in Jammu and Kashmir, Cherrapunji
and Mawsynram.
Frontal thunderstorm
Thunderstorms
fronts.
occurring
along
cold
Thermal thunderstorm
Caused due to intense heating of ground

during summer.
Single-cell thunderstorm
Single-cell thunderstorms are small, brief,

weak storms that grow and die within an
hour or so. They are typically driven by
heating on a summer afternoon.
Single-cell storms may produce brief
heavy rain and lightning (Very common in
India during summers, mostly April, May.
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In Kerala they
Showers and
showers).
are
called Mango
in
Karnataka Blossom
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A multi-cell thunderstorm
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| 84
A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm in

which new updrafts form along the leading
edge of rain-cooled air (the gust front).
Individual cells usually last 30 to 60
minutes, while the system as a whole may
last for many hours.
Multi-cell storms may produce hail, strong
winds, brief tornadoes, and/or flooding.
A super-cell thunderstorm
A super-cell is a long-lived (greater than 1

hour) and highly organized storm feeding
off an updraft (a rising current of air) that
is tilted and rotating.
Most large and violent tornadoes come
from super-cells.
Lightning and thunder
Thunder clouds in different geographic

locations tend to produce an excess
negative charge [5 and 15 C].
Positive charge accumulates at both
higher and lower altitudes.
Larger and heavier cloud particles charge
with a negative polarity.
Smaller and lighter particles acquire a
positive polarity.
This creates a high electric field.
Lightning discharges take place between
opposite charge regions, between charged
regions and the ground.
Roughly two-thirds of all discharges occur
within the cloud. The rest are between the
cloud and ground.
Lightning can be triggered by a mountain
or a tall structure that can provide easy
path for discharge.
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| 85
Thunder
Lightning creates plasma [30,000 C].

The channel pressure greatly exceeds the
ambient (surrounding) pressure, and the
channel expands at a supersonic rate
(speed of sound).
The resultant shock wave decays rapidly
with distance and is eventually heard as
thunder once it slows to the speed of
sound.
Tornado
From severe thunderstorms sometimes

spiraling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force, with very low
pressure at the center, causing massive
destruction
on
its
way.
Such
a
phenomenon is called a tornado.
Tornadoes generally occur in middle
latitudes. The tornado over the sea is
called water sprouts.
These violent storms are the manifestation
of the atmospheres adjustments to
varying energy distribution. The potential
and heat energies are converted into
kinetic energy in these storms and the
restless atmosphere again returns to its

stable state.
Tornado is a small-diameter column of
violently rotating air developed within a
convective cloud and in contact with the
ground.
Tornadoes occur most often in association
with thunderstorms during the spring and
summer in the mid-latitudes of both the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
These whirling atmospheric vortices can
generate the strongest winds known on
Earth: wind speeds in the range of 500 km
(300 miles) per hour.
They are often referred to as twisters or
cyclones.
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| 86
Distribution of tornadoes
Rare in polar regions and infrequent at

latitudes higher than 50 N and 50 S.
The temperate and tropical regions are the
most prone to thunderstorms.
Tornadoes have been reported on all
continents except Antarctica.
United States has the most violent
tornadoes.
Canada reports the second largest number
of tornadoes.
In the Indian sub-continent, Bangladesh
is the most prone country to tornadoes.
At any moment there are approximately
1,800
thunderstorms
in
progress
throughout the world.
Waterspout
Waterspout is an intense columnar vortex

(usually appearing as a funnel-shaped
cloud) that occurs over a body of water.
They are connected to a towering
cumuliform cloud or a cumulonimbus
cloud.
Weaker than most of its land counterparts
i.e. tornadoes.
Most waterspouts do not suck up water;
they are small and weak rotating columns
of air over water.
They are tornadoes in connection with
severe
thunderstorms,
but
simply
occurring over water.
Damage caused by thunderstorms

and tornadoes
Many hazardous weather events are

associated with thunderstorms.
Under the right conditions, rainfall from
thunderstorms causes flash flooding,
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killing more people each year than

hurricanes, tornadoes or lightning.
Lightning is responsible for many fires
around the world each year, and causes
fatalities.
Hail up to the size of softballs damages
cars and windows, and kills livestock
caught out in the open.
Strong (up to more than 120 mph)
straight-line
winds
associated
with
thunderstorms knock down trees, power
lines and mobile homes.
Tornadoes (with winds up to about 300
mph) can destroy all but the best-built
man-made structures.
In this post: Tropical Cyclones Favorable
conditions for the development of tropical
cyclones, Origin and Development of
Tropical
Cyclones,
Structure
and
Characteristics of a Tropical Cyclone,
Categories of Tropical Cyclones etc..
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that

originate
over
oceans
in tropical
areas and move over to the coastal areas
bringing about large scale destruction due
to violent winds (squalls), very heavy
rainfall (torrential rainfall) and storm
surge.
They are irregular wind movements
involving closed circulation of air around
a low pressure center. This closed air
circulation (whirling motion) is a result
of rapid upward movement of hot
air which is subjected to Coriolis force.
The low pressure at the center is
responsible for the wind speeds.
Squall == a sudden violent gust of wind or
localized storm, especially one bringing
rain, snow, or sleet.
Torrent == a strong and fast-moving
stream of water or other liquid.
The cyclonic wind movements are anticlockwise

in
the
northern
hemisphere and clockwise
in
the
southern
hemisphere (This
is
due
to Coriolis force).
The cyclones are often characterized by
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existence of an anticyclone between two
| 87
cyclones.
Conditions Favourable for Tropical

Cyclone Formation
1. Large sea surface with temperature higher
than 27 C,
2. Presence of the Coriolis force enough to
create a cyclonic vortex,
3. Small variations in the vertical wind
speed,
4. A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or
low-level-cyclonic circulation,
5. Upper divergence above the sea level
system,
Tropical Cyclones
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDf2Z
18nAD8
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Good Source of Latent Heat
Ocean waters having temperatures of 27

C or more is the source of moisture which
feeds the storm. The condensation of
moisture releases enough latent heat of
condensation to drive the storm.
Why tropical cyclones form mostly on
the western margins of the oceans? OR
Why tropical cyclones dont form in the
eastern tropical oceans?
The depth of warm water (26-27C) should

extend for 60-70 m from surface of the
ocean/sea, so that deep convection
currents within the water do not churn
and mix the cooler water below with the
warmer water near the surface.
The above condition occurs only in
western tropical oceans because of warm
ocean currents (easterly trade winds
pushes ocean waters towards west) that
flow from east towards west forming a
thick layer of water with temperatures
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greater than 27C. This supplies enough

moisture to the storm.
The cold currents lower the surface
temperatures of the eastern parts of the
tropical oceans making them unfit for the
breeding of cyclonic storms.
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| 88
[One Exception: During strong El Nino

years, strong hurricanes occur in the
eastern Pacific. This is due to the
accumulation of warm waters in the
eastern Pacific due to weak Walker Cell]
Why cyclones occur mostly in late
summers?
Whirling motion is enhanced when

the doldrums (region within ITCZ) over
oceans are farthest from the equator. This
happens during the autumnal equinox
(August-September). At this time, there
are two advantagesthe air is overheated
and the sun is exactly over the equator.
[Due to high specific heat of water, and

mixing, the ocean waters in northern
hemisphere
attain
maximum
temperatures in August. (Continents
attain maximum temperatures in JuneJuly)]
[rising of humid air => adiabatic lapse

rate => fall in temperature of air =>
condensation of moisture in air => latent
heat of condensation released => air gets
more hot and lighter => air is further
uplifted => more air comes in to fill the
gap => new moisture available for
condensation
=>
latent
heat
of
condensation and the cycle repeats]
Coriolis Force (f)
The Coriolis
force is
zero
at
the
equator (no cyclones at equator because
of zero Coriolis Force) but it increases
with latitude. Coriolis force at 5 latitude
is significant enough to create a storm
[cyclonic vortex].
About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity
occurs between 10 and 20 latitude.
Low-level Disturbances
Low-level disturbance (thunderstorms

they are the seeds of cyclones) in the form
of easterly wave disturbances in the InterTropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) should
pre-exist.
Small
local
differences in
the
temperature of water and of air produce
various low pressure centers of small
size. A weak cyclonic circulation develops
around these areas.
Then, because of the rising warm humid
air, a true cyclonic vortex may develop
very rapidly. However, only a few of these
disturbances develop into cyclones.
Temperature contrast between air

masses
Trade winds from both the hemispheres

meet
along
inter-tropical
front.
Temperature contrasts between these air
masses must exist when the ITCZ is
farthest, from the equator.
Thus, the convergence of these air masses
of different temperatures and the resulting
instability are the prerequisites for the
origin and growth of violent tropical
storms.
Upper Air Disturbance
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The remains of an upper tropospheric

cyclone from the Westerlies move deep
into the tropical latitude regions. As
divergence prevails on the eastern side of
the troughs, a rising motion occurs; this
leads
to
the
development
of
thunderstorms.
Further, these old abandoned troughs
(remnants of temperate cyclones) usually
have cold cores, suggesting that the
environmental lapse rate is steeper and
unstable below these troughs. Such
instability
encourages
thunderstorms
(child cyclones).
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| 89
Humidity Factor
Wind Shear
Wind Shear == differences between wind

speeds at different heights.
Tropical cyclones develop when the wind
is uniform.
Because of weak vertical wind shear,
cyclone formation processes are limited
to
latitude
equator
ward
of
the subtropical jet stream. [Jet streams]
In the temperate regions, wind shear is
high due to westerlies and this inhibits
convective cyclone formation.
A well - developed divergence in the upper

layers of the atmosphere is necessary so
that the rising air currents within the
cyclone continue to be pumped out and a
low pressure maintained at the center.
High humidity (around 50 to 60 per cent)

is required in the mid-troposphere, since
the presence of moist air leads to the
formation of cumulonimbus cloud.
Such
conditions
exist
over
the
equatorial doldrums, especially in western
margins of oceans (this is because of east
to west movement of ocean currents),
which have great moisture, carrying
capacity
because
the trade
winds continuously replace the saturated
air.
Origin and Development of

Tropical Cyclones
Upper Tropospheric Divergence
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The tropical cyclones have a thermal

origin, and they develop over tropical seas
during late summers (August to midNovember).
At these locations, the strong local
convectional currents acquire a whirling
motion because of the Coriolis force.
After developing, these cyclones advance
till they find a weak spot in the trade wind
belt.
Origin
Under favorable conditions, multiple

thunderstorms originate over the oceans.
These thunderstorms merge and create an
intense low pressure system (wind is
warm and lighter).
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Early stage
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Due to excess moisture over oceans, the

thunderstorm intensifies and sucks in air
at much faster rate. The air from
surroundings rushes in and undergoes
deflection due to Coriolis force creating
a cyclonic vortex (spiraling air column.
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Similar to tornado).
| 90
Due to centripetal acceleration (centripetal

force pulling towards the center is
countered by an opposing force called
centrifugal force), the air in the vortex is
forced to form a region of calmness called
an eye at the center of the cyclone. The
inner surface of the vortex forms the eye
wall, the most violent region of the
cyclone.
In the thunderstorm, air is uplifted as it

is warm and light. At certain height, due
to lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate,
the temperature of air falls and moisture
in the air undergoes condensation.
Condensation releases latent heat of
condensation making
the
air
more
warmer. It becomes much lighter and is
further uplifted.
The space is filled by fresh moisture laden
air. Condensation occurs in this air and
the cycle is repeated as long as the
moisture is supplied.
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[Eye is created due to tangential force

acting on wind that is following a curvy
path]
All the wind that is carried upwards loses

its moisture and becomes cold and dense.
It descends to the surface through the
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cylindrical eye region and at the edges of

the cyclone.
Continuous supply of moisture from the
sea is the major driving force behind every
cyclone.
On
reaching
the
land
the moisture supply is cut off and the
storm dissipates.
If ocean can supply more moisture, the
storm will reach a mature stage.
Mature stage
At this stage, the spiraling winds create

multiple convective cells with successive
calm and violent regions.
The regions with cumulonimbus cloud
(rising limbs of convective cell) formation
are called rain bands below which intense
rainfall occurs.
Structure of a tropical cyclone
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The ascending air will lose moisture at

some point and descends (subsides) back
to surface through the calm regions
(descending limbs of convection cell
subsiding air) that exist between two rain
bands.
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Cloud formation is dense at the center.
The cloud size decreases from center to | 92
periphery.
Rain bands are mostly made up of
cumulonimbus clouds. The ones at the
periphery are made up of nimbostratus
and cumulus clouds.
The dense overcast at the upper levels of
troposphere is due to cirrus clouds which
are mostly made up of hexagonal ice
crystals.
The dry air flowing along the central dense
overcast descends at the periphery and
the eye region.
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Eye
The "eye" is a roughly circular area of

comparatively light
winds
and
fair
weather found at the center of a severe
tropical cyclone.
There is little or no precipitation and
sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen.
The eye is the region of lowest surface
pressure and warmest temperatures aloft
(in the upper levels) - the eye temperature
may be 10C warmer or more at an
altitude of 12 km than the surrounding
environment, but only 0-2C warmer at
the surface in the tropical cyclone.
Eyes range in size from 8 km to over 200
km across, but most are approximately
30-60 km in diameter.
Eye wall
The eye is surrounded by the "eye wall",

the
roughly
circular
ring
of deep
convection, which is the area of highest
surface winds in the tropical cyclone. Eye
Wall region also sees the maximum
sustained winds i.e. fastest winds in a
cyclone occur along the eye wall region.
The eye is composed of air that is slowly
sinking and the eye wall has a net upward
flow as a result of many moderate occasionally
strong
- updrafts
and
downdrafts
[Explained
in
Thunderstorms].
The eye's warm temperatures are due to
compressional warming (adiabatic) of the
subsiding air.
Most soundings taken within the eye show
a low-level layer, which is relatively moist,
with an inversion above - suggesting that
the sinking in the eye typically does not
reach the ocean surface, but instead
only gets to around 1-3 km of the surface.
Spiral bands
Another feature of tropical cyclones that

probably plays a role in forming and
maintaining the eye is the eye wall
convection.
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Convection in tropical cyclones is

organized into long, narrow rain bands
which are oriented in the same direction
as the horizontal wind.
Because these bands seem to spiral into
the center of a tropical cyclone, they are
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called spiral bands".
Along these bands, low-level convergence | 93
is a maximum, and therefore, upper-level
divergence is most pronounced above.
A direct circulation develops in which
warm, moist air converges at the surface,
ascends through these bands, diverges
aloft, and descends on both sides of the
bands.
Subsidence is distributed over a wide area
on the outside of the rain band but is
concentrated in the small inside area.
As the air subsides, adiabatic warming
takes place, and the air dries.
Because subsidence is concentrated on
the inside of the band, the adiabatic
warming is stronger inward from the band
causing a sharp contrast in pressure falls
across the band since warm air is lighter
than cold air.
Because of the pressure falls on the
inside, the tangential winds around the
tropical cyclone increase due to increased
pressure gradient. Eventually, the band
moves toward the center and encircles it
and the eye and eye wall form.
Thus, the cloud-free eye may be due to
a combination of dynamically forced
centrifuging of mass out of the eye into
the eye wall and to a forced descent
caused by the moist convection of the
eye wall.
Vertical Structure of a Tropical

Cyclone
There are three divisions in the vertical
structure of tropical cyclones.
The lowest layer, extending up to 3 km

and known as the inflow layer, is
responsible for driving the storm.
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The middle layer, extending from 3 km to

7 km, is where the main cyclonic
storm takes place.
The outflow layer lies above 7 km. The
maximum outflow is found at 12 km and
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above.
The
movement
is anticyclonic in nature.
of
air
Categories of Tropical Cyclones

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Favorite Breeding Grounds for
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Tropical Cyclones
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| 95
South-east Caribbean region where they

are called hurricanes.
Philippines islands, eastern China and
Japan where they are called typhoons.
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea where they
are called cyclones.
Regions
What they are called
Indian Ocean
Cyclones
Atlantic
Hurricanes
Western Pacific and South China Sea
Typhoons
Western Australia
Willy-willies
The main features of tropical cyclones are

as follows.
Size and Shape
Tropical
cyclones
have
symmetrical elliptical shapes (2:3 ratio of
length and breadth) with steep pressure
gradients. They have a compact size80
and
Regional names for Tropical

Cyclones
Characteristics of Tropical
Cyclones
Around south-east African coast

Madagascar-Mauritius islands.
North-west Australia.
km near center, which may develop up to

300 km to 1500 km.
Wind Velocity and Strength
Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is

more in poleward margins than at center
and is more over oceans than over
landmasses, which are scattered with
physical barriers. The wind velocity may
range from nil to 1200 km per hour.
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Path of Tropical Cyclones
These cyclones start with a westward

movement, but turn northwards around
20 latitude. They turn further northeastwards around 25 latitude, and then
eastwards around 30 latitude. They then
lose energy and subside.
Tropical cyclones follow a parabolic path,
their axis being parallel to the isobars.
Coriolis force or earths rotation, easterly
and westerly winds influence the path of a
tropical cyclone.
Tropical cyclones die at 30 latitude
because of cool ocean waters and
increasing wind shear due to westerlies.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Warning of Tropical Cyclones
Detection of any unusual phenomena in

the weather leading to cyclones has three
main
parameters: fall
in
pressure,
increase in wind velocity, and the
direction and movement (track) of
storm.
There are a network of weather stations
monitoring pressure fall and wind
velocities in all countries of the world,
including the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
The islands attain special significance in
this as they facilitate monitoring of these
developments.
In India, there are detection radars along
both the coasts.
Monitoring is also done by aircraft which
carry a number of instruments including a
weather radar.
Cyclone monitoring by satellites is done
through very high resolution radiometers,
working in the visual and infra-red regions
(for night view) of the spectrum to obtain
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an image of the cloud cover and its

structure.
Remote sensing by radars, aircraft and
satellites helps predict where exactly the
cyclone is going to strike. It helps in
taking advance steps in the following
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areas:
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closing of ports and harbours,
suspension of fishing activities,
evacuation of population,
stocking of food and drinking water, and
provision of shelter with sanitation
facilities (safety homes).
Today, it is possible to detect a cyclone
right from its genesis in the high seas and
follow its course, giving a warning at least
48 hours prior to a cyclone strike.
However, the predictions of a storm course
made only 12 hours in advance do not
have a very high rate of precision.
What is a Storm Surge?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyB8q9e-XU
Storm Surge is an abnormal rise of sea

level as the cyclone crosses the coast.
Sea water inundates the coastal strip
causing loss of life, large scale destruction
to property & crop.
Increased salinity in the soil over affected
area makes the land unfit for agricultural
use for two or three seasons.
Storm surge depends on intensity of the
cyclone (Maximum winds and lowest
pressure associated with it and Coastal
bathymetry (shallower coastline generates
surges of greater heights).
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Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds

rotate counter-clockwise
(clockwise) in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere?
What is storm tide?
The storm tide is the combination

of storm surge and the astronomical
tide.
What are the disaster potential of

Storm Surge?
Disaster potential due to cyclones is due

to high storm surges occurring at the time
of landfall. The storm surges are by far the
greatest killers in a cyclone. as sea water
inundates low lying areas of the coastal
regions causing heavy floods, erosion of
beaches and embankments, damage to
vegetation and reducing soil fertility.
Flooding due to storm surges pollute
drinking water sources resulting in
shortage of drinking water and causing
out-break of epidemics, mostly water
borne diseases Very strong winds (Gales)
may cause uprooting of trees, damage to
dwellings,
overhead
installations,
communication lines etc., resulting in loss
of life and property.
Past records show that very heavy loss of
life due to tropical cyclones have occurred
in the coastal areas surrounding the Bay
of Bengal. Cyclones are also often
accompanied by very intense & heavy
precipitation (exceeding 40-50 cm in a day
or about 10cm or more per hour in some
places)
As the earth's rotation sets up an

apparent force (called the Coriolis force)
that pulls the winds to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere (and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere).
So, when a low pressure starts to form
over north of the equator, the surface
winds will flow inward trying to fill in the
low and will be deflected to the right and a
counter-clockwise
rotation
will
be
initiated. The opposite (a deflection to the
left and a clockwise rotation) will occur
south of the equator.
This Coriolis force is too tiny to effect
rotation in, for example, water that is
going down the drains of sinks and toilets.
The rotation in those will be determined by
the geometry of the container and the
original motion of the water.
Thus, one can find both clockwise and
counter-clockwise flowing drains no
matter what hemisphere you are located.
If you don't believe this, test it out for
yourself.
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Why there are very few Tropical

Cyclones during southwest
monsoon season?
Why there are fewer cyclones over
the Arabian Sea as compared to the
Bay of Bengal?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=myrTA
xCEAHE
Cyclones that form over the Bay of Bengal

are either those develop insitu over
southeast Bay of Bengal and adjoining
Andaman Sea or remnants of typhoons
over Northwest Pacific and move across
south China sea to Indian Seas.
As the frequency of typhoons over
Northwest Pacific is quite high (about 35
% of the global annual average), the Bay of
Bengal also gets its increased quota.
The cyclones over the Arabian Sea either
originate insitu over southeast Arabian
Sea (which includes Lakshadweep area
also) or remnants of cyclones from the Bay
of Bengal that move across south
peninsula. As the majority of Cyclones
over the Bay of Bengal weaken over land
after landfall, the frequency of migration
into Arabian Sea is low.
In addition to all the above the Arabian
Sea is relatively colder (mosnsoon
winds) than Bay of Bengal and hence
inhibits the formation and intensification
of the system.
The southwest monsoon is characterized

by the presence of strong westerly winds
in the lower troposphere (below 5 km) and
very strong easterly winds in the upper
troposphere (above 9 km). This results in
large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical
wind shear inhibits cyclone development.
Also
the
potential
zone
for
the
development of cyclones shifts to North
Bay of Bengal during southwest monsoon
season.
During this season, the low pressure
system upto the intensity of depressions
form along the monsoon trough (ITCZ),
which extends from northwest India to the
north Bay of Bengal.
The Depression forming over this area
crosses Orissa West Bengal coast in a
day or two. These systems have shorter
oceanic stay (they make landfall very
quickly) which is also one of the reasons
for their non-intensification into intense
cyclones.
What are the causes of disaster

during cyclone?
The dangers associated with

storms are generally three fold.
1. Floods
cyclonic
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2. Winds
3. Storm Surge
Very heavy rains causing floods.
The rainfall associated with a storm vary

from storm to storm even with the same
intensity. Record rainfall in a cyclonic
storm has been as low as trace to as high
as 250 cms. It has been found that the
intensity of rainfall is about 85 cms/day
within a radius of 50 kms and about 35
cms/day between 50 to 100 kms from the
centre of the storm. Precipitation of about
50 cm/day is quite common with a C.S.
This phenomenal rain can cause flash
flood.
Strong wind.
The strong wind speed associated with a

cyclonic storm. (60-90 kmph) can result
into some damage to kutcha houses and
tree branches likely to break off. Winds of
a severe Cyclonic storm (90-120 kmph)
can cause uprooting of trees, damage to
pucca
houses
and
disruption
of
communications. The wind associated
with a very severe Cyclonic storm and
super cyclonic storm can uproot big trees,
cause wide spread damages to houses and
installations and total disruption of
communications. The maximum wind
speed associated with a very severe
Cyclonic storm that hit Indian coast in the
past 100 years was 260 kmph in Oct.,
1999 (Paradeep Super cyclone).
The recent cyclone on east coast of

India was called Phailin. How are the
tropical cyclones named across the
world? Elaborate.
WMO (World meteorological organization)

divided the world Oceans into Basins and
assigned the responsibility of naming the
Cyclones to the respective regional bodies.
Each regional body has its own rules in
naming cyclones. In most regions predetermined alphabetic lists of alternating
male and female names are used.
In the north-west Pacific the majority of
names used are not personal names.
While there are a few male and female
names, majority are names of flowers,
animals, birds, trees, foods or descriptive
adjectives.
How are cyclones named in

Northern Indian Ocean Region
Storm surge
Storm surge occur in places where a
tropical cyclone crosses the coast
(makes landfall).
The severest destructive feature of a
tropical storm is the storm surge
popularly called tidal waves.
The costal areas are subjected to storm
surge and is accentuated if the landfall
time coincides with that of high
tides. This is again more if the sea bed is

shallow.
Storm surge as high as 15 to 20 ft. may
occur when all the factors contributing to
storm surge are maximum. This storm
tide inundates low lying coastal areas
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which has far reaching consequences
| 99
apart from flooding.
The fertility of land is lost due
to inundation by saline water for a few
years to come.
Mains 2013: Naming of Cyclones
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The names of cyclones in Indian Seas are

not allocated in alphabetical order, but are
arranged by the name of the country
which contributed the name.
It is usual practice for a storm to be
named when it reaches tropical storm
strength (winds of 34 knots).
Knot
The knot (pronounced not) is a unit of

speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852
km) per hour, approximately 1.151 mph
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Worldwide, the knot is used in

meteorology, and in maritime and air
navigationfor
example,
a
vessel
travelling at 1 knot along a meridian
travels approximately one minute of
geographic latitude in one hour.
1 international knot = 1 nautical mile per
hour (exactly) = 1.852 kilometres per hour
(exactly) = 0.514 metres per second
(approximately)
The Indian Meteorological Department
(IMD) which issues cyclone advisors to
eight countries has a list of names
contributed by each of them.
Every time a cyclone occurs, a name is
picked in the order of the names that are
already submitted.
Each country gets a chance to name a
cyclone. After all the countries get their
turn, the next list of names is followed.
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preparedness, also helps in quick

information exchange between faraway
stations, ships etc.
Polar or Arctic Cyclones
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Arctic or polar cyclones occur in Antarctic
regions and can reach up to 1,200 miles |
wide.
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Polar cyclones differ with others because
they are not seasonal. [Tropical Cyclones
are seasonal]
They can occur at any time of the year.
Polar cyclones can also form quickly
(sometimes less than 24 hours), and
their direction or movement cannot be
predicted.
They can last from a day up to several
weeks. [Tropical Cyclones doesnt for more
than a week]
Most frequently, polar cyclones develop
above northern Russia and Siberia.
Maximum Sustained Wind
Low Pressure, Depression and

Cyclone
Why is this system of uniformity

in naming a cyclone in the region
Tropical cyclones are named to provide

ease
of
communication
between
forecasters and the general public
regarding forecasts and warnings.
Since the storms can often last a week or
even longer and more than one cyclone
can be occurring in the same region at the
same time, names can reduce the
confusion about what storm is being
described
Naming
them
after
a
person/flower/animal etc. makes it easier
for the media to report on tropical
cyclones,
increases
community
India Meteorological Department (IMD)

uses a 3 minutes averaging for the
sustained wind.
Maximum sustained wind is the highest 3
minutes surface wind occurring within the
circulation of the system.
How are low pressure system classified

in India? What are the differences
between low, depression and cyclone?
The pressure criteria is used, when the

system is over land and wind criteria is
used, when the system is over the sea.
The system is called as low if there is one
closed isobar in the interval of 2 hPa.
It is called depression, if there are two
closed isobars, a deep depression, if there
are three closed isobars and cyclonic
storm if there are four or more closed
isobars.
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The detailed classification based on wind

System
Low pressure area
Depression
Deep Depression
Cyclonic Storm
Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS)
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm
Super Cyclonic Storm
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criteria are given in the Table below.
Pressure
deficient-hPa
1.0
1.0- 3.0
3.0 - 4.5
4.5- 8.5
8.5-15.5
15.5-65.6
>65.6
Associated wind speed-Knots (Kmph)

<17(<32)
17-27 (3250)
28-33 (5159)
34-47 (60-90)
48-63 (90-119)
64-119 (119-220)
>119(>220)
Central Dense Overcast (CDO)
"CDO" is an acronym that stands for

"central dense overcast".
This is the cirrus cloud shield that
results from the thunderstorms in the
eyewall of a tropical cyclone and its
rainbands.
Before the tropical cyclone reaches
very severe cyclonic storm (64 knots,),
typically the CDO is uniformly showing
the cold cloud tops of the cirrus with
no eye apparent.
Annual frequency of Cyclones over

the Indian Seas
The average annual frequency of tropical

cyclones in the north Indian Ocean (Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea) is about 5
(about 5-6 % of the Global annual
average) and about 80 cyclones form
around the globe in a year.
The frequency is more in the Bay of
Bengal than in the Arabian Sea, the ratio
being 4:1.
States Vulnerable to Cyclones
Which sector of the cyclone

experiences strongest winds?
In general, the strongest winds in a

cyclone are found on the right side of the
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storm. The "right side of the storm" is

defined with respect to the storm's motion:
if the cyclone is moving to the west, the
right side would be to the north of the
storm; if the cyclone is moving to the
north, the right side would be to the east
of the storm, etc.
The strongest wind on the right side of the
storm is mainly due to the fact that the
motion of the cyclone also contributes to
its swirling winds.
A cyclone with a 145 kmph winds while
stationary would have winds up to 160
kmph on the right side and only 130
kmph on the left side if it began moving
(any direction) at 16 kmph.
IMD and Cyclone Diasster Management
What is the role of upper

tropospheric westerly trough ?
An Upper tropospheric westerly trough is

important for tropical cyclone forecasting
as they can force large amounts of vertical
wind shear over tropical disturbances and
tropical cyclones which may inhibit their
strengthening.
There are also suggestions that these
troughs can assist tropical cyclone genesis
and intensification by providing additional
1999, IMD introduced a 4-Stage warning

system to issue cyclone warnings to the
disaster managers. They are as follows:
Pre-Cyclone Watch
The cyclones, which cross 20 N latitude

generally, recurve and they are more
destructive.
Tropical Cyclones move as a whole. They
casually move west-northwestwards or
northwestwards
in
the
northern
hemisphere.
The average speed is 15-20 kmph (360480 km per day). They may change their
direction of movement towards north.
During this change their speed of
movement decreases to 10 kmph or even
less.
A larger fraction of such storms later turn
towards
northeast
and
move
northeastwards very fast at a speed of 25
kmph or more.
forced ascent near the storm centre

and/or by allowing for an efficient outflow
channel in the upper troposphere.
The location of this trough and its
intensity can also influence the movement
of the storm and hence can be used
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for cyclone track forecasting.
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What is 4-stage warning system for 102

Tropical Cyclones?
What is the normal movement of a

Tropical Cyclone?
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Issued when a depression forms over the

Bay of Bengal irrespective of its distance
from the coast and is likely to affect Indian
coast in future. The pre-cyclone watch is
issued by the name of Director General of
Meteorology and is issued at least 72
hours in advance of the commencement of
adverse weather. It is issued at least once
a day.
Cyclone Alert
Issued atleast 48 hours before the

commencement of the bad weather when
the cyclone is located beyond 500 Km
from the coast. It is issued every three
hours.
Cyclone Warning
Issued at least 24 hours before the

commencement of the bad weather when
the cyclone is located within 500 Km from
the coast. Information about time /place
of landfall are indicated in the bulletin.
Confidence in estimation increases as the
cyclone comes closer to the coast
Post landfall outlook
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It is issued 12 hours before the cyclone

landfall, when the cyclone is located
within 200 Km from the coast. More
accurate & specific information about time
/place of landfall and associated bad
weather indicated in the bulletin. In
addition, the interior distraction is likely
to be affected due to the cyclone are
warned in this bulletin.
the tropics are called the Temperate

Cyclones or Extra Tropical Cyclones or
Mid-Latitude
Cyclones
or
Frontal
Cyclones or Wave Cyclones.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKbqcKmnpU
Origin and Development of

Temperate Cyclones
Modifying cyclones?
Seeding with silver iodide.

Placing a substance on the ocean surface.
By nuking them.
By cooling the surface waters with deep
ocean water.
By adding a water absorbing substance.
How are Tropical Cyclones

monitored by IMD?
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A
good
network
of
meteorological
observatories (both surface and upper air)
is operated by IMD, covering the entire
coastline and islands.
The
conventional
observations
are
supplemented by observational data from
automatic weather stations (AWS), radar
and satellite systems.
INSAT imagery obtained at hourly
intervals during cyclone situations has
proved to be immensely useful in
monitoring
the
development
and
movement of cyclones.
The systems developing in the mid and
high latitude (35 latitude and 65
latitude in both hemispheres), beyond
Polar Front Theory
According to this theory, the warm-humid

air masses from the tropics meet the drycold air masses from the poles and thus a
polar front is formed as a surface of
discontinuity.
Such conditions occur over sub-tropical
high, sub-polar low pressure belts and
along the Tropopause.
The cold air pushes the warm air upwards
from underneath. Thus a void is created
because of lessening of pressure. The
surrounding air rushed in to occupy this
void and coupled with the earths rotation,
a cyclone is formed which advances with
the westerlies (Jet Streams).
In detail
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GIF image: View in power point or on

the website
In the northern hemisphere, warm air

blows from the south and cold air from the
north of the front.
When the pressure drops along the front,
the warm air moves northwards and the
cold air move towards south setting in
motion
an anticlockwise
cyclonic
circulation (northern hemisphere). This
is due to Coriolis Force.
The cyclonic circulation leads to a welldeveloped extra tropical cyclone, with a
warm front and a cold front.
There are pockets of warm air or warm
sector wedged between the forward and
the rear cold air or cold sector. The warm
air glides over the cold air and a sequence
of clouds appear over the sky ahead of the
warm front and cause precipitation.
The cold front approaches the warm air
from behind and pushes the warm air up.
As a result, cumulus clouds develop along
the cold front. The cold front moves
faster than the warm front ultimately
overtaking the warm front. The warm air
is completely lifted up and the front
is occluded (occluded front) and the
cyclone dissipates.
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The processes of wind circulation both at

the surface and aloft are closely
interlinked.
So
temperate
cyclone
is
intense frontogenesis involving
mainly occlusion type front. (Occluded
front explained in detail in previous posts).
Normally, individual frontal cyclones exist
for about 3 to 10 days moving in a
generally west to east direction.
Precise movement of this weather system
is controlled by the orientation of the polar
jet stream in the upper troposphere.
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Characteristics of Temperate
Cyclones
Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate

Cyclones
The temperate cyclones occur mostly

in winter, late autumn and spring. They
are generally associated with rainstorms
and cloudy weather.
During summer, all the paths of temperate
cyclones shift northwards and there are
only few temperate cyclone over subtropics and the warm temperate zone,
although a high concentration of storms
occurs over Bering Strait, USA and
Russian Arctic and sub-Arctic zone.
Distribution of Temperate
Cyclones
USA and Canada extend over Sierra

Nevada, Colorado, Eastern Canadian
Rockies and the Great Lakes region,
the belt extending from Iceland to Barents
Sea and continuing over Russia and
Siberia,
winter storms over Baltic Sea,
Mediterranean basin extending up to
Russia and even up to India in winters
(called western disturbances) and the
Antarctic frontal zone.
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Size and Shape
The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical

and shaped like an inverted V.
They stretch over 500 to 600 km.
They may spread over 2500 km over North
America (Polar Vortex).
They have a height of 8 to 11 km.
Wind Velocity And Strength
The wind strength is more in eastern and

southern portions, more over North
America compared to Europe.
The wind velocity increases with the
approach but decreases after the cyclone
has passed.
Orientation And Movement
Jet stream plays a major role in temperate

cyclonogeneis.
Jet streams also influence the path of
temperate cyclones.
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Since
these
cyclones
move
with
the westerlies (Jet Streams), they are
oriented east-west.
If the storm front is east-west, the center
moves swiftly eastwards.
If the storm front is directed northwards,
the center moves towards the north, but
after two or three days, the pressure
difference declines and the cyclone
dissipates.
In case the storm front is directed
southwards, the center moves quite deep
southwards-even up to the Mediterranean
region
[sometimes
causing
the
Mediterranean
cyclones
or Western
Disturbances (They are very important as
they bring rains to North-West India
Punjab, Haryana)].
Structure
The north-western sector is the cold sector

and the north-eastern sector is the warm
sector (Because cold air masses in north
and warm air masses in south push
against each other and rotate anticlockwise in northern hemisphere).
Associated Weather
The approach of a temperate cyclone is

marked by fall in temperature, fall in the
Origin
Latitude
Frontal
system
Formation
Season
Size
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mercury level, wind shifts and a halo

around the sun and the moon, and a
thin veil of cirrus clouds.
A light drizzle follows which turns into a
heavy downpour. These conditions change
with the arrival of the warm front which
Page
halts the fall in mercury level and the
|
rising temperature.
Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails
106
until the cold front of an anticyclonic
character arrives which causes a fall in
temperature,
brings
cloudiness
and
rainfall with thunder. After this, once
again clear weather is established.
The temperate cyclones experience more
rainfall when there is slower movement
and a marked difference in rainfall and
temperature between the front and rear of
the cyclone. These cyclones are generally
accompanied by anticyclones.
In this post: Tropical Cyclones and
Temperate
Cyclones
Comparison
or Tropical
Cyclones
vs. Temperate
Cyclones or Comparison Between Tropical
Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones.
Tropical Cyclones and Temperate

Cyclones -Comparison
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMyq
Hk_8SkI
Tropical Cyclone
Thermal Origin
Temperate Cyclone
Dynamic Origin Coriolis Force,
Movement of air masses.
0
0
Confined to 10 - 30 N and S of Confined to 350 - 650 N and S of
equator.
equator.
More
pronounced
in
Northern hemisphere due to greater
temperature contrast.
Absent
The very cyclone formation is due to
frontogenesis.[Occluded Front]
They form only on seas with Can form both on land as well as
temperature more than 26-270 C. seas
They dissipate on reaching the land.
Seasonal: Late summers (Aug - Oct) Irregular. But few in summers
and more in winters.
Limited to small area.
They cover a larger area.
Typical size: 100 500 kms in Typical size: 300 2000 kms in
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diameter.
Shape
diameter.
region.
Varies
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from
region
to
Varies with the strength of the

cyclone.
Elliptical
Inverted V
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107
Rainfall
Heavy but does not last beyond a

few hours. If the cyclone stays at a
place, the rainfall may continue for
many days.
Wind
Much greater (100 250 kmph)(200
Velocity and 1200 kmph in upper troposphere)
destruction
Greater destruction due to winds,
storm surges and torrential rains.
Isobars
Complete circles and the pressure
gradient is steep
Life time
Doesnt last for more than a week
Path
East West. Turn North at
200 latitude
and
west
at
0
30 latitude.
In a temperate cyclone, rainfall is

slow and continues for many days,
sometimes even weeks.
Comparatively low. Typical range:
30 150 kmph.
Less destruction due to winds but
more destruction due to flooding.
Isobars are usually V shaped and
the pressure gradient is low.
Last for 2-3 weeks.
West East (Westerlies Jet
Streams). Move away from equator.
Move away from equator.

The movement of Cyclones in
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal is a
little different.
Here,
these
storms
are
superimposed upon the monsoon
circulation of the summer months,
and they move in northerly direction
along with the monsoon currents.
Temperature
distribution
The temperature at the center is All the sectors of the cyclone have
almost equally distributed.
different temperatures
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Calm region
The center of a tropical cyclone is In a temperate cyclone, there is not

known as the eye. The wind is calm a single place where winds and
at the center with no rainfall.
rains are inactive.
Driving force
The tropical cyclone derives its

energy from the latent heat of
condensation, and the difference in
densities of the air masses does not
contribute to the energy of the
cyclone.
Influence of The relationship between tropical
Jet streams
cyclones and the upper level air-flow
is not very clear.
Clouds
The energy of a temperate cyclone Page

depends on the densities of air
|
masses.
108
The temperate cyclones, in contrast,
have a distinct relationship with
upper level air flow (jet streams,
Rossby waves etc.)
The tropical cyclones exhibit fewer The temperate cyclones show a

varieties of clouds cumulonimbus, variety of cloud development at
nimbostratus, etc..
various elevations.
Surface anti- The tropical cyclones are not

cyclones
associated with surface anticyclones
and they have a greater destructive
capacity.
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The
temperate
cyclones
are
associated with anticyclones which
precede and succeed a cyclone.
These cyclones are not very
destructive.
Influence on Both coasts effected. But east coast Bring rains to North West India.
India
is the hot spot.
The associated instability is called
Western Disturbances.
Titbit: In certain instances, two cyclones
around one another, with the smaller and
move toward each other and revolve
less intense one moving more quickly.
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This phenomenon is called the Fujlwara

effect.
In this post: El Nino, El Nino Southern

Oscillation ENSO, Indian Ocean Dipole
IOD, La Nina and El Nino Modoki.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jcFo1i
5zzHc
El Nio is the name given to the

occasional development of warm ocean
surface waters along the coast of Ecuador
and Peru.
When this warming occurs the usual
upwelling of cold, nutrient rich deep ocean
water is significantly reduced.
El
Nio
normally
occurs
around Christmas and usually lasts for a
few weeks to a few months.
Sometimes an extremely warm event can

develop that lasts for much longer time
periods. In the 1990s, strong El Nios
developed in 1991 and lasted until 1995,
and from fall 1997 to spring 1998.
Normal Conditions
El Nino
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|
In a normal year, a surface low 109

pressure develops
in
the
region
of northern Australia and Indonesia and
a high pressure system over the coast of
Peru. As a result, the trade winds over
the Pacific Ocean move strongly from east
to west.
The easterly flow of the trade winds carries
warm
surface
waters westward,
bringing convective
storms
(thunderstorms) to Indonesia and coastal
Australia. Along the coast of Peru, cold
bottom cold nutrient rich water wells
up to the surface to replace the warm
water that is pulled to the west.
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110
Walker circulation (Occurs during

Normal Years)
The Walker circulation (walker cell) is

caused by the pressure gradient force that
results from a high pressure system over
the eastern Pacific ocean, and a low
pressure system over Indonesia.
Ecuador. This brings nutrient-rich cold

water to the surface, increasing fishing
stocks.
During El Nino year
This cross-section of the Pacific Ocean,

along the equator, illustrates the pattern
of atmospheric circulation typically found
at the equatorial Pacific. Note the position
of the thermocline.
Thermocline == noun a temperature

gradient in a lake or other body of water,
separating
layers
at
different
temperatures.
The Walker cell is indirectly related to
upwelling off the coasts of Peru and
In an El Nio year, air pressure drops over

large areas of the central Pacific and along
the coast of South America.
The normal low pressure system is
replaced by a weak high in the western
Pacific (the southern oscillation). This
change in pressure pattern causes
the trade winds to be reduced == Weak
Walker Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might
even get reversed.
This reduction allows the equatorial
counter
current
(current
along
doldrums) to accumulate warm ocean
water along the coastlines of Peru and
Ecuador.
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Fish catches off the coast of South

America were lower than in the normal
year (Because there is no upwelling).
Severe droughts occur in Australia,
Indonesia, India and southern Africa.
Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and
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the Gulf of Mexico.
|
111
This accumulation of warm water causes

the thermocline to drop in the eastern part
of Pacific Ocean which cuts off the
upwelling
of
cold
deep
ocean
water along the coast of Peru.
Climatically, the development of an El
Nio brings drought to the western
Pacific, rains to the equatorial coast of
South America, and convective storms
and hurricanes to the central Pacific.
Normal Conditions
Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and
Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water == Good
for Fishing.
Western Pacific == Indonesia and
Australia == Warm Ocean Water ==
Plenty of rains.
El Nino Condition
Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and
Ecuador == Warm Ocean Water ==
Fishing industry takes a hit.
This cross-section of the Pacific Ocean,

along the equator, illustrates the pattern
of atmospheric circulation that causes the
formation of the El Nio.
How El Nino impacts monsoon

rainfall in India
In the image above, we can see the

presence of a strong El Nio event
(October, 1997).
Effects of El Nino
Western Pacific == Indonesia and

Australia == Cold Ocean Water ==
Drought.
The warmer waters had a devastating

effect on marine life existing off the coast
of Peru and Ecuador.
El Nino and Indian monsoon are inversely

related.
The most prominent droughts in India six of them - since 1871 have been El Nino
droughts, including the recent ones in
2002 and 2009
However, not all El Nino years led to a
drought in India. For instance, 1997/98
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was a strong El Nino year but there was

no drought (Because of IOD).
On the other hand, a moderate El Nino in
2002 resulted in one of the worst
droughts.
El Nino directly impacts India's agrarian
economy as it tends to lower the
production of summer crops such as rice,
sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds.
The ultimate impact is seen in the form of
high inflation and low gross domestic
product growth as agriculture contributes
around 14 per cent to the Indian economy.
El Nino Southern Oscillation

[ENSO]
The formation of an El Nio [Circulation

of Water] is linked with Pacific Ocean
circulation
pattern
known
as
the southern oscillation [circulation of
atmospheric pressure]
Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and
climatology,
is
a
coherent
interannual fluctuation
of
atmospheric
pressure over the tropical Indo-Pacific
region.
El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide
most of the times hence their combination
is called ENSO El Nino Southern
Oscillation.
Only El Nino == [Warm water in Eastern
Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific].
Only SO == [Low Pressure over Eastern
Pacific + High Pressure over Western
Pacific]
ENSO = [Warm water in Eastern Pacific +
Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific] + [Cold
water in Western Pacific + High Pressure
over Western Pacific].
Southern Oscillation Index and

Indian Monsoons
SO is a see-saw pattern of meteorological

changes observed between the Eastern
Pacific and Western Pacific.
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When the pressure was high over

equatorial Eastern Pacific, it was low over
the equatorial Western Pacific and vice
versa.
The pattern of low and high pressures
gives rise to vertical circulation along the
Page
equator with its rising limb over low
pressure area and descending limb over |
high pressure area. This is known as
112
Walker Circulation.
The location of low pressure and hence the
rising limb over Western Pacific is
considered to be conductive to good
monsoon rainfall in India.
Its shifting eastward from its normal
position, such as in El Nino years, reduces
monsoon rainfall in India.
Due to the close association between an El
Nino (E.N.) and the Southern Oscillation
SO the two are jointly referred to as
an ENSO event.
The periodicity of SO is not fixed and
its period varies from two to five years.
Southern Oscillation Index (SOD) is used
to measure the intensity of the Southern
Oscillation.
This is the difference in pressure
between Tahiti
in
French
Polynesia (Central Pacific), representing
the Central Pacific Ocean and Port
Darwin,
in
northern
Australia
representing the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
The positive and negative values of the SOI
i.e. Tahiti minus the Port Darwin pressure
are pointers towards good or bad rainfall
in India.
Positive SOI
Tahiti pressure greater
than that of Port Darwin
Pressure high over
eastern Pacific and low
over
Drought conditions in
Eastern Pacific and good
rainfall in Western Pacific
(Northern Australia and
Indonesia)
Good for Indian
Monsoons
Negative SOI
Reverse
Reverse
Reverse
Bad for Indian

Monsoons
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Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not

every El Nino year is same in India)
Although ENSO was statistically effective

in explaining several past droughts in
India, in the recent decades the ENSOMonsoon relationship seemed to weaken
in the Indian subcontinent. For e.g. the
1997, strong ENSO failed to cause
drought in India.
However, it was later discovered that just
like ENSO was an event in the Pacific
Ocean,
a
similar
seesaw
oceanatmosphere system in the Indian Ocean
was also at play. It was discovered in 1999
and named the Indian Ocean Dipole
(IOD).
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined
by
the difference
in
sea
surface
temperature between two areas (or
poles, hence a dipole) a western pole in
the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean)
and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian
Ocean south of Indonesia.
IOD develops in the equatorial region of
Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in
October.
With a positive IOD winds over the Indian
Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results
in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean
near African Coast) being much warmer
and eastern Indian Ocean around
Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
In the negative dipole year (negative IOD),
reverse happens making Indonesia much
warmer and rainier.
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It was demonstrated that a positive IOD

index often negated the effect of ENSO,
resulting in increased Monsoon rains in
several ENSO years like the 1983, 1994
and 1997.
Further, it was shown that the two poles
Page
of the IOD - the eastern pole (around
Indonesia) and the western pole (off the |
African coast) were independently and
113
cumulatively affecting the quantity of
rains for the Monsoon in the Indian
subcontinent.
Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric
component of the IOD was later discovered
and named as Equatorial Indian Ocean
Oscillation [EQUINOO][Oscillation of
warm water and atmospheric pressure
between Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea].
Impact on IOD on Cyclonogeneis

in Northern Indian Ocean
Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than

Bay of Bengal) results in more cyclones
than usual in Arabian Sea.
Negative IOD results in stronger than
usual
cyclonogenesis
(Formation
of
Tropical Cyclones) in Bay of Bengal.
Cyclonogenesis
in
Arabian
Sea
is
suppressed.
The El Nio Modoki
El Nio Modoki is a coupled oceanatmosphere phenomenon in the tropical

Pacific.
It is different from another coupled
phenomenon in the tropical Pacific
namely, El Nio.
Conventional El Nio is characterized by
strong anomalous warming in the eastern
equatorial Pacific.
Whereas, El Nio Modoki is associated
with strong anomalous warming in the
central tropical Pacific and cooling in
the eastern and western tropical
Pacific (see figure below).
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114
El Nio Modoki Impacts
The El Nio Modoki phenomenon is

characterized by the anomalously warm
central equatorial Pacific flanked by
anomalously cool regions in both west and
east.
Such
zonal
gradients
result
in
anomalous two-cell
Walker
Circulation over the tropical Pacific, with
a wet region in the central Pacific.
La Nina
After an El Nio event weather conditions

usually return back to normal.
However, in some years the trade winds
can become extremely strong and an
abnormal accumulation of cold water can
occur in the central and eastern Pacific.
This event is called a La Nia.
A strong La Nia occurred in 1988 and
scientists believe that it may have been
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responsible for the summer drought over

central North America. During this period,
the Atlantic Ocean has seen very active
hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999.
One of the hurricanes that developed,
named Mitch, was the strongest October
hurricane ever to develop in about 100
years of record keeping.
Some of the other weather effects of La

Nia include
A polar vortex is a large pocket of very cold

air, typically the coldest air in the
Northern Hemisphere, which sits over the
polar region during the winter season.
Polar Vortex is a
Page
1. Cold;
2. Upper tropospheric: sometime extending |
till the lower levels of stratosphere (At
115
poles, the troposphere extends up to 8-9
km);
3. Circumpolar;
4. Low pressure;
5. Large cyclonic parcel of air [1000 km]
(counter-clockwise
in
the
Northern
Hemisphere)
Effects of La Nina
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Polar vortex is closely associated with jet

streams [Rossby waves].
It is formed mainly in winter and
gets weaker in summer.
It surrounds polar highs and lie within
the polar front (boundary separating the
temperate and polar air masses).
1. abnormally heavy monsoons in India

and Southeast Asia,
2. cool
and
wet
winter
weather
in
southeastern Africa, wet weather in
eastern Australia,
3. cold winter in western Canada and
northwestern United States,
4. winter drought in the southern United
States.
In this post: Polar Vortex Ozone Hole
Ozone Depletion Polar Stratospheric
Clouds.
Polar Vortex
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zkp_
JN5_Vk
In the previous posts, we have studied

about tropical cyclones and extra tropical
cyclones (Temperate Cyclone). Here we will
study Polar vortex (circumpolar vortex)
which is a polar cyclone.
Polar Vortex Cold Wave

How
Polar
Midlatitudes,
Vortex
slips
Breakdown of the polar vortex,

Sudden stratospheric warming,
towards
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Polar vortex event.

All the above phrases mean the same
Polar Vortex Cold Wave.
The polar vortex will remain in its place

when the Westerlies along with the polar
jet are strong (Strong polar vortex means
there
is huge
temperature
contrast between the temperate and polar
regions).
When the polar vortex is weak, it intrudes
into the midlatitude regions by buckling
the general wind flow pattern. This leads
to significant cold outbreaks in the
midlatitude regions.
The vortex is capable of delivering subzero
temperatures to the United States and
Canada where is occurs the most.
How it slips
The Polar jet traverses somewhere over

650 N and S latitudes. When the
temperature contrast between polar and
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temperate regions is maximum, the jet is

very strong and the meandering is
negligible.
But when the temperature contrast is low
(doesnt mean its summer), the jet starts
to meander (Rossby waves).
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Meandering jet creates alternating low and
high pressure cells. High pressure cells |
are created below the ridges and the low
116
pressure cells below the troughs (This is
because of the upper air circulations
created by the jet).
With severe meandering, the high
pressure cells push over to north and
displace the polar cyclone from its normal
position i.e. the cyclone moves away from
the pole and slips into the temperate
regions where there is an intense low
pressure.
With the strengthening of the jet, the high
pressure cells become weak and retreat to
their normal latitudinal positions. With
the retreat of the high pressure cells, the
polar cyclone moves back to its normal
position poles.
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Photodissociation (under the influence of

sunlight) of ozone-depleting substances
(ODS) like halocarbon
refrigerants,
solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing
agents
(CFCs,
HCFCs,
carbon
tetrachloride and trichloroethane, freons,
Page
halons) creates free chlorine atoms that
|
destroy ozone.
117
Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at

South Pole]
Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two

distinct but related phenomena.
There is a steady decline of about 4% in
the total volume of ozone in Earth's
stratosphere.
Much larger decrease in stratospheric
ozone is observed around Earth's polar
regions.
Depletion of ozone is due to increase
in halocarbons in the atmosphere.
Halocarbon == a compound in which
the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is
replaced by halogens like chlorine,
bromine, iodine etc.
Halogen == group of reactive nonmetallic
elements
like
fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.
Halogen atoms like chlorine

destroy ozone
www.pmfias.com
GIF Images
www.pmfias.com
this how polar vortex leads to ozone

depletion]
But how does a chlorine atom reach to

such high levels of atmosphere?
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)
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|
Extend from 12 km 22 km above the

surface.
They are nacreous clouds.
118
Nacreous clouds
Nacreous
clouds,
sometimes
called
mother-of-pearl clouds, are rare clouds.
They are mostly visible within two hours
after sunset or before dawn.
They form in frigid regions of the lower
stratosphere, some 15 - 25 km (9 -16 mile)
high and well above tropospheric clouds.
They are bright even after sunset and
before dawn because at those heights
there is still sunlight.
They are seen mostly during winter at
high latitudes like Scandinavia, Iceland,
Alaska and Northern Canada. Sometimes,
however, they occur as far south as
England.
Polar Stratospheric Clouds or nacreous

clouds contain water, nitric acid and/or
sulfuric acid.
They are formed mainly during the
event of polar vertex in winter; more
intense at south pole.
The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion is
dramatically enhanced in the presence of
polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) [Finally
Polar
Stratospheric
Clouds
convert
"reservoir" compounds into reactive free
radicals (Cl and ClO).
These free radicals deplete ozone as shown
in the animation below.
So
Polar
Stratospheric
Clouds
accelerate ozone depletion.
Prelims question: The formation of

ozone hole in the Antarctic region has
been a cause of concern. What could
be the reason for ozone depletion at
poles?
1. Presence
of
prominent
tropospheric
turbulence;
and
inflow
of
chlorofluorocarbons
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2. Presence of prominent polar front and

stratospheric Clouds and inflow of
chlorofluorocarbons
3. Absence of polar front and stratospheric
clouds; and inflow of methane and
chlorofluorocarbons
4. Increased temperature at polar region due
to global warming
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119
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Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate

.............................................................30
Table of Contents
Koeppens scheme Of Classification Of
Climate .................................................. 1
Climate .................................................31
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates ........ 3
Variations of Warm Temperate Eastern

Margin Climate ......................................31
Tropical Wet Climate (Af) ........................ 3
Natural Vegetation.................................32
Questions ............................................... 7
Economic Development .........................32
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates ........ 9
British Type Climate ..............................34
Tropical Monsoon Climate ...................... 9
Distribution of British Type Climate ......34
Tropical Marine Climate ........................11
British Type Climate ..............................35
Tropical Monsoon Forests ......................12
Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate

.............................................................36
Population and Economy in Monsoon

Climate .................................................12
Economy in British Type Climate ...........36
Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and Dry

Climate or Sudan Climate......................14
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate.............38

Taiga Climate ........................................39
Distribution of Savanna Climate ............14
Natural Vegetation of Taiga Climate .......40
Savanna Climate ...................................15
Economic Development of Taiga Region .41
Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate ..16

Life and Economy in the Savanna ..........17
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate

Eastern Marine Climate .........................42
B: Desert Climate ..................................18
Laurentian Climate................................43
Hot Desert Climate ................................19
Natural Vegetation - Laurentian Climate 44
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate ..................19
Economic Development Laurentian

Climate .................................................44
Desert Climate ......................................19
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic

Climate .................................................46
Life in the Deserts .................................21

QUESTIONS ..........................................22
Tundra Climate .....................................47
Steppe Climate or Temperate Continental

Climate or Temperate Grassland Climate
.............................................................23
Natural Vegetation - Tundra Climate .....47

Recent Development of the Arctic Region
.............................................................47
Steppe Climate ......................................24
In this post: Koeppens scheme Of

Classification Of Climate - Tropical Humid
Climates - Tropical Wet Climate [Hot, Wet
Equatorial Climate, Equatorial Rainforest
Climate,
Equatorial
Rainforests,
Equatorial Evergreen Forests, Tropical
Moist
Broadleaf
Forest,
Lowland
Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest]
Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate .....25

Economic Development of Steppes .........25
Mediterranean
Climate
or
Warm
Temperate Western Margin Climate or
Warm Temperate West Coast Climate ....27
Mediterranean Climate ..........................27
Local winds of the Mediterranean Climate
.............................................................28
Koeppens scheme Of
Classification Of Climate
Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean

Climate .................................................28
Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate
.............................................................29
The most widely used classification of

climate
is
the
empirical
climate
Page
|1
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classification scheme developed by V.

Koeppen.
[empirical:
verifiable
by
observation or experience rather than
theory or pure logic][when dropped, stone
falls to the ground logic. Drop a stone to
confirm that it falls to the ground
empirical]
Koeppen identified a close relationship
between
the distribution
of
vegetation and climate. He
selected
certain
values
of temperature and precipitation and
related them to the distribution of
vegetation and used these values for
classifying the climates.
Koeppen recognized five major climatic
groups, four of them are based on
temperature and one on precipitation.
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The capital letters : A, C, D and E

delineate humid climates and B dry
climates.
The climatic groups are subdivided into
types, designated by small letters, based
on seasonality of precipitation and
Page
temperature characteristics.
The seasons of dryness are indicated by | 2
the small letters : f, m, w and s, where f
corresponds to no dry season, m monsoon climate, w - winter dry season
and s - summer dry season.
The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the
degree of severity of temperature.
The B - Dry Climates are subdivided using
the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid
and W for deserts.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X94P
CwczGKM
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Page
|3
Group A : Tropical Humid

Climates
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
Tropical
humid
climates
exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic
of Capricorn.
The sun being overhead throughout the
year and the presence of Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (INTCZ) make the
climate hot and humid.
Annual range of temperature is very
low and annual rainfall is high.
The tropical group is divided into three
types, namely
Also known as The Hot, Wet Equatorial

Climate,
Equatorial
Rainforest
Climate.
The regions are generally referred
as Equatorial Rainforests, Equatorial
Evergreen Forests, Tropical Moist
Broadleaf Forest, Lowland Equatorial
Evergreen Rainforest.
1. Af Tropical wet climate;

2. Am Tropical monsoon climate;
3. Aw Tropical wet and dry climate.
Distribution
Mostly between 5 N and S of Equator.

[little or no Coriolis Force == no tropical
cyclones]
Its
greatest
extent
is
found
in
the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo,
Malaysia and the East Indies.
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The diurnal range of temperature is small,

and so is the annual range.
Precipitation
Equatorial Climate
Dominated
masses.
by Maritime
Tropical
air
Temperature
Temperature is uniform throughout the

year.
The mean monthly temperatures are
always around 27 C with very little
variation.
There is no winter. [Typical to Equatorial
Rainforest Climate]
Cloudiness
and heavy
precipitation moderate
the
daily
temperature.
Regular land and sea breezes assist in
maintaining a truly equable climate.
Equatorial Vegetation
Precipitation
is
heavy
and well Page
distributed throughout the year.
Annual average is always above 150 cm. | 4
In some regions the annual average may
be as high as 250 300 cm.
There is no month without rain (distinct
dry season is absent). The monthly
average is above 6 cm most of the times.
There are two periods of maximum
rainfall, April and October. [shortly after
the equinox]. Least rain fall occurs in
June and December [solstice].
The double rainfall peaks coinciding
with the equinoxes are a characteristic
feature of equatorial climates not found in
any other type of climate.
There
is
much
evaporation
and
convectional air currents are set up,
followed by heavy thunderstorms in the
afternoons.
Climate Graphs
www.pmfias.com
High temperature and abundant rainfall

support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so
dense that it is called selvas'. [selvas: A
dense tropical rainforest usually having a
cloud cover (dense canopy)]
Unlike the temperate regions, the growing
season here is all the year roundseeding, flowering, fruiting and decaying
do not take place in a seasonal pattern.
The equatorial vegetation comprises a
multitude
of
evergreen
trees
that
yield tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany,
ebony, dyewoods etc.
Many parts of the tropical rain forests
have been cleared either for lumbering or
shifting cultivation.
In the coastal areas and brackish
swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
Canopy
Page
|5
From the air, the tropical rain forest

appears like a thick canopy of foliage,
broken only where it is crossed by large
rivers or cleared for cultivation.
In spite of dense forests, countries in

equatorial regions are net importers of
timber. Comment.
All
plants
struggle
upwards
(most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting
in a peculiar layer arrangement.
The tallest trees attain a height close to 50

m.
The smaller trees beneath form the next
layer.
The ground is rooted with ferns and
herbaceous plants which can tolerate
shade.
Because the trees cut out most of the
sunlight the undergrowth is not dense.
Multiple species
www.pmfias.com
Epiphyte: An epiphyte is a plant that

grows harmlessly upon another plant
(such as a tree) and derives its moisture
and nutrients from the air, rain, and
sometimes from debris accumulating
around it.
Though the tropics have great potential in

timber resources, commercial extraction
is difficult.
Multiple species of trees occur in a
particular area (trees do not occur in
homogenous stands or pure stands)
making commercial exploitation a difficult
task.
Many of the tropical hardwoods (very
heavy) do not float readily on water and
this makes transportation an expensive
matter.
It is therefore not surprising that many
tropical
countries
are net
timber
importers.
Life and Economy

Agriculture
The forests are sparsely populated.
www.pmfias.com
In the forests most primitive people live

as hunter
gatherers and
the
more
advanced
ones
practice shifting
cultivation.
Food is abundantly available. People
generally dont stock food for the next day.
Commercial
1. In
the Amazon
basin the Indian
tribes collect wild rubber,
2. in the Congo Basin the Pygmies gather
nuts and
3. in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang
Asli make all sorts of cane products and
sell them to people in villages and
towns. [The names of the tribes come
under Social Geography Prelims]
Shifting Cultivation or Slash and Burn

Cultivation.
This type of cultivation is followed in many

parts of the world where dense forests are
common [In India, North-East is known
for this type of cultivation].
Tribes cut the trees in a plot, burn them
and cultivate the plot till the fertility is
exhausted.
Once the fertility is exhausted, the
clearing is abandoned and they move on to
a new plot. Such farming practices are
becoming more and more widespread even
among backward tribes.
In the clearings for shifting cultivation,
crops like manioc (tapioca), maize,
bananas and groundnuts are grown.
With the coming of the Europeans, many

large plantations have been established,
especially in Java, Sumatra, Malaysia,
West Africa and Central America.
The climate is very Favourable for the
cultivation of certain crops that are highly
valued in the industrial West. The most
important is natural rubber.
Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading
producers.
The
home
country, Brazil exports

practically
no
natural rubber.
Cocoa is another important crop which is
cultivated in West Africa, bordering
the Gulf of Guinea. The two most
important producers are Ghana and
Page
Nigeria. All the cocoa here goes into
American
and
European chocolate | 6
industry.
From the same area another crop, oil
palm, has done equally well and many
countries like Indonesia have now taken to
its cultivation.
Other important crops include coconuts,
sugar, coffee (Brazil), tea, tobacco, spices,
etc.
The
plantations
resulted
in
the
destruction of nearly half of equatorial
forests.
Plantations
Palm
Sugarcane
Coffee
Rubber
Cocoa
Plantation Boom in Rainforests
www.pmfias.com
Regions
Malaysia, Indonesia
Brazil
Brazil
Malaysia, Indonesia
Ghana, Nigeria
Factors Affecting the

Development of Equatorial
Regions
Equatorial climate and health
Excessive heat (sun-stroke) and high

humidity creates serious physical and
mental handicaps.
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High humidity feeds many tropical

diseases such as malaria and yellow-fever.
Communicable diseases are rampant as
germs and bacteria are transmitted
through moist air.
Insects and pests not only spread diseases
but are injurious to crops.
Jungle hinders development
The construction of roads and railways is

a risky business as workers are exposed to
wild animals, poisonous snakes, insects
and most importantly tropical diseases.
Once completed, they have to be
maintained at a high cost.
The fertility of top soil in rainforest regions

is very poor. Torrential downpours wash
out
most
of
the
top
soil
nutrients [leaching == percolation and
draining way of nutrients due to rain
water action].
The
soil
deteriorates
rapidly
with
subsequent
soil
erosion
and
soil
impoverishment.
It takes decades to replenish the soil of
lost nutrients.
So a seed doesnt usually germinate and
even if it does, its development is hindered
due to little availability of sunlight.
Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth
spring up as soon as the trees are cut.
They choke the restoration of forests.
Indonesian island of Java is an exception
because of its rich volcanic ashes.
Difficulties in livestock farming
Livestock farming is greatly handicapped

by an absence of meadow grass. The
grass is so tall and coarse that it is not
nutritious.
The few animals like buffaloes are kept
mainly for domestic use. Their yield in
milk or beef is well below those of the

cattle in the temperate grasslands.
In Africa, domesticated animals are
attacked by tsetse flies that cause ngana,
a deadly disease.
Mineral resources
Rapid deterioration of tropical soil

Why does restoration of lost forests take
decades in equatorial regions?
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Gold, copper, diamonds, and other

precious metals and gemstones are
important resources that are found in
rainforests around the world.
Extracting these natural resources is a
destructive activity that damages the
rainforest ecosystem.
Examples are gold mining in the
Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon, rare
earth mining in the Congo, and gold
and copper mining in Indonesia and
Papua New Guinea.
Some of the worlds most promising oil
and gas deposits lie deep in tropical
rainforests. Oil
and
gas
development often takes a heavy toll on
the environment and local people (This
happens in Ecuador).
More than 70 percent of the Peruvian
Amazon is now under concession for oil
and gas.
Questions
Q1
Assertion (A): Areas near the equator
receive rainfall throughout the year.
Reason (R): High temperatures and high
humidity cause convectional rain in
most afternoons near the equator.
In the context of the above two
statements, which one of the following is
correct?
a) Both A and R are true and R is the
correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R true but R is not a correct
explanation of A
Page
|7
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c) A is true but R is false
d) Tropical rain forest
d) A is false but R is true
Q4
Q2
Assertion (A) : Areas lying within five to
eight degrees latitude on either side of
the equator receive rainfall throughout
the year.
Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests,

the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can
Page
yield productive farmland that can
support
intensive
agriculture
for | 8
several years even without chemical
fertilizers.
Reason (R) : High temperatures and

high humidity cause convectional rain
to fall mostly in the afternoons near
the equator. [2003]
Reason (R): The primary productivity of

the tropical rain forest is very high
when compared to that of temperate
forests. [2003]
a) Both A and R are individually true and

R is die correct explanation of A
a) Both A and R are individually true and

R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are individually true but

R is not the correct explanation o f A
b) Both A and R are individually true but

R is not the correct explanation of A
Q3
Q5
A geographic area with an altitude of

400
metres
has
following
characteristics. [2010]
Consider
[2010]
the
following
statements:
1. Biodiversity hotspots are located only in

tropical regions.
2. India has four biodiversity hotspots i.e.,
Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas,
Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
If this geographic area were to have a
natural forest, which one of the following
would it most likely be?
a) 1 only
a) Moist temperate coniferous forest
c) Both 1 and 2
b) Montane subtropical forest
d) Neither I nor 2
c) Temperate forest
Biodiversity Hotspots Across the World
b) 2 only
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Page
|9
What type of climate is characterized

by two periods of maximum rainfall?
Explain why this is so.
Equatorial Rainforest. Sun is overhead

during Equinoxes. So the ITCZ passes
twice over the region.
Write brief notes on any three of the
following
statements
about
the
equatorial regions.
Large-scale livestock farming is least

developed in wet equatorial areas.
The
greatest
single
drawback
to
commercial lumbering in equatorial
regions is inaccessibility.
The equatorial environment is best suited
to plantation agriculture (Good rainfall,
humid climate, cheap labour, good
markets in Europe and North America).
In this post : Tropical Monsoon Climate,
Tropical Marine Climate and Tropical
Monsoon Forests.
Group A : Tropical Humid

Climates
Tropical humid climates exist between

Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
The sun being overhead throughout the
year and the presence of Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) make the climate
hot and humid.
Annual range of temperature is very
low and annual rainfall is high.
The tropical group is divided into three
types, namely
1. Af- Tropical wet climate [Done in

previous post];
2. Am - Tropical monsoon climate [This
post];
3. Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate [Next
Post].
Tropical Monsoon Climate

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oXAl5
NLX0L8
Monsoons are land and sea breezes on a

much larger scale.
Unlike equatorial wet climate, monsoon
climate is characterized by distinct wet
and dry seasons associated with seasonal
reversal of winds.
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Floods in wet season and droughts in dry

season are common.
Usually
there
are
three
seasons
namely summer,
winter
and
rainy season.
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pressure is set up in the continental

interior of Australia.
Winds blow outwards as the South-East
Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the
equator are drawn towards the continental
low pressure area reaching the Indian
Page
sub-continent as the South-West Monsoon
| 10
(Coriolis force).
In the winter, conditions are reversed.
Temperature
Distribution of Tropical Monsoon

Climate
Occur within 5 to 30 N and S of the

equator.
On-shore [sea to land] tropical monsoons
occur in the summer and off-shore [land
to sea] dry monsoons in the winter.
They are best developed in the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and south
China and northern Australia.
Monthly mean temperatures above 18 C.

Temperatures range from 30-45 C in
summer. Mean summer temperature is
about 30C.
In winters, temperature range is 15-30 C
with mean temperature around 20-25 C.
Precipitation
Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250

cm. In some regions it is around 350 cm.
Places
like Cherrapunji
&
Mawsynram receive an annual rainfall of
about 1000 cm. [They lie on the windward
side of the Meghalaya hills, so the
resulting orographic
lift
(orographic
rainfall) enhances precipitation. Also, they
are located between mountains which
enhances
cloud
concentration
due
to funneling effect]
Climate
The basic cause of monsoon climates is

the difference in the rate of heating and
cooling of land and sea (This is old theory.
New theory will be explained while
studying Indian Climate).
In the summer, when the sun is overhead
at the Tropic of Cancer, a low pressure is
created in Central Asia.
The seas, which warm up much slower,
remain comparatively at high pressure. At
the same time, the southern hemisphere
experiences winter, and a region of high
Seasons
Seasons are chief

monsoon climate.
characteristics
The cool, dry season (October to

February)
of
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Out blowing dry winds, the North-East

Monsoon, bring little or no rain to the
Indian sub-continent.
However, a small amount of rain falls in
Punjab from cyclonic sources (Western
Disturbances:
Frontal
precipitation
brought by jet streams) and this is vital for
the survival of winter cereals.
North-East Monsoons blowing over the
Bay of Bengal acquires moisture and bring
rains to the south-eastern tip of the
peninsula at this time of the year (NovDec).
The hot dry season (March to mid-June)
The temperature rises sharply with the

suns northward shift to the Tropic of
Cancer.
Day temperatures of 35 C are usual in
central India and the mean temperature in
Sind and south India may be as high as
44 C.
Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea
breezes. There is practically little rain.
[Hailstorms (thunderstorms with hail)
occurs here and there]
Tropical Marine Climate
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The rainy season (mid-June to

September)
With the burst of the South-West

Monsoon
in
mid-June,
torrential
downpours sweep across the country. Page
Almost all the rain for the year falls within
| 11
this rainy season.
This pattern of concentrated heavy
rainfall in summer is a characteristic
feature of the Tropical Monsoon Climate.
The Retreating Monsoon
The amount and frequency of rain

decreases towards the end of the rainy
season. It retreats gradually southwards
after mid-September until it leaves the
continent altogether.
The skies are clear again and the cool, dry
season returns in October, with the out
blowing North-East Monsoon.
The role of monsoons in India is vital for
its economy.
Climate Graph
Outside the monsoon zone, the climate is

modified by the influence of the on-shore
www.pmfias.com
Trade Winds all the year round. This type

of climate is called Tropical Marine
Climate.
Such
a
climate
has
a
more evenly distributed rainfall.
Such a climate is experienced in Central
America, West Indies, north-eastern
Australia, the Philippines, parts of East
Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and
eastern Brazil.
The rainfall is both orographic where the
moist trades meet upland masses as in
eastern Brazil, and convectional due to
intense heating during the day and in
summer.
Its tendency is towards a summer
maximum without any distinct dry period.
Due to the steady influence of the trades,
the Tropical Marine Climate is more
Favourable for habitation, but it is prone
to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes
or typhoons.
Tropical Monsoon Forests
Monsoonal vegetation is thus most varied,

ranging from forests to thickets, and from
savanna to scrubland.
Population and Economy in

Monsoon Climate
Drought-deciduous forest; dry forest;

dry-deciduous
forest;
tropical
deciduous forest.
Broad-leaved hardwood trees. Well

developed in southeast Asia.
Trees are normally deciduous, because of
the marked dry period, during which they
shed their leaves to withstand the drought
[They shed their leaves to prevent loss
water through transpiration].
The forests are more open and less
luxuriant than the equatorial jungle and
there are far fewer species.
Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in
southern
Burma,
peninsular
India,
northern Australia and coastal regions
with a tropical marine climate, the
resultant vegetation is luxuriant.
With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the
forests thin out into thorny scrubland or
savanna with scattered trees and tall
grass.
In parts of the Indian sub-continent,
rainfall is so deficient that semi-desert
conditions
are
found
in
summer.
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Monsoon climatic regions support high

population density.
Income levels are low as most of these
regions are underdeveloped or developing.
Subsistence
farming
is
the
main
occupation. (crops grown with an
intention to secure food for the season.
The crops are not sold as the production is
very low).
Intensive cultivation is common in regions
with irrigational facilities.
Shifting cultivation is followed in NorthEast India and South-East countries.
Major crops include rice, sugar, cotton,
jute, spices, etc..
Cattle and sheep rearing is carried out for
domestic and commercial purposes.
Livestock industry is not as profitable as
in temperate regions.
Agricultural Development in the

Monsoon Lands
Much of the monsoon forest has been

cleared for agriculture to support the very
dense population. Subsistence agriculture
is the major occupation.
Farms are small and the people are
forever land
hungry. Industrialization
make things worse.
Tropical agriculture dependent on natural
rainfall and a large labour force, reaches
its greatest magnitude in the monsoon
lands.
Farming is the dominant occupation of the
Indian sub-continent, China, South- East
Asia, eastern Brazil and the West Indies.
The following types of agriculture are
recognizable.
Crops
Page
| 12
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Rice is the most important staple crop.

Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams
or wells is extensively used in the major
rice producing countries.
Other food crops like maize, millet,
sorghum, wheat, gram and beans are of
subsidiary importance. They are cultivated
in the drier or cooler areas where rice
cannot be grown.
Lowland cash crops
The most important crop in this category

is cane sugar.
As much as two-thirds of worlds sugar
production comes from tropical countries.
Some
of
the
major
producers
include India, Java, Formosa, Cuba,
Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados.
Jute is confined almost entirely to the
Ganges - Brahmaputra delta, in India and
Bangladesh.
Other crops include cotton, a major
commercial crop of the Indian subcontinent.
The colonization of tropical lands by

Europeans gave rise to a new form of
cultivated landscape in the cooler
monsoonal highlands.
Thousands of acres of tropical upland
forests were cleared to make way for
plantation agriculture in which tea and
coffee are the most important crops.
Coffee
Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia.

But Brazil accounts for almost half the
worlds production of coffee.
It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of
the Brazilian plateau.
The crop is also cultivated on the highland
slopes in the Central American states,
India and eastern Java.
Tea
Tea originated in China and is still an

important crop there.
It
requires moderate
temperatures (about
15
C), heavy
rainfall (over 150 cm) and well drained
highland slopes.
Page
It thrives well in the tropical monsoon
| 13
zone (highlands).
The best regions are thus the Himalayan
foothills of India and Bangladesh, the
central highlands of Sri Lanka and
western Java, from all of which it is
exported.
In China tea is grown mostly for local
consumption.
Lumbering
Highland plantation crops
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Most of the forests yield valuable timber,

and
are
prized
for
their durable
hardwood.
Lumbering is undertaken in the more
accessible areas. This is particularly
important in continental South-East Asia.
Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of
which Burma is the leading producer, is
perhaps the most sought after. It is
valuable
on
account
of
its great
durability,
strength,
immunity
to
shrinkage, fungus attack and insects.
Teak logs are so heavy that they will not
float readily on water. It is therefore
necessary to poison the tree several years
before actual felling, so that it is dry and
light enough to be floated down
the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy to reach
the saw mills at Rangoon.
Other kinds of timber include Neem,
Banyan, Mango, Teak, Sal, Acacia,
Eucalyptus
Together with the forests are bamboo
thickets, which often grow to great
heights.
Teak
Burma alone accounts for as much as

three quarters of the worlds production.
It is such a durable timber that it is
extensively
used
for ship
building,
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furniture
purposes.
and
other
constructional
Shifting Cultivation
This most primitive form of farming is

widely practiced.
Instead of rotating the crops in the same
field to preserve fertility, the tribesmen
move to a new clearing when their first
field is exhausted.
Maize, dry padi, sweet potatoes and some
beans are the most common crops.
Farming is entirely for subsistence, i.e.
everything is consumed by the farmers
family, it is not traded or sold.
As tropical soils are rapidly leached and
easily exhausted, the first crop may be
bountiful but the subsequent harvests
deteriorate.
Shifting cultivation is so widely practiced
amongst indigenous peoples that different
local names are used in different
countries.
Name of Shifting
Cultivation
Malaysia
Lacking
Burma
Taungya
Thailand
Tamrai
Philippines
Caingin
Java
Humah
Sri Lanka
Chena
Africa and Central Milpa
America
North-east India
Jhum
movements of the overhead sun [Hint:

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone shifts
according to the apparent movement of
the Sun].
3. There is a marked difference in
temperature between the east and west
Page
coasts of countries in latitudes 20 to 35N
| 14
[Hint: Ocean currents].
The seasonal reversal of winds is the
typical characteristic of
1.
2.
3.
4.
Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet

and Dry Climate or Sudan Climate
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSCH
3Dt2O2M
This type of climate has alternate wet

and dry seasons similar to monsoon
climate but has considerably less annual
rainfall.
Also,
there
is no
distinct
rainy
season like in monsoon climate.
[Only two seasons winter
summer. Rains occur in summer].
Can be a [tough] prelims question under

social geography.
Explain the following statements.

1. The east coasts of continents within the
tropics have much heavier rainfall than
the interiors or the west coasts [Hint:
Easterly trade winds].
2. Near the equatorial latitudes, the period of
maximum rainfall is closely related to the
Equatorial climate
Mediterranean climate
Monsoon climate
All of the above climates
In this post: Savanna Climate or Tropical
Wet and Dry Climate or Sudan Climate,
Distribution of Savanna Climate, Savanna
Climate, Natural Vegetation of Savanna
Climate and Life and Economy in the
Savanna.
Region
Questions
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and
Floods and droughts are common.

Vegetation, wildlife and human life are
quite different from monsoon climate
regions.
Distribution of Savanna Climate
It is confined within the tropics and is best

developed in Sudan, hence its name
the Sudan Climate.
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It is a transitional type of climate found

between
the equatorial
rainforests and hot deserts.
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exhibit characteristics of both semi-arid

and savanna climate.
Due to irrigation and cultivation, this
region is different from other savanna
regions.
Savanna Climate
Rainfall
African Savanna
The belt includes West African Sudan,

and then curves southwards into East
Africa and southern Africa north of the
Tropic of Capricorn.
South American Savanna
There are two distinct regions namely

the llanos of the Orinoco basin [north of
equator] and the compos of the Brazilian
Highlands [South of equator].
Australian savanna
The Australian savanna is located south of

the monsoon strip (northern Australia)
running from west to east north of the
Tropic of Capricorn.
Indian Savanna
Certain parts across Northern Karnataka,

Southern Maharashtra and Telangana
Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80

160 cm [Rainfall decreases with distance
from equator].
In the northern hemisphere, the rainy
season begins in May and lasts till
September.
In the southern hemisphere, the rainy
season is from October to March.
Temperature
Mean annual temperature is greater than

18 C.
The monthly temperature hovers between
20 C and 32 C for lowland stations.
Highest temperatures do not coincide
with the period of the highest sun (e.g.
June in the northern hemisphere) but
occur just before the onset of the rainy
season, i.e. April in Northern Hemisphere
and October in Southern Hemisphere.
Days are hot and nights are cold.
This extreme
diurnal
range of
temperature is another characteristic
feature of the Sudan type of climate.
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| 15
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| 16
Winds
The prevailing winds of the region are the

Trade Winds, which bring rain to the
coastal districts.
They are strongest in the summer
[favorable position of ITCZ] but are
relatively dry by the time they reach the
continental interiors or the western coasts
[Trade winds are easterlies flow from
east to west. So rainfall decreases from
east to west here].
In West Africa, the North-East Trades, in
fact, blow off-shore [continent to sea] from
the Sahara Desert and reach the Guinea
coast as a dry, dust-laden winds.
What is the reason for alternating wet
and dry seasons in Savanna type
climate?
On shore winds is summer bring rains.
Off-shore winds in winter keep the climate

dry.
Natural Vegetation of Savanna

Climate
The savanna landscape is typified by tall

grass and short trees.
The grasslands are also called as bushveld.
The trees are deciduous, shedding their
leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent
excessive
loss
of
water
through
transpiration, e.g. acacias.
Trees usually have broad trunks, with
water-storing devices to survive through
the prolonged drought.
Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing
only a narrow edge to the strong winds.
In true savanna lands, the grass is tall
and coarse, growing 6 to 12 feet high.
www.pmfias.com
The elephant grass may attain a height of

even 15 feet.
Grasses appear greenish and wellnourished in the rainy season but turns
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yellow and dies down in the dry season

that follows.
As the rainfall diminishes towards the
deserts the savanna merges into thorny
scrub.
Page
| 17
Animal Life of the Savanna
The savanna is known as the big game

country as thousands of animals are
trapped or killed each year by people from
all over the world.
There are two main groups of animals in
the savanna, the grass-eating herbivorous
animals
and
the
fleshing-eating
carnivorous animals.
The herbivorous include the zebra,
antelope, giraffe, deer, gazelle, elephant
etc. [most of the National geographic and
Animal Planet documentaries on wild
animals are shot in savanna regions] and
carnivorous animals include the lion,
tiger, leopard, hyena, panther, jaguar,
jackal etc..
Species of reptiles and mammals including
crocodiles, alligators, giant lizards live
together with the larger rhinoceros and
hippopotamus in rivers and marshy lakes.
Crops in Savanna
Life and Economy in the Savanna
Many tribes live in savanna region. Tribes

like the Masai tribes of the East African
plateau are pastoralists whereas Hausa of
northern Nigeria are settled cultivators.
The old grazing grounds of Masai tribes in
the Kenyan Highlands were taken over by
the immigrant white settlers for plantation
agriculture (coffee, tea, cotton) and dairy
farming.
The cattle kept by the Masai are kept
entirely for the supply of milk. They dont
slaughter cattle for meat. Agriculture is

barely practiced.
The Hausa are a tribe of settled cultivators
who inhabit the savanna lands of the
Nigeria. They are more advanced in their
civilization.
They do not practice shifting cultivation.
Instead, they clear a piece of land and use
it for several years.
Settlements in central Africa, northern

Australia and eastern Brazil have shown
that
the
savannas
have
immense
agricultural
potential
for plantation
agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, coffee,
oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical
fruits.
Tropical Queensland, despite its scarcity
of labour force has been very successful in
developing its huge empty land.
Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi
have
already
taken
to
large-scale
production of cotton.
In West Africa, the commercial cultivation
of groundnuts, oil palm and cocoa have
been gradually extended into the savanna
lands.
In the cooler highlands, temperate crops
have been successfully raised.
Farming
Droughts
rainfall.
are
long
due
to
unreliable
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Political
instability
hinders
the
development of agricultural infrastructure.
The Sudan Climate, with distinct wetand-dry periods is also responsible for
the rapid deterioration of soil fertility.
During the rainy season, torrential
downpours of heavy rain cause leaching of
nitrates, phosphates and potash.
During the dry season, intense heating
and evaporation dry up most of the water.
Many savanna areas therefore have poor
lateritic soils which are incapable of
supporting good crops.
Cattle rearing
The savanna is said to be the natural

cattle country and many of the native
people are pastoralists.
But the quality of grass doesnt support
large scale ranching.
Grasses here are no match to nutritious
and soft grasses of temperate grasslands.
The cattle varieties are also poor and yield
little meat or milk.
The export of either beef or milk from the
tropical grasslands is so far not important.
Few
regions
progressed
with
the
adaptation
of
science
and
technology. Queensland has
become
Australias largest cattle producing state.
Both meat and milk are exported.
QUESTIONS
www.pmfias.com
Explain why
The savanna is the natural home of

cattle.
Rainfall in the Sudan Climate is
concentrated in the summer.
Page
Which one of the following is the | 18

characteristic climate of the Tropical
Savannah Region? [2012]
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rainfall throughout the year

Rainfall in winter only
An extremely short dry season
A definite dry and wet season
In this post: Desert Climate - Hot Desert
Climate - Mid-Latitude Desert Climate and
Life in the Deserts.
B: Desert Climate
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQQsS
buStf4
Deserts are regions where evaporation

exceeds precipitation.
There are mainly two types hot like
the hot deserts of the Saharan type and
temperate
as
are
the mid-latitude
deserts like the Gobi.
www.pmfias.com
Hot Desert Climate
The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly

due to the effects of off-shore Trade
Winds, hence they are also called Trade
Wind Deserts.
The major hot deserts of the world are
located
on
the western
coasts
of
continents between latitudes 15 and
30N. and S (Question asked in Previous
Mains Exam).
They
include
the
biggest Sahara
Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great
Australian Desert, Arabian Desert,
Iranian
Desert,
Thar
Desert,
Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
In North America, the desert extends from
Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by
different names at different places, e.g.
the Mohave,
Sonoran,
Californian and Mexican Deserts.
In South America, the Atacama or
Peruvian
Desert (rain
shadow
effect and off-shore trade winds) is
the driest of all deserts with less than 2
cm of rainfall annually.
www.pmfias.com
shadow effect. [Gobi desert is formed

due
to continentiality and Patagonian
desert due to rain-shadow effect]
Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many
are found on plateau and are at a
considerable distance from the sea. These
Page
are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan,
Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of Central | 19
Asia, drier portions of the Great Basin
Desert
of
the
western
United
States and Patagonian
Deserts
of
Argentina etc..
The Patagonian Desert is more due to its
rain-shadow position on the leeward side
of the lofty Andes than to continentiality.
Desert Climate
Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold
deserts)
Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have

an annual precipitation of less than 25
cm.
Atacama (driest place on earth) has
practically no rain at all.
Rain
normally
occurs
as
violent
thunderstorms of the convectional type.
It
bursts
suddenly
and
pours
continuously for a few hours over small
areas.
The thunderstorm is so violent, and comes
so suddenly that it has disastrous
consequences on desert landforms [flash
floods].
Major hot deserts in northern

hemisphere are located between
20-30 degree north and on the
western side of the continents.
Why?
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate
The temperate deserts are rainless

because of either continentiality or rain-
The hot deserts lie along the Horse

Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High
Pressure
Belts where
the
air
is
descending, a condition least favorable for
precipitation of any kind to take place.
www.pmfias.com
The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow offshore and the Westerlies that are onshore blow outside the desert limits.
Whatever winds reach the deserts blow
from cooler to warmer regions, and
their relative humidity is lowered,
making condensation almost impossible.
There is scarcely any cloud in the
continuous blue sky. The relative
humidity is extremely low, decreasing from
60 per cent in coastal districts to less than
30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is
Temperature of Hot deserts
There is no cold season in the hot deserts

and the average summer temperature is
high around 30C.
www.pmfias.com
evaporated and the deserts are thus

regions
of
permanent
drought.
Precipitation is both scarce and most
unreliable.
On the western coasts, the presence of
cold currents gives rise to mists and
Page
fogs by chilling the on-coming air. This air
is later warmed by contact with the hot | 20
land, and little rain falls. The desiccating
effect of the cold Peruvian Current along
the Chilean coast is so pronounced that
the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama
Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.
The
highest
temperature
recorded
is 57.77 C in 1922 at A1 Azizia, Libya.
The reasons for the high temperatures are
obviousa clear, cloudless sky, intense
www.pmfias.com
insolation, dry air and a rapid rate of

evaporation.
Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime
influence and the cooling effect of the cold
currents have much lower temperatures.
The desert interiors, however, experience
much higher summer temperatures and
the winter months are rather cold.
The diurnal range of temperature in the
deserts is very great. Intense insolation by
day in a region of dry air and no clouds
causes the temperature to rise with the
sun.
But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses
heat very quickly by radiation and the
mercury levels drop.
High diurnal temperature range is a
typical feature of hot deserts. Average
diurnal range varies from 14 to 25
Celsius.
Frosts may occur at night in winter.
Climatic Conditions in the MidLatitude deserts
These inland basins lie hundreds of miles

from the sea, and are sheltered by the
high mountains all around them. As a
result they are cut off from the rainbearing winds.
Occasionally depressions may penetrate
the Asiatic continental mass and bring
light rainfall in winter. Due to their
coldness and elevation, snow falls in
winter.
The annual range of temperature is much
greater than
that
of
the
hot
deserts. Continentiality accounts
for
these extremes in temperature.
Winters are often severe, freezing lakes
and rivers, and strong cold winds blow all
the time. When the ice thaws in early
summer, floods occur in many places.
Desert Vegetation
The predominant vegetation of both hot

and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or
drought-resistant.
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This includes the cacti, thorny bushes,

long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered
dwarf acacias.
Trees are rare except where there is
abundant ground water to support
clusters of date palms.
Page
Along the western coastal deserts washed
by cold currents as in the Atacama Desert, | 21
support a thin cover of vegetation.
Intense evaporation increases the salinity
of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend
to accumulate on the surface forming hard
pans [Bajada, Palaya].
Absence of moisture retards the rate of
decomposition and desert soils are very
deficient in humus.
Most desert shrubs have long roots and
are well spaced out to gather moisture,
and search for ground water. Plants have
few or no leaves and the foliage is
either waxy, leathery, hairy or needleshaped to reduce the loss of water
through transpiration.
The seeds of many species of grasses and
herbs have thick, tough skins to protect
them while they lie dormant.
Life in the Deserts
Despite its inhospitality, the desert has

always been peopled by different groups of
inhabitants.
Tribe
Bedouin
Arabs
Tuaregs
Desert
Arabia
Sahara
Occupation
nomadic
herdsmen
nomadic
herdsmen
www.pmfias.com
Gobi
Mongols
Bushmen
Bindibu
Gobi
nomadic
herdsmen
Kalahari primitive hunters
and collectors.
Australia primitive hunters
and collectors.
The settled cultivators
The life-giving waters of the Nile made it

possible for the Egyptians to raise many
crops as early as 5,000 years ago.
Modem concrete dams constructed across
the
Nile
e.g. Aswan
and
Sennar
Dams improved agriculture.
In the same way, desert cultivators rely on
the Indus
in
Pakistan,
the TigrisEuphrates in Iraq, and the Colorado in
the Imperial Valley of California.
In the deserts, wherever there are oases,
some form of settled life is bound to follow.
These are depressions of varying sizes,
where underground, water reaches the
surface.
Some of them are abnormally large like
the Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco which
measures 5,000 square miles.
A wall is usually constructed around the
oasis to keep out the violent dust storms
called simooms.
The most important tree is the date palm.
The fruit is consumed locally and also
exported.
Other crops cultivated include maize,
barley, wheat, cotton, cane sugar, fruits
and vegetables.
The mining settlers
It was gold that brought immigrants

scrambling into the Great Australian
Desert.
Some of them like Kalgoorlie and
Coolgardie have
become
towns
of
considerable size.
In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery
of diamonds and copper has
brought
many white men to the thirstland as it is
called.
Even in the most arid Atacama, in
northern Chile, large mining camps have
www.pmfias.com
been established for the mining of caliche

(cemented gravels) from which sodium
nitrate, a valuable fertilizer, is extracted
and exported to all parts of the world.
Besides
nitrates, copper is
also
mined. Chuquicamata is
the
world's
Page
largest copper town.
Similarly in the deserts of North America, | 22
silver is mined in Mexico, uranium in Utah
and copper in Nevada.
In recent years, the discovery of oil, in
many parts of the Saharan and Arabian
Deserts has transformed this forgotten
part of the globe.
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Algeria,
Libya, Lebanon, Nigeria etc. are important
oil producing desert countries.
QUESTIONS
Explain how the aridity of the desert is
related to
off-shore Trade Winds

the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts (the
Horse Latitudes)
cold ocean currents
Bring out any distinct differences between
the hot deserts and mid-latitude deserts in
climate
vegetation
way of life
Explain any three of the following.
The hot deserts of the world are located on

the western coasts of continents.
Patagonia is a desert in the rain shadow of
the Andes.
The annual range of temperature is much
greater at Kashgar (Gobi) than at Iquique
(Atacama).
Write brief notes on any three of these
topics.
Date palm cultivation in an oasis.
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The role of oil in the development of desert

economy.
In this post: Steppe Climate or Temperate
Continental
Climate
or
Temperate
Grassland Climate, Natural Vegetation of
Steppe Climate, Economic Development of
Steppes and Maps: Savanna Grasslands
and Steppe Grasslands.
Steppe Climate or Temperate

Continental Climate or Temperate
Grassland Climate
www.pmfias.com
Distribution
They lie in the interiors

of
the
continents.
Lie in the Westerly wind belt [midlatitudes or temperate region].
Page
Grasslands are practically treeless due to
continentiality [deep within the interiors of | 23
the continents where rain bearing winds
dont reach].
In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes,
and stretch eastwards from the shores of
the Black Sea to the foothills of the Altai
Mountains. [2,000 miles long belt].
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P2zYZ52VTg
Name of
Grassland
Pustaz
Prairies
the
Temperate Region
Pampas
Bush-veld (more tropical)
High Veld (more temperate)
Downs
Canterbury
Hungary and surrounding regions

North America [between the foothills of the Rockies and the
Great Lakes]
Argentina and Uruguay [Rain-shadow effect]
Northern South Africa
Southern South Africa
Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia
New Zealand
www.pmfias.com
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Page
| 24
Climate is continental with extremes of

temperature.
Temperatures
vary
greatly
between
summer and winter.
The summers are hot and the winters are
cold.
Summers are very warm, over 18 20 C.
The steppe type of climate in the southern
hemisphere is never severe.
Precipitation
Chinook: Local winds in Steppe

regions
Steppe Climate
Temperature
The average rainfall may be taken as

about 45 cm, but this varies according to
location from 25 cm to 75 cm.
The heaviest rain comes in June and July
(late spring and early summer).
Most of the winter months have about an
2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the
occasional depressions of the Westerlies
and coming in the form of snow.
The maritime influence in the southern
hemisphere causes more rainfall.
On the eastern slopes of the Rockies in

Canada and U.S.A. a local wind, similar to
the Fohn in Switzerland, called the
Chinook, comes in a south-westerly
direction to the Prairies and has a
considerable effect on the local pastures.
It actually comes with the depressions in
winter or early spring from the Pacific
coast ascending the Rockies and then
www.pmfias.com
descending to the Prairies [katabatic

wind].
It is a hot wind and may raise the
temperature by 5 C within a matter of 20
minutes.
It melts the snow-covered pastures and
animals can be driven out of doors to
graze in the open fields. The agricultural
year is thus accelerated.
Local farmers welcome the Chinook for
frequent. Chinooks [Snow eaters] mean
mild winters.
Does not have much animal diversity.

Horses are common in Asian Steppes.
Economic Development of
Steppes
Natural Vegetation of Steppe

Climate
Wheat and Maize Cultivation
Greatest difference from the tropical

savanna
is
that
steppes
are
practically treeless and the grasses are
much shorter.
Grasses are tall, fresh and nutritious.
This is typical of the grass of the wheatlands in North America, the rich black
earth or chernozem areas of Russian
Ukraine and the better watered areas of
the Asiatic Steppes.
Where the rainfall is light or unreliable, or
the soil is poor, as in the continental
interiors of Asia the short steppe type of
grass prevails.
The grasses are not only shorter but
also wiry [lean, tough] and sparse [thinly
dispersed or scattered].
These areas are less suitable for arable
farming and are used for some form
of ranching as in the High Plains of U.S.A.
The growth of grasses is not abruptly
checked by summer droughts or winter
cold.
Trees
steppes where some conifers gradually

appear.
In the cultivated regions, such as the
wheat farms of the Prairies, double rows of
trees are planted around the house to
shield the occupants from the strong
Page
wind.
| 25
Animals
[Other important Local Winds in different

regions: Loo, Mistral, Sirocco, Foehn etc.]
Grasses
www.pmfias.com
Polewards, an increase in precipitation

gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded
Cultivation was unknown just before a

century and the region was one of the
most sparsely populated parts of the
world.
In recent years, the grasslands have been
ploughed up for extensive, mechanized
wheat
cultivation
and
are
now
the granaries of the world [Prairies].
Besides wheat, maize is increasingly
cultivated in the warmer and wetter areas.
Ranching
The tufted grasses have been replaced by

the more nutritious Lucerne or alfalfa
grass for cattle and sheep rearing.
These temperate grasslands are now
the leading ranching regions of the globe.
Nomadic herding in Asian Steppes
This type of migratory animal grazing has

almost disappeared from the major
grasslands. The herders were wandering
tribes e.g. the Kirghiz, and the Kazakhs.
The harsh environment of the nomads,
with long droughts and unreliable showers
made the Kirghiz a tough and fearless
people, and they long resisted subjugation
by the Russians.
www.pmfias.com
Now, however, under the Communist

regime they are being forced to settle
down.
The steppes have been made into
huge collective farms and state farms for
ranching or producing cereals.
In the Prairies, the Argentinian Pampas,

the Ukrainian Steppes and the Downs of
Australia,
agriculture
is
completely
mechanized.
Pastoral farming
Page
The natural conditions suit animal | 26

farming.
With the development of refrigerated ships
in the late nineteenth century, the
The temperate grasslands are ideal for
temperate grasslands became major
extensive wheat cultivation.
pastoral regions, exporting large quantities
The level ness of the Steppes and other
of beef, mutton, wool, hides.
temperate grasslands all over the world
Milk, butter, cheese and other dairy
makes ploughing and harvesting a
products are also important in some parts
comparatively easy job.
of the North American grasslands.
Grassland
Major Economic Activity
Prairies
Wheat Granaries
Extensive Ranching
Extensive mechanized wheat

cultivation
www.pmfias.com
Pustaz
Rich black soil

Abundant wheat production
Sugar from Sugar beet [Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose root
contains a high concentration of sucrose]
Countries like Hungary, Ukraine, Romania etc.
Pampas
Alfalfa: nutrient rich grass.

Ranching, cattle rearing; Dairy products
Extensive wheat producing region
Economy depends on wheat and beef export
Downs and Canterbury
Sheep and Cattle rearing,

Merino sheep: wool production
Veldts
Maize farms
Sheep and Cattle rearing
QUESTIONS
Compare and contrast tropical
temperate grasslands in respect of
1. their seasonal responses
changes
2. their economic importance
to
and
climatic
For any three of them, give a reasoned

account
1. Asiatic Steppes: nomadic herding

2. Canadian
Prairies:
spring
wheat
cultivation
3. Argentine Pampas: beef cattle ranching
4. S. African Veld: maize growing
5. Australian Downs: sheep grazing
Explain why
When Chinooks are more frequent in the

Prairies, the winters are milder.
www.pmfias.com
In this post: Mediterranean Climate or

Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate
or Warm Temperate West Coast Climate,
Local winds in Mediterranean Climate,
Natural Vegetation in Mediterranean
Climate
and
Agriculture
of
the
Mediterranean Climate.
Mediterranean Climate or Warm

Temperate Western Margin
Climate or Warm Temperate West
Coast Climate
Mediterranean Climate
Clear skies and high temperatures; hot,
dry summers and cool, wet winters.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fuHSu
HBV66o
Distribution
Entirely confined to the western portion of

continental masses, between 30 and
45 north and south of the equator.
The basic cause of this type of climate is
the shifting of the wind belts.
Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent
of this type of winter rain climate, and
gives rise to the name Mediterranean
Climate.
The best developed form of this climatic
type is found in central Chile.
Other Mediterranean regions include
1. California (around San Francisco),

2. the south-western tip of Africa (around
Cape Town),
3. southern Australia, and south-west
Australia (Swanland).
Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 Page

- 90 cm.
Temperature of warmest month greater | 27
than or equal to 10 C.
Temperature of coldest month is less than
18 C but greater than 3 C
Climate is not extreme because of cooling
from water bodies.
A dry, warm summer with offshore trades
www.pmfias.com
In summer when the sun is overhead at

the Tropic of Cancer, the belt of influence
of the Westerlies is shifted a little pole
wards. Rain bearing winds are therefore
not likely to reach the Mediterranean
lands.
The prevailing Trade Winds [tropical
easterlies] are off-shore and there is
practically no rain.
Strong winds from inland desert regions
pose the risk of wildfires.
Rainfall in winter with on-shore

Westerlies
The Mediterranean lands receive most of

their precipitation in winter when the
Westerlies shift equator wards.
In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing
on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic
rain from the Atlantic (Typical to
Mediterranean Climate).
The rain comes in heavy showers and
only on a few days with bright sunny
periods between them. This is another
characteristic feature of the Mediterranean
winter rain.
Though the downpours are infrequent
they are often very torrential and in
mountainous
districts, destructive
floods occur.
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the Alps and the Central Massif [Plateau

in France].
Climate Graphs
Page
| 28
Local winds of the Mediterranean

Climate
A similar type of cold north-easterly wind

experienced along the Adriatic coast is
called the Bora.
Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold
winds of the Mediterranean Sea.
Many local winds, some hot, others cold

are common around the Mediterranean
Sea.
Sirocco
This is a hot, dry dusty wind which

originates in the Sahara Desert.
It is most frequent in spring and normally
lasts for only a few days.
The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly
direction (south to north) from the desert
interiors into the cooler Mediterranean
Sea.
After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the
Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption
of the water vapour.
Its
scorching
heat
withers
[To dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture]
vegetation and crops.
This may be blood rain because the wind
is carrying the red dust of the Sahara
Desert.
Natural Vegetation in the

Mediterranean Climate
Mistral
Mistral is a cold wind from the north,

rushing down the Rhone valley in violent
gusts between 40 and 80 miles per hour.
The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by
the funneling effect in the valley between
Trees with small broad leaves are widely

spaced and never very tall.
www.pmfias.com
The absence of shade is a distinct feature

of Mediterranean lands.
Plants are in a continuous struggle
against
heat,
dry
air,
excessive
evaporation and prolonged droughts. They
are,
in
short xerophytic
[drought
tolerant], a word used to describe the
drought-resistant
plants
in
an
environment deficient in moisture.
These are open woodlands with evergreen

oaks.
They are found only in the climatically
most favored regions.
The trees are normally low, even stunted,
with massive trunks, small leathery leaves
and a wide-spreading root system in
search of water.
The cork oaks are specially valued for
their thick barks, used for making winebottle corks and for export around the
world.
In
Australia,
the eucalyptus forests
replace the evergreen oak.
The
giant redwood is
typical
of
the Californian trees.
Evergreen coniferous trees
These include the various kinds of pines,

firs, cedars and cypresses which have
evergreen, needle-shaped leaves and tall,
straight trunks.
Orchard farming
This is perhaps the most predominant

type of Mediterranean vegetation.
Grass
Conditions in the Mediterranean do not

suit grass, because most of the rain
comes in the cool season when growth is
slow.
The Mediterranean lands are also known

as the worlds orchard lands.
A wide range of citrus fruits such as
oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and
grapefruit are grown.
The fruit trees have long roots to draw
water from considerable depths during the
long summer drought.
The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits
prevents excessive transpiration.
The long, sunny summer enables the
fruits to be ripened and harvested.
The Mediterranean lands account for 70
per cent of the worlds exports of citrus
fruits.
The olive tree is probably the most typical
of all Mediterranean cultivated vegetation.
Olive oil extracted is a valuable source of
cooking oil in a region deficient in animal
fat.
Besides olives, many nut trees like
chestnuts,
walnuts,
hazelnuts
and
almonds are grown and the nuts picked as
fruits or for the chocolate industry.
Crop cultivation and sheep

rearing
Mediterranean bushes and shrubs
Even if grasses do survive, they are

so wiry [lean, tough] and bunchy that
they are not suitable for animal farming.
Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the
Mediterranean.
Agriculture in the Mediterranean

Climate
Mediterranean evergreen forests
www.pmfias.com
Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is

the next most popular cereal.
The mountain pastures, with their cooler
climate, support a few sheep, goats and
sometimes cattle.
Transhumance is
widely
practiced
(moving up and down the hills in search of
pastures according to seasons).
Wine production
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| 29
www.pmfias.com
Viticulture is
by
tradition
a
Mediterranean occupation.
Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea
account for three-quarters of the worlds
production of wine.
Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go
into wine.
The long, sunny summer allows the
grapes to ripen.
www.pmfias.com
1. Warm and dry climate

2. Mild and wet winter
3. Evergreen Oak trees
The
above
features
are
characteristics of which one
following regions?
distinct
of the
(a) Mediterranean
Economy
(b) Eastern China
Net exporter of citric fruits and net

importer of dairy products.
(c) Central Asia

(d) Atlantic coast of North America
Clear skies in summer and good

landscapes encourage tourism [Lot of
Indian Songs are shot here].
European
Mediterranean
has
many
ancient cities and are famous for their
health and pleasure resorts, frequented by
millions all-round the year.
In this
Margin
Climate
Climate
post: Warm Temperate Eastern

Climate: Temperate monsoon
or China Type Climate, Gulf Type
and Natal Type Climate.
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin

Climate
Questions
Give an explanatory account of the
following statements about economic
activities of the Mediterranean lands.
1. Orchard farming is the predominant
occupation.
2. The chief cereal cultivated is hard, winter
wheat.
3. Pastoral farming is of little importance.
Write geographical notes on any three
of the following.
1. The Mediterranean Climate is typified by
dry, sunny summers and wet, mild
winters.
2. Hot, dusty Sirocco and cold stormy
Mistral.
3. Mediterranean woodlands, shrubs and
scrub.
4. Three-quarters of the worlds wine comes
from the Mediterranean regions of Europe.
A geographic region has the following
distinct characteristics: [2010]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNUD
DFlFMXI
Different variants of Warm Temperate

Eastern Margin Climate include the
1. Temperate monsoon Climate or China

Type Climate,
2. Gulf Type Climate and
3. Natal Type Climate.
Found between 20 and 35 N and S

latitude (warm temperate latitudes just
outside the tropics); on the east coast in
both hemispheres.
China Type Climate
Temperate Monsoon or China Type climate

is observed in most parts of China. The
climate is also observed in southern parts
of Japan.
Gulf Type Climate
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| 30
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Found in south-eastern U.S.A., bordering

the Gulf of Mexico where continental
heating in summer induces an inflow of
air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.
Natal Type Climate
Found in in New South Wales (Australia),

Natal (South Africa), Parana-ParaguayUruguay basin (South America).
Natal type is different from temperate
monsoon or China type as it receives
rainfall from on-shore Trade Winds all
the year round.
www.pmfias.com
Areas which experience this climate

are very densely populated.
There is the fairly uniform distribution
of rainfall throughout the year.
Rain comes either from convectional
sources or as orographic rain in summer,
Page
or from depressions in prolonged showers
| 31
in winter.
In summer, the regions are under the
influence of moist, maritime airflow
from the subtropical anticyclonic cells.
Local storms, e.g. typhoons (tropical
cyclones), and hurricanes, also occur.
Summer in Northern Hemisphere
Climate
Characterized
by
a warm
moist
summer and a cool, dry winter (one
exception: winters are also moist in Natal
Type).
Summer in Southern Hemisphere
Temperature
The mean monthly temperature varies

between 4 C and 25 C and is strongly
modified by maritime influence.
Occasionally, the penetration of cold air
(Polar
Vortex) from
the
continental
interiors may bring down the temperature
to freezing point.
Though frosts are rare they occasionally
occur in the colder interiors.
Precipitation
Rainfall is more than moderate, anything

from 60 cm to 150 cm.
This is adequate for all agricultural
purposes and hence supports a wide
range of crops.
Variations of Warm Temperate

Eastern Margin Climate
Climate type
China type
Gulf type
Natal type
Feature
Temperate monsoonal
Slight-monsoonal
Non-monsoonal
Climate Graphs
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influence eliminate
the
monsoonal
elements.
The South-East Trade Winds bring about
a more even distribution of rainfall
throughout the year
Page
Natural Vegetation
China type climate

Summer
Intense heating within interiors (Tibet,

desert region) sets up a region of low
pressure in summer attracting tropical
Pacific air stream (South-East Monsoon).
Monsoon does not burst as suddenly, nor
pour as heavily as in India.
Typhoons form mostly in late summer,
from July to September.
Winter
In winter, there is intense pressure over

Siberia and the continental polar air
stream flows outwards as the North-West
Monsoon, bitterly cold and very dry.
There is little rain but considerable snow
on the windward slopes.
Another climatic feature associated with
the China type of climate in southern
China is the occurrence of typhoons.
Gulf type climate
Monsoonal
characteristics
are less
intense compared to China type.
There is no complete seasonal wind
reversal.
Hurricanes occur in September and
October.
Natal type climate
The narrowness of the continents and the

dominance
of
maritime
| 32
Supports a luxuriant vegetation.

The lowlands carry both evergreen broadleaved forests and deciduous trees
[hardwood].
On the highlands, are various species of
conifers such as pines and cypresses
which are important softwoods.
Perennial plant growth is not checked by
either a dry season or a cold season.
Timber
The forests of China and southern Japan

also have considerable economic value
and include oak, camphor, etc..
South-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay,
north-eastern Argentina have Parana pine,
and
the quebracho (axe-breaker,
an
extremely hard wood used for tanning).
Eastern Australia have Eucalyptus forests.
In Natal palm trees thrive.
The Gulf states of U.S.A. have lowland
deciduous forests.
Economic Development
Region
South-
Eastern
China
Major Cropping Patterns

Rice, tea and mulberries
(sericulture)
Sericulture is declining
South-
Eastern
USA
Widespread cultivation of
maize and cotton in the Corn
and Cotton Belts of U.S.A
Fruit and tobacco are also
grown
Natal,
South
Africa
South
Sugarcane
Coffee
and
maize
and
www.pmfias.com
America
A third of the worlds rice is grown in

China, though the huge population leaves
very little for export.
Monsoon China has all the ideal
conditions for padi cultivation; a warm
climate, moderately wet throughout the
year, and extensive lowlands with fertile
moisture-retentive alluvial soil, which if
necessary, can be easily irrigated.
As the flat lands are insufficient for rice
cultivation, farmers move up the hillslopes and grow padi on terraced uplands.
Agriculture in the Gulf states
Cotton
dairying
Farming in monsoon China
Lack of population pressure and the urge

to export gave rise to corn, cotton and
tobacco.
Corn
The humid air, the sunny summer and the

heavy showers suit the crop well.
It is grown right from the Gulf coast to the
Mid-west south of the Great Lakes, with
the greatest concentration in the Corn Belt
of Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.
The region accounts for more than half the
worlds production of corn, but only 3 per
cent of the worlds export.
This is because most of the corn is used
for fattening animals, mostly cattle and
pigs. [Thriving beef and pork industry]
The fattened animals are then sold to the
meat plants in Chicago and Cincinnati to
be processed into corned beef. [From
here the beef is exported through Great
Lakes and St Lawrence water way]
Apart from its ease of cultivation, corns
most outstanding feature is its prolific
yield.
It gives almost twice as much food (mainly
starch) per acre as wheat or other cereals.
This explains why it is so widely cultivated
in both the warm temperate and the
tropical latitudes.
www.pmfias.com
Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf states,

none is comparable with cotton.
The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly
the best for cotton growing.
Page
Its long, hot growing season with 200 days
frost free and a moderately high | 33
temperature permits the crop to grow
slowly and mature within six months.
In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the
heavy rainfall damages the lint. This area
is therefore less suitable for cotton and is
devoted
to citrus
fruits, cane
sugar and market gardening, as in
Florida.
The commercial cultivation of cotton is
now concentrated only in the most
favorable areas which are the Mississippi
flood plains and Atlantic coastlands.
The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton
Belt is the boll-weevil. The pest multiplies
rapidly. The pest is responsible for
the westward migration of the Cotton
Belt.
Tobacco
Native crop of America.

Virginia tobacco is famous.
The humid atmosphere, the warmth and
the well-drained soils of the Gulf states,
enable
tobacco
to
be
successfully
cultivated in many of the eastern states of
U.S.A.
No less than half the tobacco that enters
international trade comes from these
states.
Crop in Southern Hemisphere
In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is

the
dominant
crop,
followed
by cotton and tobacco in the interior.
Maize is extensively cultivated for use both
as food and animal fodder for cattle
rearing.
In South America where rainfall is less
than 120 cm, there is much grassland on
www.pmfias.com
which many cattle and sheep are kept for

meat, wool and hides.
The extensive natural pastures provide
valuable forage for both cattle and sheep.
Further north in southern Brazil, the
rainfall increases to more than 120 cm
and forest gradually replaces grass.
Here the important occupations are the
cultivation of yerba mate (Paraguay tea)
and the lumbering of araucaria or Parana
pine. Cattle and sheep are reared, and
maize and cane sugar are grown.
In eastern Australia, Giant eucalyptus
trees rise one above the other right up the
Eastern Highlands.
But with the influx of European
immigrants, much of the forest has been
cleared for settlement and dairying.
The eastern margin of New South Wales is
now the chief source of Australias milk,
butter and cheese, besides cotton, cane
sugar and maize which are increasingly
grown in the north.
Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate

and Economy in British Type Climate.
British Type Climate
Westerlies come all the year round.

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There is a tendency towards an autumn or
| 34
winter maximum of rainfall.
Light snow falls in winter.
Ports are never frozen but frosts do occur
on cold nights.
The seasons are very distinct .
And the climate is very favorable for
maximum human output.
British Type Climate or Cool Temperate
Western Margin Climate or North-West
European Maritime Climate.
QUESTIONS
Give a reasoned account of any two of

the following.
1. Cotton cultivation in the United States of

America.
2. Padi growing in monsoon China.
3. Dairying in eastern Australia.
4. Lumbering in Canada.
The cool temperate western margins

are under
the
influence
of
the
Westerlies all-round the year.
They are the regions of frontal cyclonic
activity [Temperate Cyclones].
This type of climate is typical to Britain,
hence the name British Type.
Also called as North-West European
Maritime Climate due to greater oceanic
influence.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQC4
4Cnfx3Q
Distribution of British Type

Climate
Give an explanatory account of any

three of the following.
1. Local storms (e.g. typhoon, hurricane,
pampero) are often associated with the
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate.
2. U.S.A. accounts for more than 50 per cent
of world production of corn (i.e. maize) but
only 3 per cent of world exports.
3. Farming in monsoon China is usually on a
subsistence basis, and the peasants are
permanently land-hungry.
In this post: British Type Climate or Cool
Temperate Western Margin Climate or
North-West European Maritime Climate,
www.pmfias.com
Europe
Most pronounced in and around Britain.
www.pmfias.com
In Europe the climate extends inland some

2,000 km.
Climatic belt stretches far inland into the
lowlands of North-West Europe (northern
and western France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway
and also north-western Iberia).
www.pmfias.com
Relief can make great differences in the

annual amount. This is particularly
significant in New Zealand where the
western margins are subjected to heavy
orographic
rainfall
whereas
the
eastern Canterbury
plains receive
Page
comparatively less rainfall due to rain| 35
shadow effect.
North America
Confined mainly to the coastlands of

British Columbia. [high Rockies prevent
the on-shore Westerlies from penetrating
far inland]
Southern Hemisphere
The
climate
southern Chile,
Tasmania and
Zealand.
is
experienced
in
Southern
Australia,
most
parts
of New
British Type Climate
Moderately warm summers and fairly mild

winters.
Rainfall occurs throughout the year
with winter maxima.
The seasons
Temperature
The mean annual temperatures are

usually between 5 C and 15 C.
Winters are abnormally mild. This is
because of the warming effect brought
by warm North Atlantic Drift.
Sometimes, unusual cold spells are
caused by the invasion of cold polar
continental air (Polar Vortex) from the
interiors.
Precipitation
The British type of climate has adequate

rainfall throughout the year with a
tendency
towards
a
slight winter
maximum (due to frontal cyclones).
Western margins have the heaviest rainfall
due to westerlies.
As in other temperate regions there

are four distinct seasons.
Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy
and misty mornings, and many rainy days
from the passing depressions.
Spring is the driest and the most
refreshing season when people emerge
from the depressing winter to see
everything becoming green again.
This is followed by the long, sunny
summer.
Next is the autumn with the roar of gusty
winds; and the cycle repeats itself.
This type of climate with its four distinct
seasons
is
something
that
is conspicuously
absent
in
the
tropics. [Rainforest == Only Rainy season,
Tropical Monsoon == Summer, Winter and
Rainy, Tropical Savanna == Summer
(rains) and Winter]
Climate Graph British Type

Climate
www.pmfias.com
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Unlike
the
equatorial
forests,
the deciduous
trees occur
in pure
stands and have greater lumbering value.
The open nature of the forests with sparse
undergrowth is
useful
in
logging
operations.
Page
Easy penetration means much cost can
| 36
be saved in the movement of the logs.
The deciduous hardwoods are excellent
for both fuel and industrial purposes.
In
Tasmania,
the temperate
eucalypts are also extensively felled for
the lumbering industry.
Higher
up
the
mountains, conifers
(softwood) are felled and transported
to paper and pulp industry. They are
extensively used in cardboard making.
Industrialization
Natural Vegetation in British Type

Climate
The natural vegetation of this climatic type

is deciduous forest.
The trees shed their leaves in the cold
season.
This is an adaptation for protecting
themselves against the winter snow and
frost.
Shedding begins in autumn, the fall
season.
Some of the common species include oak,
elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.
In the wetter areas grow willows (Light
weight cricket bats are made from willows.
In India willows are found in Kashmir).
Higher up the mountains in the
Scandinavian highlands, the Rockies,
southern Andes and the Southern Alps of
New Zealand, the deciduous trees are
generally replaced by the conifers which
can survive a higher altitude, a lower
temperature and poorer soils.
Economy in British Type Climate

Lumbering is quite profitable
The regions are highly industrialized with

high standard of living.
The countries are concerned in the
production of machinery, chemicals,
textiles and other manufactured articles
rather than agriculture, fishing or
lumbering, though these activities are well
represented in some of the countries.
Fishing is particularly important in
Britain, Norway and British Columbia.
Britain, France and Germany have
significant mineral resources and are
heavily industrialized.
Ruhr region in Germany, Yorkshire,
Manchester and Liverpool regions in
Britain are significant for wide ranging
manufacturing industries.
Automobile
industry
is
the
most
significant. (BMW, Volkswagen, Audi,
Mercedes-Benz and many other world
leading car manufacturers have their
headquarters in Germany).
Industries based on dairy products thrive
in Denmark, Netherlands and New
Zealand.
Tasmania is important for merino wool
production. Wool produced here is
exported to textile factories in England,
Japan, China etc..
www.pmfias.com
Agriculture
A large range of cereals, fruits and root

crops are raised, mainly for home
consumption rather than for export.
North-West Europe, which includes some
of the most crowded parts of the globe,
has little surplus for export. It is, in fact,
a net importer of food crops, especially
wheat.
Market gardening
All the north-western European countries

are highly industrialized and have high
population densities. There will normally
be great demand for fresh vegetables,
eggs, meat, milk and fruits.
As the crops are perishable, a good
network of transport is indispensable. The
produce are shipped by high speed trucks
(truck farming, which is commonly used
in the United States)
In Australia, high-speed boats ply across
the Bass Strait daily from Tasmania to
rush vegetables, tomatoes, apples and
beans to most of the large cities in
mainland Australia. It is no wonder the
Australians
nicknamed
Tasmania
the garden state.
With the rise of industry, more arable

farms are being devoured by factories
and wheat is now a net import item in
Europe.
Throughout
north-western
Europe,
farmers practice both arable farming
(cultivation of crops on ploughed land) and
pastoral farming (keeping animals on
grass meadows).
Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most
extensively grown, almost entirely for
home consumption.
The next most important cereal raised in
the mixed farm is barley. The better
quality barley is sold to the breweries
for beer-making or whisky distilling.
The temperate western margin type of

climate is almost ideal for intensive
dairying.
Cheese is a specialized product of the
Netherlands.
From Denmark and New Zealand comes
high-quality butter.
Milk is converted to cream, which is less
perishable than fresh milk and is
exported to all regions across the globe.
Fresh milk is converted into various forms
of condensed or evaporated milk, and
exported around the world for babyfeeding, confectionery, ice-cream and
chocolate making.
Beef cattle
Mixed farming
The most important animals kept in the

mixed farm are cattle.
The countries bordering the North Sea
(Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands) are
some of the most advanced dairying
countries where cattle are kept on
Page
a scientific and intensive basis.
| 37
Dairying
www.pmfias.com
Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as

beef cattle.
In Argentina or Australia, meat production
is the primary concern.
The high rate of beef consumption in
Europe
necessitates
large
imports
of frozen and chilled beef.
The pigs
and
poultry act
as scavengers that feed on the left-overs
from root-crops and dairy processes. In
this way, Denmark is able to export large
quantities of bacon [cured meat from the
back or sides of a pig] from pigs that are
fed on the skimmed milk, a by-product
of butter-making.
Sheep rearing
Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton.

Britain is the home of some of the best
known sheep breeds.
www.pmfias.com
With the greater pressure exerted on land

by
increased
urbanization,
industrialization and agriculture, sheep
rearing is being pushed further and
further into the less favored areas.
Britain was once an exporter of wool (But
now it imports from Australia). But today
exports only British pedigree animals to
the newer sheep lands of the world
(Australia).
In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing
is the chief occupation of New Zealand,
with
its
greatest
concentration
in
the Canterbury Plain [The rain shadow
region]. It has been estimated that for
every New Zealander there are 20 sheep.
Favourable conditions include extensive
meadows, a mild temperate climate, welldrained level ground, scientific animal
breeding, the development of refrigeration
enables chilled Canterbury lamb and
Corriedale mutton to reach every corner of
the globe.
Though New Zealand has only 4 per cent
of the worlds sheep population, it
accounts for two-thirds of the worlds
mutton exports, and one sixth of world
wool exports.
In Tasmania and southern Chile, sheep
rearing has always been a predominant
occupation with surplus sheep products
for the international trade.
Other agricultural activities
Amongst the food crops, potatoes feature

prominently in the domestic economy of
the cool temperate regions.
It is the staple food in supplementing
wheat or bread for millions of people.
In terms of starch, potato yields far more
food than any cereals and can be
cultivated over a wide range of climatic
and soil types.
Today almost two-thirds of the worlds
annual production of potatoes comes from
Europe, of which Poland, Germany,
France and UK are the major producers.
Beet Sugar
www.pmfias.com
Found almost exclusively in north-western

Europe (including European Russia) and
parts of U.S.A.
The need for such a crop was greatly felt
during the Napoleonic Wars around 1800
when military blockades caused a scarcity
Page
of sugar.
The beet is crushed for sugar and the | 38
green tops are used as animal fodder.
The crop thrives best in the warmer and
drier east of Britain and in mainland
Europe. The highest sugar yield is
obtained when the autumn is both dry
and sunny.
QUESTIONS
Write a geographical account of the
following economic activities.
Mixed farming
Beet sugar cultivation
Cool temperate orchard farming
Sheep rearing
Woollen textile industry
Give an explanatory account of any two
of the following.
Sheep outnumber the population of New

Zealand by 20:1.
No country produces and exports more
wool than Australia.
Market-gardening
is
a
product
of
urbanization.
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate or
Siberian Climate or Cool Temperate
Continental Climate or Continental SubPolar Climate, Natural Vegetation of Taiga
Climate,
Coniferous
forests
and
Lumbering.
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1009
uujtAI
www.pmfias.com
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Temperature
Boreal Climate OR Taiga Climate OR

Siberian Climate OR Cool Temperate
Continental Climate OR Continental
Sub-Polar Climate.
Found only in the northern hemisphere

[due to great east-west extent. Absent in
the southern hemisphere because of the
narrowness in the high latitudes].
Experienced in the regions just below
Arctic circle.
On its poleward side, it merges into
the Arctic tundra.
The
climate
fades
into
the
temperate Steppe climate.
Distribution
It stretches along a continuous belt

across central
Canada,
some
parts
of Scandinavian
Europe and
most
of central and southern Russian. [50 to
70 N]
Precipitation
Absent in Southern Hemisphere
Narrowness of the southern continents in

the high latitudes is the main reason.
The strong oceanic influence reduces the
severity of the winter.
Coniferous forests are found only on the
mountainous uplands of southern Chile,
New Zealand, Tasmania and south-east
Australia.
Taiga Climate
Summers are brief and warm reaching 2025 C whereas winters are long and
brutually cold always 30-40 C below
freezing.
Annual temperature range of the Siberian
Climate is the greatest [Almost 50-60 C
in Siberia].
Some of the lowest temperatures in the
world are recorded in Verkhoyansk (68N.
113E) where -67 C was once recorded.
In North America, the extremes are less
severe, because of the continents lesser
east-west stretch.
All over Russia, nearly all the rivers
are frozen. In normal years, the Volga is
ice-covered for about 150 days.
Occasionally cold, northerly polar local
winds
such
as
the blizzards
of
Canada and buran
of
Eurasia blow
violently.
Permafrosts [a thick subsurface layer of
soil that remains below freezing point
throughout the year] are generally absent
as snow is a poor conductor of heat and
protects the ground from the severe cold
above.
Maritime influence in the interiors is

absent.
Frontal disturbances might occur in
winter.
Typical annual precipitation ranges from
38 cm to 63 cm.
It is quite well distributed throughout
the
year,
with
a summer
maxima [convectional
rain
in
midsummer 15 C to 24 C]
In winter the precipitation is in the form of
snow, as mean temperatures are well
below freezing all the time.
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| 39
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Climate Graph of Taiga Climate
Natural Vegetation of Taiga

Climate
The predominant vegetation is evergreen

coniferous forest.
The conifers, which require little moisture
are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic
climate.
The greatest single band of the coniferous
forest is the taiga (a Russian word for
coniferous forest) in Siberia.
In Europe the countries that have a
similar type of climate and forests
are Sweden and Finland.
There are small amounts of natural
coniferous forest in Germany, Poland,
Switzerland, Austria and other parts of
Europe.
In North America, the belt stretches
from Alaska across Canada into Labrador
.
Softwood trees
The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and

North America are the richest sources of
softwood.
Softwood is used in building construction,
furniture, matches, paper and pulp,
rayon and other branches of the chemical
industry.
The worlds greatest softwood producers
are
Russia,
U.S.A.,
Canada
and
the Fenoscandian countries (Finland,
Norway and Sweden).
www.pmfias.com
In the production of wood pulp (by both

chemical and mechanical methods), the
U.S.A. is the leader.
But
in
the
field
of
newsprint, Canada accounts for almost
half of the worlds total annual production.
Page
There are four major species in the
coniferous forests Pine, Fir, e.g. Douglas | 40
fir and balsam fir; Spruce and Larch.
Their presence in pure stands and the
existence of only a few species are a great
advantage
in
commercial
forest
exploitation.
Relatively inaccessible taiga of Siberia will
remain the richest reserve of temperate
softwood.
Characteristics of Coniferous
forests
Unlike the equatorial rain forests,

Coniferous
forests
are
of moderate
density and are more uniform. The trees
in coniferous forests grow straight and
tall.
Almost all conifers are evergreen. There is
no annual replacement of new leaves as in
deciduous trees.
The same leaf remains on the tree for as
long as five years. Food is stored in the
trunks, and the bark is thick to protect
the trunk from excessive cold.
Conifers are conical in shape. Their
conical shape and sloping branches
prevent snow accumulation. It also offers
little grip to the winds.
Transpiration can be quite rapid in the
warm summer. So, leaves are small,
thick, leathery and
needle-shaped to
check excessive transpiration.
The soils of the coniferous forests
are poor. They
are
excessively leached and
very acidic.
Humus content is also low as the
evergreen leaves barely fall and the rate of
decomposition is slow. Under-growth is
negligible because of the poor soil
conditions.
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Absence of direct sunlight and the short

duration of summer are other contributory
factors.
Coniferous forests are also found in
regions with high elevation [Example: The
forests just below the snowline in
Himalayas].
But on very steep slopes where soils are
immature or non-existent, even the conifer
cannot survive [Example: Southern slopes
of Greater Himalayas].
Economic Development of Taiga

Region
Lot of coniferous forests in the northern

hemisphere are still untouched due
to remoteness.
Only a small fraction of coniferous forests
in Canada, Russia etc. are exploited
leaving a huge potential for the future.
More accessible forests are cleared for
lumbering on a large scale.
Agriculture is most unlikely as few crops
can survive in the sub-Arctic climates.
Trapping
Many fur-bearing animals are trapped in

northerly lands of Canada and Eurasia.
Wherever the cold is severe, the quality
and thickness of the fur increases.
The most severe winters produce the finest
furs.
In Canada trappers and hunters, armed
with automatic rifles, reside in log cabins
in the midst of the coniferous forests to
track down these animals.
Muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox are
the most important fur-bearing animals.
To ensure a more regular supply of furs
many fur farms have been established in
Canada and Siberia.
Lumbering
This is the most important occupation of

the Siberian type of climate.
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The vast reserves of coniferous forests

provide the basis for the lumbering
industry.
Lumberjacks: Contract laborers called
lumber jacks used to temporarily move to
the forest regions to fell the trees. Now
Page
felling is done by machines.
Rivers for transportation: The soft wood | 41
logs easily float on rivers. Hence rivers are
used to transport logs to the sawmills
located down the stream.
Sawmilling: Logs are processed in saw
mills into timber, plywood, and other
constructional woods.
Paper and pulp industry: Timber is
pulped by both chemical and mechanical
means to make wood pulp. Wood pulp is
the raw material for paper-making and
newsprint.
Canada and U.S.A. are leading suppliers
of newsprint and wood pulp respectively.
As a fuel: Very little softwood is burnt as
fuel as its industrial uses are far more
significant.
As an industrial raw material: In
Sweden, matches form a major export
item.
From other temperate countries, timber is
used for making furniture, wood- carvings,
toys, packing cases etc..
From the by-products of the timber, many
chemically processed articles are derived
such as rayon turpentine, varnishes,
paints, dyes, liquid resins, wood-alcohols,
disinfectants and cosmetics.
Factors that favor lumbering

Coniferous forests is characterized by the
following favorable features for Lumbering.
The conifers are limited in species. Pine,

spruce and fir in the northern forests and
larch in the warmer south are the most
important.
Unlike
rainforests,
they
occur
in homogeneous groups [Pure stands].
This saves time, costs and enhances the
commercial value of the felled timber.
www.pmfias.com
Lumbering is normally carried out in the

winter when the sap ceases to flow. This
makes felling much simpler.
The snow-covered ground makes logging
and haulage [commercial transport of
goods] a relatively easy job.
The logs are dragged to the rivers and float
to the saw-mills downstream when the
rivers thaw [unfreeze] in spring. This has
greatly assisted the lumbering industry in
eastern Canada and Sweden.
Lumbering is quite easy in Canada,
Norway and Sweden as the rivers are not
frozen for a greater part of the year. But in
Russian taiga most of Siberian rivers drain
poleward into the Arctic Ocean which is
frozen for three-quarters of the year, and
there are few saw-mills there.
With the use of the Northern Sea Route,
which links Murmansk and Vladivostok
via the Arctic Ocean, development is
increasing.
Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the
saw-mills
is
harnessed
in
the
mountainous uplands of North America
and Europe and has greatly assisted the
lumbering industry.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Temperate coniferous forests

Temperate deciduous forests
Tropical monsoon forests
Tropical rain forests
Distinguish between hardwoods and

softwoods. What industrial uses are
made of them? Account for their large
scale production for export in any one
country.
What is meant by
1. the taiga
2. the veld
3. the selvas
Describe the role played by forest

products in the economy of either
Canada or Sweden.
In this post: Laurentian Climate or Cool
Temperate
Eastern
Marine
Climate,
Page
Natural Vegetation - Laurentian Climate,
Economic Development Laurentian | 42
Climate: Fishing in Grand Banks regions
(Newfoundland) and Fishing off Japan.
Laurentian Climate or Cool

Temperate Eastern Marine
Climate
[embedyt]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aj6_r
MPyKMQ[/embedyt]
Intermediate type of climate between

the British Type Climate (moderate) and
the Taiga Type Climate (extreme) of
climate.
It has features of both the maritime and
the continental climates.
Distribution of Laurentian
Climate
QUESTIONS
Which one among the following covers
the highest percentage of forest area in
the world? [2003]
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Laurentian type of climate is found only in

two regions and that too only in the
North American region
North-eastern
North
America,
including eastern Canada, north-east
U.S.A., and Newfoundland. This may be
referred to as the North American region.
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Asiatic region
Eastern coastlands of Asia, including

eastern Siberia,
North
China,
Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan.
Absent in Southern Hemisphere
In the southern hemisphere only a small

section of continents extends south of
40S latitude.
Some of these small sections come under
the
rain-shadow
region
of
Andes
(Patagonia) and hence Westerlies hardly
ever reach these regions.
So
these
regions
are
subjected
to aridity rather than continentiality.
In other regions, the oceanic influence is
so profound that neither the continental
nor the eastern margin type of climate
exists.
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In winter, the temperature drops below

freezing and snowfall occurs.
Precipitation
occurs all-round
the
year due to the influence of Atlantic
ocean (summer) and the Great Lakes
(winter).
Page
The warm Gulf Stream increases the
| 43
moisture of easterly winds.
The
prevailing
Westerlies
carry
depressions over the Great Lakes towards
eastern regions causing wet conditions in
winter [vital for the agricultural activities].
Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and
the
cold
Labrador
Current
near
Newfoundland produces dense mist and
fog and gives rise to much precipitation.
It is said that Newfoundland experiences
more drizzles than any other part of the
world.
Laurentian Climate
Temperature
Characterized by cold, dry winters and

warm, wet summers.
Winter temperatures is below freezingpoint and snow fall is quite natural.
Summers are as warm as the tropics (~25
C).
The Asiatic region
Precipitation
Rainfall occurs throughout the year

with summer maxima [easterly winds
from the oceans bring rains]
Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm
[two thirds of rainfall occurs in the
summer].
Dry Westerlies that blow from continental
interiors dominate winters.
The North American region
In summer, prolonged heat waves cause

discomfort.
Rainfall distribution of the Asiatic region

is far less uniform when compared to
North American Region.
Winters are cold and very dry while
summers
are
very
warm
and exceptionally wet.
The rainfall regime resembles the tropical
monsoon type in India.
Intense heating of the mountainous
interior of China in summer creates a
region of extreme low pressure, and
moisture-laden winds from the Pacific
Ocean and the Sea of Japan blow in as
the South-East Monsoon.
Thus the Laurentian type of climate in
China is often described as the Cool
Temperate Monsoon Climate.
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It has a very long, cold winter, and a large

annual range of temperature.
Much of the winter precipitation in
northern China, Korea and Hokkaido,
Japan, is in the form of snow.
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continuation of the great coniferous belt of

the taiga.
Climate Graph for Laurentian

Climate
Page
Japan
The climate of Japan is modified by

the meeting of warm and cold ocean
currents.
It receives adequate rainfall from both the
South-East Monsoon in summer and the
North- West Monsoon in winter (western
coasts of Japan)
The warm Kuroshio makes the climate of
Japan less extreme.
The
meeting
zone
between warm
Kuroshio from
south
and cold
Oyashio from the north produce fog and
mist, making north Japan a second
Newfoundland.
Fishing replaces agriculture as the main
occupation in many of the indented
coastlands.
| 44
Lumbering
Natural Vegetation - Laurentian

Climate
The
predominant
vegetation
is cool
temperate forest.
The heavy rainfall, the warm summers
and the damp air from fogs, all favor the
growth of trees.
Forest tend to be coniferous north of the
50N latitude.
In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and
Korea), the coniferous forests are a
Timber and fish are the leading export

items.
Much of the coniferous forests of fir,
spruce and larch are exploited to a great
extent.
Eastern Canada is the heart of the
Canadian timber and wood pulp industry
[St. Lawrence River helps in export].
South of latitude 50N., the coniferous
forests give way to deciduous forests. Oak,
beech, maple and birch are most common.
Almost
homogeneous
species
of
trees [pure
stands],
and
the
predominance of only a handful of species
greatly enhance the commercial value of
these forests.
They have been extensively felled for the
extraction of temperate hardwood. [From
Laurentian
Climate
regions,
both
temperate
hardwood
and
temperate
softwood are obtained]
In Manchuria, Korea and Japan, the
forests have made way for the agriculture.
Economic Development
Laurentian Climate
Lumbering and its associated timber,

paper and pulp industries are the most
important economic undertaking.
www.pmfias.com
Agriculture is less important because of

long and severe winters.
In the North American region, farmers are
engaged in dairy farming.
The Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia is
the worlds most renowned region
for apples.
Fishing is, however, the most outstanding
economic activity.
Fishing off Newfoundland
Regions around the Grand Banks of

Newfoundland are the worlds largest
fishing grounds.
Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold
Labrador currents make the region the
most productive fishing ground on earth.
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All the fishing activities are carried out by

highly mechanized trawlers which can
store fish in refrigerated chambers for
months.
St. Johns, chief port of Newfoundland is
the headquarters of the Grand Banks
Page
fishing industries.
All processing activities like cutting, | 45
cleaning, packing for disposal are done at
the ports itself.
Over-fishing is a growing problem.
Fishing off Japan
Fish feed on minute marine organisms

called plankton. Plankton is abundantly
available in shallow waters [continental
shelves] where they have access to both
sunlight as well as nutrients. Also, cold
and
warm
water
mixing
creates
upwelling of cold nutrient rich water to
the surface.
The gently sloping continental shelves

stretch for over 200 miles south-east of
Newfoundland, and off the coasts of the
Maritime Provinces and New England.
Hence microscopic plankton are abundant
[Continental Shelf + Mixing of Warm and
Cold Ocean Currents].
Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed
here and support a thriving fishing
industry.
Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries
like Norway, France, Britain, Portugal,
Denmark, Russia and Japan, also send
fishing fleets to the Grand Banks.
In
Newfoundland,
fishing
provides
employment
for
almost
the
entire
population.
Further inland, in lakes and rivers, such
as the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes,
freshwater fish, e.g. salmon etc. are
caught.
North-west Pacific surrounding the islands

of Japan is another very important fishing
grounds of the world.
Majority of the people in the region depend
on fishing for survival.
Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing
ports with complete refrigeration facilities.
The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far
and wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the
Atlantic waters.
Large whaling fleets with processing
plants venture into distant regions as far
as Arctic and Antarctic [Japan is
criticized for its whaling operations].
Japan accounts for a sixth of the worlds
total annual fish caught.
The Japanese make use of fish wastes,
fish meal and seaweeds as fertilizers in
their farms.
Japan is one of the few countries that has
taken to seaweed cultivation (India is
taking baby steps in seaweed cultivation).
Coastal farms that are submerged in water
grow weeds for sale as fertilizers, chemical
ingredient and food.
Another aspect of Japanese fishing is
pearl culture. Pearls are harvested
from pearl oysters.
As natural pearls are difficult to obtain in
large numbers, so the Japanese have
begun to harvest cultured pearls.
Why is fishing the dominant

occupation of Japan?
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The mountainous nature of Japan and

parts of mainland eastern Asia support
little agricultural activity [80 per cent land
in Japan is classed as non-agricultural.
Around 50% of the total land is covered by
forests].
Japan is not well endowed with natural
resources. So, she has to take to the sea if
she wants to survive.
The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture
in Japan for livestock farming of any kind)
popularized fish as the principal item of
diet and the chief protein food of the
Japanese and the Chinese as well.
There exists a great demand for fish and
fish products in the nearby countries
where
fishing
industry
in
underdeveloped.
Japan has huge stakes in international
fishing enterprises and her advanced
fishing techniques give her an edge over
competitors.
Advanced financial services, encouraging
government policy, advanced technology at
hand, skilled workforce with decades of
experience in fishing and the only
available natural resource to exploit, make
Japan a leader in fishing industry.
Geographical advantage
The continental shelves around the

islands of Japan are rich in plankton, due
to the meeting of the warm Kuroshio and
the cold Oyashio currents and provide
excellent breeding grounds for all kinds of
fish.
The indented
coastline
of
Japan,
provides sheltered fishing ports, calm
waters and safe landing places, ideal for
the fishing industry.
Tropical monsoon Climate of India and the

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China
type) Climate in S. China.
The Steppe type of climate in Eurasia and
the Siberian type (Taiga climate) of climate
in northern Canada.
Page
The Tundra Climate of Greenland and
Trade Wind Desert Climate of central | 46
Australia.
Name the major fishing areas of the
world. Explain the geographical factors
which
have
contributed
to
its
importance.
Write brief notes on
The economy of the

Laurentian regions.
Fishing in Japan.
of
the
Previous Post: Laurentian Climate
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate

or Arctic Climate
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1009
uujtAI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xDeDs
IZZ5Ig
Compare and contrast the climate of

the following pairs of areas.
Laurentian Climate in the North American
region and the Asiatic region.
forests
In this post: Tundra Climate or Polar

Climate or Arctic Climate, Natural
Vegetation of Tundra Climate and
Development in Tundra Climate.
QUESTIONS
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Distribution
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Found in regions north of the Arctic

Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
The ice-caps are confined to highlands
and high latitude regions of Greenland
and Antarctica.
In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is
the greatest single stretch of ice-cap
(10,000 feet thick).
The lowlands coastal strip of Greenland,
the barren grounds of northern Canada
and Alaska and the Arctic seaboard of
Eurasia, have tundra climate.
Tundra Climate
Temperature
The tundra climate is characterized by a

very low mean annual temperature.
In mid-winter temperatures are as low as
40 50 C below freezing.
Summers are relatively warmer.
Normally not more than four months have
temperatures above freezing-point.
Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles,
there are weeks of continuous darkness
(Rotation and Revolution).
The ground remains solidly frozen and is
inaccessible to plants.
Frost occurs at any time and blizzards,
reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour
are not infrequent.
Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow

and sleet.
Convectional rainfall is generally absent.
Natural Vegetation - Tundra

Climate
There are no trees in the tundra.

Lowest form of vegetation like mosses,
lichens etc. are found here and there.
Climatic conditions along the coastal
lowlands are a little favorable.
Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses

and the reindeer moss which provide the
only pasturage for reindeers.
In the brief summer, berry-bearing bushes
and Arctic flowers bloom.
In the summer, birds migrate north to
Page
prey on the numerous insects which
| 47
emerge when the snow thaws.
Mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox,
Arctic hare and lemmings also live in
tundra regions.
Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.
Human Activities
Human activities of the tundra are largely

confined to the coast.
People live a semi-nomadic life.
In Greenland, northern Canada and
Alaska live the Eskimos.
During winter they live in compact igloos.
Their food is derived from fish, seals,
walruses and polar bears.
Now a days rifles instead of traditional
harpoons are used to track down animals.
Recent Development of the Arctic

Region
Precipitation
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New settlements have sprung up because

of the discovery of minerals.
Gold is mined in Alaska, petroleum in the
Kenai Peninsula, Alaska; and copper at
the Rankin Inlet, Canada.
With the declining reserves of iron ore
around the Great Lakes, iron ore deposits
in Labrador are gaining importance. New
railway lines have been constructed to
bring the ores to the St. Lawrence River.
Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and
Gallivare
helped
Sweden
enjoy
a
prosperous export trade in iron and steel
and other metallurgical products.
New ports on the Arctic seaboard of
Eurasia has made it possible to ship
timber and fur from Siberia. Modern icebreakers makes the frozen seas navigable.
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................... 1
Water on the earths surface ................... 2
Ocean Relief ........................................... 2
Continental Shelf.................................... 2
Continental Slope ................................... 4
Continental Rise ..................................... 5
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain .............. 5
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches..................... 5
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges 5
Abyssal Hills .......................................... 6
Submarine Canyons ............................... 6
Atoll ....................................................... 7
Bank, Shoal and Reef ............................. 7
Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief .... 8
Marginal Seas......................................... 8
www.pmfias.com
Pacific Ocean Currents ..........................21

Phytoplankton and Fishing ....................23
Atlantic Ocean Currents ........................24
Indian Ocean Currents ..........................27
Temperature Distribution of Oceans ......29 Page
Factors
Affecting
Temperature | 1
Distribution of Oceans...........................30
Vertical Temperature Distribution of
Oceans ..................................................31
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of
Oceans ..................................................32
Range of Ocean Temperature .................33
Ocean Salinity .......................................34
Horizontal distribution of salinity ..........35
Vertical Distribution of Salinity..............37
Questions ..............................................37
Tides .....................................................37
Human Impact on marginal seas ............ 9
Tidal Bulge - Why there are two tidal

bulges? - Why is there a tidal bulge on the
other side? ............................................37
Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom) in

Marginal Seas........................................10
Factors Controlling the Nature and

Magnitude of Tides ................................38
Biomass
Production
and
Primary
Productivity ...........................................10
Types of Tides........................................38
Marginal seas of the world ...................... 9
Water Circulation in Marginal Seas .......10

Bays, gulfs, and Straits .........................11
The Pacific Ocean ..................................12
The Atlantic Ocean ................................13
The Indian Ocean ..................................14
Ocean Movements .................................16
Ocean currents......................................16
Primary Forces Responsible For Ocean
Currents ...............................................17
Secondary Forces Responsible For Ocean
Currents ...............................................17
Types of Ocean Currents .......................18
General Characteristics of Ocean Currents
.............................................................18
Effects of Ocean Currents ......................19
Desert Formation and Ocean Currents ..20
Importance of Tides ...............................40

Characteristics of Tides .........................41
Tidal bore ..............................................42
Questions ..............................................42
Coral Reef .............................................43
Coral Reef Relief Features ......................43
Development Of Major Coral Reef Types .45
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth..........46
Distribution of Coral Reefs.....................46
Corals and Zooxanthellae ......................47
Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals
And Zooxanthellae .................................47
Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching 47
Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching .....48
Spatial and temporal range of coral reef
bleaching ..............................................49
Bleaching may also be Beneficial ...........50
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In this post: Ocean Relief [Ocean Bottom

Topography or Relief of the Ocean Floor]
Major Relief features of Ocean Bottom:
Continental Shelf, Continental Slope,
Continental Rise, Deep Sea Plain or
Abyssal Plain, Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
and Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine
Ridges. Minor Relief features of Ocean
Bottom:
Abyssal
Hills,
Submarine
Canyons, Atoll, Bank, Shoal and Reef.
Water on the earths surface
www.pmfias.com
Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic,

volcanic, erosional and depositional
processes and their interactions.
Ocean relief features are divided into
major and minor relief features.
Major Ocean Relief Features

Four major divisions in the ocean relief
are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
the
the
the
the
continental shelf,
continental slope,
continental rise,
Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain.
Minor Ocean Relief Features
Ridges,
Hills,
Seamounts,
Guyots,
Trenches,
Canyons,
Sleeps,
Fracture zones,
Island arcs,
Atolls,
Coral reefs,
Submerged volcanoes and
Sea-scarps.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXKN
TK86RWQ
Continental Shelf
Ocean Relief
Continental
Shelf
is
the gently
sloping seaward extension of continental
plate.
These extended margins of each continent
are occupied by relatively shallow seas
and gulfs.
Continental Shelf of all oceans together
cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans.
Gradient of continental is of 1 or even
less.
The shelf typically ends at a very steep
slope, called the shelf break.
Page
|2
www.pmfias.com
The continental shelves are covered with

variable thicknesses of sediments brought
down by rivers, glaciers etc..
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Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long

time by the continental shelves, become the source
of fossil fuels [Petroleum].
Page
|3
Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East

Asia, Great Banks around Newfoundland,
Submerged region between Australia and
New Guinea.
The shelf is formed mainly due to
1. submergence of a part of a continent

2. relative rise in sea level
3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by
rivers
1.
2.
3.
4.
There are various types of shelves based

on different sediments of terrestrial origin
glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland),

coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia),
shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta),
shelf with dendritic valleys (At the
Mouth of Hudson River)
5. shelf along young mountain ranges
(Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).
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Width
The average width of continental shelves is

between 70 80 km.
The shelves are almost absent or very
narrow along some of the margins like the
coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra,
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etc. [Ocean Continent Convergence and

Ocean Ocean Convergence].
It is up to 120 km wide along the eastern
coast
of
USA.
On
the
contrary,
the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the
largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km
Page
in width.
|4
Depth
various mineral ores like manganese, iron

copper, gold etc..]
The depth of the shelves also varies. It

may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas
while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
Continental Slope
Importance of continent shelves

1. Marine food comes almost entirely from
continental shelves;
2. They provide the richest fishing
grounds;
3. They are potential sites for economic
minerals [20% of the world production
of petroleum and
gas
comes
from
shelves. Polymetallic
nodules (manganese nodules; concentric
layers
of iron
and
manganese
hydroxides) etc. are good sources of
The continental slope connects the

continental shelf and the ocean basins.
It begins where the bottom of the
continental shelf sharply drops off into a
steep slope.
The gradient of the slope region varies
between 2-5.
The depth of the slope region varies
between 200 and 3,000 m.
The seaward edge of the continental slope
loses gradient at this depth and gives rise
to continental rise.
The continental
slope
boundary
indicates the end of the continents.
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Canyons and trenches are observed in this

region.
Continental Rise
The continental slope gradually loses its

steepness with depth.
When the slope reaches a level of
between 0.5 and 1, it is referred to as
the continental rise.
With increasing depth the rise becomes
virtually flat and merges with the abyssal
plain.
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain
Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas

of the ocean basins.
These are the flattest and smoothest
regions
of
the
world
because
of terrigenous [denoting marine sediment
eroded from the land] and shallow water
sediments that buries the irregular
topography.
It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000
m.
These plains are covered with fine-grained
sediments like clay and silt.
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They are of tectonic origin and are formed

during ocean ocean convergence and
ocean continent convergence.
They are some 3-5 km deeper than the
surrounding ocean floor.
The trenches lie along the fringes of the
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deep-sea plain at the bases of continental
|5
slopes and along island arcs.
The
trenches
run parallel
to
the
bordering fold mountains or the island
chains.
The trenches are very common in the
Pacific Ocean and form an almost
continuous ring along the western and
eastern margins of the Pacific.
The Mariana Trench off the Guam
Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest
trench with, a depth of more than 11
kilometres.
They
are
associated
with active
volcanoes and strong earthquakes (Deep
Focus Earthquakes like in Japan). This
makes them very significant in the study
of plate movements.
As many as 57 deeps have been explored
so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific
Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in
the Indian Ocean.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine

Ridges
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
The trenches are relatively steep sided,

narrow basins (Depressions). These areas
are the deepest parts of the oceans.
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two

chains of mountains separated by a large
depression. [Divergent Boundary]
The mountain ranges can have peaks as
high as 2,500 m and some even reach
above the oceans surface.
Running for a total length of 75,000 km,
these ridges form the largest mountain
systems on earth.
These ridges are either broad, like a
plateau, gently sloping or in the form of
steep-sided narrow mountains.
These
oceanic
ridge
systems
are
of tectonic origin and provide evidence in
support of the theory of Plate Tectonics.
Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge,
is an example.
www.pmfias.com
www.pmfias.com
Abyssal Hills
Page
|6
Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed

summits,
rising
from
the
seafloor
that does not reach the surface of the
ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
The Emperor seamount, an extension of
the Hawaiian Islands [Hotspot] in the
Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
Guyots: The
flat
topped
mountains
(seamounts) are known as guyots.
Seamounts and guyots are very common

in the Pacific Ocean where they are
estimated to number around 10,000.
Submarine Canyons
CANYON: a deep gorge, especially one

with a river flowing through it
GORGE: a steep, narrow valley or ravine
VALLEY: a low area between hills or
mountains or a depression, typically with
a river or stream flowing through it.
www.pmfias.com
www.pmfias.com
Page
|7
These are deep valleys, some comparable

to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.
They are sometimes found cutting across
the continental shelves and slopes, often
extending from the mouths of large rivers.
The Hudson Canyon is the best known
canyon in the world.
Broadly, there are
submarine canyons
three
types
of
Small gorges which begin at the edge of

the continental shelf and extend down the
slope
to
very
great
depths,
e.g., Oceanographer Canyons near New
England.
Those which begin at the mouth of a river
and extend over the shelf, such as the
Zaire, the Mississippi and the Indus
canyons.
Those which have a dendritic appearance
and are deeply cut into the edge of the
shelf and the slope, like the canyons off
the
coast
of
southern
California.
The Hudson Canyon is the best known
canyon in the world.
The largest canyons in the world occur in
the Bering Sea off Alaska. They are the
Bering, Pribilof and Zhemchung canyons.
Atoll
Bank, Shoal and Reef
Bank
These are low islands found in the tropical

oceans
consisting
of
coral
reefs
surrounding a central depression.
It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or
sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh,
brackish, or highly saline water.
These marine features are formed as a

result of erosional, depositional and
biological activity.
These are produced upon features
of diastrophic [Earth Movements] origin.
Therefore, they are located on upper parts
of elevations.
These marine features are formed as' a

result of erosional and depositional
activity.
A bank is a flat topped elevation located in
the continental margins.
The depth of water here is shallow but
enough for navigational purposes.
The Dogger Bank in the North Sea
and Grand Bank in the north-western
Atlantic,
Newfoundland
are
famous
examples.
The banks are sites of some of the
most productive fisheries of the world.
Shoal
www.pmfias.com
A shoal is a detached elevation with

shallow depths. Since they project out of
water with moderate heights, they
are dangerous for navigation.
Significance of Study of Oceanic

Relief
A reef is a predominantly organic deposit

made by living or dead organisms that
forms a mound or rocky elevation like a
ridge.
Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of
the Pacific Ocean where they are
associated with seamounts and guyots.
The largest reef in the world is found off
the Queensland coast of Australia. [We
will study coral reefs in future posts]
Since the reefs may extend above the
surface, they are generally dangerous for
navigation.
[Coral Bleaching is a very important topic.
We will see it later posts]
Ocean relief controls the motion of sea

water.
The oceanic movement in the form of Page
currents, in turn, causes many variations | 8
in both oceans and in atmosphere.
The bottom relief of oceans also
influences navigation and fishing.
In this post: Marginal Seas, Marginal seas
of the world, Human Impact on marginal
seas, Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom)
in Marginal Seas, Biomass Production and
Primary Productivity, Water Circulation in
Marginal Seas, Bay, Gulf, Strait and
Isthmus.
Reef
www.pmfias.com
Important for Prelims Environment and

Location based questions.
Marginal Seas
In oceanography, a marginal sea is a

sea partially
enclosed by
islands,
archipelagos, or peninsulas.
Some of the major marginal seas include
the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of
Bengal, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of
California,
Gulf
of
Mexico,
Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and all four
of the Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara,
Laptev, and East Siberian).
The primary differences between marginal
seas and open oceans are associated with
depth and proximity to landmasses.
Marginal seas, which are generally
shallower than open oceans, are more
influenced by human activities, river
runoff, climate, and water circulation.
Important Marginal Seas:
High Resolution Image Download Links
[Use any one link]
https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1myJl
On-
www.pmfias.com
mMCNWJYSWtMZTItVGM/view?usp=shar
ing
https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1myJl
OnmMCVWNpLXpIb2JLam8/view?usp=shari
ng
Marginal seas of the world
Important marginal seas are mentioned

below.
Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean
Barents Sea
The Irish Sea
Marginal seas of the Atlantic

Ocean
Argentine Sea
Caribbean Sea
English Channel
Gulf of Mexico
Hudson Bay
Irish Sea
Labrador Sea
Mediterranean Sea
North Sea
Norwegian Sea
Scotia Sea
is constantly in news. Hence the locations

from the region are important for prelims.
Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Java Sea
Persian Gulf
Red Sea
Sea of Zanj
Marginal seas of the

Mediterranean Sea
Major conflict zones lie on the east of
Mediterranean. Also recent refugee crisis
Adriatic Sea
Aegean Sea
Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
Bering Sea
Celebes Sea
Coral Sea
East China Sea
Philippine Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
South China Sea (another important
conflict zone)
Tasman Sea (between Australia and New
Zealand)
Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)
Other seas
The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined

as a marginal sea, sometimes as a
Mediterranean sea.
The Caspian Sea is also sometimes
defined as a marginal sea, and also the
Dead Sea.
Human Impact on marginal seas
Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean
www.pmfias.com
Marginal seas are more susceptible to

pollution than
open
ocean
regions
because of the high concentration of
human activities near coastlines and
rivers.
The greatest human impact on marginal
seas is related to the fisheries industry.
Ninety percent of the world's fisheries exist
within coastal waters that are located less
than 200 kilometers (124 miles) from the
shoreline.
Other
human
activities
that
have
adversely
affected
marginal
seas
include industrial
sewage
disposal,
offshore oil drilling, and accidental
releases of pollutants, including petroleum
products, radioactive waste, detergents,
and plastics.
Page
|9
www.pmfias.com
Pollutants from the nearby landmasses

are introduced into marginal seas in
concentrations that are thousands of
times greater than in open oceans.
Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal

Bloom) in Marginal Seas
The Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea

are marginal seas found in proximity to
one another. The color difference shown
here
is
due
to
a phytoplankton
bloom occurring in the Black Sea.
www.pmfias.com
with the highest rates found in coastal

upwelling
regions and
the lowest
primary production occurring in open
ocean regions.
Hence, the highest biomass production
rates occur in coastal upwelling zones,
Page
the lowest in open oceans regions,
and intermediate rates in marginal | 10
seas.
For near shore regions, the dominant
processes influencing primary productivity
are river runoff, water column mixing,
and turbidity.
River runoff and water column mixing
introduce
dissolved
nutrients,
trace
elements, and suspended particles into
the photic (light) zones of near shore
regions.
Although the addition of dissolved
nutrients and trace elements to coastal
waters and marginal seas serves to
increase primary production, the addition
of
suspended
particles
increases
water turbidity, which results in reduced
sunlight
penetration
and decreased primary productivity.
Water Circulation in Marginal

Seas
Phytoplankton are good as fish feed on

them.
But
when
they
proliferate
indiscriminately, they consume too much
oxygen during nights, thus depriving
other marine organisms of oxygen.
For example, the discharge of domestic
sewage
leads
to
elevated
nutrient
concentrations (particularly phosphates)
which can result in harmful algal blooms.
Biomass Production and Primary

Productivity
Marine biomass production originates with

primary productivity, which in turn is
affected by the availability of sunlight,
carbon dioxide, nutrients such as nitrates
and phosphates, and trace elements.
Marginal
seas
generally
exhibit
intermediate levels of primary production,
Water circulation patterns in marginal

seas depend largely on shape of the sea,
fresh-water input (e.g., river runoff and
precipitation) and evaporation.
If river runoff and precipitation exceed
evaporation, as is the case in the Black
and Baltic Seas, the excess fresh water
will tend to flow seaward near the sea
surface.
If evaporation exceeds river runoff and
precipitation, as in the Mediterranean Sea,
the marginal sea water becomes saltier,
then sinks and flows towards the less
salty open ocean region.
Circulation Patterns in Major Marginal
Seas
Black Sea and Baltic Sea
www.pmfias.com
The Black Sea and Baltic Sea basins both

possess sills that
restrict
subsurface
water circulation.
While the surface waters of the Black and
Baltic Seas are able to flow over the sills
and introduce lower salinity water into the
open ocean, the flow of the saltier
subsurface waters is blocked by these
sills.
This type of subsurface-water restriction
often leads to stagnation, which may
eventually
result
in local
oxygen
depletion.
clockwise direction and "looping" around a

warm "dome" of Gulf of Mexico surface
water [More under ocean currents].
Bays, gulfs, and Straits
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea, which is divided

by a 400 meter sill into two sub basins, is
connected to the Atlantic Ocean via
the Straits of Gibraltar, to the Black Sea
via the Bosporus Strait, and to the Red
Sea via the manmade Suez Canal.
Atlantic Ocean water enters this marginal
sea through the Straits of Gibraltar as a
surface flow. This ocean water replaces a
fraction of the water that evaporates in the
eastern Mediterranean Sea.
In
Mediterranean
Sea evaporation
exceeds precipitation and hence salinity
increases.
Compared to the Black, Baltic and

Mediterranean Seas, the Gulf of Mexico is
a much less complex marginal sea.
The Gulf of Mexico is connected to the
Atlantic
Ocean
via
the Straits
of
Florida and the Caribbean Sea via
the Yucatn Strait.
In the northern Gulf of Mexico region,
Mississippi River runoff influences surface
waters as far as 150 meters away from the
shore, resulting in salinities as low as 25.
A unique feature of the Gulf of Mexico's
surface circulation pattern is the Loop
Current,
which
results
from
the Caribbean Current entering the Gulf
of
Mexico through
the Yucatn
Strait and upon arrival, turning in a
Page
Bays, gulfs, and straits are types of water
bodies that are contained within a larger | 11
body of water near land.
These three water bodies are usually
located at important points of human
activities; thus, conflicts with nature and
neighbors are common.
Bays
Gulf of Mexico
www.pmfias.com
A bay is a small body of water that is set

off from a larger body of water generally
where the land curves inward.
In simple words, bay is a water body
surrounded on three sides by land with
the fourth side (mouth) wide open towards
oceans. (In Gulfs, the mouth is narrow).
A bay is usually smaller and less
enclosed than a gulf.
Example: The Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson
Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.
An example of a bay at a river's mouth is
New York Bay, at the mouth of
the Hudson River (Hudson Estuary).
Guantnamo Bay
Guantnamo Bay is a sheltered inlet

within the Caribbean Sea.
During the Spanish-American War in
1898, the United States gained access to
the outer harbor of Guantnamo Bay.
Through an agreement signed with Cuba
in 1903, the United States obtained the
right to maintain a naval base at
Guantnamo Bay.
In 1934, a treaty reaffirmed the U.S. right
to lease the site. The treaty gave the
United States a perpetual lease on
Guantnamo Bay.
The most infamous Guantnamo Bay
prison is here.
www.pmfias.com
Gulfs
A gulf is a large body of water, sometimes

with a narrow mouth, that is almost
completely surrounded by land. The
world's largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.
Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of
California, Gulf of Aden (between the Red
Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the Persian
Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and Iran).
The Persian Gulf is important with respect
to world energy because petroleum is
transported through its waters in oil
tankers.
www.pmfias.com
The Strait is surrounded by the United

Arab Emirates and Oman (on one side)
and Iran (on the other side).
Isthmus
Page
Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a strait.
i.e., a narrow strip of land connecting two | 12
larger land masses.
Example: Isthmus
of
Panama and Isthmus of Suez.
Straits
A strait is a narrow passageway of water,

usually between continents or islands, or
between two larger bodies of water.
The Strait of Gibraltar is probably the
world's most famous strait. It connects the
Atlantic Ocean on its west with the
Mediterranean Sea on its east.
Two
other
well-known
straits
are
the Strait of Bosporus and the Strait of
Hormuz.
The Strait of Bosporus connects the Black
Sea (from the north) and the Sea of
Marmara (from the south), and splits
northwestern Turkey.
The Strait of Hormuz is located at
the southeastern end of the Persian
Gulf. It is a narrow waterway that can be
(and has been) controlled to prevent ships
from sailing through the gulf.
In this post: Major Ocean relief: Pacific

Ocean - Atlantic Ocean - Indian ocean.
The Pacific Ocean
North and Central Pacific
Choke Point
When a body of water such as a strait is

capable of being blocked or even closed in
order to control transportation routes, the
body is called a "choke point."
Historically, the Strait of Gibraltar has
been one of the world's most important
choke points.
However, the Strait of Hormuz has become
an important choke point in recent years
because of increasing Middle East
tensions.
Largest and deepest ocean.

Covers about one-third of the earths
surface.
Average depth is generally around 7,300
metres.
Its shape is roughly triangular with its
apex in the north at the Bering Strait.
Many marginal seas, bays and gulfs occur
along its boundaries.
Nearly 20,000 islands dot this vast ocean.
Characterized by maximum depth and a

large number of deeps, trenches and
islands.
Some
well-known
trenches
are Aleutian and Kuril.
There
are
also
a
large
number
of seamounts and guyots.
[Hawaiian
Hotspot]
West and South-West Pacific
www.pmfias.com
Average depth is about 4,000 m.

It is marked by a variety of islands,
marginal seas, continental shelves and
submarine trenches.
Mariana
Trench and Mindanao
Trench are very deep with a depth of more
than 10,000 metres.
South-East Pacific
The Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic is the second largest ocean

after the Pacific.
It is roughly half the size of the Pacific
Ocean.
Its shape resembles the letter S.
In terms of trade, it is the most significant
of all oceans.
Continental Shelf
It has prominent continental shelf with
varying widths.
www.pmfias.com
This part is conspicuous for the absence

of marginal seas, and has submarine
ridges and plateaus.
The Tonga and Atacama trenches
are Page
prominent.
| 13
The length of the continental shelf is

maximum in Northern Atlantic coasts.
The largest width occurring off north-east
America and north-west Europe.
Grand banks continental shelf is the most
productive continental shelf in the world.
[Recall fishing industry in Laurentian
Climate]
The Atlantic Ocean has numerous
marginal seas occurring on the shelves,
like the Hudson Bay, the Baltic Sea, and
the North Sea, and beyond the shelves like
the Gulf of Florida (Mexican Gulf).
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
www.pmfias.com
www.pmfias.com
The most remarkable feature of the

Atlantic Ocean is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
which runs from north to the south
paralleling the S shape of the ocean.
The ridge has an average height of 4 km
and is about 14,000 km long.
Page
| 14
Seamounts and guyots
They are present in significant numbers

but not as significant as in pacific ocean.
Several seamounts form islands of the
mid-Atlantic.
Examples
include Pico
Island of Azores, Gape Verde Islands,
Canary Islands etc..
Also,
there
are
coral
islands
like Bermuda and volcanic islands like, St
Helena etc..
Trenches
Atlantic Ocean lacks significant troughs

and
trenches,
which
are
most
characteristic to the Pacific Ocean.
North Cayman and Puerto Rico are the
two troughs and Romanche and South
Sandwich are the two trenches in the
Atlantic Ocean.
Islands
The Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean is the third largest of the

world's oceanic divisions.
Smaller and less deep than the Atlantic
Ocean.
Submarine ridges
Submarine ridges in this ocean include

the Lakshadweep-Chagos
Ridge
[Reunion Hotspot], the Socotra-Chagos
Ridge, the Seychelles Ridge, the South
Madagascar Ridge, Carlsberg Ridge etc..
These ridges divide the ocean bottom into
many basins. Chief among these are the
Central Basin, Arabian Basin, South
Indian Basin, Mascarene Basin, West
Australian and South Australian Basins.
Most of the islands in the Indian Ocean

are continental islands and are present
in the north and west.
These include the Andaman and Nicobar,
Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Zanzibar.
The Lakshadweep and Maldives are coral
islands and Mauritius and the Reunion
Islands are of volcanic origin. The eastern
section of the Indian Ocean is almost free
from islands
Continental Shelf
The ocean's continental shelves are

narrow, averaging 200 kilometres (120 mi)
in width.
An exception is found off Australia's
northern coast, where the shelf width
exceeds 1,000 kilometres (620 mi).
www.pmfias.com
The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m

(12,762 ft).
Trenches
Linear deeps are almost absent. Few

exceptions are Sunda Trench, which lies
to the south of the island of Java
and Diamantina
Trench,
west
of
Australia.
Its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in
Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m. Sunda
Trench off the coast of Java is also
considerably deep.
Straits
Most of the straits in Indian Ocean are

important trade roots.
The major choke points include Bab el
Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok
Strait, the Strait of Malacca and the Palk
Strait.
www.pmfias.com
Marginal seas
Arabian Sea
Persian Gulf
Red Sea
Gulf of Oman
Page
Gulf of Aden
Strait
of
Bab-el-Mandeb
connecting | 15
Arabian Sea
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Khambat
Palk Strait connecting Arabian Sea and
Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal
Andaman Sea
Malacca Strait
Mozambique Channel
Great Australian Bight
Gulf of Mannar
Laccadive Sea
www.pmfias.com
www.pmfias.com
Page
| 16
In this post: Ocean currents Factors

responsible Effects.
Next post: Ocean Currents in Pacific

Ocean.
Ocean Movements
TiTBiT: World Water Day March 22

The movements that occur in oceans are
categorized
as: waves,
tides
and
currents.
Waves are formed due to friction between
wind and surface water layer. The stronger
the wind, the bigger the wave. They die out
quickly on reaching the shore or shallow
waters.
Horizontal currents arise mainly due
to friction between wind and water.
Rotation of earth, Coriolis force and
differences in water level gradient also
play a major role.
Vertical currents arise mainly due to

density differences caused by temperature
and salinity changes.
Tsunami, storm surge and tides are tidal
waves [waves with large wavelengths that
have greater intensity and destructive
power]. Waves and Tides will be dealt in
separate posts. For now, we will take a
look at ocean currents only.
Usually temperature distribution and
salinity are discussed first. But here, I will
begin with ocean currents as they bear a
greater influence on both temperature
distribution and salinity distribution.
Ocean currents
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tGwHO1o7w
Ocean currents are the most important

ocean
movements
because
of
their influence on climatology of various
www.pmfias.com
regions. [Read my previous posts on

climatic regions to understand the
influence of ocean currents.]
Ocean currents are like river flow in
oceans. They represent a regular volume
of water in a definite path and direction.
Ocean currents are influenced by two
types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement

of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the
currents to flow.
The primary forces that influence the

currents are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
heating by solar energy;

wind;
gravity;
Coriolis force.
The secondary forces that influence the

currents are:
1. Temperature difference;
2. Salinity difference
Primary Forces Responsible For

Ocean Currents
Explain the factors responsible for the
origin of ocean currents. How do they
influence regional climates, fishing and
navigation? [Mains 2015]
Influence
of
circulation)
wind
(atmospheric
Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean

pushes the water to move. Friction
Gravity tends to pull the water down to

pile and create gradient variation.
Influence of Coriolis force
Heating by solar energy causes the water

to expand. That is why, near the equator
the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in
level than in the middle latitudes.
This causes a very slight gradient and
water tends to flow down the slope. The
flow is normally from east to west.
between the wind and the water surface

affects the movement of the water body in
its course.
Winds are responsible for both magnitude
and direction [Coriolis force also affects
direction]
of
the
ocean
currents.
Page
Example: Monsoon winds are responsible
for the seasonal reversal of ocean currents | 17
in the Indian ocean.
The oceanic circulation pattern roughly
corresponds to the earths atmospheric
circulation pattern.
The air circulation over the oceans in the
middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic
[Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt] (more
pronounced in the southern hemisphere
than in the northern hemisphere due to
differences in the extent of landmass). The
oceanic
circulation
pattern
also
corresponds with the same.
At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is
mostly cyclonic [Sub-polar Low Pressure
Belt], the oceanic circulation follows this
pattern.
In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow
[Northern Indian Ocean], the monsoon
winds influence the current movements
which change directions according to
seasons.
Influence of gravity
Influence of insolation
www.pmfias.com
The Coriolis force intervenes and causes

the water to move to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the
These large accumulations of water and
the
flow
around
them
are
called Gyres. These produce large circular
currents in all the ocean basins. One such
circular current is the Sargasso Sea.
Secondary Forces Responsible For

Ocean Currents
www.pmfias.com
Temperature
difference and salinity
difference are the secondary forces.
Differences in water density affect vertical
mobility of
ocean
currents
(vertical
currents).
Water with high salinity is denser than
water with low salinity and in the same
way cold water is denser than warm water.
Denser water tends to sink, while
relatively lighter water tends to rise.
Cold-water ocean currents occur when the
cold water at the poles sinks and slowly
moves towards the equator.
Warm-water currents travel out from the
equator along the surface, flowing towards
the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
Types of Ocean Currents
hemisphere) in the low and middle

latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and
on the east coast in the higher latitudes in
the Northern Hemisphere;
2. Warm currents bring warm water into cold
water areas[low to high latitudes] and are
Page
usually observed on the east coast of
continents in the low and middle latitudes | 18
(true in both hemispheres). In the
northern hemisphere they are found on
the west coasts of continents in high
latitudes.
General Characteristics of Ocean

Currents
Based on depth
Deep waters sink into the deep ocean

basins at high latitudes, where the
temperatures are cold enough to cause the
density to increase.
Ocean currents are classified based on

temperature: as cold currents and warm
currents:
1. Cold currents bring cold water into warm

water areas [from high latitudes to low
latitudes]. These currents are usually
found on the west coast of the
continents (currents flow in clockwise
direction in northern hemisphere and in
anti-clockwise direction in southern
This is due to the Coriolis force which is

a deflective force and follows Ferrel's
law.
A notable exception to this trend is seen in
the northern part of the Indian Ocean
where the current movement changes its
direction in response to the seasonal
change in the direction of monsoon
winds.
The warm currents move towards the
cold seas and cool currents towards the
warm seas.
Based on temperature
Characteristics of Ocean Currents arise

due to the interplay of the abovementioned factors.
The general movement of the currents
in
the
northern
hemisphere
is
clockwise
and
in
the
southern
hemisphere, anti-clockwise.
The ocean currents may be classified

based
on
their
depth
as surface
currents and deep water currents:
1. surface currents constitute about 10 per

cent of all the water in the ocean, these
waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
2. deep water currents make up the other 90
per cent of the ocean water. These waters
move around the ocean basins due to
variations in the density and gravity.
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In the lower latitudes, the warm currents

flow on the eastern shores and cold on
the western shores [food for imagination].
The situation is reversed in the higher
latitudes. The warm currents move along
the western shores and the cold currents
along the eastern shores.
Convergence: warm and cold currents
meet.
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Divergence: a single current splits into

multiple currents flowing in different
directions.
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The shape and position of coasts play

an important role in guiding the
direction of currents.
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| 19
The currents flow not only at the surface

but also below the sea surface (due to
salinity and temperature difference).
For instance, heavy surface water of the
Mediterranean Sea sinks and flows
westward past Gibraltar as a sub-surface
current.
Effects of Ocean Currents

Ocean currents have a number of direct
and indirect influences on human
activities.
Moderating effect
Desert formation
Cold ocean currents have a direct effect

on desert formation in west coast regions
of
the tropical
and
subtropical
continents.
There is fog and most of the areas are arid
due to desiccating effect (loss of
moisture).
Rains
Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal

areas and even interiors. Example:
Summer Rainfall in British Type climate.
Warm currents flow parallel to the east
coasts of the continents in tropical and
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm
and rainy climates. These areas lie in the
western margins of the subtropical anticyclones.
They are responsible for moderate

temperatures at coasts. [North Atlantic
Drift brings warmness to England. Canary
cold current brings cooling effect to Spain,
Portugal etc.]
Fishing
Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents

bear richest fishing grounds in the world.
Example:
Grand
Banks
around
Newfoundland, Canada and North-Eastern
Coast of Japan.
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The mixing of warm and cold currents

help to replenish the oxygen and favor the
growth of planktons, the primary food for
fish population. The best fishing grounds
of the world exist mainly in these mixing
zones.
current [we will study this in next post]

flowing from west to east.
Explain the factors responsible for the
origin of ocean currents. How do they
influence regional climates, fishing and
Page
navigation? [Mains 2015]
| 20
Drizzle
Desert Formation and Ocean

Currents
Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents

create foggy weather where precipitation
occurs
in
the
form
of
drizzle
[Newfoundland].
Major hot deserts are located between

20-30 degree latitudes and on the
western side of the continents. Why?
Climate
Results in
Warm and rainy climates in tropical and

subtropical latitudes [Florida, Natal etc.],
Cold and dry climates on the western
margins in the sub-tropics due to
desiccating effect,
Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing
zones,
Moderate clime along the western costs in
the sub-tropics.
Tropical cyclones
They pile up warm waters in tropics and

this warm water is the major force behind
tropical cyclones.
Navigation
Currents are referred to by their drift.

Usually, the currents are strongest near
the surface and may attain speeds over
five knots (1 knot = ~1.8 km). [At depths,
currents are generally slow with speeds
less than 0.5 knots].
Ships usually follow routes which are
aided by ocean currents and winds.
Example: If a ship wants to travel from
Mexico to Philippines, it can use the route
along the North Equatorial Drift which
flows from east to west.
When it wants to travel from Philippines to
Mexico, it can follow the route along the
doldrums when there is counter equatorial
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The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly

due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds,
hence they are also called Trade Wind
Deserts.
The major hot deserts of the world are
located on the western coasts of
continents between latitudes 15 and
30N. and S (Question asked in Previous
Mains Exam).
They include the biggest Sahara Desert
(3.5 million square miles). The next biggest
desert is the Great Australian Desert. The
other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert,
Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and
Namib Deserts.
The hot deserts lie along the Horse
Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High
Pressure
Belts
where
the
air
is
descending, a condition least favorable for
precipitation of any kind to take place.
The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow offshore and the Westerlies that are onshore blow outside the desert limits.
Whatever winds reach the deserts blow
from cooler to warmer regions, and their
relative humidity is lowered, making
condensation almost impossible.
There is scarcely any cloud in the
continuous blue sky. The relative
humidity is extremely low, decreasing from
60 per cent in coastal districts to less than
30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is
evaporated and the deserts are thus
regions
of
permanent
drought.
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Precipitation is both scarce and most

unreliable.
On the western coasts, the presence of
cold currents gives rise to mists and
fogs by chilling the on-coming air. This air
is later warmed by contact with the hot
land, and little rain falls.
The desiccating
effect of
the
cold
Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast
is so pronounced that the mean annual
rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more
than 1.3 cm.
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Previous post: Ocean Currents Factors

Responsible for the Formation of Ocean
Currents Effects of Ocean Currents on
climate, fishing, navigation, tropical
cyclones.
Equatorial Pacific Ocean Currents
Under the influence of prevailing trade

winds [tropical easterlies], the north
equatorial
current and
the south
equatorial current start from the eastern
pacific (west coast of Central America) and
traverses a distance of 14,500 km moving
from east to west.
Counter equatorial current
Pacific Ocean Currents

This raises the level of western pacific

(near Indonesia and Australia) ocean by
few
centimeters.
And
this
creates
a counter-equatorial current which flows
between the north equatorial current and
the south equatorial current in westeast direction.
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| 21
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Three factors aid the formation of

Counter-Equatorial current
Point 4: This is the main reason behind

counter equatorial current (the backward
movement of equatorial waters). Doldrums
are calm regions facilitating the backward
movement of water.
1. Piling up of water in the western pacific

due to trade winds.
2. The presence of doldrums (equatorial low
pressure belt) in between the north
equatorial
current
and
the
south
equatorial current. Doldrums are narrow
regions with calm (lower) atmospheric
conditions. Such conditions aid the
backward movement of piled up western
pacific waters.
3. Piling of water in the western part of
oceans due to rotation of earth (this is a
very general point).
Question Prelims 2015
Page
There is a severe clash between Points 2
and 4. My pick is Option D [more | 22
probable].
But why? Because the most important
factor what influences the direction of
ocean currents is wind.
Kuroshio current
What explains the eastward flow of the

equatorial counter-current?
1. The Earths rotation on its axis
2. Convergence of the two equatorial
currents
3. Difference in salinity of water
4. Occurrence of the belt of calm near the
equator
Opinions can vary.

Should wait for Official Answer Key!
My opinion
There are two more cold currents in the

northern Pacific, Oyashio flows across the
east coast of Kamchatka Peninsula to
merge with the warmer waters of
Kuroshio, and the Okhotsk current flows
past Sakhlain Islands to merge with the
Oyashio current off Hokkaido (Northern
Japanese Island).
North-Pacific current
Point 2: This is the first step. Without

convergence of equatorial currents, there
may not be counter equatorial current.
But convergence occur due to trade winds
[winds play a superior role in the
formation of ocean currents].
Point 3: Salinity greatly influences vertical
currents and its influence on horizontal
movement is less significant. So, ruled
out.
The north equatorial current turns

northward off the Philippines to form
the Kuroshio current. Most of it lies in
the sub-tropical high pressure belt and
its northern part is under the influence
of westerlies.
Oyashio Current and Okhotsk

current
This question is a very tricky one.
Point 1: Very general in nature. So, less

important.
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From the south-east coast of Japan, under

the influence of prevailing westerlies,
the Kuroshio current turns eastwards
and moves as the North-Pacific current,
reaches the west coast of North America,
and bifurcates into two.
Alaska and Californian current
The northern branch flows anti-clockwise

along the coast of British Columbia and
Alaska and is known as the Alaska
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current. The water of this current is

relatively warm as compared to the
surrounding waters in this zone.
The southern branch of the current moves
as a cold current along the west coast of
USA and is known as the Californian
current. The Californian current joins the
north equatorial current to complete the
circuit.
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players in the marine ecosystem compared

to the phytoplankton as they only inhabit
a narrow zone around the coast.
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| 23
East Australian current
Following the pattern in the northern

hemisphere, the south equatorial current
flows from east to west and turns
southwards as the East Australian
current. It then meets the South pacific
current near Tasmania which flows from
west to east.
Peru current or Humboldt Current
Reaching the south-western coast of

South America, it turns northward as the
Peru current. It is a cold current, which
finally feeds the south equatorial current,
thus completing the great circuit.
And the zone where Peru Cold current
meets the warm equatorial ocean waters is
an important fishing zone. Why? Read the
topic below.
Why are cold and warm current

mixing zones the good fishing
grounds? Why are tropical waters
highly unproductive?
Phytoplankton and Fishing

Mixing zones of Cold and Warm Ocean
Currents [Grand Banks] and cold water
upwelling zones [Peru coast] are the
most productive fishing grounds on
earth. Why?
Phytoplankton
are
the primary
producers in the marine food chain and
hence they are called the grass of the
sea.
Phytoplankton
are
predominantly microscopic,
single
celled organisms.
Some species of algae are large,
multicellular and live on the ocean
bottom. However, they are insignificant
Algae and other plants are able

to photosynthesize to
produce organic
material from inorganic nutrients.
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And the organic material forms the

building block for all animals higher up in
the food chain.
Almost all biomass in the ocean is derived
from the phytoplankton and to a lesser
extent the benthic algae (found on the
bottom of a sea or lake).
However, there is a fundamental problem
phytoplankton in the open ocean have to
face. They need both sunlight and
nutrients (such
as nitrate and phosphate) to be able to
photosynthesize.
Sunlight is only available in the
uppermost layers.
During photosynthesis, the nutrients are
quickly used up by phytoplankton so they
are not available for long periods in the
upper layers under normal circumstances.
In this post: Atlantic Ocean Currents

Anatilles Current, Gulf Stream, NorthAtlantic Drift, Norwegian Current, Canary
Current, Brazilian Current, Benguela
Current etc. and Sargasso Sea.
Previous Post: Pacific Ocean Currents.
Atlantic Ocean Currents

This is indeed the case in tropical

waters, and as a result they are very
unproductive.
This is one of the reasons why cold and

warm currents convergence zones
[mixing happens the collision of
currents causes mixing] and upwelling
zones are very productive.
Both of these factors play a role in

Icelandic waters, resulting in the very
productive ocean environment around
Iceland.
The behavior of the Atlantic Ocean

Currents is quite significant because of
their influence on the climate of Northwestern Europe, climate of North-Western
Africa and fishing in the Grand banks
region.
Equatorial Atlantic Ocean

Currents
To escape this problem the seawater needs

to be mixed regularly to bring the
nutrient rich deep waters up to the
sunlight zone where the phytoplankton
can grow.
Furthermore, in surroundings where

atmospheric temperatures are often colder
than oceanic temperatures, the top layers
of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere.
This increases the density of the surface
waters and causes them to sink and
therefore causes mixing [nutrient deficient
water sinks and nutrient rich water is
upwelled].
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winds [easterly trade winds], the north
equatorial
current
and
the
south
equatorial current start from the eastern
Atlantic (west coast of Africa), moving from
east to west.
This raises the level of western Atlantic
(north of the Brazil bulge) ocean by few
centimeters. And this creates a counterequatorial current which flows between
the north equatorial current and the south
equatorial current in west-east direction.
Antilles current
The south equatorial current bifurcates

into two branches near Cape de Sao
Roque (Brazil).
Part of the current enters the Caribbean
Sea along with north equatorial current
into the Mexican Gulf, while the remainder
passes along the eastern side of the West
Indies as the Antilles current.
There is a rise in water level in the
Mexican Gulf because of large amounts of
water brought by the Mississippi river and
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| 24
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branches of north and south equatorial

currents.
Gulf Stream and North Atlantic

Drift
Antilles current creates a current that

flows out through the Strait of Florida
as Florida current, which mixes with
Antilles current from the south.
Norwegian current
The North Atlantic Current breaks up into

two branches on reaching the eastern part
of the ocean.
The main current, continuing as the North
Atlantic Drift, reaches the British Isles
from where it flows along the coast of
Norway as the Norwegian current and
enters the Arctic Ocean.
Norwegian current is very important as it
keeps ocean to the north of Norway
partly free from ice and also moderates
the extremes of climate. It is because of
this current, Russia is able to move cargo
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This combined current moves along the

east coast of USA and is known as the
Florida current upto the Cape Hatteras
and as the Gulf Stream beyond that.
Near the Grand Banks, the Gulf Stream
mixes with cold Labrador and East
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Greenland currents and flows eastward
across the Atlantic as the North Atlantic | 25
Drift.
Here, westerly movement of North Atlantic
Drift is due to the influence of westerlies.
in
summers
through Arctic
ocean
(Barents Sea).
The southerly branch flows between Spain
and Azores as the cold Canary current.
This current finally joins the north
equatorial current completing the circuit
in the North Atlantic.
The Sargasso Sea, lying within this
circuit, is full of large quantities of
seaweed and is an important geographical
feature.
Sargasso Sea
The Sargasso Sea is a region in the gyre in
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the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean.

It is the only sea on Earth which has no
coastline.
It is bounded on the
1.
2.
3.
4.
west by the Gulf Stream;

north, by the North Atlantic Current;
east, by the Canary Current; and
south, by the North Atlantic Equatorial
Current.
This system of ocean currents forms

the North Atlantic Gyre.
All the currents deposit the marine plants
and refuse they carry into this sea.
The two cold currentsEast Greenland

current and the Labrador currentflow
from the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic
Ocean.
The Labrador current flows along part of
the east coast of Canada and meets the
warm Gulf Stream.
The confluence of these two currents, one

hot and the other cold, produce the
famous fogs around Newfoundland.
As a result of mixing of cold and warm
waters, one of the world's most important
fishing grounds is created.[Explained in
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the previous post: Pacific Ocean Currents
| 26
Fishing and Phytoplankton]
Brazil current
Grand Banks-Richest Fishing

Grounds on Earth
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In the South Atlantic Ocean, the south

equatorial current, flowing from east to
west, splits into two branches near Cape
de Sao Roque (Brazil).
The northern branch joins the north
equatorial current (a part of it flows in
Anatilles Current and other into Gulf of
Mexico), whereas the southern branch
turns southward and flows along the
South American coast as the warm Brazil
current.
The south flowing Brazil current swings
eastward at about latitude 35S (due to
westerlies)
to
join
the West
Wind
Drift flowing from west to east.
A small branch of West Wind Drift splits
and flows between Argentinian coast
and Falkland Islands and this current is
called as Falkland cold current.
It mixes with warm Brazil current at the
southern tip of Brazil.
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| 27
Benguela current
A branch of the South Atlantic splits at

the southern tip of Africa and flows along
the west coast of South Africa as the cold
Benguela current, which joins the south
equatorial current to complete the circuit.
Indian Ocean Currents
Indian ocean is half an ocean, hence the

behavior of the North Indian Ocean
Currents is different from that of Atlantic
Ocean Currents or the Pacific Ocean
Currents.
Also, monsoon winds in Northern Indian
ocean are peculiar to the region, which
directly influence the ocean surface water
movement [North Indian Ocean Currents].
Indian Ocean Currents and

Monsoons
In this post: Indian Ocean Currents

Influence of Monsoon Winds on the Indian
Ocean Currents.
Previous posts: Pacific Ocean Currents
and Atlantic Ocean Currents.
The currents in the northern portion of the

Indian Ocean change their direction from
season to season in response to
the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
The effect of winds is comparatively more
pronounced in the Indian Ocean.
Winter Circulation

winds [easterly trade winds], the north
equatorial
current
and
the
south
equatorial current start from the south of
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Indonesian islands, moving from east to

west.
This raises the level of western Indian
(south-east of horn of Africa) ocean by few
centimeters. And this creates a counterequatorial current which flows between
the north equatorial current and the south
equatorial current in west-east direction.
The north-east monsoons drive the water
along the coast of Bay of Bengal to
circulate in an anti-clockwise direction.
Similarly, the water along the coast of
Arabian Sea also circulate in an anticlockwise circulation.
Summer Circulation North Equatorial

Current Counter-Equatorial Current are
Absent
In summer, due to the effects of the strong

south-west monsoon and the absence of
the north-east trades, a strong current
flows
from
west
to
east,
which
completely obliterates
the
north
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equatorial current. Hence, there is no

counter-equatorial current as well.
Thus, the circulation of water in the
northern
part
of
the
ocean
is clockwise during this season.
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| 28
Southern Indian Ocean Currents Agulhas current, Mozambique

current, West Australian current
The general pattern of circulation in

southern part of the Indian Ocean is quite
similar to that of southern Atlantic and
Pacific oceans. It is less marked by the
seasonal changes.
The south equatorial current, partly led by
the corresponding current of the Pacific
Ocean, flows from east to west.
It splits into two branches, one flowing to
the east of Madagascar known as Agulhas
current and
the
other
between
Mozambique and Western Madagascar
coast known as Mozambique current.
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| 29
At the southern tip of Madagascar, these

two branches mix and are commonly
called as the Agulhas current. It still
continues to be a warm current, till it
merges with the West Wind Drift.
The West Wind Drift, flowing across the
ocean in the higher latitudes from west to
In this post: Temperature Distribution of

Oceans Factors Affecting Temperature
Distribution
of
Oceans,
Vertical
Temperature Distribution of Oceans,
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of
Oceans and Range of Ocean Temperature.
Temperature Distribution of
Oceans
The study of the temperature of the

oceans is important for determining the
east, reaches the southern tip of the west

coast, of Australia.
One of the branches of this cold current
turns northwards along the west coast of
Australia. This current, known as
the West
Australian
current,
flows
northward to feed the south equatorial
current.
1. movement of large volumes of water

(vertical and horizontal ocean currents),
2. type and distribution of marine organisms
at various depths of oceans,
3. climate of coastal lands, etc.
Source of Heat in Oceans
The sun is the principal source of energy

(Insolation).
The ocean is also heated by the inner heat
of the ocean itself (earths interior is hot.
At the sea surface, the crust is only about
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5 to 30 km thick). But this heat is

negligible compared to that received from
sun.
How does deep water marine organisms
survive in spite of absence of sunlight?
Photic zone is only about few hundred

meters. It depends on lot of factors
like turbidity, presence of algae etc..
There are no enough primary producers
below few hundred meters till the ocean
bottom.
At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that
make use of heat supplied by earths
interior to prepare food. So, they are the
primary producers.
Other organisms feed on these primary
producers and subsequent secondary
producers.
So, the heat from earth supports wide
ranging deep water marine organisms.
But the productivity is too low compared
to ocean surface.
Why is diurnal range of ocean
temperatures too small?, Why oceans
take more time to heat or cool?
The process of heating and cooling of the

oceanic water is slower than land due
to vertical
and
horizontal
mixing and high specific heat of water.
(More time required to heat up a Kg of
water compared to heating the same unit
of a solid at same temperatures and with
equal energy supply).
The ocean water is heated by three
processes.
1. Absorption of suns radiation.

2. The conventional currents: Since the
temperature of the earth increases with
increasing depth, the ocean water at great
depths is heated faster than the upper
water layers. So, convectional oceanic
circulations develop causing circulation of
heat in water.
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3. Heat is produced due to friction caused

by the surface wind and the tidal currents
which increase stress on the water body.
The ocean water is cooled by
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1. Back radiation (heat budget) from the
sea surface takes place as the solar energy | 30
once received is reradiated as long wave
radiation
(terrestrial
radiation
or
infrared radiation) from the seawater.
2. Exchange of heat between the sea and
the atmosphere if there is temperature
difference.
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of
latent heat of evaporation (atmosphere
gains this heat in the form of latent heat of
condensation).
Factors Affecting Temperature

Distribution of Oceans
Insolation: The average daily duration of

insolation and its intensity.
Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection,
scattering, evaporation and radiation.
Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending
on the angle of sun rays).
The physical characteristics of the sea
surface: Boiling point of the sea water is
increased in the case of higher salinity
and vice versa [Salinity increased ==
Boiling point increased == Evaporation
decreased].
The presence of submarine ridges and
sills [Marginal Seas]: Temperature is
affected due to lesser mixing of waters on
the opposite sides of the ridges or sills.
The shape of the ocean: The latitudinally
extensive seas in low latitude regions have
warmer surface water than longitudinally
extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea records
higher temperature than the longitudinally
extensive Gulf of California].
The enclosed seas (Marginal Seas Gulf,
Bay etc.) in the low latitudes record
relatively higher temperature than the
open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in
the high latitudes have lower temperature
than the open seas.
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Local weather conditions such as

cyclones.
Unequal distribution of land and
water: The oceans in the northern
hemisphere receive more heat due to their
contact with larger extent of land than the
oceans in the southern hemisphere.
Prevalent winds generate horizontal and
sometimes vertical ocean currents: The
winds blowing from the land towards the
oceans (off-shore winds-moving away from
the shore) drive warm surface water away
from the coast resulting in the upwelling
of cold water from below (This happens
near Peruvian Coast in normal years. ElNino).
Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds
flowing from oceans into continents) pile
up warm water near the coast and this
raises the temperature (This happens near
the Peruvian coast during El Nino
event)(In normal years, North-eastern
Australia and Western Indonesian islands
see this kind of warm ocean waters due to
Walker Cell or Walker Circulation).
Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents
raise the temperature in cold areas while
the
cold
currents
decrease
the
temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf
stream
(warm
current) raises
the
temperature near the eastern coast of
North America and the West Coast of
Europe while the Labrador current (cold
current) lowers the temperature near the
north-east coast of North America (Near
Newfoundland). All these factors influence
the temperature of the ocean currents
locally.
Vertical Temperature Distribution

of Oceans
Photic or euphotic zone extends from

the upper surface to ~200 m. The photic
zone receives adequate solar insolation.
Aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the
ocean bottom; this zone does not receive
adequate sunrays.
Thermocline
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The profile shows a boundary region

between the surface waters of the ocean
and the deeper layers.
The boundary usually begins around 100 400 m below the sea surface and extends
several hundred of meters downward.
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This boundary region, from where there is
a rapid decrease of temperature, is called | 31
the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the
total volume of water is found below the
thermocline in the deep ocean. In this
zone, temperatures approach 0 C.
Three-Layer System
The temperature structure of oceans over

middle and low latitudes can be described
as a three-layer system from surface to the
bottom.
The first layer represents the top layer of
warm oceanic water and it is about 500m
thick
with
temperatures
ranging
between 20 and 25 C. This layer, within
the tropical region, is present throughout
the year but in mid-latitudes it develops
only during summer.
The second layer called the thermocline
layer lies below the first layer and is
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characterized by rapid decrease in

temperature with increasing depth. The
thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.
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The third layer is very cold and extends up

to the deep ocean floor. Here the
temperature becomes almost stagnant.
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| 32
General behavior
In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the

surface water temperatures are close to 0
C and so the temperature change with the
depth is very slight (ice is a very bad
conductor of heat). Here, only one layer
of cold water exists, which extends from
surface to deep ocean floor.
The rate of decrease of temperature

with depths is greater at the equator
than at the poles.
The
surface
temperature
and
its
downward decrease is influenced by the
upwelling of bottom water (Near Peruvian
coast during normal years).
In cold Arctic and Antarctic regions,
sinking of cold water and its movement
towards lower latitudes is observed.
In equatorial regions the surface, water
sometimes exhibits lower temperature
and salinity due to high rainfall, whereas
the
layers
below
it
have
higher
temperatures.
The enclosed seas in both the lower and

higher
latitudes
record higher
temperatures at the bottom.
The enclosed seas of low latitudes like
the Sargasso
Sea,
the Red
Sea and
the Mediterranean Sea have high bottom
temperatures due to high insolation
throughout the year and lesser mixing of
the warm and cold waters.
In the case of the high latitude enclosed
seas, the bottom layers of water are
warmer as water of slightly higher salinity
and temperature moves from outer ocean
as a sub-surface current.
The presence of submarine barriers may
lead to different temperature conditions on
the two sides of the barrier. For example,
at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the
submarine barrier (sill) has a height of
about 366 m. The subsurface water in the
strait is at high temperature compared to
water at same level in Indian ocean. The
temperature difference is greater than
nearly 20 C.
Horizontal Temperature
Distribution of Oceans
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The average temperature of surface water

of the oceans is about 27C and it
gradually decreases from the equator
towards the poles.
The rate of decrease of temperature with
increasing latitude is generally 0.5C per
latitude.
The horizontal temperature distribution is
shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines
joining places of equal temperature.
Isotherms are closely spaced when the
temperature difference is high and vice
versa.
For example, in February, isothermal lines
are closely spaced in the south of
Range of Ocean Temperature
The oceans and seas get heated and

cooled slower than the land surfaces.
Therefore, even if the solar insolation is
maximum at noon, the ocean surface
temperature is highest at 2 p.m.
The average diurnal or daily range of
temperature is barely 1 degree in oceans
and seas.
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Newfoundland, near the west coast of

Europe and North Sea and then isotherms
widen out to make; a bulge towards north
near the coast of Norway. The cause of
this phenomenon lies in the cold Labrador
Current flowing southward along the
Page
north American coast which reduces the
temperature of the region more sharply | 33
than in other places in the same latitude;
at the same time the warm Gulf Stream
proceeds towards the western coast of
Europe and raises the temperature of the
west coast of Europe.
The highest temperature in surface water

is attained at 2 p.m. and the lowest, at 5
a.m.
The diurnal range of temperature is
highest in oceans if the sky is free of
clouds and the atmosphere is calm.
The annual range of temperature is
influenced by the annual variation of
insolation, the nature of ocean currents
and the prevailing winds.
The
maximum
and
the
minimum
temperatures in oceans are slightly
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delayed than those of land areas

(the maximum being in August and the
minimum in February [Think why intense
tropical cyclones occur mostly between
August and October case is slightly
different in Indian Ocean due to its
shape]).
The northern Pacific and northern Atlantic
oceans
have
a
greater
range
of
temperature than their southern parts due
to a difference in the force of prevailing
winds from the land and more extensive
ocean currents in the southern parts of
oceans.
Besides annual and diurnal ranges of
temperature,
there
are
periodic
fluctuations of sea temperature also. For
example, the 11-year sunspot cycle causes
sea temperatures to rise after a 11- year
gap.
Previous Post: Temperature Distribution of

Oceans.
Ocean Salinity
Sunspots are temporary phenomena on

the photosphere of the Sun that appear
visibly as dark spots compared to
surrounding regions.
They
correspond
to
concentrations
of magnetic field that inhibit convection
and result in reduced surface temperature
compared
to
the
surrounding
photosphere.
Sunspots usually appear as pairs, with
each spot having the opposite magnetic
polarity of the other.
Although they are at temperatures of
roughly 3,0004,500 K (2,7004,200 C),
the contrast with the surrounding
material at about 5,780 K (5,500 C)
leaves them clearly visible as dark spots.
Sunspot activity cycles about every eleven
years. The point of highest sunspot
activity during this cycle is known as Solar
Maximum, and the point of lowest activity
is Solar Minimum.
In this post: Ocean Salinity Horizontal
Distribution of Ocean Salinity and Vertical
Distribution of Ocean Salinity.
Salinity is the term used to define the total Page

content of dissolved salts in sea water.
It is calculated as the amount of salt (in | 34
gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
seawater.
It is usually expressed as parts per
thousand or ppt.
Salinity of 24.7 (24.7 o/oo) has been
considered as the upper limit to demarcate
brackish water.
Role of Ocean Salinity
Sunspot
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Salinity
determines
compressibility,
thermal expansion, temperature, density,
absorption of insolation, evaporation and
humidity.
It also influences the composition and
movement of the sea: water and the
distribution of fish and other marine
resources.
Share of different salts is as shown

below
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sodium chloride 77.7%

magnesium chloride10.9%
magnesium sulphate .4.7%
calcium sulphate 3.6%
potassium sulphate 2.5%
The salinity of water in the surface layer of

oceans depend mainly on evaporation
and precipitation.
Surface salinity is greatly influenced in
coastal regions by the fresh water
flow from rivers, and in polar regions by
the processes of freezing and thawing of
ice.
Wind, also influences salinity of an area
by transferring water to other areas.
The ocean currents contribute to the
salinity variations.
Salinity, temperature and density of water
are interrelated. Hence, any change in the
temperature or density influences the
salinity of an area.
Horizontal distribution of salinity

To make life easier, I will remove the
symbol o/oo and place only number
In the land locked Red Sea (dont confuse

this to Dead Sea which has much greater
salinity), it is as high as 41.
In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river

where fresh and saline water get mixed)
and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from
0 - 35, seasonally (fresh water coming
from ice caps).
Pacific
The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean

is mainly due to its shape and larger areal
extent.
Atlantic
The salinity for normal open ocean ranges

between 33 and 37.
High salinity regions
In hot and dry regions, where evaporation

is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to
70.
Comparatively Low salinity

regions
Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity
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The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean

is around 36-37.
The equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean
has a salinity of about 35.
Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall,
high relative humidity, cloudiness and
calm air of the doldrums.
The polar areas experience very little
evaporation and receive large amounts of
fresh water from the melting of ice. This
leads to low levels of salinity, ranging
between 20 and 32.
Maximum
salinity
(37)
is observed
between 20 N and 30 N and 20 W 60 W. It gradually decreases towards the
north.
Page
| 35
www.pmfias.com
Indian Ocean
Inland seas and lakes
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is

35.
The low salinity trend is observed in the
Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water
by the river Ganga.
On the contrary, the Arabian Sea
shows higher
salinity due
to
high
evaporation and low influx of fresh water.
Marginal seas
The North Sea, in spite of its location in

higher latitudes, records higher salinity
due to more saline water brought by the
North Atlantic Drift.
Baltic Sea records low salinity due to
influx of river waters in large quantity.
The Mediterranean Sea records higher
salinity due to high evaporation.
Salinity is, however, very low in Black
Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by
rivers.
Sub-Surface Salinity
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The salinity of the inland Seas and lakes is

very high because of the regular supply of
salt by ' the rivers falling into them.
Their water becomes progressively more Page
saline due to evaporation.
For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt | 36
Lake , (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea and
the Lake Van in Turkey is 220, 240 and
330 respectively.
The oceans and salt lakes are becoming
more salty as time goes on because the
rivers dump more salt into them, while
fresh water is lost due to evaporation.
Cold and warm water mixing

zones
Salinity decreases from 35 31 on the

western parts of the northern hemisphere
because of the influx of melted water from
the Arctic region.
With depth, the salinity also varies, but

this variation again is subject to
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latitudinal difference. The decrease is also

influenced by cold and warm currents.
In high latitudes, salinity increases with
depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases
up to 35 metres and then it decreases. At
the equator, surface salinity is lower.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity
Salinity changes with depth, but the way

it changes depends upon the location of
the sea.
Salinity at the surface increases by the
loss of water to ice or evaporation, or
decreased by the input of fresh waters,
such as from the rivers.
Salinity at depth is very much fixed,
because there is no way that water is
lost, or the salt is added. There is a
marked difference in the salinity between
the surface zones and the deep zones of
the oceans.
The lower salinity water rests above the
higher salinity dense water.
Salinity, generally, increases with depth
and there is a distinct zone called
the halocline (compare
this
with
thermocline), where salinity increases
sharply.
Other factors being constant, increasing
salinity of seawater causes its density to
increase. High salinity seawater, generally,
sinks below the lower salinity water. This
leads to stratification by salinity.
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Tides; Types of Tides: Semi-diurnal tide,

Diurnal tide, Mixed tide, Spring tides,
Neap tides, Ebb and Flood; Importance of
Tides; Characteristics of Tides; Tidal bore.
Tides
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, | 37

once or twice a day, mainly due to the
attraction of the sun and the moon, is
called a tide.
Movement
of
water
caused
by
meteorological
effects
(winds
and
atmospheric
pressure
changes)
are
called surges
(storm
surge
during
cyclones).
The study of tides is very complex,
spatially and temporally, as it has great
variations in frequency, magnitude and
height.
The moons gravitational pull to a great
extent and to a lesser extent the suns
gravitational pull, are the major causes
for the occurrence of tides.
Another factor is centrifugal force which
acts opposite to gravitational pull of
earth.
Tides occur due to a balance between all
these forces.
Tidal Bulge - Why there are two

tidal bulges? - Why is there a tidal
bulge on the other side?
Questions
1. Salinity is expressed as the amount of salt
in grams dissolved in sea water per (a) 10
gm (c) 100 gm (b) 1,000 gm (d) 10,000 gm
2. Which one of the following is the smallest
ocean: (a) Indian Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean
(b) Arctic Ocean (d) Pacific Ocean
In this post: Tides Tidal Bulge Why
there are two tidal bulges? Why is there a
tidal bulge on the other side? Factors
Controlling the Nature and Magnitude of
Page
Together, the gravitational pull and the

centrifugal force are responsible for
creating the two major tidal bulges on the
earth.
On the side of the earth facing the moon, a
tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite
side though the gravitational attraction of
the moon is less as it is farther away, the
centrifugal force causes tidal bulge on the
other side.
The tide-generating force is the difference
between these two forces; i.e. the
gravitational attraction of the moon
and the centrifugal force.
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On the surface of the earth, nearest the

moon, pull or the attractive force of the
moon is greater than the centrifugal force,
and so there is a net force causing a bulge
towards the moon.
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On the opposite side of the earth, the

attractive force is less, as it is farther away
from the moon, the centrifugal force is
dominant. Hence, there is a net force
away from the moon. It creates the second
bulge away
from
the
moon.
Page
| 38
Factors Controlling the Nature

and Magnitude of Tides
The movement of the moon in relation to

the earth.
Changes in position of the sun and moon
in relation to the earth.
Uneven distribution of water over the
globe.
Irregularities in the configuration of the
oceans.
On the surface of the earth, the horizontal
tide generating forces are more important
than the vertical forces in generating the
tidal bulges.
The tidal bulges on wide continental
shelves, have greater height. When tidal
bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they
become low.
The shape of bays and estuaries along a

coastline can also magnify the intensity of
tides.
Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
magnitudes. When the tide is channeled
between islands or into bays and estuaries
they are called tidal currents (tidal bore
is one such tidal current).
Tides of Bay of Fundy, Canada
The highest tides in the world occur in the

Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The
tidal bulge is 15 - 16 m.
Because there are two high tides and two
low tides every day (slightly more than a
24 hour period); then a tide must come in
within about a six hour period.
Types of Tides
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Tides vary in their frequency, direction

and movement from place to place and
also from time to time.
Tides may be grouped into various types
based on their frequency of occurrence in
one day or 24 hours or based on their
height.
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from English Channel + 2 neap tides

from North Sea + 2 neap tides from
English Channel]. This happens because
the North
Sea and
the English
Channel push the water at different
intervals.
Diurnal tide
Tides based on Frequency

Semi-diurnal tide
The
most
common
tidal
pattern,
featuring two high tides and two low
tides each day [Actually it varies
between 3 tides to 4 tides 3 tides in
rare cases but 4 is normal]. The
successive high or low tides are
approximately of the same height.
Mixed tide
Although tides occur twice a day, their

interval is not exactly 12 hours.
Instead, they occur at regular intervals
of 12 hours and 25 minutes.
This is because the moon revolves around

the earth from west to east, and each day
it moves a bit to the east if observed from
the same place on earth at the same time
on two consecutive days.
This time lag explains the tide interval of
12 hours and- 25 minutes, as tides occur
twice a day.
There is only one high tide and one low

tide during each day. The successive high
and low tides are approximately of the
same height.
Tides having variations in height are

known as mixed tides. These tides
generally occur along the west coast of
North America and on many islands of
the Pacific Ocean.
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and

the Earth Positions
The height of rising water (high tide) varies

appreciably depending upon the position
of sun and moon with respect to the
earth. Spring tides and neap tides come
under this category.
Spring tides
The position of both the sun and the moon

in relation to the earth has direct bearing
on tide height.
When the sun, the moon and the earth are
in a straight line, the height of the tide will
be higher.
These are called spring tides and they
occur twice a month, one on full moon
period and another during new moon
period.
Neap tides
A place in EnglandSouthampton
experiences tides 6-8 times a day [2 high
tides from North Sea + 2 high tides
Normally,
there
is
a seven
day
interval between the spring tides and
neap tides.
Page
| 39
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At this time the sun and moon are at right

angles to each other and the forces of the
sun and moon tend to counteract one
another.
The Moons attraction, though more than
twice as strong as the suns, is diminished
by the counteracting force of the suns
gravitational pull.
Like spring tides, these tides also
occur twice a month.
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When the earth is farthest from the

sun (aphelion), around 4th July each
year, tidal ranges are much less than
average.
Page
| 40
Gif Image: View on my website under

respective post or in power point in full
screen mode
Magnitude of tides based on

Perigee and apogee of moon
Once in a month, when the moons orbit is

closest to the earth (perigee), unusually
high and low tides occur. During this time
the tidal range is greater than normal.
Two weeks later, when the moon is
farthest from earth (apogee), the moons
gravitational force is limited and the tidal
ranges are less than their average heights.
Gif Image
Ebb and Flood
Magnitude of tides based on

Perigee and Apogee of earth
When the earth is closest to the

sun (perihelion),
around 3rd
January each year, tidal ranges are also
much greater, with unusually high and
unusually low tides.
The time between the high tide and low

tide, when the water level is fallin
g, is called the ebb.
The time between the low tide and high
tide, when the tide is rising, is called
the flow or flood.
Importance of Tides
Since tides are caused by the earth-moonsun positions which are known accurately,
the tides can be predicted well in
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advance. This helps the navigators and

fishermen plan their activities.
Navigation
Tidal
heights
are
very
important,
especially harbours near rivers and within
estuaries having shallow bars [Marine
Landforms] at
the
entrance,
which
prevent ships and boats from entering into
the harbour.
High tides help in navigation. They raise
the water level close to the shores. This
helps the ships to arrive at the harbour
more easily.
Tides generally help in making some of the
rivers
navigable
for
ocean-going
vessels. London
and
Calcutta [Tidal
Ports] have become important ports owing
to the tidal nature of the mouths of the
Thames and Hooghly respectively.
Fishing
The high tides also help in fishing. Many

more fish come closer to the shore during
the high tide. This enables fishermen to
get a plentiful catch.
Desilting
Tides are also helpful in desilting the

sediments and in removing polluted water
from river estuaries.
Other
Tides are used to generate electrical power

(in Canada, France, Russia, and China).
A 3 MW tidal power project was
constructed
at Durgaduani
in
Sunderbans of West Bengal.
Characteristics of Tides
The tidal bulges on wide continental

shelves have greater height.
In the open ocean tidal currents are
relatively weak.
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When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic

islands they become low.
The shape of bays and estuaries along a
coastline can also magnify the intensity of
tides.
Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
Page
magnitudes. Example: Bay of Fundy
| 41
Highest tidal range.
The large continents on the planet,
however, block the westward passage of
the tidal bulges as the Earth rotates.
Tidal patterns differ greatly from ocean to
ocean and from location to location.
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Tidal bore
Tides also occur in gulfs. The gulfs with

wide fronts and narrow rears experience
higher tides.
The in and out movement of water into a
gulf through a channels called a tidal
current.
When a tide enters the narrow and
shallow estuary of a river, the front of the
tidal wave appears to be vertical owing to
the piling up of water of the river against
the tidal wave and the friction of the river
bed.
The steep-nosed tide crest looks like a
vertical wall of-water rushing upstream
and is known as a tidal bore.
The favorable conditions for tidal bore
include strength of the incoming tidal
wave, slim and depth of the channel and
the river flow.
There
are
exceptions.
The Amazon
River is the largest river in the world. It
empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The
mouth of the Amazon is not narrow, but
the river still has a strong tidal bore. A
tidal bore develops here because the
mouth of the river is shallow and dotted
by many low-lying islands and sand bars.
In India, tidal bores are common in
the Hooghly river. Most powerful tidal
bores occur in Qiantang River in China.
The
name
bore
is
because
of
the sound the tidal current makes when it
travels through narrow channels.
Bores
occur
in
relatively few
locations worldwide, usually in areas with
a large tidal range, typically more than 6
metres (20 ft) between high and low water.
A tidal bore takes place during the flood
tide and never during the ebb tide (Tidal
bores almost never occur during neap
tides. Neap tides happen during quarter
moons, when tides are weakest).
Impact of Tidal Bore
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Tides are stable and can be predicted.

Tidal bores are less predictable and
hence can be dangerous.
The tidal bores adversely affect the
shipping and navigation in the estuarine
zone.
Page
Tidal bores of considerable magnitude can
capsize boats and ships of considerable | 42
size.
Strong tidal bores disrupt fishing zones in
estuaries and gulfs.
Tidal bores have an adverse impact on the
ecology of the river mouth. The tidal-bore
affected estuaries are the rich feeding
zones and breeding grounds of several
forms of wildlife.
Animals slammed by the leading edge of a
tidal wave can be buried in the silty water.
For this reason, carnivores and scavengers
are common sights behind tidal bores.
Questions
Multiple choice
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1. Upward and downward movement of

ocean water is known as the:
In this post: Coral Reef Coral Reef Relief

Features Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs),
Barrier Reefs and Atolls. Development Of
Major Coral Reef Types [Formation Of
Lakshadweep Islands]
(a) tide
(b) wave
(d) none of the above
Page
Next Post: Coral Bleaching Ideal
conditions for coral growth, Zooxanthellae, | 43
Cause for Coral Bleaching, Distribution of
Coral Reefs etc..
2. Spring tides are caused:
Coral Reef
(c) current
(a) As result of the moon and the sun

pulling the earth gravitationally in the
same direction.
(b) As result of the moon and the sun
pulling the earth gravitationally in the
opposite direction.
(c) Indention in the coast line.

(d) None of the above.
3. The distance between the earth and
the moon is minimum when the moon
is in:
(a) Aphelion
(b) Perihelion
(c) Perigee
(d) Apogee
4. The earth reaches its perihelion in:
(a) October
(b) July
(c) September
(d) January
150 Words
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What are tides? How are tides caused?

How are tides related to navigation?
Coral reefs are built by and made up of

thousands
of
tiny
animalscoral
polypsthat are related to anemones
and jellyfish.
Polyps
are shallow
water
organisms which have a soft body covered
by a calcareous skeleton. The polyps
extract calcium salts from sea water to
form these hard skeletons.
The polyps live in colonies fastened to the
rocky sea floor.
The tubular skeletons grow upwards and
outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky
mass, collectively called corals.
When the coral polyps die, they shed their
skeleton [coral] on which new polyps grow.
The cycle is repeated for over millions of
years leading to accumulation of layers of
corals [shallow rock created by these
depositions is called reef].
These layers at different stages give rise to
various marine landforms. One such
important landform is called coral reef.
Coral reefs over a period of time transform
or
evolve
into coral
islands
(Lakshadweep).
The corals occur in different forms and
colours, depending upon the nature of
salts or constituents they are made of.
Small marine plants (algae) also deposit
calcium carbonate contributing to coral
growth.
Coral Reef Relief Features
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Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll

(coral islands are formed on atolls) are
the most important relief features.
Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)
WHAT IS A "LAGOON"?
A lagoon - as used in the context of coral

reef typology - refers to a comparatively
wide band of water that lies between the
shore and the main area of reef
development, and contains at least some
deep portions.
Barrier Reefs
Barrier
reefs
are extensive
linear
reef complexes that parallel a shore, and
are separated from it by lagoon.
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Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly

from a shore. They are located
very close to land, and often form
a shallow lagoon between the beach and Page
the main body of the reef.
A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2 | 44
km wide]. This type of reef grows from the
deep sea bottom with the seaward side
sloping steeply into the deep sea. Coral
polyps do not extend outwards because
of sudden and large increase in depth.
The fringing reef is by far the most
common of the three major types of coral
reefs, with numerous examples in all
major regions of coral reef development.
Fringing reefs can be seen at the New
Hebrides Society islands off Australia and
off the southern coast of Florida.
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This is the largest (in size, not

distribution) of the three reefs, runs for
hundreds of kilometres and is several
kilometres wide. It extends as a broken,
irregular ring around the coast or an
island, running almost parallel to it.
Barrier reefs are far less common than
fringing reefs or atolls, although examples
can be found in the tropical Atlantic as
well as the Pacific.
The 1200-mile
long
Great
Barrier
Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the
world's largest example of this reef type.
The GBR is not actually a single reef as
the name implies, but rather a very large
complex consisting of many reefs.
An atoll is a roughly circular (annular)

oceanic reef system surrounding a large
(and often deep) central lagoon.
The lagoon has a depth 80-150 metres
and may be joined with sea water through
a number of channels cutting across the
reef.
Atolls are located at great distances from
deep see platforms, where the submarine
features may help in formation of atolls,
such as a submerged island or a
volcanic cone which may reach a level
suitable for coral growth.
Development Of Major Coral Reef

Types
Formation Of Lakshadweep Islands [You
must include the concept of Hotspot]
An atoll may have any one of the following

three forms-
1. true atolla circular reef enclosing a

lagoon with no island;
2. an atoll surrounding a lagoon with an
Page
island;
3. a coral island or an atoll island which | 45
is, in fact, an atoll reef, built by the
process of erosion and deposition of
waves with island crowns formed on
them.
Atolls
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Atolls are far more common in the

Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji
atoll and the Funafuti atoll in the
Ellice/Island are well known examples of
atolls. A large 'number of atolls also occur
in the Lakshadweep Islands.
In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in
mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are
common
in French
Polynesia,
the Caroline
and
Marshall
Islands, Micronesia,
and
the Cook
Islands.
The Indian Ocean also contains numerous
atoll formations. Examples are found in
the Maldives and Chagos
island
groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos
Island group.
The basic coral reef classification scheme

described above was first proposed
by Charles Darwin, and is still widely
used today.
Darwin theorized that fringing reefs began
to grow near the shorelines of new
islands as ecological conditions became
ideal for hard coral growth.
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Then,
as
the
island
began
to
gradually subside into the sea, the coral
was able to keep pace in terms of growth
and remained in place at the sea surface,
but farther from shore; it was now a
barrier reef.
Eventually, the island disappeared below
the sea surface, leaving only the ring of
coral encircling the central lagoon; an atoll
had formed.
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In this post: Coral Bleaching Ideal

conditions for coral growth, Zooxanthellae,
Cause for Coral Bleaching, Distribution of
Coral Reefs etc..
Previous Post: Coral Reef
Relief Features Fringing
Reefs),
Barrier
Reefs
Development Of Major Coral
Coral Reef
Page
Reefs (Shore
and
Atolls, | 46
Reef Types.
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth
Gif Image
1. Step 1: A fringing reef forms first, and
starts growing in the shallow waters close
to a tropical island.
2. Step 2: Over time, the island subsides and
the reef grows outwards, and the distance
between the land and the reef increases.
The fringing reef develops into a barrier
reef.
3. Step 3: If the island completely subsides,
all that is left is the reef. The reef retains
the approximate shape of the island it
grew around, forming a ring enclosing a
lagoon.
Stable climatic conditions: Corals are

highly susceptible to quick changes. They
grow in regions where climate is
significantly stable for a long period of
time.
Perpetually warm waters: Corals thrive
in tropical
waters [30N
and
30S
latitudes, The temperature of water is
around 20C] where diurnal and annual
temperature ranges are very narrow.
[Explain why coral reefs are absent on
west coast of tropical continents?
Because of Cold Ocean Currents corals
like warm waters and hate cold waters]
Shallow water: Coral require fairly good

amount of sunlight to survive. The ideal
depths for coral growth are 45 m to 55 m
below sea surface, where there is
abundant sunlight available.
Clear salt water: Clear salt water is
suitable for coral growth, while both fresh
water and highly saline water are harmful.
Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of
oxygen and microscopic marine food,
called plankton
[phytoplankton],
is
essential for growth. As the plankton is
more abundant on the seaward side,
corals grow rapidly on the seaward side.
Little or no pollution: Corals are highly
fragile and are vulnerable to climate
change and pollution and even a minute
increase in marine pollution can be
catastrophic.
Distribution of Coral Reefs
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Corals and Zooxanthellae
Many invertebrates, vertebrates, and

plants live in close association with corals,
with tight
resource
coupling
and
recycling, allowing coral reefs to have
extremely
high
productivity
and
biodiversity, such that they are referred to
as the Tropical Rainforests of the
Oceans.
Scleractinian corals build skeletons of
calcium carbonate sequestered from the
water.
Scleractinian corals come under Phylum
Cnidaria, and they receive their nutrient
and energy resources in two ways.
Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef

Bleaching
Zooxanthellae are autorophic [prepare

their own food] microalgaes belonging to
various
taxa
in
the Phylum
Dinoflagellata.
Coral == Phylum Cnidaria.

Zooxanthellae
Dinoflagellata.
==
Phylum
Symbiotic Relationship Between

Corals And Zooxanthellae
These
activities
provide
the
coral
with fixed
carbon
compounds
for
energy, enhance calcification, and
mediate elemental nutrient flux.
The host coral polyp in return provides its
zooxanthellae
with
a protected
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environment to live within, and a steady
supply
of
carbon
dioxide for
its | 47
photosynthetic processes.
The symbiotic relationship allows the slow
growing corals to compete with the faster
growing multicellular algaes. The corals
can
feed
by
day
through photosynthesis and by night
through predation.
The tissues of corals themselves are
actually not the beautiful colors of the
coral reef, but are instead clear. The
corals receive their coloration from the
ZOOXANTHELLAE living within their
tissues.
1. They use the traditional cnidarian strategy

of capturing tiny planktonic organisms
with their tentacles (All about Phylum
Cnidaria is given in NCERT).
2. Having a symbiotic relationship with
a single
cell
algae known
as ZOOXANTHELLAE.
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Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the

coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in
nutrient
production
through
its
photosynthetic activities.
Disturbances affecting coral reefs include

anthropogenic and natural events.
Recent accelerated coral reef decline is
related
mostly
to
anthropogenic
impacts (overexploitation, overfishing,
increased sedimentation and nutrient
overloading).
Natural disturbances which cause damage
to coral reefs include violent storms,
flooding, high and low temperature
extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) events, sub aerial exposures,
predatory outbreaks and epizootics.
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Coral reef bleaching is a common stress

response of corals to many of the various
disturbances mentioned above.
Bleaching occurs when
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2. the concentration of photosynthetic

pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.
[it is no more useful for the coral and
the coral will bleach it]
1. the densities of zooxanthellae decline

and/or
When corals bleach they commonly lose

60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each
zooxanthellae may lose 50-80% of its
photosynthetic pigments.
If the stress-causing bleaching is not too
severe and if it decreases in time, the
affected corals usually regain their
symbiotic algae within several weeks or a
few months.
If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if
the stress continues and depleted
zooxanthellae populations do not recover,
the coral host eventually dies .
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| 48
Ecological Causes of Coral

Bleaching
Temperature
Coral species live within a relatively

narrow
temperature
margin,
and anomalously low and high sea
temperatures [corals are absent on the
west coast of tropical temperate
continents
because
of
the
cold
currents] can induce coral bleaching.
Bleaching events occur during sudden
temperature drops accompanying intense
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upwelling episodes [El-Nino], seasonal

cold-air outbreaks.
Most reefs recovered, with low levels of
coral deaths, but damage has been severe
at places.
This is an instance of coral reefs'
susceptibility
to
increased
water
temperatures
combined
with OCEAN
ACIDIFICATION.
While the rising temperatures have
increased the frequency and intensity of
bleaching,
acidification
has reduced
corals calcifying ability.
Small temperature increase over many
weeks or large increase (3-4 C) over a few
days will result in coral dysfunction.
Coral bleaching has occurred mostly
during the summer seasons or near the
end of a protracted warming period.
They are reported to have taken place
during times of low wind velocity, clear
skies, calm seas and low turbidity. The
conditions favor localised heating and high
ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
UV radiation readily penetrates clear sea
waters. The corals actually contain UVabsorbing compounds which can block
potentially damaging UV radiation. But
rising temperatures mean reduction in the
concentration of these UV absorbing
compounds in corals.
Fresh Water Dilution
Rapid dilution of reef waters from stormgenerated precipitation and runoff has
Rather than causing coral reef bleaching,

an increase in ambient elemental nutrient
concentrations
(e.g. ammonia
and
nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae
densities 2-3 times.
Although eutrophication is not directly
involved in zooxanthellae loss, it could
cause secondary adverse effects such
as lowering of coral resistance and
greater susceptibility to diseases.
Xenobiotics
When corals are exposed to high

concentrations of chemical contaminants
like copper, herbicides and oil, coral
bleaching happens.
Epizootics
Sub aerial Exposure

Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the
atmosphere during events such as
extreme low tides, ENSO-related sea level
drops or tectonic uplift can potentially
induce bleaching.
The consequent exposure to high or low
temperatures, increased solar radiation,
desiccation, and sea water dilution by
heavy rains could all play a role in
zooxanthellae loss, but could also very
well lead to coral death.
been demonstrated to cause coral reef

bleaching.
Generally, such bleaching events are rare
and confined to relatively small, near
shore areas.
Inorganic Nutrients
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Pathogen induced bleaching is different

from other sorts of bleaching.
Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole
colony death and sloughing of soft tissues,
resulting in a white skeleton (not to be
confused with bleached corals).
Spatial and temporal range of

coral reef bleaching
Nearly all of the worlds major coral reef

regions (Caribbean/ western Atlantic,
eastern Pacific, central and western
Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red
Sea) experienced some degree of coral
bleaching and mortality during the 1980s.
Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral
moralities were related to non-thermal
disturbances such as storms, aerial
exposures during extreme low tides, and
Acanthaster outbreaks. Coral bleaching
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| 49
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accompanied some of the mortality events

prior to the 1980s during periods of
elevated sea water temperature, but these
disturbances were geographically isolated
and restricted to particular reefs zones. In
contrast, many of the coral bleaching
events observed in the 1980s occurred
over large geographic regions and at all
depths.
Bleaching may also be Beneficial
Recent research has revealed that corals

that are consistently exposed to low levels
of stress may develop some kind of
resistance to bleaching.
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Table of Contents
India As A Geographical Unit .................. 3
India's Frontiers ..................................... 5
Rock System Based on Geological History
Of India .................................................. 6
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Coastline of India Indian Coastline ......42

Coastlines .............................................43
Western Coastal Plains of India .............43
Eastern Coastal Plains of India ..............44
Significance of the Coastal Plains ..........45 Page
Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian

Rocks) .................................................... 6
Indian Islands .......................................45 | 1

Andaman and Nicobar Islands ...............46
Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) ........ 8
Lakshadweep Islands ............................47
Aryan Rock System ................................ 9
New Moore Island ..................................48
Major Physical Divisions of India ...........10
Drainage basin ......................................48
Division of the Himalayas ......................11
Drainage patterns..................................50
Himalayan Ranges.................................11
Discordant drainage patterns ................50
Middle or the Lesser Himalaya ...............12
Concordant Drainage Patterns ...............51
The Great Himalaya ...............................13
Contribution of Water by Various Rivers 54
The Trans Himalayas .............................14
Classification of Drainage Systems of India

.............................................................54
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills ...................15

Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas ..........15
Himalayas Regional Divisions .............15
Important Valleys in Himalayas .............18
Snow in Himalayas - Snowline ...............19
Glaciers in Himalayas ............................19
Significance of the Himalayas ................20
Major Passes in India and Indian Subcontinent ...............................................22
Major Passes of the Himalayas ..............23
Formation of Indo Gangetic
Brahmaputra Plain ................................26
Features of Indo Gangetic
Brahmaputra Plain ................................29
Major River System or Drainage Systems

in India .................................................55
Himalayan River Systems ......................58
Indus River System ...............................59
Indus River............................................59
Major Tributaries of Indus River ............60
Indus water treaty .................................62
Ganga River System ..............................62
Ganga River ..........................................64
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga .....64
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River
.............................................................66
Brahmaputra River System ...................68
Geomorphological features of Indo

Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain ...............29
Peninsular River System or Peninsular

Drainage ...............................................69
Regional Divisions of the Indo-GangeticBrahmaputra Plains [Great Plains] ........30
Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage.....69
Significance of the Plain ........................33
Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular

River System .........................................70
Peninsular Plateau ................................33
Peninsular River System ........................70
Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau

.............................................................35
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers..............71
Deccan Plateau .....................................37
Godavari River.......................................73
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau ....38
Krishna River ........................................74
Mahanadi River .....................................71
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Cauvery River ........................................76

Pennar River .........................................78
Subarnarekha .......................................79
Brahamani River ...................................79
Ponnaiyar River .....................................80
Vaigai River ...........................................80
West Flowing Rivers of The Peninsular
India .....................................................80
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Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir,

Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand..........105
Indian Climate - What type of Climate
Does India Have?.................................106
Features of Indian Climate ..................107
Factors Influencing Indian Climate ......107
Indian Climate Seasons ....................110
Winter Season in India ........................110
Estuary .................................................80
Summer Season in India .....................113
Narmada River ......................................81
Isoline, Isobar, Isotherm & Isohyet ......119
Tapti River.............................................82
Rainy Season South West Monsoon

Season ................................................119
Sabarmati River ....................................83

Mahi River .............................................84
Luni River .............................................84
West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris
(Western Ghats).....................................84
Ghaggar River Inland Drainage ...........84
Usability of Rivers .................................85
Indian Monsoons ...................................85
Mechanism of Indian Monsoons ............86
Indian Monsoons Classical Theory: Sir
Edmund Halleys Theory ........................86
Indian Monsoons Modern theory: Air
Mass Theory ..........................................87
Retreating Monsoon Season North East

Monsoon Season .................................124
Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons +
Retreating Monsoons] ..........................127
Climatic Regions of India .....................130
Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions
of India................................................130
Koeppen's Classification of Climatic
Regions of India ...................................132
Forests Natural Vegetation of India ...135
Classification of Natural Vegetation of
India ...................................................135
Moist Tropical Forests .........................136
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Jet Stream

Theory ...................................................88
Dry Tropical Forests ............................139
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Role of SubTropical Jet Stream (STJ) ......................90
Montane Temperate Forests.................142
Indian Monsoons Role of Tropical

Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet] .92
Soil .....................................................143
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests .............141

Alpine Forests .....................................143
Indian Monsoons Role of Tibet ............93
Soil Types Sandy-Clayey-Loamy ........143
Indian Monsoons Role of Somali Jet ....94
Factors that influence soil formation in

Indian Conditions ................................145
Indian Monsoons Role of Indian Ocean

Dipole ...................................................95
Major Soil Types of India .....................147
How Jet Streams affect Indian Monsoons?

[Indian Monsoon Mechanism] ................95
Alluvial Soils .......................................148
Indian Monsoons Seasonal Variations ...96
Red Soils .............................................150
Projects to understand monsoons ........102
Laterite Lateritic Soils .......................151
Western Disturbances .........................103
Forest Mountain Soils .......................152
Black Soils ..........................................150
Arid Desert Soils ...............................152
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Saline Alkaline Soils .........................153

Peaty Marshy Soils............................155
Characteristics of Indian Soils .............155
Problems Of Indian Soils .....................156
Soil Degradation ..................................157
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Soil Erosion .........................................157
|3
Extent Of Soil Erosion In India ............158

Factors affecting Soil Erosion ..............158
Effects of Soil Erosion ..........................158
Deforestation .......................................158
Overgrazing .........................................158
Faulty Methods of Agriculture .............159
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity ............159
Desertification .....................................160
Waterlogging .......................................161
Soil Conservation ................................161
In this post: Indian Geography: India
Geographical Extent, Frontiers Border
with Neighbors.
India As A Geographical Unit
East-West Extent of Main Land India (Including 68 7' east to 97 25' east longitude
Pak occupied Kashmir-POK):
South-North Extent of Main Land India:
8 4' north to 37 6' north latitude
Locational Extent:
8 4' N to 37 6' N latitude and 68 7' E

to 97 25' East longitude.
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The southernmost point of the country is

the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point is
located at 6 45' N latitude.
North-south extent from Indira Col in
Kashmir to Kanniyakumari is 3,214
km.
The Tropic of Cancer passes through the

middle of the country dividing it into two
latitudinal halves.
The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer
is nearly twice the area which lies to the
south of it.
South of 22 north latitude, the country
tapers off over 800 km into the Indian
Ocean as a peninsula.
The earth moves [rotation and revolution]

around its axis through 360 in 24 hours.
Thus, a difference of 1 longitude will
make a difference of 4 minutes in time.
Therefore the difference of local time
between western-most point and eastern-
East-west width from the Rann of

Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is
2,933 km.
With an area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is
the seventh largest country of the world.
India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of
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the total surface area of the world.
|4
most point is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2

hours.
India, Tropical or Temperate

Country?
East-West time difference is nearly 2

hrs.
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The temperate part (north of Tropic of

Cancer) is twice the area of tropical part.
But India has always been treated as a
tropical country for two different reasons
physical and cultural.
Physical Geographical Reasons
The country is separated from the rest of

Asia by Himalayas.
Its climate is dominated by the tropical
monsoons and the temperate air masses
are blocked by Himalayas.
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Entire area south of the Himalayas is

essentially tropical from climatic point of
view: Although the night temperatures in
Winter at several places in North India
may come down to the level of those
prevailing in temperate lands, yet clear
skies and intense insolation raise the day
temperatures to a tropical level.
Cultural Geographical Reasons
Settlements, diseases, agricultural and

primary economic activities are all tropical
in nature.
India's Frontiers
India has 15106.7 Km of land border

running through 92 districts in 17 States
and a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km
of mainland coastline + coastline of
1197 Indian islands] touching 13 States
and Union Territories (UTs).
Barring Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other
States in the country have one or more
international borders or a coastline and
can be regarded as frontline States from
the point of view of border management.
India's
longest
border
is
with BANGLADESH while the shortest
border is with Afghanistan.
The length of Indias land borders with
neighboring countries is as under:
Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of

India from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang)
province of China.
The western sector boundary is largely the
outcome of the British policy towards the
state of Jammu and Kashmir.
China claims the Aksai Chin district,
the Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and
the Sponggar Tso area of north-east
Ladakh as well as a strip of about 5,000
sq km down the entire length of eastern
Ladakh.
China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit
area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963
by Pakistan).
The Middle Sector
Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh

and Uttarakhand touch this border.
The Eastern Sector
Border with China
This is the second longest border of

India, next only to its border with
Bangladesh.
Five Indian states, namely Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh touch the
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Indian boundary with China.
The Sino-Indian border is generally | 5
divided into three sectors namely : (i) the
Western sector, (ii) the Middle sector, and
(iii) the Eastern sector.
The Western Sector
It is primarily because of Himalayas that

India is a tropical country.
Data from Ministry Of Home Affairs

(Department Of Border Management)
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The 1,140 km long boundary between

India and China runs from the eastern
limit of Bhutan to a point near TaluPass at the trijunction of India, Tibet and
Myanmar.
This line is usually referred to as the Mc
Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon,
then foreign secretary of British India, who
negotiated
the
boundary
agreement
between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla
accord in 1913-14.
The India-Nepal Boundary
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Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand,

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and
Sikkim touch the Nepalese border with
India. The border is a porous one with
unrestricted movement of goods and
people between Indian and Nepal.
Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border
runs in the east-west direction almost
along the foothill of the Shiwalik Range.
erstwhile province of Bengal into two

parts.
India-Myanmar Boundary
The India-Bhutan Boundary
Quite peaceful border and there is no

boundary dispute between the two
countries.
The Indo-Pakistan Boundary
The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result

of partition of the country in 1947 under
the Radcliffe award of which Sir Cyril
Radcliffe was the chairman.
Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the
major disputed regions.
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This boundary runs roughly along the Page

watershed between the Brahmaputra
|6
and Ayeyarwady [Irrawaddy].
It passes through thickly forested regions,
with Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on
the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills
and Kachin state on the Myanmar side.
India-Sri Lanka Boundary
India and Sri Lanka are separated from

each other by a narrow and shallow sea
called Palk Strait.
Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in
India
is
only
32
km
away
from Talaimanar in Jaffna peninsula in
Sri Lanka. These two points are joined by
a group of islets forming Adam's Bridge.
In this post: Archaean Rock System,
Archaean Gneisses and Schists, Dharwar
System, Purana Rock System, Cuddapah
System, Vindhyan System, Dravidian Rock
System,
Carboniferous
rocks,
Carboniferous Coal, Aryan Rock System,
Gondwana System, Gondwana Coal,
Jurassic System, Deccan Trap, Tertiary
System etc..
Rock System Based on Geological

History Of India
1.
2.
3.
4.
India's 4,096 km long border with

Bangladesh is the longest.
This boundary has been determined under
the Radcliffe Award which divided the
Archaean Rock System.

Purana Rock System.
Dravidian Rock System.
Aryan Rock System.
Archaean Rock System (PreCambrian Rocks)
The India-Bangladesh Border
The
The
The
The
Rocks formed prior to the Cambrian

system.
The Archaean rock system includes:
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Archaean Gneisses and Schists [4

Billion Years]
Gneiss == Mineral composition varies from
granite to gabbro.
Schists == mostly crystalline, include
mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc.
These rocks are:
Oldest rocks [pre-Cambrian era] [formed

about 4 billion years ago].
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Rocks formed due to solidification of

molten magma the earths surface was
very hot then.
Known as the Basement Complex [They
are the oldest and forms the base for new
layers]
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Azoic or unfossiliferous,
|7
Foliated (consisting of thin sheets),
Thoroughly crystalline (because they are
volcanic in origin),
Plutonic intrusions (volcanic rocks found
deep inside).
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Dharwar System [4 1 Billion

Years]
Formation period ranges from 4 billion

years ago to 1 billion years ago.
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Unfossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones

and limestones was deposited in synclinal
basins [depression between two folds {Fold
mountain}].
Outcrops best observed in Cuddapah
district of Andhra Pradesh.
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These rocks contain ores of iron,
|8
manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc.
They contain large deposits of cement
grade limestones.
Vindhyan System (1300-600 million
years)
Highly metamorphosed sedimentary rocksystem. [formed due to metamorphosis of

sediments of Archaean gneisses and schists].
They are the oldest metamorphosed

rocks.
Found in abundance in the Dharwar
district of Karnataka.
Economically the most important
rocks because they possess valuable
minerals like high grade iron-ore,
manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.
Purana Rock System (1400 600

Million Years)
Includes two divisions: the Cuddapah

System and the Vindhyan System.
Cuddapah System
This system derives its name from the

great Vindhyan mountains.
The
system
comprises
of
ancient
sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick)
superimposed on the Archaean base.
Mostly Unfossiliferous.
Large area of this belt is covered by
the Deccan trap.
The Vindhayan system have diamond
bearing regions from which Panna and
Golconda diamonds have been mined.
It
is devoid
of
metalliferous
minerals but provides large quantities of
durable
stones,
ornamental
stones,
limestone, pure glass making sand etc..
Dravidian Rock System

(Palaeozoic)
Formed about 600 300 million years

ago.
Found in the Extra Peninsular region
(Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are
very rare in Peninsular India. [The name
Dravidian doesnt mean they are found in
South India]
Abundant fossils.
The rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
periods are fall under Dravidian system.
(All
these
are
not
important,
only Carboniferous is important)
Carboniferous rocks (350 million

years)
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The Carboniferous rocks (350 million

years) comprise mainly of limestone, shale
and quartzite.
Mount Everest is composed of Upper
Carboniferous limestones.
Coal
formation started
in
the
Carboniferous age.
Carboniferous in geology means coal
bearing. [most of the coal found in India is
not of Carboniferous period; High quality
coal of Great Lakes Region-USA, U.K and
Ruhr region is Carboniferous coal].
Jurassic System
Upper Carboniferous to the Recent.
Gondwana System
The Gondwana
System [derives
its
name Gonds, the most primitive people of
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh]
They are deposits laid down in synclinal
troughs on ancient plateau surface.
As the sediments accumulated, the loaded
troughs subsided.
Fresh water and sediments accumulated
in these trough and terrestrial plants and
animals thrived.
This happened since Permian period (250
million years ago).
Gondwana Coal
Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98 per

cent of Indias coal reserves.
Gondwana coal is much younger than the
Carboniferous coal and hence its carbon
content is low.
They have rich deposits of iron ore,
copper, uranium and antimony also.
Sandstones, slates and conglomerates are
used as building materials.
The marine transgression in the latter part

of the Jurassic gave rise to thick series
of shallow water deposits in Rajasthan
and in Kuchchh.
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Coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates
|9
and shales occur in Kuchchh.
Another transgression on the east coast of
the Peninsula is found between Guntur
and Rajahmundry.
Deccan Trap
Aryan Rock System
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Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the

Peninsular India from the end of
the Cretaceous till the beginning of
the Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps.
Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures
covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq
km.
These volcanic deposits have flat top and
steep
sides
and
therefore
called trap meaning a stair or step in
Swedish.
The process of weathering and erosion
(denudation) since millions of years has
reduced the Deccan Trap to almost half of
its original size.
Present Deccan Trap covers about 5 lakh
sq km mainly in parts of Kuchchh,
Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the Malwa
plateau and northern Karnataka.
Thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000
metres along the west which is reduced to
600-800 metres towards the south, 800
metres in Kuchchh and only 150 metres at
the eastern limit.
The weathering of these rocks for a long
time has given birth to black cotton
soil known as regur.
The Deccan Trap has been divided into
three groups:
Group
Found in
Inter-trappean beds
Layers of volcanic ash
The Upper Trap
Maharashtra and
Present
Present
Saurashtra
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The Middle Trap
Central India and Malwa
The Lower Trap
Tertiary System
Eocene to Pliocene about 60 to 7 million

years ago.
The tertiary is the most significant period
in India's geological history because
the Himalayas were born and India's
present form came into being in this
period.
Includes the entire south India, central

India, Aravalis, Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya
plateau,
Kuchchh-Kathiawar
region
(Gujarat) etc..
It
is
the
oldest
and
the
most stable landmass of India.
Present
Very rare to absent
Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal and Page

their extensions Arakan Yoma (Myanmar)
| 10
and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (but we
will consider these as islands only).
It
is
the
youngest
and highly
unstable landmass of India. [Continent
Continent Convergence]
Tectonic movements are very common.
Between Peninsular and Himalayan

region.
Most youthful, monotonous [lack of
change or variety] region prone to tectonic
forces.
Coastal Plains
Eastern Coastal Plains and Western

Coastal Plains.
Formed due to consolidation of sediments
brought by rivers (fluvial deposits).
Highly stable just like peninsular plateau.
Indian Islands
Peninsular Plateau
Present
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Major Physical Divisions of India

1. The Himalayas (young fold mountains),
2. Indo-Gangetic
Plain
(monotonous
topography featureless topography),
3. The Peninsular Plateau (one of the most
stable landmasses; one of the oldest
plateaus of the world),
4. Coastal Plains (Sediments due to fluvial
action).
5. The Indian Islands [Coral Islands == coral
reef built up on atolls Lakshadweep.
Tectonic == Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Interaction between Indian Plate and
Eurasian plate] and
Very rare to absent
Himalayas
In his post: Major Physical Divisions of

India Himalayas - Himalayan Ranges:
Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas, Lesser or
Middle Himalayas, Greater Himalayas,
Trans-Himalayas or Tibetan Himalayas
and Eastern Hills or Purvanchal.
www.pmfias.com
Two major groups Lakshadweep and,

Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Lakshadweep [Hotspot] are group of atolls
occupied by coral reefs. No significant
volcanism or tectonic activity in recent
past. Highly vulnerable to sea-level rise.
Andaman
and
Nicobar
islands
Continuation of Arakan Yoma. Has active

volcanoes and is tectonically active.
Type of Topography
Extent in %
Mountainous (more than 2135 m above sea level) 10.7
Hilly area (305 2135 m above sea level)
18.6
Plateau (305 915 m above sea level)
27.7
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Plains
Division of the Himalayas
in
Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas

Lesser or Middle Himalayas
The Greater Himalayas
The
Trans-Himalayas
Tibetan
Himalayas.
5. The Eastern Hills Purvanchal: A chain
of hills in North-East India.
Formation of Himalayas explained

Continent Continent Convergence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Himalayan Ranges
Series of several parallel or converging

ranges.
The ranges are separated by deep valleys
creating
a
highly dissected
topography [(of a plateau or upland)
divided by a number of deep valleys].
The southern
slopes
have
steep
gradients and northern slopes have
comparatively
gentler
slopes. [Scaling
Mount Everest is less hectic from the
northern side. But China puts restrictions
so climbers take the steeper southern
slopes from Nepal]
Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in India,
Nepal and Bhutan. The northern slopes
are partly situated in Tibet (transHimalayas) while the western extremity
lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central
Asia.
Himalayas between Tibet and Ganga Plain
is a succession of three parallel ranges.
Shiwalik Range
Also known as Outer Himalayas.

Located in between the Great Plains
and Lesser Himalayas.
The altitude varies from 600 to 1500
metres.
Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from
the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra
valley.
Region
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43
The southern slopes are steep while the
northern slopes are gentle.
The width of the Shiwaliks varies from
50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than
15 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
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They are almost unbroken chain of low
hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is | 11
occupied by the valley of the Tista River
and Raidak River.
Shiwalik range from North-East India up
to Nepal are covered with thick forests but
the forest cover decreases towards west
from Nepal (The quantum of rainfall
decreases from east to west in Shiwaliks
and Ganga Plains).
The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are almost
devoid of forest cover. These slopes are
highly dissected by seasonal streams
called Chos.
Valleys are part of synclines and hills are
part of anticlines or antisynclines.
Formation (Formation of Himalayas

already explained)
Shiwaliks were formed last of all the

ranges (2-20 million years ago).
The Shiwaliks are consolidated sands,
gravels
and
conglomerate
deposits
[Alluvial fans] which were brought by the
rivers flowing from the higher ranges.
These
deposits
were folded
and
hardened due to compression offered by
the northward movement of Indian plate.
The Shiwaliks are known by different
names in different areas
Name of Shiwaliks
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Jammu Region
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Jammu Hills
Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills Arunachal Pradesh

The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range Uttarakhand
Churia Ghat Hills
Explain the formation of Duns (Duras)
Shiwalik Hills were formed by the

accumulation of conglomerates (sand,
stone, silt, gravel, debris etc.).
These conglomerates, in the initial stages
of deposition, obstructed the courses of
the rivers draining from the higher
reaches
of
the
Himalayas
and
formed temporary lakes.
With passage of time, these temporary
lakes accumulated more and more
conglomerates. The conglomerates were
well settled at the bottom of the lakes.
When the rivers were able to cut their
courses through the lakes filled with
conglomerate deposits, the lakes were
drained away leaving behind plains
called duns or doons in the west
and duars in the east.
Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best
example [75 km long and 15-20 km wide]
Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda,
Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Kotli are
other important duns.
Nepal
Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts

like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet,
Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are
located here.
Middle or the Lesser Himalaya
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Runs almost parallel to both the ranges.
It is also called the Himachal or Lower | 12
Himalaya.
Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km
wide and about 2400 km in length.
Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500
m above sea level.
Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above
sea level and are snow covered throughout
the year.
Lower
Himalayas
have steep,
bare
southern slopes [steep slopes prevents
soil formation] and more gentle, forest
covered northern slopes.
In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are
marked by the Mussoorie and the Nag
Tibba ranges.
The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal
is a continuation of the Mussoorie Range
East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi,
Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi
hills represent the lower Himalayas.
The Middle Himalayan ranges are more
friendly to human contact.
In between the Shiwaliks in the south and

the Greater Himalayas in the north.
Important ranges of Lesser Himalayas
Region
The Pir Panjal Range
Jammu and Kashmir (They are to the south of

Kashmir Valley)
The Dhaola Dhar Range
Himachal Pradesh
The Mussoorie Range and The Nag Tiba Uttarakhand

Range
Mahabharat Lekh
The Pir Panjal range
Nepal
The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the

longest and the most important range.
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It extends from the Jhelum river to

the upper Beas river for over 300 km.
It rises to 5,000 metres and contains
mostly volcanic rocks.
Passes in Pir Panjal
Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270

m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal
Pass (2,835 m).
The Banihal Pass is used by the JammuSrinagar highway and Jammu-Baramula
railway.
The Kishanganga,
the Jhelum and
the Chenab cut through the range.
Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal
continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing
through Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and
Shimla.
Important Valleys
Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar

Range of the main Himalayas, lies the
valley of Kashmir. (average elevation is
1,585 m above mean sea level)
The synclinal basin of the valley is floored
with alluvial, lacustrine [lake deposits],
fluvial [river action] and glacial deposits.
{Fluvial Landforms, Glacial Landforms}
Jehlum River meanders through these
deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir
Panjal through which it drains. (Kashmir
is like a basin with very few outlets)
In Himachal Pradesh there is Kangra
Valley. It is a strike valley and extends
from the foot of the Dhaola Dhar Range to
the south of Beas.
On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the
upper course of the Ravi is transverse
valley.
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| 13
The Great Himalaya
Regional name of Mount

Everest
Sagarmatha (The Goddess of
the Sky)
Chomlungma (Mother of the
World)
Strike valley vs. Transverse valley
A valley perpendicular to the slope or

parallel to the ridge [also called as
longitudinal valley]
In contrast, transverse streams cut valleys
parallel to the slope (along the dip).
Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central

Himalaya or Himadri.
Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea
level and an average width of about 25
km.
It is mainly formed of the central
crystallines
(granites
and
gneisses)
overlain by metamorphosed sediments
[limestone]. {Rock System}
The folds in this range are asymmetrical
with steep south slope and gentle north
slope giving 'hog back (a long, steep hill or
mountain ridge)' topography.
This mountain arc convexes to the south
just like the other two.
Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial
bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in northwest and the other in the Namcha
Barwa in the north-east.
This mountain range boasts of the tallest
peaks of the world, most of which remain
under perpetual snow.
Region
Nepal
China
(Tibet)
Mount Everest was first located by George

Everest, the then Surveyor General of
India in 1841 and in 1852 it was
established as the highest peak of the
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world by the Great Trigonometrical Survey
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of India.
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| 14
Passes in the Greater Himalayas
State
Jammu
Kashmir
The passes because they are generally

higher than 4,570 m above sea level and
are snowbound for most of the year.
Passes of Greater Himalayas

and
1. Burzil Pass
2. Zoji La [La means pass]
Himachal
Pradesh
1. Bara Lacha La
2. Shipki La [The Hindustan-Tibet Road connecting Shimla with Gartok in
Western Tibet]
Uttarakhand
1. Thaga La
2. Niti Pass
3. Lipu Lekh
Sikkim
1. Nathu La
2. Jelep La [important trade route connecting Kalimpong (near Darjeeling)
with Lhasa in Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386 m)]
The Trans Himalayas
The Himalayan ranges immediately north

of the Great Himalayan range.
Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because
most of it lies in Tibet.
The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and
the Karakoram are the main ranges.
It stretches for a distance of about 1,000
km in east-west direction.
Average elevation is 3000 m above mean

sea level.
The average width of this region is 40 km
at the extremities and about 225 km in
the central part.
The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an
important range which is in The Zaskar
Range.
North of the Zaskar Range and running
parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. Only a
few peaks of this range attain heights of
over 6000 metres.
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The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese)

in western Tibet is an offshoot of the
Ladakh Range. The highest peak is Mount
Kailas (6714 m). River Indus originates
from the northern slopes of the Kailas
range.
The northern most range of the TransHimalayan Ranges in India is the
Great Karakoram Range also known as
the Krishnagiri range.
Karakoram
Range extends eastwards
from the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a
range with lofty peaks [elevation 5,500 m
and above]. It is the abode of some of the
greatest glaciers of the world outside the
polar regions.
Some of the peaks are more than 8,000
metre
above
sea
level. K2
(8,611
m)[Godwin Austen or Qogir] is the
second highest peak in the world and the
highest peak in the Indian Union.
The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east
of the Karakoram Range. It has been
dissected into a number of plains and
mountains [Soda Plains, Aksai Chin,
Lingzi Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang
Chenmo]
Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are the

southward
extension
of
Himalayas
running along the north-eastern edge of
India.
At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take
a sudden southward bend and form a
series of comparatively low hills which are
collectively called as the Purvanchal.
Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.
They run along the India-Myanmar Border
extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the
north to Mizoram in the south.
Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong
sandstone; elevation varying from 2,000 m
to 3,000 m; merges into Naga Hills
where Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest
peak.
Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the
watershed between India and Myanmar.
South of Naga Hills are the Manipur hills

which are generally less than 2,500
metres in elevation.
The Barail range separates Naga Hills from
Manipur Hills.
Further south the Barail Range swings to
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west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo
hills which are an eastward continuation | 15
of the Indian peninsular block. They are
separated from the main block by Ganga
and Brahmaputra rivers.
South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo
Hills (previously known as the Lushai
hills) which have an elevation of less than
1,500 metres. The highest point is
the Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in the
south.
Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills
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Himalayas extend in the east-west

direction from the Indus gorge in the west
to the Brahmaputra gorge in the east.
Himalayan ranges take sharp southward
bends at these gorges. These bends are
called syntaxial bends of the Himalayas.
The western syntaxial bend occurs near
the Naga
Parbat
(Karakoram
range) where the Indus river has cut a
deep gorge.
The eastern syntaxial bend occurs near
the Namche Barwa.
In this post: Himalayas Regional
Divisions Punjab Himalayas, Assam
Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Central
Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas.
Himalayas Regional Divisions

Punjab Himalayas
Between the Indus and the Satluj rivers

[560 km long].
All the major rivers of Indus river system
flow through Punjab Himalayas.
A large portion of Punjab Himalayas is in
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh. Hence they are also called
the Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya.
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Karakoram,
Ladakh,
Pir
Panjal,
Zaskar and Dhaola Dhar are the major
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ranges in this section.

The
general
elevation falls
westwards.
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| 16
Assam Himalayas
Spreads
over
Sikkim,
Assam
and
Arunachal Pradesh.
Elevation here is much lesser than that of
the Nepal Himalayas.
The southern slopes are very steep but the
northern slopes are gentle.
The Lesser Himalayas are very narrow
and are very close to the Great
Himalayas.
Western Himalayas
Between the Indus in the west and the

Kali river in the east (880 km).
Spread across three states of Jammu and
Kashmir,
Himachal
Pradesh
and
Uttarakhand.
It encompasses three physiographic
provinces namely Kashmir Himalaya,
Himachal
Himalaya and Kumaon
Himalaya (Uttarakhand Himalayas).
The Ladakh plateau and the Kashmir
valley are two important areas of the
Kashmir Himalayan region.
In Himachal Himalayas, The Greater
Himalaya is represented by the Zaskar
range,
lesser
Himalaya
by Pir
Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges and the
Outer Himalaya by the Shiwalik range.
The southern slopes are rugged, steep and
forested while the northern slopes are
bare, gentle and show plains with lakes.
The
Kumaon
Himalayas
lie
in
Uttarakhand and extend from the Satluj
to the Kali river.
The Lesser Himalayas in Kumaon
Himalaya is represented by the Mussoorie
and Nag Tiba ranges.
The Shiwalik in this region runs south of
the Mussoori range between the Ganga
and the Yamuna rivers.
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| 17
The flat valleys between the Lesser

Himalaya and the Shiwalik range are
called doons or Duns of which Dehra
Dun is the most famous.
Central Himalayas
800 km between river Kali in the west and

river Tista in the east.
The Great Himalaya range attains
maximum height in this portion.
Some of the world famous peaks Mt.
Everest,
Kanchenjunga,
Makalu,
Annapurna, Gosainthan and Dhaulagiri
are located here.
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The
Lesser
Himalaya
is
known
as Mahabharat Lekh in this region.
The range is crossed by rivers like
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, etc.
In between the Great and the Lesser
Himalayas, there are Kathmandu and
Pokhra lacustrine valleys (previously,
they were lakes).
The Shiwalik range come very close to the
lesser Himalaya towards the east and is
almost non-existent beyond Narayani
(Gandak).
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of Kanchenjunga and Everest are only a

few kilometres from the plains and are
clearly visible from there.
In contrast, the western Himalayas rise
gradually from the plains through a series
of ranges. Their peaks of perpetual snow
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are 150 to 200 km away from the plain
| 18
areas.
Eastern Himalayas
This part of the Himalayas lies between

the Tista river in the west and the
Brahmaputra river in the east and
stretches for a distance of about 720 km.
Also known as the Assam Himalayas, the
Eastern Himalayas occupy mainly the
areas of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan.
The Assam Himalayas show a marked
dominance of fluvial erosion due to heavy
rainfall.
The Himalayas take a sudden southward
turn after the Dihang gorge and the hill
ranges running in more or less northsouth direction along India's border with
Myanmar are collectively known as the
Purvanchal.
In this post: Important Valleys in

Himalayas Karewas, Snow in Himalayas
Snowline, Glaciers in Himalayas and
Significance of the Himalayas.
These are known by various local

names such as Patkai Bum, Naga hills,
Kohima hills, Manipur hills, Mizo hills
(previously known as the Lushai hills),
Tripura hills and Barail range.
The extension of the Purvanchal Himalaya

continues southwards upto Andaman and
Nicobar Islands through the Myanmar
range (Arakan Yoma) and even upto the
Indonesian archipelago.
In the eastern section the Himalayas rise
abruptly from the plains of Bengal and
Oudh and suddenly attain great elevations
within a short distance from the foot of the
mountains.
Thus
the
peaks
Important Valleys in Himalayas

The most important
Himalayan region are
valleys
in
the
the valley of Kashmir and the Karewas,

the Kangra and Kulu valley in Himachal
Pradesh;
the Dun valley (Doon valley, Dehradun
valley); the Bhagirathi valley (near
Gangotri) and the Mandakini valley (near
Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand and
the Kathmandu valley in Nepal.
Karewas
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Karewas are lacustrine deposits [deposits

in lake] in the Valley of Kashmir and in
Bhadarwah Valley of the Jammu Division.
These are the flat topped mounds that
border the Kashmir Valley on all sides.
They are characterized with fossils of
mammals and at places by peat.
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greater and occurs mostly in the form of

rain.
In the Great Himalayan ranges, the snow
line is at lower elevation on the
southern slopes than on the northern
slopes because the southern slopes are
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steeper and receive more precipitation as
| 19
compared to the northern slopes.
Formation
During the Pleistocene Period (1 million

years ago), the entire Valley of Kashmir
was under water.
Subsequently, due to endogenetic forces,
the Baramullah Gorge was created and
the lake was drained through this gorge.
The deposits left in the process are known
as karewas.
The thickness of karewas is about 1400
m.
In fact, the karewas have been elevated,
dissected and removed by subaerial
denudation as well as by the Jhelum river
giving them the present position.
Economic Significance
The karewas are mainly devoted to the

cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut,
apple and orchards.
The
karewas,
devoted
to saffron
cultivation are fetching good income to
the growers.
Glaciers in Himalayas
Glaciers of the Karakoram Range
Snow in Himalayas - Snowline
In Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon

Himalays the snowline is around 3,500 m
above sea level whereas in western
Himalays snowline is about 2,500 m above
sea level.
This difference in snowline is partly due to
the increase in latitude from 28 N in
Kanchenjunga to 36 N in the Karakoram.
But
the
major
factor
is precipitation. Precipitation in western
Himalayas is comparatively low and
occurs mostly as snowfall where as in
eastern Himalayas the precipitation is
There are about 15,000 glaciers in the

Himalayas.
Total area of Himalayas is about five lakh
square kilometres (Area of India is nearly
32 lakh sq km). About 33,000 sq km area
is covered by snow.
The snow line (the lowest level of perpetual
snow) varies in different parts of the
Himalayas
depending
upon latitude,
amount of precipitation and local
topography.
Maximum development of glaciers occurs

in the Karakoram range.
Some of the largest glaciers outside the
polar and sub-polar regions are found in
this range. The southern side of this range
has many gigantic glaciers.
The 75
km
long
Siachen
Glacier in Nubra
valley has
the
distinction of being the largest glacier
outside the polar and the sub-polar
regions.
The second largest is the 74 km
long Fedchenko Glacier (Pamirs)
Third largest is the Hispar Glacier. It is 62
km long and occupies a tributary of
the Hunza River.
Glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range
The glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range are

less numerous and smaller in size as
compared to those of the Karakoram
Range.
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The
longest Sonapani
Glacier in
the Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti
region is only 15 km long.
Influence on Indian Climate
Glaciers of the Kumaon-Garhwal

Region
In the Kumaon-Garhwal region of the

Himalayas, the largest is the 30 km long
Gangotri Glacier which is the source of the
holy Ganga.
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They intercept
the
summer
monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal
and Arabian Sea causing precipitation in
the entire Ganga Plains, North-Eastern Page
Hills.
They direct the monsoon winds towards | 20
north-western India (Punjab, Haryana
etc.. But these regions receive most of the
rainfall
due
to Western
Disturbances coming
from
the
Mediterranean regions).
They protect northern-plains from the
cold continental air masses of central
Asia.
The Himalayas influence the path of Subtropical Jet stream flowing in the region.
They split the jet stream and this split jet
stream plays an important role in bring
monsoons to India.
Had there been no Himalayas, the whole
of India would have been a desert and its
winters would have been very severe.
[Mechanism of monsoons will be explained
in detail later]
Defense
Garhwal Region
Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on

the north by Tibet, on the east by Kumaon
region, on the south by Uttar Pradesh
state, and on the northwest by Himachal
Pradesh state.
It includes the districts of Chamoli,
Dehradun,
Haridwar,
Pauri
Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal,
and Uttarkashi.
Glaciers of Central Nepal
Source of Rivers
Rivers that feed nearly half a billion

population of India originate in Himalayas.
[we will study this in detail later in
drainage system]
All the rivers are perennial supplying
water year round.
Fertile Soil
Zemu and the Kanchenjunga glaciers are

the major ones.
Significance of the Himalayas
The Himalayas are a natural defense

barrier.
But the Chinese aggression on India in
1962 has reduced the defense significance
of the Himalayas.
The swift flowing rivers from Himalayas

bring enormous amount of silt (alluvium)
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which constantly enrich the Ganaga and

Bramhaputra plains.
Hydroelectricity
Due to its natural topography and swift

flowing perennial rivers, the Himalayan
region offers several natural sites with
great hydroelectric power generation
potential.
Many hydroelectric power plants have
already been constructed.
But
all
this
comes
at
a
great
environmental costs.
The Himalayan host rich coniferous and

evergreen forests. Lower levels have
tropical evergreen forests and higher levels
have Alpine vegetation (Coniferous).
The Himalayan forests provide fuel wood
and a large variety of timber for industries.
Himalayan forests host wide variety of
medicinal plants.
Several patches are covered with grass
offering rich pastures for grazing animals.
Agriculture
Due to rugged and sloped terrain, the

Himalayas are not potential agricultural
sites.
Some slopes are terraced for cultivation.
Rice is the main crop on the terraced
slopes. The other crops are wheat, maize,
potatoes, etc.
Tea is a unique crop which can be grown
only on the Shiwalik hill slopes in the
region.
Fruit cultivation is a major occupation. A
wide variety of fruits such as apples,
pears, grapes, mulberry, walnut, cherries,
peaches, apricot, etc. are also grown in the
Himalayan region.
Tourism
Himalayan ranges have a large number of

tourist spots.
The hilly areas in the Himalayas are not
affected by hot winds like loo. Hence they
offer cool and comfortable climate.
The increasing popularity of winter sports
Page
has increased the rush of tourists in
| 21
winters.
Srinagar,
Dalhousie,
Dharamshala,
Chamba,
Shimla,
Kulu,
Manali,
Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora,
Darjeeling, Mirik, Gangtok, etc. are
important
tourist
centres
in
the
Himalayas.
Cultural Tourism
Forest Wealth
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Himalayas host many Hindu and Buddist

shrines.
Kailas, Amarnath, Badrinath, Kedarnath,
Vaishnu
Devi,
Jwalaji,
Uttarkashi,
Gangotri, Yamunotri, etc. are important
places of pilgrimage.
Mineral Resources in Himalayas
Geosynclinical deposits in tertiary rocks

are regions of potential coal and oil
reserves.
Coal is found in Kashmir, Copper, lead,
zinc, gold, silver, limestone, semi-precious
and precious stones occur at some places
in the Himalayas.
But the exploitation of these resources
require advanced technologies which are
not yet available.
Also,
disturbing
such
a
fragile
environment leads to more pain than gain
(present hydroelectric power projects have
already proved this).
In this post: Major Passes India,
Himalayas, Indian Sub-continent
-Khyber pass, Gomal pass, Bolan pass,
Banihal Pass, Pensi La, Zoji La, Bara
Lacha La, Rohtang Pass, Shipki La, Nathu
La, Jelep La, Bom Di La, Dihang Pass, Pal
Ghat, Bhor Ghat etc. and Major Passes of
the Himalayas.
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Major Passes in India and Indian Sub-continent
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| 22
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| 23
Major Passes of the Himalayas
Most of the passes remain closed in winter

(Nov Apr) due to heavy snow fall.
Passes of the Western Himalayas

Jammu and Kashmir
NAME
SIGNIFICANCE
(CONNECTS)
COMMENTS
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Mintaka Pass
Kashmir and China
Trijunction of India-China and Afghanistan

border
Parpik Pass
Kashmir and China
East of Mintaka pass on the Indo-China border
Khunjerab
Pass
Aghil Pass
Kashmir and China
Indo-China border
Ladakh region of India
with
the
Xinjiang
(Sinkiang) Province of
China
Jammu and Srinigar
| 24
5000 m above sea level.
north of K2 Peak (the highest peak in India and
the second highest peak in the world)
Banihal Pass
2832 m
across the Pir-Panjal Range
remains snow covered during winter season
The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass until 1956
when Jawahar Tunnel was constructed under the pass. The road now
passes through the tunnel and the Banihal Pass is no longer used for
road transport.
Another 11 km long tunnel provides railway link between Banihal and
Kazigund. It was thrown open to railway transport in July, 2013
Chang-La
Ladakh with Tibet
Khardung La
near
Leh
in
Ladakh range
altitude of 5360 m
This has a temple dedicated to Chang-La Baba
after whom the temple has been named
the
5602 m
The world's highest motorable road passes
through this pass
remains closed in winter due to heavy snowfall
Lanak La
India
and
China
this pass provides passage between Ladak and
(Akasai-Chin area of Lhasa. A road to connect Xinjiang Province with
Jammu and Kashmir) Tibet has been constructed by the Chinese
Pir-Panjal
pass
across the Pir Panjal provides the shortest and the easiest metal
range
road between Jammu and Kashmir Valley. But
this route had to be closed down as a result of
partition of the subcontinent
Indo-China
borer
located at an elevation of over six thousand
across the Karakoram metres
Range
Ladakh region of India
and Tibet in China
vital link between the
remains closed to traffic from November to midKashmir Valley and May due to heavy snowfall
Kargil
important road link
The road passing through this pass has been
Qara Tag La
Imis La
Pensi La
Zoji La
Page
www.pmfias.com
between Srinagar on
one side and Kargil
and Leh on the other

side
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designated at the National Highway (NH-1D)

Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible
for maintaining the road and cleaning it off snow
during winter. In spite of all these efforts, the
road through this pass remains closed from
December to mid-May
Page
| 25
Himachal Pradesh
Bara Lacha La Himachal
Pradesh
Elevation: 4,890 m
and
Jammu
and
National highway connecting Mandi in Himachal
Kashmir
Pradesh with Leh in Jammu and Kashmir passes
through this pass. Being situated at high
altitude, it remains snow covered in winter and is
not used as a transport route.
Debsa Pass
link between Kullu

elevation of 5270 m above sea level
and Spiti districts
It offers a much easier and shorter alternative
route to traditional Pin-Parbati Pass route
between Kullu and Spiti
Rohtang Pass
road
link
between
Elevation: 3979 m
Kullu, Lahul and Spiti
Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible
Valleys
for constructing and maintaining roads in this
area. Rohtang pass is a great tourist
attraction
and
traffic
jams
are
very
common because this route is widely used by
military, public and private vehicles.
Shipki La
Himachal
and Tibet
Uttarakhand
Lipu Lekh
Mana Pass
Pradesh
Elevation: 6000 m
Remains closed in winter season (Nov - Apr)
trijunction
of
Uttarakhand (India),
Tibet
(China)
and
Nepal borders
Uttarakhand
with
Tibet
Mangsha
Dhura
Niti Pass
Muling La
Uttarakhand
Tibet
Uttarakhand
Tibet
Uttarakhand
Tibet
This pass is used by pilgrims to KailashMansarowar.

elevation of 5610
Situated a little north of the holy place of
Badhrinath
with It is used by pilgrims going to KailashMansarowar

with
and
situated in the north of Gangotri
at an elevation of 5669 m in the Great Himalayas
Passes of the Eastern Himalayas
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Sikkim
Nathu La
Sikkim with Tibet
Jelep La
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altitude of 4310 m
it forms part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk
Route
an important trade route between India and
China
Page
It was closed after the Chinese aggression on
India in 1962 but was reopened in 2006 as the | 26
governments of the two countries decided to
enhance their trade through land routes
Sikkim-Bhutan border
altitude of 4538 m
passes through Chumbi Valley
important link between Sikkim and Lhasa
Arunachal Pradesh
Bom Di La
Arunachal
Pradesh
altitude of 4331 m
with Bhutan
Situated at an altitude of 4331 m near the
western boundary of Bhutan in the Greater
Himalayas, this pass connects Arunachal
Pradesh with Lhasa
Dihang Pass
Arunachal
Pradesh
elevation of more than 4000 m it provides
and Myanmar.
passage
Yonggyap
Pass
Dipher Pass
Arunachal
Pradesh
with Tibet
trijunction of India,
easy access between Arunachal Pradesh and
China and Myanmar
Mandalay in Myanmar. It is an important land
trade route between India and Myanmar and
remains open throughout the year.
Kumjawng
Arunachal
Pradesh
Pass
with Myanmar
Hpungan Pass Arunachal
Pradesh
with Myanmar
Chankan Pass Arunachal
Pradesh
with Myanmar
In this post: Formation of Indo Gangetic
Brahmaputra Plain, Features of Indo
Gangetic
Brahmaputra
Plain,
Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain: Bhabar,
Terai, Bhangar, Khadar and Reh or Kollar.

Brahmaputra Plain
The formation of Indo-Gangetic plain is

closely related to the formation of
Himalayas.

Brahmaputra trough
The rivers which were previously flowing

into Tethys sea (Before Indian Plate
collided with Eurasian Plate continental
drift, plate tectonics) deposited huge
www.pmfias.com
amount of sediments in the Tethys

Geosyncline. [Geosyncline a huge
depression]
Himalayas are formed out of these
sediments which were uplifted, folded and
compressed due to northern movement of
Indian Plate.
Northern movement of Indian Plate also created a
trough to the south of Himalayas.
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changed their course several times and

they
were rejuvenated each
time
(perpetual youth stage of rivers {Fluvial
Landforms}).
The rejuvenation is associated with
intense headward
and
vertical
Page
downcutting of the soft strata overlying
| 27
the harder rock stratum.
Headward erosion and vertical erosion of
the river valley in the initial stages, lateral
erosion in later stages contributed huge
amount of conglomerates (detritus)(rock
debris, silt, clay etc.) which were carried
downslope.
[Head ward erosion == Erosion at the
origin of a stream channel, which causes
the origin to move back away from the
direction of the stream flow, and so causes
the stream channel to lengthen]
These conglomerates were deposited in
the depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough or
Indo-Gangetic syncline) (the base of the
geosyncline is a hard crystalline
rock) between peninsular India and the
convergent boundary (the region of
present day Himalayas).
New rivers and more alluvium
Depositional Activity
During the initial stages of upliftment of

sediments, the already existing rivers
The raising of Himalayas and subsequent

formation of glaciers gave rise to many
new rivers. These rivers along with glacial
erosion {Glacial Landforms}, supplied more
alluvium which intensified the filling of the
depression.
With the accumulation of more and more
sediments (conglomerates), the Tethys sea
started receding.
With passage of the time, the depression
was completely filled with alluvium, gravel,
rock debris (conglomerates) and the
Tethys completely disappeared leaving
behind a monotonous aggradational plain.
[monotonous ==
featureless
topography; aggradational plain == plain
formed due to depositional activity. IndoGangetic
plain
is
a
monotonous
aggradational plain formed due to fluvial
depositions].
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| 28
Upper peninsular rivers have also

contributed to the formation of plains, but
to a very small extent.
During the recent times (since few million

years), depositional work of three major
river systems viz., the Indus, the Ganga
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Gangetic Brahmaputra Plain
and the Brahmaputra have become

predominant.
Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is also
known
as Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra
Plain.
Features of Indo Gangetic

Brahmaputra Plain
Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra
Plain
is
the largest alluvial tract of the world.
It stretches for about 3,200 km from the
mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the
Ganga. Indian sector of the plain accounts
for 2,400 km.
The northern boundary is well marked by
the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary
is a wavy irregular line along the northern
edge of the Peninsular India.
The
western
boarder
is
marked
by Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the
eastern side, the plains are bordered by
Purvanchal hills.
The width of the plain varies from region
to region. It is widest in the west where it
stretches for about 500 km. Its width
decreases in the east.
The thickness of the alluvium deposits
also vary from place to place. The
maximum depth of the alluvium up to the
basement rocks is about 6,100 m (not
uniform and varies greatly from place to
place).
The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in the
north and those of Son in the south
exhibit greater alluvial thickness while the
intra-cone areas have relatively shallower
deposits.
Extreme horizontality of this monotonous
plain is its chief characteristic.
Its average elevation is about 200 m above
mean sea level, highest elevation being
291
m
above
mean
sea
level
near Ambala (This elevation forms the
drainage divide or watershed between
Indus system and Ganga system).
Its average gradient from Saharanpur to
Kolkata is only 20 cm per km and it
decreases to 15 cm per km from Varanasi
to the Ganga delta.
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The Bhabar
It
is
a narrow,
porous,
northern Page
most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.
| 29
It is about 8-16 km wide running in eastwest direction along the foothills (alluvial
fans) of the Shiwaliks.
They show a remarkable continuity from
the Indus to the Tista.
Rivers descending from the Himalayas
deposit their load along the foothills in the
form of alluvial fans.
These alluvial fans have merged together
to build up the bhabar belt.
The porosity of bhabar is the most unique
feature.
The porosity is due to deposition of huge
number
of pebbles
and
rock
debris across the alluvial fans.
The streams disappear once they reach
the bhabar region because of this porosity.
Therefore, the area is marked by dry river
courses except in the rainy season.
The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow
in the east and extensive in the western
and north-western hilly region.
The area is not suitable for agriculture
and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.
The Terai
Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy)

and thickly forested narrow tract to the
south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
The Terai is about15-30 km wide.
The underground streams of the Bhabar
belt re-emerge in this belt.
This thickly forested region provides
shelter to a variety of wild life. [Jim
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
and Kaziranga National Park in Assam
lie in terai region]
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| 30
The Terai is more marked in the eastern

part than in the west because the eastern
parts receive comparatively higher amount
of rainfall.
Most of the Terai land, especially in
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand,
has been turned into agricultural land
which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice
and wheat.
The Bhangar
The Bhangar is the older alluvium along

the river beds forming terraces higher
than the flood plain.
The terraces are often impregnated with
calcareous
concretions
known
as KANKAR.
The Barind plains in the deltaic region
of Bengal and the bhur formations in
the middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are
regional variations of Bhangar.
[Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land
situated along the banks of the Ganga
river especially in the upper GangaYamuna Doab. This has been formed due
to accumulation of wind-blown sands
during the hot dry months of the year]
Bhangar contains fossils of animals like

rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, etc.
The Khadar is composed of newer

alluvium and
forms
the flood
plains along the river banks.
A new layer of alluvium is deposited by
river flood almost every year.
This makes them the most fertile soils of
Ganges.
Reh or Kollar
Reh
or
Kollar
comprises saline
efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana.
Reh areas have spread in recent times
with increase in irrigation (capillary action
brings salts to the surface).
Regional Divisions of the IndoGangetic-Brahmaputra Plains

[Great Plains]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sindh Plain
Rajasthan Plain.
Punjab Plain.
Ganga Plain.
Brahmaputra Plain.
Ganga Brahmaputra Delta
Sindh Plain [Pakistan]
The Khadar
Mainly formed of Bhangar Plains.

Dhors: Long narrow depressions which are
the remnants of the course of former
rivers.
Dhand: Alkaline lakes on some dhors.
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Rajasthan Plain
Occupied by Thar or the Great Indian

Desert.
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This plain is an undulating plain [wave

like] whose average elevation is about 325
m
above
mean
sea
level.
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| 31
The desert region is called Marusthali and

forms a greater part of the Marwar plain.
It has a few outcrops of gneisses, schists
and
granites
which
proves
that
geologically it is a part of the Peninsular

Plateau. It is only at the surface that it
looks like an aggradational plain.
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In general, the eastern part of the

Marusthali is rocky while its western part
is covered by shifting sand dunes locally
known as
The eastern part of the Thar Desert up to
the Aravali Range is a semi-arid plain
known as Rajasthan Bagar.
It is drained by a number of short
seasonal streams originating from the
Aravali and supports agriculture in some
patches of fertile tracts.
Luni is an important seasonal stream
which flows into Rann of Kuchchh. The
tract north of the Luni is known
as thali or sandy plain.
Saline Lakes
North of the Luni, there is inland drainage

having several saline lakes. They are a
source of common salt and many other
salts.
Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Kuchaman,
etc. are some of the important lakes. The
largest is the Sambhar lake near Jaipur.
This plain is formed by five important

rivers of Indus system.
The plain is primarily made up of doabs
the land between two rivers.
The depositional process by the rivers has
united these doabs giving an homogenous
appearance.
Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five
Waters" referring to the following rivers:
the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej,
and Beas.
The total area of this plain is about 1.75
lakh sq km.
The average elevation of the plain is about
250 m above mean sea level.
The eastern boundary of Punjab Haryana
plain is marked by subsurface DelhiAravali ridge.
The northern part of this plain [Shiwalik
hills] has been intensively eroded by
numerous streams called Chos. This has
led to enormous gullying [Arid Landforms].
To the south of the Satluj river there

is Malwa plain of Punjab.
The area between the Ghaggar and the
Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often
termed as Haryana Tract. It acts as
water-divide between the Yamuna and the
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Satluj rivers.
The only river between the Yamuna and | 32
the Satluj is the Ghaggar which is
considered to be the present day
Successor of the legendary Saraswati
River
Ganga Plain
Punjab Plain
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This is the largest unit of the Great Plain

of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata
(about 3.75 lakh sq km).
The Ganga along with its large number of
tributaries originating in the Himalayans
have brought large quantities of alluvium
from the mountains and deposited it here
to build this extensive plain.
The peninsular rivers such as Chambal,
Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the Ganga
river system have also contributed to the
formation of this plain.
The general slope of the entire plain is to
the east and south east.
Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections
of Ganges as a result of which the area is
marked by local prominences such
as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes,
ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms, Arid
Landfroms}
Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their
courses making this area prone to
frequent floods. The Kosi river is very
notorious in this respect. It has long been
called the Sorrow of Bihar.
Regional divisions of Ganga plains
Rohilkhand plains
Avadh Plains
Mithila Plain
Magadh Plain.
Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
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This is the largest delta in the world.

The Ganga river divides itself into several
channels in the delta area. The slope of
the land here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two
thirds of the area is below 30 m above
mean sea level. [Highly vulnerable to sea
level changes]
The seaward face of the delta is studded
with a large number of estuaries, mud
flats, mangrove swamps, sandbanks,
islands and forelands.
Large part of the coastal delta is
covered tidal forests. These are called
the Sunderbans because
of
the
predominance of Sundri tree here.
Brahmaputra Plain
This is also known as the Brahmaputra

valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as
most of the Brahmaputra valley is situated
in Assam.
Its western boundary is formed by the
Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the
boundary of the lower Ganga Plain. Its
eastern
boundary
is
formed
by Purvanchal hills.
It is an aggradational plain built up by
the depositional work of the Brahmaputra
and its tributaries.
The innumerable tributaries of the
Brahmaputra river coming from the north
form a number of alluvial fans.
Consequently, the tributaries branch out
in many channels giving birth to river
meandering leading to formation of bill
and ox-bow lakes.
There are large marshy tracts in this area.
The alluvial fans formed by the coarse
alluvial debris have led to the formation of
terai or semi-terai conditions.
Significance of the Plain
This one fourth of the land of the country

hosts half of the Indian population.
Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow
moving perennial rivers and favorable
climate facilitate intense agricultural
activity.
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The extensive use of irrigation has made

Punjab, Haryana and western part of
Uttar Pradesh the granary of India
(Prairies are called the granaries of the
world).
The entire plain except the Thar Desert,
Page
has a close network of roads and railways
which
has
led
to
large
scale | 33
industrialization and urbanization.
Cultural tourism: There are many
religious places along the banks of the
sacred rivers like the Ganga and the
Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus.
Here flourished the religions of Budha and
Mahavira and the movements of Bhakti
and Sufism.
In this post: Peninsular Plateau Features
of the Peninsular Plateau Marwar
Plateau or Mewar Plateau, Central
Highland, Bundelkhand Upland, Malwa
Plateau,
Baghelkhand,
Chotanagpur
Plateau, Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan
Plateau, Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka
Plateau,
Telangana
plateau
and
Chhattisgarh Plain.
Peninsular Plateau
Features of the Peninsular Plateau
Roughly triangular in shape with its base

coinciding with the southern edge of the
great plain of North India. Apex of the
triangular plateau is at Kanniyakumari.
It covers a total area of about 16 lakh sq
km (India as a whole is 32 lakh sq km).
The average height of the plateau is 600900 m above sea level (varies from region
to region).
Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to
east indicating its general slope.
Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions which
flow from east to west in a rift (rift is
caused by divergent boundary (Go back
to Interaction of plates).
The Peninsular Plateau is a one of the
oldest landforms of earth.
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It is a highly stable block composed mostly

of
the Archaean
gneisses
and
schists {Rock System}.
It has been a stable shield which has gone
through little structural changes since its
formation.
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Since
few
hundred
million
years,
Peninsular block has been a land area and
has never been submerged beneath the
sea except in a few places.
Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of
several smaller plateaus, hill ranges
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interspersed with river basins and valleys.
| 34
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Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular

Plateau
Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau
It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan.

[Marwar plain is to the west of Aravalis
whereas Marwar plateau is to the east].
The average elevation is 250-500 m above
sea level and it slopes down eastwards.
It is made up of sandstone, shales and
limestones of the Vindhayan period.
The Banas
river,
along
with
its
tributaries [Berach
river,
Khari
rivers] originate in the Aravali Range and
flow towards northwest into Chambal
river. The erosional activity of these rives
make the plateau top appear like a rolling
plain.
[Rolling Plain: Rolling plains are not
completely flat: there are slight rises
and fall in the land form. Ex: Prairies of
USA]
Also
called
the Madhya
Bharat
Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau.
It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar
Upland.
Most of plateau comprises the basin of
the Chambal river which flows in a rift
valley.
The Kali
Sindh,
flowing
from Rana
Prataph
Sagar,
The Banas flowing
through
Mewar
plateau
and
The Parwan and the Parbati flowing from
Madhya Pradesh are its main tributaries.
It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills
composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow
here.
To the north are the ravines or
badlands of the Chambal river [They are
typical to Chambal river basin]{ Arid
landforms}.
Bundelkhand Upland
Yamuna river to the north, Madhya

Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan
Scarplands to the east and south-east and
Malwa Plateau to the south.
It is the old dissected (divided by a
number of deep valleys) upland of the
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Bundelkhand
gneiss
comprising
| 35
of granite and gneiss.
Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh
and four districts of Madhya Pradesh.
Average elevation of 300-600 m above sea
level, this area slopes down from the
Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna River.
The area is marked by a chain of hillocks
(small hill) made of granite and sandstone.
The erosional work of the rivers flowing
here have converted it into an undulating
(wave like surface) area and rendered
it unfit for cultivation.
The region is characterized by senile
(characteristic of or caused by old age)
topography.
Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow
through the plateau.
Malwa Plateau
Central Highland
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The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a

triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,
bounded by the Aravali Range in the west
and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north
and Bundelkhand to the east.
This plateau has two systems of drainage;
one
towards
the
Arabian
sea
(The Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi),
and the other towards the Bay of Bengal
(Chambal
and
Betwa,
joining
the
Yamuna).
In the north it is drained by the Chambal
and many of its right bank tributaries like
the Kali, the Sindh and the Parbati. It also
includes the upper courses of the Sindh,
the Ken and the Betwa.
It is composed of extensive lava flow and
is covered with black soils.
The general slope is towards the north
[decreases from 600 m in the south to less
than 500 m in the north]
www.pmfias.com
This is a rolling plateau dissected by

rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked
by the Chambal ravines.
Baghelkhand
North
of
the Maikal
Range is
the
Baghelkhand.
Made of limestones and sandstones on the
west and granite in the east.
It is bounded by the Son river on the
north.
The central part of the plateau acts as a
water divide between the Son drainage
system
in
the
north
and
the Mahanadi river system in the south.
The region is uneven with general
elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.
The Bhanrer and Kaimur are
located
close to the trough-axis.
The general horizontality of the strata
shows that this area has not undergone
any major disturbance.
Chotanagpur Plateau
Chotanagpur plateau represents the

north-eastern projection of the Indian
Peninsula.
Mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of
Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of West
Bengal.
The Son river flows in the north-west of
the plateau and joins the Ganga.
The average elevation of the plateau is 700
m above sea level.
This
plateau
is
composed
mainly
of Gondwana rocks.
The plateau is drained by numerous rivers
and streams in different directions and
presents
a radial
drainage
pattern. {Drainage Pattern}
Rivers
like
the Damodar,
the Subarnrekaha,
the North
Koel,
the South
Koel and
the Barkar have
developed extensive drainage basins.
The Damodar river flows through the
middle of this region in a rift valley from
west
to
east.
Here
are
found
www.pmfias.com
the Gondwana coal fields which provide

bulk of coal in India.
North
of
the
Damodar
river
is
the Hazaribagh plateau with an average
elevation of 600 m above mean sea level.
This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like
Page
a peneplain due to large scale erosion.
The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the | 36
Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m
above mean sea level. Most of the surface
is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m)
is located.
At
places
it
is
interruped
by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge
of erosion-resistant rock rising above a
peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia)
and conical hills.
The Rajmahal Hills forming the north
eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau
are mostly made of basalt and are covered
by lava flows {Basaltic Lava}.
They run in north-south direction and rise
to average elevation of 400 m (highest
mount is 567 m). These hills have been
dissected into separate plateaus.
Meghalaya Plateau
The peninsular plateau extends further

east beyond the Rajmahal hills to
from Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau.
Garo-Rajmahal
Gap separates
this
plateau from the main block.
This
gap
was
formed
by downfaulting (normal fault: a block of earth
slides downwards). It was later filled by
sediments deposited by the Ganga and
Brahmaputa.
The plateau is formed by Archaean
quartzites, shales and schists.
The plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra
valley in the north and the Surma and
Meghna valleys in the south.
Its western boundary more or less
coincides with the Bangladesh border.
The western, central and the eastern parts
of the plateau are known as the Garo
Hills (900
m),
the Khasi-Jaintia
Hills (1,500 m) and the Mikir Hills (700
m).
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Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point

of the plateau.
Deccan Plateau
It covers an area of about five lakh sq

km.
It is triangular in shape and is bounded by
the Satpura and
the Vindhya in
the
north-west,
the Mahadev and
the Maikal in the north, the Western
Ghats in the west and the Eastern
Ghats in the east.
Its average elevation is 600 m.
It rises to 1000 m in the south but dips to
500 m in the north.
Its general slope is from west to east
which is indicated by the flow of its major
rivers.
Rivers have further subdivided this
plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.
Maharashtra Plateau
The
Maharashtra
Plateau
lies
in
Maharashtra.
It forms the northern part of the Deccan
Plateau.
Much of the region is underlain
by basaltic rocks of lava origin [Most of
the Deccan Traps lies in this region].
The area looks like a rolling plain due to
weathering.
The horizontal lava sheets have led to the
formation
of
typical
Deccan
Trap
topography [step like].
The broad and shallow valleys of the
Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are
flanked [bordered on the opposite sides] by
flat-topped steep sided hills and ridges.
The entire area is covered by black cotton
soil known as regur.
Karnataka Plateau
The Karnataka Plateau is also known as

the Mysore plateau.
Lies to the south of the Maharashtra
plateau.
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The area looks like a rolling plateau with

an average elevation of 600-900 m.
It is highly dissected by numerous rivers
rising from the Western Ghats.
The general trend of the hills is either
parallel to the Western Ghats or across it.
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The highest peak (1913 m) is at
Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hills in | 37
Chikmaglur district.
The plateau is divided into two parts
called Malnad and Maidan.
The Malnad in Kannada means hill
country. It is dissected into deep valleys
covered with dense forests.
The Maidan on the other hand is formed of
rolling plain with low granite hills.
The plateau tapers between the Western
Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south
and merges with the Niligiri hills there.
Telangana plateau
The Telangana plateau consists of

Archaean gneisses.
Its average elevation is 500-600 m.
The southern part is higher than its
northern counterpart.
The region is drained by three river
systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and
the Penneru.
The entire plateau is divided into Ghats
and the Peneplains (a vast featureless,
undulating plain which the last stage of
deposition process).
Chhattisgarh Plain
The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain

worth the name in the Peninsular plateau.
It is a saucer shaped depression drained
by the upper Mahanadi.
The whole basin lies between the Maikala
Range and the Odisha hills.
The
region
was
once
ruled
by Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose
thirty six forts (Chhattisgarh) it derives its
name.
The basin is laid with nearly horizontal
beds of limestone and shales.
www.pmfias.com
The general elevation of the plain ranges

from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the
west.
In this post: Hills of Peninsular India Aravalis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western

Ghats, Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats. Hill
Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau - Aravali
Range, Vindhyan Range, Satpura Range,
Western Ghats [Sahyadris] and Eastern
Ghats.
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular

Plateau
Most of the hills in the peninsular region

are of the relict type (residual hills).
They are the remnants of the hills and
horsts formed many million years ago
(horst: uplifted block; graben: subsided
block).
The plateaus of the Peninsular region are
separated from one another by these hill
ranges and various river valleys.
They are aligned in north-east to southwest direction.

They
run
for
about
800
km
between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat.
They are one of the oldest (very old) fold
mountains of the world and the oldest in
India. {Fold Mountains Block Mountains}
After its formation in Archaean Era
(several 100 million years ago), its
summits were nourishing glaciers and
several summits were probably higher
than the present day Himalayas.
Now they are relict (remnants after severe
weathering and erosion since millions of
years) of the world's oldest mountain
formed as a result of folding (Archaean
Era).
They continue up to Hariddwar buried
under the alluvium of Ganga Plains.
The range is conspicuous in Rajasthan
(continuous range south of Ajmer where it
rises to 900 m.) but becomes less distinct
in Haryana and Delhi (characterized by a

chain of detached and discontinuous
ridges beyond Ajmer).
According to some geographers, one
Branch of the Aravalis extends to the
Lakshadweep Archipelago through the
Page
Gulf of Khambhat and the other into
| 38
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Its general elevation is only 400-600 m,
with few hills well above 1,000 m.
At the south-west extremity the range
rises to over 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu
(1,158 m), a small hilly block, is
separated from the main range by
the valley of the Banas. Guru Sikhar
(1,722 m), the highest peak, is situated in
Mt. Abu.
Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes
allow movement by roads and railways.
Vindhyan Range
Aravali Range
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The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a

view of from above) the Narmada valley,
rises as an escarpment (a long, steep slope
at the edge of a plateau or separating
areas of land at different heights) flanking
(neighboring on one side) the northern
edge of the Narmada-Son Trough (the rift
through which the Narmada river
flows)(trough is opposite of ridge. It is a
narrow depression).
It runs more or less parallel to
the Narmada Valley in an east-west
direction from Jobat in Gujarat to
Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of over
1,200 km.
The general elevation of the Vindhyan
Range is 300 to 650 m.
Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are
composed
of
horizontally
bedded
sedimentary rocks of ancient age. {Rock
System}
The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as
the Bharner and Kaimur hills.
This range acts as a watershed between
the Ganga system and the river systems of
south India.
The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken rise
within
30
km
of
the
Narmada.
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Page
| 39
Satpura Range
Satpura range is a series of seven

mountains (Sat = seven and pura =
mountains)
It runs in an east-west direction south of
the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada
and the Tapi, roughly parallel to these

rivers.
It stretches for a distance of about 900
km.
Parts of the Satpuras have been folded
and upheaved. They are regarded as
structural uplift or horst.
Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on
Mahadev Hills is the highest peak.
www.pmfias.com
Amarkantak (1,127
important peak.
m)
is
another
Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka

coast]
Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)
They form the western edge of the Deccan

tableland.
Run from the Tapi valley (21 N latitude) to
a little north of Kanniyakumari (11 N
latitude) for a distance of 1,600 km.
The Western Ghats are steep-sided,
terraced, flat-topped hills presenting a
stepped topography facing the Arabian
Sea coast.
This is due to the horizontally bedded
lavas, which on weathering, have given a
characteristic landing stair aspect to
the relief of this mountain chain.
The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a
sheer wall to an average elevation of 1,000
m from the Western Coastal Plain.
But they slope gently on their eastern
flank and hardly appear to be a mountain
when viewed from the Deccan tableland.
South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Anamalai,
etc. present quite different landscape due
to the difference in geological structure.
The Middle Sahyadri
The northern section of the Ghats from

Tapi valley to a little north of Goa is made
of horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas
(Deccan Traps).
The average height of this section of the
Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea level,
but some peaks attain more heights.
Kalasubai (1,646 m) near Igatpuri, Salher
(1,567 m) about 90 km north of Nashik,
Mahabaleshwar
(1,438
m)
and
Harishchandragarh
(1,424
m)
are
important peaks.
Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important
passes which provide passage by road and
rail between the Konkan Plains in the
west and the Deccan Plateau in the east.
[Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast
and Goa coast;
The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16N Page

latitude upto Nilgiri hills.
This part is made of granites and gneisses. | 40
This area is covered with dense forests.
The western scarp is considerably
dissected by headward erosion of the west
flowing streams.
The average height is 1200 m but many
peaks exceed 1500 m.
The Vavul
Mala
(2,339
m),
the Kudremukh
(1,892
m) and Pashpagiri
(1,714
m) are
important peaks.
The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris
near the trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala
and TN, rise abruptly to over 2,000 m.
They mark the junction of the Western
Ghats with Eastern Ghats.
Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti
(2,554 m) are important peaks of this
area.
The southern section
The northern section
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The southern part of the Western Ghats is

separated from the main Sahyadri range
by Pal ghat Gap [Palakkad Gap].
The high ranges terminate abruptly on
either side of this gap.
Pal ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This gap is
used by a number of roads and railway
lines to connect the plains of Tamil Nadu
with the coastal plain of Kerala.
It is through this gap that moist-bearing
clouds of the south-west monsoon can
penetrate some distance inland, bringing
rain to Mysore region.
South of the Pal ghat Gap there is an
intricate system of steep and rugged
slopes on both the eastern and western
sides of the Ghats.
Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak
in the whole of southern India.
Three ranges radiate in different directions
from Anai Mudi. These ranges are
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the Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the

north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the
north-east and the Cardamom Hills or
the Ealaimalai to the south.
Eastern Ghats
Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the

east coast of India leaving broad plains
between their base and the coast.
It is a chain of highly broken and detached
hills
starting
from
the Mahanadi in
Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They
almost disappear between the Godavari
and the Krishna.
They neither have structural unity nor
physiographic continuity. Therefore these
hill groups are generally treated as
independent units.
It is only in the northern part, between the
Mahanadi and the Godavari that the
Eastern Ghats exhibit true mountain
character.
This
part
comprises
the Maliya and
the Madugula
Konda ranges.
The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range
have a general elevation of 900-1,200 m
and Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is the
tallest peak here.
The Madugula Konda range has higher
elevations ranging from 1,100 m and
1,400 m with several peaks exceeding
1,600 m. Jindhagada Peak (1690
m) in Araku Valley Arma Konda (1,680
m), Gali Konda (1,643 m) and Sinkram
Gutta (1,620 m) are important peaks.
Between the Godavari and the Krishna
rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly
character and are occupied by Gondwana
formations (KG Basin is here).
The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or
less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah
and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh
where they are called as Nallamalai
Range [Naxalite hideout in AP] with
general elevation of 600-850 m.
The southern part of this range is called
the Palkodna range.
To the south, the hills and plateaus attain
very low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and
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the Shevroy-Kalrayan
Hills form
two
distinct features of 1,000 m elevation.
The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Coimbatore
district attain a height of 1,279 m.
Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge
with the Western Ghats.
Significance of the Peninsular

Plateau
There are huge deposits of iron,

manganese. copper, bauxite, chromium,
mica, gold, etc.
98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits
of India are found in the Peninsular
Plateau.
Besides there are large reserves of slate,
shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
A large part of north-west plateau is
covered with fertile black lava soil which is
extremely useful for growing cotton.
Some hilly regions in south India are
suitable for the cultivation of plantation
crops like tea, coffee, rubber, etc..
Some low lying areas of the plateau are
suitable for growing rice.
The highlands of the plateau are covered
with different types of forests which
provide a large variety of forest products.
The rivers originating in the Western
Ghats
offer
great
opportunity
for
developing hydroelectricity and providing
irrigation facilities to the agricultural
crops.
The plateau is also known for its hill
resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty),
Panchmarhi,
Kodaikanal,
Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron,
Mount Abu, etc.
In this post: Coastline of India Indian
Coastline - East Coast of India, West
Coast of India, Coastlines: Coastlines of
Emergence and Submergence; Western
Coastal Plains Kutch and Kathiawar
region: Gujarat Plain, Konkan Plain,
Karnataka Coastal Plain and Kerala Plain;
Eastern Coastal Plains of India: Utkal
Plain, Andhra Plain and Tamil Nadu Plain;
Significance of the Coastal Plains.
Page
| 41
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Coastline of India Indian

Coastline
India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100

km of mainland coastline + coastline of
1197 Indian islands] touching 13 States
and Union Territories (UTs).
The straight and regular coastline of India
is the result of faulting of the
Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous
period. {Continental Drift}
East Coast of India
Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the

Bay of Bengal.
It extends from the Ganga delta to
Kanniyakumari.
It is marked by deltas of rivers like the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and
the Cauvery.
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As such the coast of India does not offer

many sites for good natural harbours.
[Indented coastlines of Europe provide
good natural harbours whereas African
and Indian coastlines are not indented].
Page
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea | 42

came into being during the Cretaceous or
early
Tertiary
period
after
the
disintegration of Gondwanaland.
Chilka
lake and
the Pulicat
lake
(lagoon) are the important geographical
features of east coast.
Regional Names of The East Coast of
India
In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal

coast.
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From the southern limit of the Utkal plain,

stretch the Andhra coast.
In the south of the Andhra plain is
the Tamil Nadu coast.
The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra
coast together are known as Coramandal
Coast or Payan Ghat [False Divi Point in
AP (Krishna River Delta) in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south.].
Coastlines of Emergence and

Submergence
West Coast of India
The west coast strip extends from the Gulf

of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the
north to Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari).
Starting from north to south, it is divided
into
(i)
the Konkan
coast,
(ii)
the Karnataka coast and (iii) the Kerala
cost.
It is made up of alluvium brought down by
the short streams originating from the
Western Ghats.
It is dotted with a large number of coves
(a very small bay), creeks (a narrow,
sheltered waterway such as an inlet in a
shoreline or channel in a marsh) and a
few estuaries. {Marine Landforms}
The estuaries, of the Narmada and the
Tapi are the major ones.
The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has
some lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the
largest being the Vembanad Lake.
Regional Names of The West Coast of
India
Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast and

Goa coast;
Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka
coast.
1. Coastline of Emergence
2. Coastline of Submergence
Coastline of emergence is formed either by

an uplift of the land or by the lowering of
the sea level. Coastline of submergence is Page
an exact opposite case.
| 43
Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
typical features of emergence. {Marine
Landforms}
The east coast of India, especially its
south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
appears to be a coast of emergence.
The west coast of India, on the other hand,
is both emergent and submergent.
The northern portion of the coast is
submerged as a result of faulting and the
southern portion, that is the Kerala coast,
is an example of an emergent coast.
1. Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu) ==>

2. Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) ==>
3. Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa
Coast) ==> Coastline of submergence.
Western Coastal Plains of India
Rann of Kachchh in the north to

Kanniyakumari in the South.
These are narrow plains with an average
width of about 65 km.
Kutch and Kathiawar region
Coastlines
Already explained in Marine Landforms. I
am discussing here for continuity.
www.pmfias.com
Kutch
and
Kathiawar,
though
an
extension of Peninsular plateau (because
Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and
there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area),
they are still treated as integral part of the
Western Coastal Plains as they are now
levelled down.
The Kutch Peninsula was an island
surrounded by seas and lagoons. These
seas and lagoons were later filled by
sediment brought by the Indus River
which used to flow through this area. Lack
www.pmfias.com
of rains in recent times has turned it into

arid and semi-arid landscape.
Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is
the Great
Rann.
Its
southern
continuation,
known
as
the Little
Rann lies on the coast and south-east of
Kachchh.
The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south
of the Kachchh. The central part is a
highland of Mandav Hills from which
small streams radiate in all directions
(Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117
m) is the highest point and is of volcanic
origin.
The Gir Range is located in the southern
part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is
covered with dense forests and is famous
as home of the Gir lion.
Gujarat Plain
The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and

Kathiawar and slopes towards the west
and south west.
Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi,
Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain includes
the southern part of Gujarat and the
coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat.
The eastern part of this plain is fertile
enough to support agriculture, but the
greater part near the coast is covered by
windblown loess (heaps of sand).
The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat

plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to
80 km wide).
It has some features of marine erosion
including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands
in the Arabian Sea.
The Thane creek around Mumbai is an
important embayment (a recess in a
coastline forming a bay) which provides
an excellent natural harbour.
Karnataka Coastal Plain
Goa to Mangalore.
It is a narrow plain with an average width

of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70 km
near Mangalore.
At some places the streams originating in
the Western Ghats descend along steep
slopes and make waterfalls.
Page
The Sharavati while descending over such
a steep slope makes an impressive | 44
waterfall
known
as Gersoppa
(Jog)
Falls which
is 271
m
high. [Angel
falls (979 m) in Venezuela is the highest
waterfall on earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in
Drakensberg mountains in South Africa is
the second highest.]
Marine topography is quite marked on the
coast.
Kerala Plain
Konkan Plain
www.pmfias.com
The Kerala Plain also known as

the Malabar Plain.
Between Mangalore and Kanniyakumari.
This is much wider than the Karnataka
plain. It is a low lying plain.
The
existence
of
lakes,
lagoons,
backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant
characteristic of the Kerala coast.
The
backwaters,
locally
known
as kayals are the shallow lagoons or
inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the
coastline.
The largest among these is the Vembanad
Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10
km wide and gives rise to a 55 km long
spit {Marine Landforms}.
Eastern Coastal Plains of India
Extending from the Subarnarekha river

along the West Bengal-Odisha border to
Kanniyakumari.
A major part of the plains is formed as a
result of the alluvial fillings of the littoral
zone (relating to or on the shore of the sea
or a lake) by the rivers Mahanadi,
Godavari,
Krishna
and
Cauvery
comprising some of the largest deltas.
In contrast to the West Coastal Plains,
these
are extensive
plains with
an
average width of 120 km.
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This plain is known as the Northern

Circars between the Mahanadi and the
Krishna rivers and Carnatic between the
Krishna and the Cauvery rivers.
Utkal Plain
The Utkal Plain comprises coastal areas of

Odisha.
It includes the Mahanadi delta.
The most prominent physiographic feature
of this plain is the Chilka Lake.
It is the biggest lake in the country and
its area varies between 780 sq km in
winter to 1,144 sq km in the monsoon
months.
South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot the
plain.
Andhra Plain
South of the Utkal Plain and extends

upto Pulicat Lake. This lake has been
barred by a long sand spit known
as Sriharikota
Island (ISRO
launch
facility).
The most significant feature of this plain is
the delta formation by the rivers Godavari
and Krishna.
The two deltas have merged with each
other and formed a single physiographic
unit.
The combined delta has advanced by
about 35 km towards the sea during the
recent years. This is clear from the present
location of the Kolleru Lake which was
once a lagoon at the shore but now lies far
inland {Coastline of Emergence}.
This part of the plain has a straight coast
and badly lacks good harbours with the
exception
of Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam.
Tamil Nadu Plain
The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675

km from Pulicat lake to Kanniyakumari
along the coast of Tamil Nadu. Its average
width is 100 km.
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The most important feature of this plain is

the Cauvery delta where the plain is 130
km wide.
The fertile soil and large scale irrigation
facilities have made the Cauvery delta the
granary of South India.
Page
Significance of the Coastal Plains | 45
Large parts of the coastal plains of India

are covered by fertile soils on which
different crops are grown. Rice is the main
crop of these areas.
Coconut trees grow all along the coast.
The entire length of the coast is dotted
with big and small ports which help in
carrying out trade.
The sedimentary rocks of these plains are
said to contain large deposits of mineral
oil (KG Basin).
The sands of Kerala coast have large
quantity of MONAZITE which is used
for nuclear power.
Fishing is an important occupation of the
people living in the coastal areas.
Low lying areas of Gujarat are famous for
producing salt.
Kerala backwaters are important tourist
destinations.
Goa provides good beaches. This is also an
important tourist destination.
In this post: Indian Islands - Andaman
and Nicobar Islands - Lakshadweep
Islands - New Moore Island.
Indian Islands
The major islands groups of India are

Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (A
chain of islands similar in origin) in Bay of
Bengal and Lakshadweep islands in
Arabian Sea.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands were
formed due to collision between Indian
Plate and Burma Minor Plate [part of
Eurasian Plate][Similar to formation of
Himalayas].
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
southward extension of Arakan Yoma
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range [Myanmar][Arakan Yoma in itself

is an extension of Purvanchal Hills].
Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands.
These islands are a part Reunion Hotspot
volcanism. [Both these concepts are
explained in previous posts]
Other than these two groups there are
islands in Indo-Gangetic Delta [they are
more a part of delta than islands] and
between India and Sri Lanka [Remnants of
Adams
Bridge;
formed
due
to
submergence].
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Andaman and Nicobar Islands
This archipelago is composed of 265 big

and small islands [203 Andaman islands +
62 Nicobar Islands][Numbers are just for
understanding. You need not remember Page
trivial facts].
The Andaman and Nicobar islands extend | 46
from 6 45' N to 13 45' N and from 92 10'
E to 94 15' E for a distance of about 590
km.
The Andaman islands are divided into
three
main
islands
i.e. North,
Middle and South.
Duncan
passage separates
Little
Andaman from South Andaman.
The Great Andaman group of islands in
the north is separated by the Ten Degree
Channel from the Nicobar group in the
south [Prelims 2014].
Port Blair, the capital of Andaman
Nicobar Islands lies in the South
Andaman.
Among the Nicobar islands, the Great
Nicobar is
the
largest.
It
is
the
southernmost island and is very close to
Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car
Nicobar is the northernmost.
Most of these islands are made of tertiary
sandstone, limestone and shale resting on
basic and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to
Himalayas].
THE
BARREN
AND
NARCONDAM
ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic
islands [these are the only active
volcanoes in India][There are no active
volcanoes in main land India].
Some of the islands are fringed with coral
reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
forests.
Most
of
the
islands
are
mountainous.
Saddle
peak
(737
m) in North
Andaman is the highest peak.
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| 47
In the Arabian Sea, there are three types

of islands.
1. Amindivi Islands (consisting of six main

islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat,
Bitra and Perumul Par). [dont have to
remember all these names]
2. Laccadive Islands (consisting of five
major
islands
of
Androth,
Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par)
and
3. Minicoy Island.
Lakshadweep Islands
At present these islands are collectively

known as Lakshadweep.
The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of
25 small islands.
They are widely scattered about 200-500
km south-west of the Kerala coast.
Amendivi Islands are the northern most
while
the Minicoy
island
is
the
southernmost.
All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll}
and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
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The largest and the most advanced is

the Minicoy island with an area of 4.53
sq km.
Most of the islands have low elevation and
do not rise more than five metre above sea
level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level
change).
Their topography is flat and relief features
such as hills, streams, valleys, etc.
are absent.
Drainage
basin,
Drainage
Divide,
Difference between a River Basin and a
Watershed.
Drainage
patterns
Discordant
drainage
patterns
and
Concordant Drainage Patterns.
Drainage basin
Other terms that are used to describe

drainage
basins
are catchment,
catchment area, catchment basin,
drainage area, river basin, and water
basin.
The drainage basin includes both the

streams and rivers and the land surface.
The drainage basin acts as a funnel by
collecting all the water within the area
covered by the basin and channeling it to
a single point.
In closed ("endorheic") drainage basins
the water converges to a single point
inside the basin, known as a sink, which
New Moore Island
It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar

landform {Marine Landforms} in the Bay of
Bengal, off the coast of the GangesBrahmaputra Delta region.
It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the
aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970.
It keeps on emerging and disappearing.
Although the island was uninhabited and
there were no permanent settlements or
stations located on it, both India and
Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it
because of speculation over the
existence of oil and natural gas in the
region.
The issue of sovereignty was also a part of
the larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology
of
settling
the
maritime boundary between the two
nations.
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| 48
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may be a permanent lake [Lake Aral], dry

lake [some desert lakes], or a point where
surface water is lost underground [sink
holes
in
Karst
landforms].
Other
Examples: Lake Chad [Africa], Dead Sea
etc.
Page
| 49
Drainage Divide
Adjacent drainage basins are separated

from
one
another
by
a drainage
divide. Drainage divide is usually a ridge
or a high platform.
Drainage divide is conspicuous in case
Some important drainage basins
of youthful topography [Himalayas] and
across the world
it is not well marked in plains [Ganga
plains]
and senile
topography [old
This is Wiki stuff. So cant guarantee
featureless landforms Rolling plateaus of
accuracy.
Peninsular region though which South
Indian rivers flow].
Basin
Type
Continent
Drains to
Basin
Area
km2
Amazon River
Primary River
South
Atlantic Ocean
6,144,727
Atlantic Ocean
3,861,400
3,730,474
America
Hudson Bay
Mediterranean
North
sea
America
Congo River
Primary River
Africa
Atlantic Ocean
Caspian Sea
Lake
Asia/Europe
(endorheic basin == 3,626,000

not outlet)
Nile River
Primary River
Africa
Mediterranean Sea
3,254,555
Mississippi-
Primary River
North
Gulf of Mexico
3,202,230
Missouri River
America
Lake Chad
Lake
Africa
n/a (endorheic basin)
2,497,918
Black Sea
Mediterranean
multiple
Mediterranean Sea
2,400,000
sea
Niger River
Primary River
Africa
Atlantic Ocean
2,261,763
Yangtze
Primary River
Asia
Pacific Ocean
1,722,155
Mediterranean
Europe
Atlantic Ocean[4]
1,700,000
River (Chang Jiang)

Baltic Sea
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sea
Ganges
Primary River
Asia
Bay of Bengal
1,621,000
Primary River
Asia
Arabian Sea
1,081,733
Brahmaputra
Indus River
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its original slope, cutting through the
uplifted portion like a saw [Vertical erosion | 50
or Vertical down cutting], and forming
deep gorges: this type of drainage is called
Antecedent drainage.
Difference between a River Basin

and a Watershed
Both river basins and watersheds are

areas of land that drain to a particular
water body, such as a lake, stream, river
or estuary.
In a river basin, all the water drains to a
large river. The term watershed is used to
describe a smaller area of land that drains
to a smaller stream, lake or wetland. There
are many smaller watersheds within a
river basin.
Example: watershed of Yamuna + water
shed of Chambal + watershed of Gandak +
. = Drainage basin of Ganga.
Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra and

other Himalayan rivers that are older than
the Himalayas themselves. There are
usually called as ANTECEDENT RIVERS.
Superimposed or Epigenetic
(Discordant) or Superinduced
Drainage
Drainage patterns
Based on the shape and formation of river

patters, there are different drainage
patterns.
Discordant drainage patterns
A drainage pattern is described as

discordant if it does not correlate to the
topology
[surface
relief
features] and geology [geological features
based on both Endogenetic movements
and exogenetic movements] of the area.
In simple words: In a discordant drainage
pattern, the river follows its initial path
irrespective of the changes in topography.
Discordant
drainage
patterns
are
classified
into
two
main
types: antecedent and superimposed.
Antecedent Drainage or
Inconsequent Drainage
A part of a river slope and the surrounding

area gets uplifted and the river sticks to
When a river flowing over a softer rock

stratum reaches the harder basal rocks
but continues to follow the initial slope, it
seems to have no relation with the harder
rock bed. This type of drainage is called
superimposed drainage.
Usually, the drainage patterns (dendritic,
trellis, etc.) are strongly influenced by the
hardness and softness of the rock and
patterns of faults or fractures.
Sometimes, however, the land rises rapidly
relative to the base level of the stream.
This increases the gradient of the stream
and therefore, gives the stream more
erosive power.
The stream has enough erosive power that
it cuts its way through any kind of
bedrock, maintaining
its
former
drainage pattern.
You get a situation, then, where the
drainage pattern does not correspond to
the hardness or softness of the bedrock or
to the locations of faults and fractures.
In other words, it is a drainage pattern
which exhibits discordance with the
underlying rock structure because it
originally developed on a cover of rocks
that has now disappeared due to
denudation.
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Consequently, river directions relate to the

former cover rocks and, as the latter were
being eroded, the rivers have been able to
retain their courses unaffected by the
newly exposed structures.
The stream pattern is thus superposed on,
or placed on structural features that were
previously buried.
The Damodar,
the Subarnarekha,
the Chambal, the Banas and the rivers
flowing at the Rewa Plateau present some
good examples of superimposed drainage.
Examples:
The
Damodar,
the
Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas
and the rivers flowing at the Rewa Plateau,
rivers of eastern USA and southern
France.
[In simple words, the river flow becomes
independent of present Topography. It
flows in its initial paths without being
influenced by changing topography].
Antecedent Drainage == Cut through the
newly formed landform and maintain the
same path == Himalayan Rivers.
Antecedent Drainage == The soil formed

is weak and it is easily eroded by the
rivers.
Concordant Drainage Patterns
The rivers which follow the general

direction of slope are known as the
consequent rivers.
Most of the rivers of peninsular India are
consequent rivers.
For example, rivers like Godavari, Krishna
and Cauvery, descending from the
Western Ghats and flowing into the Bay of
Bengal, are some of the consequent rivers
of Peninsular India.
Subsequent Rivers
Usually, rivers in both these drainage

types flow through a highly sloping
surface.
A drainage pattern is described as

concordant if it correlates to the
topology and geology of the area.
In simple words: In a concordant drainage
pattern, the path of the river is highly
dependent on the slope of the river and
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topography.
Concordant drainage patterns are the | 51
most commonly found drainage patterns
and are classified into many types.
Consequent Rivers
Superimposed Drainage == Cut deeper

through the existing landform and
maintain the same path == Some medium
scale rivers of the Northern and Eastern
peninsular India.
Superimposed Drainage == The rivers

have high erosive power so that they can
cut through the underlying strata.
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A tributary stream that is eroded along an

underlying belt of non-resistant rock after
the main drainage pattern (Consequent
River) has been established is known as a
subsequent river.
The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons
and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga
at right angles. They are the subsequent
drainage of the Ganga drainage system.
These
streams
have
generally
developed after the original stream.
Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage

Pattern
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Angular Drainage Pattern
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| 52
This is an irregular tree branch shaped

pattern.
Drainage which is branching or ramifying
(branch out or cause to branch out)
thereby giving the appearance of a tree.
A dendritic pattern develops in a terrain
which has uniform lithology, and where
faulting and jointing are insignificant.
Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi,
Cauvery, Krishna.
The tributaries join the main stream at

acute angles.
This pattern is common in Himalayan
foothill regions.
Rectangular Drainage Pattern
Trellis Drainage Pattern
In this type of pattern the short

subsequent streams meet the main stream
at right angles, and differential erosion
through soft rocks paves the way for
tributaries.
Examples: The old folded mountains of
the Singhbhum
(Chotanagpur
Plateau) and Seine and its tributaries in
Paris basin (France) have a drainage of
trellis pattern.
The main stream bends at right angles

and the tributaries join at right angles
creating rectangular patterns.
This pattern has a subsequent origin.
Example: Colorado river (USA), streams
found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India.
Radial Drainage Pattern
The tributaries from a summit follow the

slope downwards and drain down in all
directions.
Examples: Streams of Saurashtra region,
Central French Plateau, Mt. Kilimanjaro.
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A good example of a radial drainage

pattern is provided by the rivers
originating
from
the
Amarkantak
Mountain.
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(Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil

Nadu and Kerala.
Parallel Drainage Pattern

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| 53
Rivers like Narmada, Son and Mahanadi

originating from Amarkantak Hills flow in
different directions and are good examples
of radial pattern.
Radial drainage patterns are also found/in
the Girnar Hills (Kathiwar, Gujarat), and
Mikir Hills of Assam.
The tributaries seem to be running

parallel to each other in a uniformly
sloping region.
Example: Rivers of lesser Himalayas and
The small and swift rivers originating in
the Western Ghats that flow into Arabian
Sea.
Centripetal Drainage Pattern
Annular Drainage Pattern
In a low lying basin the streams converge

from all sides.
Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and
the Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.
Deranged Drainage Pattern
When the upland has an outer soft

stratum, the radial streams develop
subsequent tributaries which try to follow
a circular drainage around the summit.
Example: Black Hill streams of South
Dakota.
This is not a very common drainage
pattern in India. Some examples of this
are
however
found
in Pithoragarh
This is an uncoordinated pattern of

drainage characteristic of a region recently
vacated by an ice-sheet.
This type of drainage is found in the
glaciated valleys of Karakoram.
Barbed Drainage Pattern
A pattern of drainage in which the

confluence of a tributary with the main
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river is characterized by a discordant

junctionas if the tributary intends to
flow upstream and not downstream.
This pattern is the result of capture of the
main river which completely reverses its
direction of flow, while the tributaries
continue to point in the direction of former
flow.
The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the
Kosi is an interesting example of barbed
drainage pattern.
Drainage Systems Based on Origin
River
Brahmaputra
Ganga
Godavari
Mahanadi
Krishna
Narmada
Rest
Drainage Systems Based on the

Size of the Catchment Area
Division
Major river
Medium
river
Minor river
The river systems of India can be classified

into four groups viz.
% Contribution of water
~ 40
~ 25
~ 6.4
~ 3.5
~ 3.4
~ 2.9
~ 20
Classification of Drainage
Systems of India
Size of catchment area in

sq km
20,000
20,000 2,000
2,000 and below
The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers:

Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and
their tributaries.
The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial Page
rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna, the Cauvery, the Narmada and | 54
the Tapi and their tributaries.
Drainage Systems Based on the

Type of Drainage
In this post: Contribution of Water by

Various Rivers, Classification of Drainage
Systems of India and Major River System
or Drainage Systems in India.
Contribution of Water by Various

Rivers
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Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers and

Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
Rivers of the inland drainage basin
(endorheic basin). Streams like the
Sambhar in western Rajasthan are mainly
seasonal in character, draining into the
inland basins and salt lakes. In the Rann
of Kutch, the only river that flows through
the salt desert is the Luni.
Drainage Systems Based on

Orientation to the sea
The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that

drain into Bay of Bengal)(East flowing
rivers)
Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain
into Arabian sea)(West flowing rivers).
The rivers Narmada (Indias holiest river)
and Tapti flow almost parallel to each
other but empty themselves in opposite
directions (West flowing). The two rivers
make the valley rich in alluvial soil
and teak forests cover much of the land.
The Bay of Bengal drainage
Arabian Sea drainage
Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal
Rivers that drain into Arabian sea
East flowing rivers
West flowing rivers
~ 77 per cent of the drainage area of the ~ 23 per cent of the drainage area of the
country is oriented towards the Bay of country is oriented towards the Arabian sea
Bengal
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The
Brahmaputra,
Ganga,
the
the The
Indus,
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the Narmada,
the Tapi,
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the the Sabarmati, the Mahi and the large number
Cauvery, the Penneru, the Penneiyar, the of swift flowing western coast rivers descending
Vaigai, etc.
The area covered by The Bay of Bengal

drainage and Arabian Sea drainage are
not proportional to the amount of water
that drains trough them.
Over 90 per cent of the water drains
into the Bay of Bengal; the rest is
drained into the Arabian Sea or forms
inland drainage.
Lop sided distribution
The Arabian Sea drainage or Western

drainage receive less rainfall [Rajasthan,
Haryana and Punjab receive very low
rainfall].
The Eastern drainage or the Bay of Bengal
drainage receives rainfall both from Southwest and North-east monsoons.
Most of the Himalayan waters (perennial
rivers) flow into eastern drainage (Ganges
and Brahmaputra).
Indian Rivers that flow into Arabian Sea
are seasonal or non-perennial (Luni,
Narmada, etc.).
from the Sahyadris.
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Occurrence of more cyclonic rainfall in the
| 55
eastern parts is another major reason.
Major River System or Drainage

Systems in India
Himalayan River systems
Indus River System

Brahmaputra River System
Ganga River System
Peninsular River Systems
Godavari River System

Krishna River System
Cauvery River System
Mahanadi River System
West Flowing Peninsular River Systems
Narmada River System

Tapti River System
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High Resolution Image. View in a New Tab
In this post: Himalayan River System

Indus River System Indus River, Jhelum
River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas
River and Satluj River.
Himalayan River Systems
The
Indus,
the
Ganga
Brahmaputra comprise the
river systems.
and
the
Himalayan
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The Himalayan Rivers existed even before

banks rising steeply while the beds went
the formation of Himalayas i.e. before
lower and lower due to vertical erosion
the collision of Indian Plate with the
(Vertical down cutting was significant and
Eurasian plate. {Antecedent Drainage}
was occurring at a rate faster than the
They were flowing into the Tethys
rising of Himalayas), thus cutting deep
Sea. These rivers had their source in the
gorges.
Page
now Tibetan region.
Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers are
The deep gorges of the Indus, the Satluj,
typical examples of antecedent drainage. | 59
the Brahmaputra etc. clearly indicate that
these
rivers
are older
than
the
Indus River System
Himalayas.
They continued to flow throughout the
building phase of the Himalayas; their
Sindhu
Sanskrit
Sinthos
Greek
Sindus
Latin
Major Rivers of Indus River Source
Length
System
Indus
Glaciers of Kailas Range (Close to 2880 km total.
Manasarovar Lake)
710 km in India
Jhelum
Verinag
720 km
Chenab
Bara Lacha Pass
1180 km
Ravi
Near Rohtang Pass
725 km
Beas
Near Rohtang Pass
460 km
Satluj
Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes
1450 km total
List of important passes given in 1050 km in India

previous posts
Indus River
India got her name from Indus.

The Indus Valley Civilization was born
around this river.
It flows in north-west direction from its
source (Glaciers of Kailas Range
Kailash range in Tibet near Lake
Manasarovar) till
the Nanga
Parbhat Range.
Its length is about 2,900 km. Its total
drainage area is about 1,165,000 square
km [more than half of it lies in semiarid
plains of Pakistan]. It is joined by Dhar
River near Indo-China border.
After entering J&K it flows between
the Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. It
flows through the regions of Ladakh,

Baltistan and Gilgit.
The gradient of the river in J&K is very
gentle (about 30 cm per km).
Average elevation at which the Indus flows
through JK is about 4000 m above sea
level.
It is joined by the Zaskar River at
Leh (these kind of points are important for
prelims).
Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at
an elevation of about 2,700 m.
The Gilgit,
Gartang,
Dras,
Shiger,
Hunza are the other Himalayan tributaries
of the Indus.
It crosses the Himalayas (ends its
mountainous journey) through a 5181 m
deep gorge near Attock, lying north of
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the Nanga
Parbat. It
takes
sharp
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southerly bend here (syntaxial bend).
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| 60
Kabul river from Afghanistan joins Indus

near Attock. Thereafter it flows through
the Potwar plateau and crosses the Salt
Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar
Plateau).
Some of the important tributaries below
Attock include the Kurram, Toch and
the Zhob-Gomal.
Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives
from Panjnad
(Panchnad),
the
accumulated waters of the five eastern
tributariesthe Jhelum, the Chenab, the
Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
The river empties into the Arabian Sea

south of Karachi after forming a huge
delta.
Major Tributaries of Indus River

Jhelum River
The Jhelum has its source in a spring at

Verinag in the south-eastern part of
the Kashmir Valley.
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The united stream Chandrabhaga flows in

the
north-west
direction
through
the Pangi valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal
range.
Near Kistwar, it cuts a deep gorge.
It enters the plain area near Akhnur in
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Jammu and Kashmir.
From here it through the plains of | 61
Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad
where it joins the Satluj after receiving the
waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
Ravi River
It
flows
northwards
into Wular
Lake (north-western part of Kashmir
Valley). From Wular Lake, it changes its
course southwards. At Baramulla the river
enters a gorge in the hills.
The river forms steep-sided narrow gorge
through Pir
Panjal
Range below Baramula.
At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp
hairpin bend southward.
Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan
boundary for 170 km and emerges at the
Potwar Plateau near Mirpur.
After flowing through the spurs of the Salt
Range it debouches (emerge from a
confined space into a wide, open
area) on the plains near the city of
Jhelum.
It joins the Chenab at Trimmu.
The river is navigable for about 160
km out of a total length of 724 km.
Beas River
Chenab River
The Chenab originates from near the Bara

Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of
the Zaskar Range.
Two small streams on opposite sides of the
pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form
its headwaters at an altitude of 4,900 m.
The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near

the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
It drains the area between the Pir
Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar ranges.
After crossing Chamba, it takes a southwesterly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the
Dhaola Dhar range.
It
enters
Punjab
Plains
near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan
below Amritsar.
It debouches into the Chenab a little
above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab.
The Beas originates near the Rohtang

Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea
level, on the southern end of the Pir
Panjal Range, close to the source of the
Ravi.
It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range and it
takes a south-westerly direction and
meets the Satluj river at Harike in
Punjab.
It is a comparatively small river which is
only 460 km long but lies entirely within
the Indian territory.
Satluj River
The Satluj rises from the ManasarovarRakas Lakes in western Tibet at a height
of 4,570 m within 80 km of the source of
the Indus.
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Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly

course upto the Shipki La on the TibetHimachal Pradesh boundary.
It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the
Great Himalaya and the other Himalayan
ranges.
Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a
gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the
famous Bhakra
dam has
been
constructed.
After entering the plain at Rupnagar
(Ropar), it turns westwards and is joined
by the Beas at Harike.
From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms
the boundary between India and Pakistan
for nearly 120 km.
During its onward journey it receives the
collective drainage of the Ravi, Chenab
and Jhelum rivers. It joins the Indus a few
kilometres above Mithankot.
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Out of its total length of 1,450 km, it flows

for 1,050 km in Indian territory.
Indus water treaty
The waters of the Indus river system are Page

shared by India and Pakistan according to
the Indus Water Treaty signed between the | 62
two countries on 19th September, 1960.
According to this treaty, India can utilize
only 20 per cent of its total discharge of
water.
In this post: Ganga Brahmaputra River
System - Ganga River: Ganga
Brahmaputra
Delta.
Right
Bank
Tributaries of The Ganga, Left Bank
Tributaries of The Ganga River.
Ganga River System
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| 63
River
Source
Bhagirathi (Ganga)
Gangotri glacier
Yamuna
Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak
Chambal
Janapao Hills in the Vindhya Range
Banas
Aravali Range
Betwa
Bhopal district
Ken
Barner Range
Son
Amarkantak Plateau
Damodar (Sorrow of Bengal)
Chotanagpur plateau
Ramganga River
Garhwal district of Uttarakhand
Ghaghra River
Gurla
Mandhata
peak,
south
of
Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the transHimalayan origin)

The Kali River (border between Nepal and Glaciers of trans-Himalayas
Uttarakhand)
Gandak River
Tibet-Nepal border
Burhi Gandak
Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border
Kosi (Sorrow of Bihar)
Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at Triveni

north of the Mahabharata Range to form the
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Kosi.
Ganga River
Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the

Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra,
Page
forms
the largest
delta
of
the
world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and | 64
the Padma/Meghna covering an area of
58,752 sq km.
The coastline of delta is a highly indented
area.
The
delta is made of a web of
and in
islands
The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluteddistributaries
river of the world
2007. and is covered
by
dense
forests
called
the
Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the endangered
Ganges
A major part of the delta is a low-lying
river dolphin (Blind Dolphin).
swamp
which
flooded
by marine
water
The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative
to clean
upisthe
river, has
been a major
during
high tide.
failure thus far, due to corruption, lack of technical
expertise,
poor environmental planning,
and lack of support from religious authorities.
The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from
the Gangotri
glacier in Uttar Kashi
District of Uttarakhand at an elevation of
7,010 m.
Alaknanda River
joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag.
From Devapryag the river is called as
Ganga.
Major tributaries of Alaknanda
Ganga Brahmaputra Delta
Right Bank Tributaries of The

Major
tributaries of Bhagirathi
Ganga
Bheling
East Trisul (joins Alaknanda at Karan
Most of them except Yamuna originate in
Prayag)
the peninsular region.
Pindar (rises from Nanda Devi)
Mandakini
or
Kali
Ganga (joins
Yamuna River
Alaknanda at Rudra Prayag)
Dhauliganga
Largest and the most important tributary.
Bishenganga.
It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on
the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal
[Kishenganga is the tributary of Jhelum]
region in Uttarakhand at an elevation of
about 6,000 meters.
Ganga debouches [emerge from a confined
It
cuts
across
the Nag
Tibba,
space into a wide, open area] from the
the
Mussoorie
and
the
Shiwalik
ranges.
hills into plain area at
It emerges out of the hilly area and enters
It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.
plains near
Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south Its main affluent in the upper reaches is
east.
the Tons which
also
rises
from
At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathithe Bandarpunch glacier.
Hugli
in
West
Bengal and Padma
It joins Yamuna below Kalsi before the
Meghna in Bangladesh (it ceases to be
latter leaves the hills.
known as the Ganga after Farraka).
At this site, the water carried by the Tons
Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is
is twice the water carried by the Yamuna.
known here) joins Padma-Meghna at
The total length of the Ganga river from its
source to its mouth (measured along the
Hugli) is 2,525 km.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Non Peninsular Tributaries
Peninsular Tributaries
Rishiganga
Uma
Hanuman Ganga and
1.
Tons join it in the mountains.
Hindon joins at Ghaziabad in the plain area 2.
3.
4.
Most of the Peninsular rivers flow into the

Yamuna between Agra and Allahabad.
It unites with the Ganga near Triveni

Sangam, Allahabad.
The total length of the Yamuna from its
origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km.
It
creates
the
highly
fertile
alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges
Doab region
between itself and the Ganges in the IndoGangetic plain.
The river flows much below its banks due

to severe erosion because of poor rainfall
and numerous deep ravines have been
formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise
to badland topography. {Arid Landforms}
The total length of the river is 1,050 km.
Chambal River
The Chambal rises in the highlands

of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan
Range.
It flows through the Malwa Plateau.
It joins the Yamuna in Etawah district of
Uttar Pradesh.
Chambal
Sind
Betwa
Ken.
Dams on the Chambal
The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the

four dams built on the Chambal River,
located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh
border.
The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam
located 52 km downstream of Gandhi
Sagar dam on across the Chambal River in
Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.
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The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam

in the series of Chambal Valley Projects,
located 29 km upstream of Kota city and
26 km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar
dam.
The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the
series of Chambal Valley Projects, located
about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in
Rajasthan.
Water released after power generation at
Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar
dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted
by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan
and in Madhya Pradesh through canals.
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The Son River rises in the Amarkantak

Plateau.
Its source is close to the origin of the
Narmada.
It passes along the Kaimur Range.
It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna
Page
district of Bihar.
It flows for a distance of 784 km from its | 66
source.
The important tributaries of the Son are
the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the
Kanhar and the North Koel. Almost all the
tributaries join it on its right bank.
Damodar river
Keoladeo National Park is supplied with
water from Chambal river irrigation
project.
Banas River
The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal.

It originates in the southern part of
the Aravali Range.
It join the Chambal on Rajasthan
Madhya
Pradesh
border near Sawai
Madhopur.
Sind River
The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of

Madhya Pradesh.
It flows for a distance of 415 km before it
joins the Yamuna.
Betwa River
The Betwa rises in Bhopal district

(Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna
near
It has a total length of 590 km.
The Dhasan is its important tributary.
Left Bank Tributaries of The

Ganga River
Ken River
The Ken river rising from the Barner

Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the
Yamuna near Chila.
Son River
The Damodar river rises in the hills of

the Chotanagpur
plateau and flows
through a rift valley.
Rich in mineral resources, the valley is
home to large-scale mining and industrial
activity.
It has a number of tributaries and
subtributaries, such as Barakar, Konar,
Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
The Barakar is
the
most
important
tributary of the Damodar.
Several dams have been constructed in
the valley, for the generation of
hydroelectric
power.
The
valley
is
called the Ruhr of India.
The first dam was built across the Barakar
River, a tributary of the Damodar river.
It used to cause devastating floods as a
result of which it earned the name Sorrow
of Bengal. Now the river is tamed by
constructing numerous dams.
It joins the Hugli River 48 km below
Kolkata.
The total length of the river is 541 km.
These rivers originate in the Himalayas.

The major tributaries apart from the
Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati,
the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi
Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi.
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Ramganga River
The
Ramganga
river
rises
in
the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
It enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh.
It joins the Ganga at
The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi,
and the Deoha (Gorra) are important
tributaries of Ramganga.
Ghaghra River
Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak,

south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of
the trans-Himalayan origin).
It is known as the Karnaili in Western
Nepal.
Its important tributaries are the Sarda,
the Sarju (Ayodhya is located on its
bank) and the Rapti.
The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few
kilometres downstream of Chhapra in
Bihar.
After reaching the plain area, its stream
gets divided into many branches of which,
Koriyab and Garwa are important.
The river bed is sandy and sudden bends
start occurring in the stream.
The river has a high flood frequency and
has shifted its course several times.
Rises in the high glaciers of transHimalaya.

It forms the boundary between Nepal and
Kumaon.
It is known as the Sarda after it reaches
the plains near Tanakpur.
It joins the
Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at

a height of 7,620 m
It receives a large number of tributaries in
Nepal Himalaya.
Originates from the western slopes

of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal
border.
It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.
Kosi River
Gandak River
Its important tributaries are the Kali

Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and
the Trishuli.
It debouches into the plains at
It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.
Burhi Gandak
Kali River
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The Kosi river consists of seven streams

namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha,
Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun and
Tamber and is popularly known as
These streams flow through eastern
Nepal which is known as the Sapt
Kaushik region.
The sources of seven streams of the Kosi
are located in snow covered areas which
also receive heavy rainfall.
Consequently, huge volume of water flows
with tremendous speed.
Seven streams mingle with each other to
form three streams named the Tumar,
Arun and Sun Kosi.
They
unite
at Triveni north
of
the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after
cutting
a
narrow
gorge
in
the
Mahabharata Range.
The joins the Ganga near
Soon after debouching onto the plain the
river becomes sluggish.
Large scale deposition of eroded material
takes place in the plain region.
The river channel is braided and it shifts
its course frequently. This has resulted in
frequent devastating floods and has
converted large tracts of cultivable land
into waste land in Bihar. Thus the river is
often termed as the Sorrow of Bihar.
In order to tame this river, a barrage was
constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar
in Nepal.
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| 67
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Embankments for flood control have been

constructed as a joint venture of India and
Nepal.
Region
Name
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Brahmaputra River System
Tibet
Tsangpo (meaning 'The Purifier')
China
Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin
Assam Valley
Dihang or Siong, South of Sadiya: Brahmaputra
Bangladesh
Jamuna River
Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra
Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna [View
image above]
The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of

Brahma).
It is 2,900 km in length.
Source: Chemayungdung glacier (Kailas
Range) at an elevation of about 5,150 m.
Its source is very close to the sources of
Indus and Satluj.
Mariam La separates the source of the
Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
Brahmaputra flows eastwards in Southern
Tibet for about 1,800 km.
In Tibet it passes through the depression
formed by the Indus-Tsangpo Structure
Zone between the Great Himalayas in the
south and the Kailas Range in the north.
Inspite of the exceptionally high altitude,
the Tsangpo has a gentle slope. The river
is sluggish and has a wide navigable
channel for about 640 km.
It receives a large number of tributaries in
Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga
Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse
Dzong.
The river Ngangchu flows through the
trade centre of Gyantse in the south and
joins the main river.
Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its
course abruptly takes a south ward turn
around Namcha
Barwa
(7,756
m)(Syntaxial Bend).
Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya
through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and
emerges
from
the
mountains
near Sadiya in the Assam Valley.
Here it first flows under the name of Siong

and then as the Dihang.
In the north-eastern parts of Assam
Valley, it is joined by two important
tributaries
viz,
the Dibang
(or
Sikang) from the north and Lohit from
the south.
From Sadiya (Assam Valley) onwards, this
mighty river is known as the
The main streams merging with the
Brahmaputra from the north are,
Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri (north),
Raidak, Tista etc..
The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga
prior to the floods of 1787 after which it
diverted its course eastwards to join the
Brahmaputra.
The
Brahmaputra
has
a braided
channel (flow into shallow interconnected
channels divided by deposited earth) for
most of its passage through Assam where
channels keep shifting. It carries a lot of
silt and there is excessive meandering.
The river is nearly 16 km wide at
Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the
most important of which is MAJULI. It is
90 km long and measures 20 km at its
widest.
With rainfall concentrated during the
monsoon months only the river has to
carry enormous quantities of water and
silt which results in disastrous floods. The
Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of
Sorrow.
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| 68
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The river is navigable for a distance of

1,384 km upto Dibrugarh from its mouth
and serves as an excellent inland water
transport route.
Brahmaputra bends southwards and
enters Bangladesh near Dhubri.
It flows for a distance of 270 km in the
name of Jamuna river and joins the
Ganga at
The united stream of the Jamuna and the
Ganga flows further in the name of
About 105 km further downstream, the
Padma is joined on the left bank by
the Meghna,
originating
in
the
mountainous region of Assam.
From the confluence of Padma and
Meghna, the combined river is known as
the Meghna which makes a very broad
estuary before pouring into the Bay of
Bengal.
In this post: Peninsular River System or

Peninsular Drainage Evolution of the
Peninsular Drainage, Peninsular River
Systems, Himalayan River System vs.
Peninsular River System.
Peninsula rivers are much older than the

Himalayan rivers {Discordant}.
The peninsular drainage is mainly
Concordant except for few rivers in the
upper peninsular region.
They are non-perennial rivers with a
maximum discharge in the rainy season.
The
peninsular
rivers
have
reached mature stage {Fluvial Landforms}
and have almost reached their base
level. [Vertical
downcutting
is
negligible].
The rivers are characterized by broad and
shallow valleys.
The river banks have gentle slopes except
for a limited tract where faulting forms
steep sides.
The main water divide in peninsular
rivers is formed by the Western Ghats,
which run from north to south close to the

western coast.
The velocity of water in the rivers and
the load carrying capacity of the
streams is low due to low gradient.
Most of the major rivers of the peninsula
Page
such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Cauvery flow eastwards | 69
and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These
rivers make deltas at their mouths.
But the west flowing rivers of Narmada
and Tapi as well as those originating from
the Western Ghats and falling in the
Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of
deltas.
There are few places where rivers form
superimposed and rejuvenated drainage
which are represented by
Examples: The Jog on the Sharvati (289
m), Yenna
of
Mahabaleshwar (183
m), Sivasamundram on the Cauvery (101
m), Gokak
on
the
Gokak (55
m), Kapildhara (23 m) and Dhuandar (15
m) on the Narmada are the major
waterfalls in the Peninsular India.
Evolution of the Peninsular

Drainage
Peninsular River System or

Peninsular Drainage
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Theory 1
Geologists believe that the SahyadriAravali axis was the main water divide in
the past.
According to one hypothesis, the existing
peninsula is the remaining half of bigger
landmass.
The Western Ghats were located in the
middle of this landmass.
So one drainage was towards east flowing
into Bay of Bengal and the other towards
west draining into Arabian Sea.
The western part of the Peninsula cracked
and submerged in the Arabian Sea during
the early Tertiary period (coinciding
with the formation of Himalayas).
During the collision of the Indian plate,
the Peninsular block was subjected to
subsidence in few regions creating a series
of rifts (trough, faults).
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The now west flowing rivers of the

Peninsula, namely the Narmada and the
Tapi flow through these rifts.
Straight coastline, steep western slope of

the Western Ghats, and the absence of
delta formations on the western
coast makes this theory a possibility.
Theory 2
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caused some rejuvenation of the rivers.

This type of phenomenon is absent in the
Peninsula, barring a few exceptions such
as waterfalls.
Peninsular River System
Page
Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal: | 70

The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna, the Cauvery and several smaller
rivers drains south-east into the Bay of
Bengal.
Rivers that drain into Arabian Sea: The
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi flowing
west as well as several small streams
originating from the Western Ghats flow
westwards into the Arabian Sea.
Rivers
that
drain
into
the
Ganges: Tributaries of the Ganga and the
Yamuna such as the Chambal, the Betwa,
the Ken, the Son and the Damodar flow in
the north-easterly direction.
It is believed that the west flowing

peninsular rivers do not flow in the valleys
formed by the rivers themselves.

Rather they have occupied two fault rifts
in rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas.
These faults are supposed to be caused by
bend of the northern part of the
Peninsula at the time of upheaval of the

Himalayas.
Peninsular block, south of the cracks,
tilted slightly eastwards during the event
thus giving the orientation to the entire
drainage towards the Bay of Bengal.
Himalayan River System vs.
Criticism: Tilting should have increased
Peninsular River System
the gradient of the river valleys and
The Himalayan River System
The Peninsular River System
These rivets originate from the These
rivers
originate
in
the
lofty Himalayan ranges and are Peninsular Plateau and are named as
named as the Himalayan rivers.
Peninsular rivers.
Catchment These rivers have large basins and These rivers have small basins and
area
catchment areas. The total basin catchment areas. The Godavari has
area of the Indus, the Ganga and the largest basin area of 3.12 lakh
the Brahmaputra is 11.78, 8.61 square kilometres only which is less
and 5.8 lakh square kilometres than one-third the basin area of the
respectively.
Indus.
Valleys
The Himalayan rivers flow through The
Peninsular
rivers
flow
in
deep V - shaped valleys called comparatively shallow valleys. These
gorges. These gorges have been are more or less completely graded
carved out by down cutting carried valleys. The rivers have little erosional
on side by side with the uplift of activity to perform.
the Himalayas.
Drainage
These are examples of antecedent These are examples of consequent
Type
drainage.
drainage.
Water
The
Himalayan
rivers The Peninsular rivers receive water
Flow
are perennial in nature, i.e., water only from rainfall and water flows in
flows throughout the year in these these rivers in rainy season only.
rivers. These rivers receive water Therefore, these rivers are seasonal
both from the monsoons and or non-perennial. As such these rivers
snow-melt. The perennial nature of are much less useful for irrigation.
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Stage
Meanders
Deltas
and
Estuaries
these rivers makes them useful for

irrigation.
These rivers flow across the young
fold mountains and are still in
a youthful stage.
The
upper
reaches
of
the
Himalayan
rivers
are
highly
tortuous. When they enter the
plains, there is a sudden reduction
in the speed of flow of water.
Under these circumstances these
rivers form meanders and often
shift their beds.
The Himalayan rivers form big
deltas at
their
mouths.
The
Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is the
largest in the world.
In this post: East Flowing Peninsular

Rivers: Godavari Krishna Mahanadi.
Rivers, their tributaries and River Basins.
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers
Mahanadi River
Godavari River
Krishna River
Kaveri (Cauvery) River
Pennar River
Subarnarekha River
Brahamani River
Sarada River
Ponnaiyar River
Vaigai River
Mahanadi River
The Mahanadi basin extends over states of

Chhattisgarh
and
Odisha
and
comparatively
smaller
portions
of
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh
Sq.km.
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These rivers have been flowing in one

of the oldest plateaus of the world and
have reached maturity.
The hard rock surface and non-alluvial
character of the plateau permits little
scope
for
the
formation
of
meanders. As such, the rivers of the
Peninsular Plateau follow more or
less straight courses.
Some of the Peninsular rivers, such as
the Narmada and
the Tapi form estuaries.
Other rivers such as the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery form deltas.
Several small streams originating from
the Western Ghats and flowing
towards the west enter the Arabian
Sea without forming any delta.
It is bounded by the Central India hills on
the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the
south and east and by the Maikala
range on the west.
The Mahanadi (Great River) follows a
total course of 560 miles (900 km).
It has its source in the northern foothills
of Dandakaranya in Raipur District of
Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m.
The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of
the peninsular rivers, in water potential
and flood producing capacity, it ranks
second to the Godavari.
Other
small
streams
between
the
Mahanadi and the Rushikulya draining
directly into the Chilka Lake also forms
the part of the basin.
The major part of basin is covered with
agricultural land accounting to 54.27% of
the total area.
It is one of the most-active siltdepositing streams
in
the
Indian
subcontinent.
After receiving the Seonath River, it turns
east and enters Odisha state.
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At Sambalpur the Hirakud Dam (one of

the largest dams in India) on the river has
formed a man-made lake 35 miles (55 km)
long.
It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack
and enters the Bay of Bengal at False
Point by several channels.
Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous
pilgrimage site.
Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped

basin called the Chhattisgarh Plain.
This basin is surrounded by hills on the
north, west and south as a result of which
a large number of tributaries join the main
river from these sides.
Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath,
the Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib.
Right
bank
Tributaries:
The Ong,
the Tel and the Jonk.
Projects on Mahanadi River
Two important projects completed during

pre-plan period in the basin are
the Mahanadi main canal and Tandula
reservoir in Chhattisgarh.
During the plan period, the Hirakud dam,
Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo Bango,
Mahanadi
Reservoir
Project
were
completed.
Industry in Mahanadi River Basin
Three important urban centes in the basin

are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack.
Mahanadi basin, because of its rich
mineral resource and adequate power
resource, has a favorable industrial
climate.
The
Important
industries
presently
existing in the basin are the Iron and
Steel
plant
at
Bhilai, aluminium
factories at Hirakud and Korba, paper
mill near Cuttack and cement factory at
Sundargarh.
Other industries based primarily on

agricultural produce are sugar and textile
mills.
Mining of coal, iron and manganese are
other industrial activities.
Floods in Mahanadi River Basin
Tributaries of Mahanadi River
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The
basin
is
subject
to severe
flooding occasionally in the delta area due
to inadequate carrying capacity of the
channels.
The multi-purpose Hirakud dam provides
some amount of flood relief by storing part
of flood water.
However, the problem still persists and a
lasting solution need to be evolved.
Godavari River
The Godavari is the largest river system

of the Peninsular India and is revered
as Dakshina Ganga.
The Godavari basin extends over states of
Maharashtra,
Andhra
Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and Odisha in addition to
smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka
and
Union
territory
of
Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of
~ 3 lakh Sq.km.
The basin is bounded by Satmala hills,
the Ajanta
range and
the Mahadeo
hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats
on the south and the east and by the
Western Ghats on the west.
The
Godavari
River
rises
from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik
district of Maharashtra about 80 km from
the Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067
m.
The total length of Godavari from its origin
to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465
km.
Tributaries of Godavari River
The left bank tributaries are more in

number and larger in size than the right
bank tributaries.
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| 73
www.pmfias.com
The Manjra (724 km) is the only important

right bank tributary. It joins the Godavari
after passing through the Nizam Sagar.
Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga,
Wainganga,
Wardha,
Pranahita [conveying the combined waters
of Penganga,
the
Wardha
and
Wainganga], Pench, Kanhan, Sabari,
Indravati etc.
Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula,
Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
Below Rajahmundry, the river divides
itself into two main streams, the Gautami
Godavari on the east and the Vashishta
Godavari on the west and forms a large
delta before it pours into the Bay of
Bengal.
The delta of the Godavari is of lobate
type with a round bulge and many
distributaries.
The upper reaches of the Godavari

drainage
basin
are
occupied
by
the Deccan Traps containing minerals
like magnetite, epidote, biotite, zircon,
chlorite etc (metallic minerals)..
The middle part of the basin is principally
composed
of phyllites,
quartzites,
amphiboles and granites (rocks).
The downstream part of the middle basin
is occupied mainly by sediments and
rocks of the Gondwana group.
The Gondwanas are principally detritals
(waste or debris, in particular organic
matter produced by decomposition or
loose matter produced by erosion) with
some thick coal seams. [Singareni Coal
Seam]
The Eastern Ghats dominate the lower
part of the drainage basin and are formed
mainly from the Khondalites.
Projects on Godavari River
Important projects completed duing the

plan period are Srirama Sagar, Godavari
barrage, Upper Penganga, Jaikwadi,
Upper Wainganga, Upper Indravati,

Upper Wardha.
Among
the
on-going
projects,
the
prominent
ones
are PrnahitaChevala and Polavaram.
Industry in Godavari Basin
Mineral Resources in Godavari

Basin
www.pmfias.com
The major urban Centers in the basin

are Nagpur,
Aurangabad,
Nashik,
Rajhmundry.
Nashik
and
Aurangabad have large
number
of
industries
especially automobile.
Other than this, the industries in the
basin are mostly based on agricultural
produce such as rice milling, cotton
spinning and weaving, sugar and oil
extraction.
Cement and some small engineering
industries also exist in the basin.
Floods and Droughts in Godavari

Basin
Godavari basin faces flooding problem in

its lower reaches.
The coastal areas are cyclone-prone.
The delta areas face drainage congestion
due to flat topography.
A
large
portion
of
Maharashtra
falling (Marathwada) in
the
basin
is drought prone.
Krishna River
The Krishna is the second largest east

flowing river of the Peninsula.
The Krishna Basin extends over Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka
having a total area of ~2.6 lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by Balaghat range on the
north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south
and the east and by the Western Ghats on
the west.
The Krishna River rises from the Western
Ghats near Jor village of Satara district
of Maharashtra at an altitude of 1,337 m
just north of Mahabaleshwar.
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| 74
www.pmfias.com
The total length of river from origin to its

outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,400 km.
the total area.
www.pmfias.com
The Krishna forms a large delta with a

shoreline of about 120 km. The Krishna
delta appears to merge with that formed
by the Godavari and extends about 35 km
into the sea.
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| 75
Tributaries of Krishna River
Right
bank: the
Ghatprabha,
the
Malprabha and the Tungabhadra.
Left Bank: the Bhima, the Musi and the
Munneru.
The Koyna is a small tributary but is
known for Koyna Dam. This dam was
perhaps
the
main
cause
of
the
devastating earthquake (6.4 on richter
scale) in 1967 that killed 150 people.
The Bhima originates from the Matheron
Hills and joins the Krishna near Raichur
after for a distance of 861 km.
The Tungabhadra is formed by the

unification
of
the Tunga and
the Bhadra originating
from Gangamula in the Central Sahyadri.
Its total length is 531 km.
At Wazirabad, it receives its last important
tributary, the Musi, on whose banks the
city of Hyderabad is located.
Projects on Krishna River
Important ones are the Tungabhadra,

Ghataprabha,
Nagarjunasagar,
Malaprabha, Bhima, Bhadra and Telugu
Ganga.
www.pmfias.com
The major Hydro Power stations in the

basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri
Sailam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti,
Naryanpur, Bhadra.
Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States
project in the basin. In order to operate
the project and to regulate the flows
among the beneficiary States of Karnataka
and Andhara Pradesh.
The basin has rich mineral deposits and

there is good potential for industrial
development.
Iron and steel, cement, sugar cane
vegetable oil extraction and rice milling are
important industrial activities at present
in the basin.
Recently oil has been struck in this basin
which is bound to have an effect on the
future industrial scenario of this basin.
Industry in Krishna Basin
The major Urban Centers in the Basin

are Pune, Hyderabad.
Hyderabad is the state capital of
Telangana and is now a major IT hub.
Pune in Maharashtra has number
of automobile and IT industry and is
major education centre.
Drought and Floods in Krishna

Basin
Some parts of the basin, especially the

Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh,
Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga,
Belgaum
and
Bijapur
districts
of
Karnataka
and
Pune,
Sholapur,
Osmanabad and Ahmedanagar districts of
Maharashtra are drought-prone.
The delta area of the basin is subject to
flooding. It has been observed that the
river bed in delta area is continuously
raised due to silt deposition resulting in
reduction in carrying capacity of the
channel.
The coastal cyclonic rainfall of high

intensity and short duration makes the
flood problem worse.
In this post: Cauvery River Pennar River
Subarnarekha Brahamani River
Page
Ponnaiyar River Vaigai River. Tributaries
| 76
of Cauvery and Pennar Rivers.
Cauvery River
Resources in Krishna Basin
www.pmfias.com
The Kaveri (Cauvery) is designated as

the Dakshina Ganga or the Ganga of
the South.
The Cauvery River rises at an elevation of
1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri
range near Cherangala village of Kodagu
(Coorg) district of Karnataka.
The total length of the river from origin to
outfall is 800 km.
The Cauvery basin extends over states of
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union
Territory of Puducherry draining an area
of 81 thousand Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the
west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east
and the south and by the ridges
separating it from Krishna basin and
Pennar basin on the north.
The Nilgiris, an offshore of Western ghats,
extend Eastwards to the Eastern ghats
and divide the basin into two natural and
political regions i.e., Karnataka plateau in
the North and the Tamil Nadu plateau in
the South.
Physiographically, the basin can be
divided into three parts the Westen
Ghats, the Plateau of Mysore and the
Delta.
The delta area is the most fertile tract in
the basin. The principal soil types found in
the basin are black soils, red soils,
laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and
mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas
in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the
delta areas.
The basin in Karnataka receives rainfall
mainly from the S-W Monsoon and
partially from N-E Monsoon. The basin in
www.pmfias.com
Tamil Nadu receives good flows from the

North-East Monsoon.
Its upper catchment area receives rainfall
during summer by the south-west
monsoon and the lower catchment area
during winter season by the retreating
north-east monsoon.
It is, therefore almost a perennial
river with comparatively less fluctuations
in
flow
and
is very
useful
for
irrigation and
hydroelectric
power
generation.
Thus the Cauvery is one of the best
regulated rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of
its irrigation and power production
potential already stands harnessed.
The river drains into the Bay of Bengal.
the total area.
Tributaries of the Cauvery River
Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati,

the Shimsha and the Arkavati.
Right
Bank: Lakshmantirtha,
the Kabbani,
the Suvarnavati,
the Bhavani,
the Noyil and
the Amaravati joins from right.
The river descends from the South
Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu
Plains
through
the Sivasamudram
waterfalls (101 m high).
At Shivanasamudram, the river branches
off into two parts and falls through a
height of 91 m. in a series of falls and
rapids.
The falls at this point is utilized for power
generation by the power station at
Shivanasamudram.
The two branches of the river join after the
fall and flow through a wide gorge which is
known as Mekedatu (Goats leap) and
continues its journey to form the
boundary between Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu States for a distance of 64 km.
At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly
direction
and
enters
the Mettur
Reservoir.
www.pmfias.com
A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery

on the Right bank about 45 Kms
below Mettur
Reservoir. Thereafter
it
enters the plains of Tamil Nadu.
Two
more
tributaries
Noyil
and
Amaravathi join on the right bank and
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here the river widens with sandy bed and
| 77
flows as Akhanda Cauvery.
Immediately after crossing Tiruchirapalli
district, the river divides into two parts,
the Northern branch being called The
Coleron and Southern branch remains as
Cauvery and from here the Cauvery Delta
begins.
After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two
branches join again to form Srirangam
Island.
On the Cauvery branch lies the "Grand
Anicut" said to have been constructed by
a Chola King in 1st Century A.D.
Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery
branch
splits
into
two,
Cauvery
and Vennar.
These branches divide and sub-divide into
small branches and form a network all
over the delta.
Floods in Cauvery Basin
The Cauvery basin is fan shaped in

Karnataka and leaf shaped in Tamil Nadu.
The
run-off does
not
drain
off
quickly because
of
its
shape
and
therefore no fast raising floods occur in
the basin.
Projects on Cauvery River
During the pre-plan period many projects

were completed in this basin which
included Krishnarajasagar in
Karnataka, Mettur
dam and Cauvery
delta system in Tamil Nadu.
Lower Bhavani,
Hemavati,
Harangi,
Kabini are important projects completed
duing the plan period.
Industry in Cauvery Basin
www.pmfias.com
www.pmfias.com
Page
| 78
The city of Bangalore is situated just

outside this basin.
Important industries in the basin
include cotton
textile
industry
in
Coimbatore and Mysore, cement factories
in Coimbatore and Trichinapally and
industries based on mineral and metals.
The Salem
steel
plant and
many
engineering industies in Coimbatore and
Trichinapally are also situated in this
basin.
Pennar River
The Pennar (also known as Uttara

Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the
peninsula.
The Pennar rises in the Chenna Kasava
hill of
the Nandidurg
range,
in Chikkaballapura
district of Karnataka and flows towards
east eventually draining into the Bay of

Bengal.
The total length of the river from origin to
its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.
Located in peninsular India, the Pennar
basin extends over states of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka having an area of
~55 thousand Sq.km
The fan shaped basin is bounded by
the Erramala range on the north, by
the Nallamala and Velikonda ranges
of
the Eastern Ghats on the east, by
the Nandidurg hills on the south and by
the narrow ridge separating it from the
Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin on
the west.
The other hill ranges in the basin to the
south of the river are the Seshachalam
[famous for Red Sanders] and Paliconda
ranges.
www.pmfias.com

agriculture accounting to 58.64% of the
total area.
www.pmfias.com
Left Bank: the Jayamangali,

the Kunderu and the
Right bank: the Chiravati,
the Papagni etc.
Tributaries of Pennar River

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| 79
on agricultural produce such as cotton

weaving, sugar mills, oil mills, rice mills
etc.
Projects on Pennar River
Tungabhadra high level canal in Krishna

basin irrigated areas in Pennar basin also.
The only major project in the basin is
the Somasila project.
Subarnarekha
Industry in Pennar Basin
The only important town in the basin is

With limited water and power potential
and mineral resources, the scope for
industrial development is limited in the
basin.
There are no major industries. The
existing small industries are mostly based
The
Subarnarekha
originates
from
the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming
the boundary between West Bengal and
Odisha in its lower course.
It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary
between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas.
Its total length is 395 km.
Brahamani River
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The Brahmani river comes into existence

by the confluence of the Koel and
the Sankh rivers near Rourkela. It has a
total length of 800 km.
The basin is bounded in the North by
Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and
South by the Mahanadi basin and in the
East by the Bay of Bengal.
The basin flows through Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and
drains into Bay of Bengal.
West Flowing Rivers of The

Peninsular India
Ponnaiyar River
The Ponnaiyar is a small stream which is

confined to the coastal area only.
It covers a small area in the state of Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
The Basin is bounded on the North -West
and South by various ranges of the
Eastern Ghats like the Velikonda Range,
the Nagari hills, the Javadu hills, the
Shevaroy hills, the Chitteri hills and the
Kalrayan hills and in the East by the Bay
of Bengal.
Vaigai River
South of the Cauvery delta, there are

several streams, of which the Vaigai is the
longest.
The Vaigai basin is an important basin
among the 12 basins lying between the
Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
This
basin
is
bounded
by
the
Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the
Cardaman hills and the Palani hills on the
West and by the Palk strait and Palk Bay
on the East.
The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741 Sq.Km,
which entirely lies in the state of Tamil
Nadu.
In this post: West Flowing Rivers of The
Peninsular India Narmada Tapti
Sabarmati Mahi Luni Ghaggar River
[Inland Drainage]. West flowing Rivers of
the Sahyadris (Western Ghats).
www.pmfias.com
The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular

India are fewer and smaller as compared
Page
to their east flowing counterparts.
The two major west flowing rivers are | 80
the Narmada and the Tapi.
This exceptional behavior is because these
rivers didnt form valleys and instead they
flow through faults (linear rift, rift valley,
trough) created due to the bending of the
northern peninsula during the formation
process of Himalayas.
These
faults
run
parallel
to
the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other
rivers of the Peninsular India which flow
westwards.
Hundreds of small streams originating in
the Western Ghats flow swiftly westwards
and join the Arabian Sea.
It is interesting to note that the Peninsular
rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do
not
form
deltas,
but
only
estuaries. {Fluvial
Depositional
Landforms}
This is due to the fact that the west
flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and
the Tapi flow through hard rocks and
hence do not carry any good amount of
silt.
Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers
are very small and hence they dont
contribute any silt.
Hence these rivers are not able to form
distributaries or a delta before they enter
the sea.
Estuary
An estuary is a partially enclosed body of

water along the coast where freshwater
from rivers and streams meets and mixes
with salt water from the ocean. [Primary
productivity in estuaries is very high.
Fishing is a dominant occupation around
estuaries. Most of the estuaries are
good bird sanctuaries].
www.pmfias.com
Estuaries and the lands surrounding them

are places of transition from land to sea
and freshwater to salt water.
www.pmfias.com
Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine

plants also help prevent erosion and
stabilize shorelines [Mangroves].
Narmada River
Although influenced by the tides, they are

protected from the full force of ocean
waves, winds, and storms by such land
forms as barrier islands or peninsulas.
[You know why estuaries make good
ports?]
Estuarine environments are among the
most productive on earth, creating more
organic
matter
each
year
than
comparably-sized
areas
of
forest,
grassland, or agricultural land.
The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries
also support unique communities of
plants and animals especially adapted for
life at the margin of the sea.
Estuaries have important commercial
value and their resources provide
economic benefits for tourism, fisheries,
and recreational activities.
The protected coastal waters of estuaries
also
support
important
public
infrastructure, serving as harbors and
ports vital
for
shipping
and
transportation.
Estuaries also perform other valuable
services. Water draining from uplands
carries sediments, nutrients, and other
pollutants to estuaries. As the water flows
through wetlands such as swamps and
salt marshes, much of the sediments and
pollutants are filtered out.
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Narmada is the largest west flowing river
| 81
of the peninsular India.
Narmada flows westwards through a rift
valley between the Vindhyan Range on
the north and the Satpura Range on the
south.
It
rises
from Maikala
range
near
Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an
elevation of about 1057 m.
Narmada basin extends over states of
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Chhattisgarh having an area ~1 Lakh
Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the
north, Maikala range on the east,
Satpuras on the south and by the Arabian
Sea on the west.
Its
total
length
from
its
source
in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf
of Khambhat is 1,310 km.
The hilly regions are in the upper part of
the basin, and lower middle reaches are
broad and fertile areas well suited for
cultivation.
Jabalpur is the only important urban
centre in the basin.
The river slopes down near Jabalpur
where it cascades (a small waterfall,
especially one in a series) 15 m into a
gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of
Mist) Falls.
Since the gorge is composed of marble, it
is popularly known as the Marble Rocks.
It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each at
Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar the
river again descends from another small
fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara
Falls.
There are several islands in the estuary of
the Narmada of which Aliabet is the
largest.
The Narmada is navigable upto 112 km
from its mouth.
www.pmfias.com
Tributaries of Narmada River
Since the river flows through a narrow

valley
confined
by
precipitous
(dangerously high or steep) hills, it does
not have many tributaries.
The absence of tributaries is especially
noted on the right bank of the river where
the Hiran is the only exception.
Tapti River
The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the

second largest west flowing river of the
Peninsular India and is known as 'the
twin' or 'the handmaid' of the Narmada.
It originates near Multai reserve forest in
Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m.
Flows for about 724 km before outfalling
into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of
Cambay [Gulf of Khambhat].
The Tapti River along with its tributaries
flows over the plains of Vidharbha,
Khandesh and Gujarat and over large
areas in the state of Maharashtra and a
small area in Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat.
The basin extends over states of Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat having
an area of ~ 65,000 Sq.km
Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin
is bounded by the Satpura range on the
north, Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta
Range and the Satmala hills on the south
and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
www.pmfias.com
The other right bank tributaries are

the Orsang, the Barna and the Kolar.
A few left bank tributaries drain the
northern slopes of the Satpura Range and
join the Narmada at different places.
The major Hydro Power Project in the
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basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar,
| 82
Omkareshwar, Bargi & Maheshwar.
The hilly region of the basin is well

forested while the plains are broad and
fertile areas suitable for cultivation.
There are two well defined physical
regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and
plains;
the
hilly
regions
comprising Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo,
Ajanta and Gawilgarh
hills are
well
forested.
The
plain
covers
the Khandesh
areas (Khandesh is a region of central
India, which forms the northwestern
portion of Maharashtra state) which are
broad and fertile suitable for cultivation
primarily.
Tributaries of Tapti River
Right
Bank: the Suki,
the Gomai,
the Arunavati and the Aner.
Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati,
the Buray,
the Panjhra,
the Bori,
the Girna,
the Purna,
the Mona and
the Sipna.
Projects on Tapti River
www.pmfias.com
Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project

(Maharashtra)
Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai
Project (Gujarat)
Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna
Project (Maharashtra)
www.pmfias.com
Industry in the Tapti Basin
Important industries in the basin

are textile factories in Surat and paper
and news print factory at Nepanagar.
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| 83
Sabarmati River
The Sabarmati is the name given to the

combined
streams
the Sabar and Hathmati.
The Sabarmati basin extends over states
of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area
of 21,674 Sq km.
The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on
the north and north-east, by Rann of
Kutch on the west and by Gulf of
Khambhat on the south.
The basin is roughly triangular in shape
with the Sabarmati River as the base and
the source of the Vatrak River as the apex
point.
Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills at
an elevation of 762 m near village Tepur,
in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
The total length of river from origin to
outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
agriculture accounting to 74.68% of the
total area.
Rainfall varies from a meager few mm in

Saurastra to over 1000 mm in southern
part.
Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the
Hathmati and the Vatrak.
Right bank tributaries: the Sei.
Projects: Sabarmati reservoir (Dharoi),
Hathmati reservoir and Meshwo reservoir
project are major projects completed
during the plan period.
Industry in Sabarmati Basin
Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are

the
important urban centers in the basin.
Ahmedabad is an industrial city situated
on the banks of Sabarmati.
Important industries are textiles, leather
and leather goods, plastic, rubber goods,
paper, newsprint, automobile, machine
tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals etc.
The industrial city of Ahmedabad poses
the danger of water pollution.
www.pmfias.com
Mahi River
The Mahi basin extends over states of

Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat
having total area of 34,842 Sq km.
It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the
north and the north-west, by Malwa
Plateau on the east, by the Vindhyas on
the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on
the west.
Mahi is one of the major interstate west
flowing rivers of India.
It originates from the northern slopes of
Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar
district of Madhya Pradesh.
The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
It drains into the Arabian Sea through the
Gulf of Khambhat.
the total area
Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi
Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam.
Vadodara is the only important urban
centre in the basin. There are not many
industries in the basin.
Some of the industries are cotton textile,
paper,
newsprint,
drugs
and
pharmaceuticals. Most of these industries
are located at Tatlam.
Luni River
The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or

Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so
because its water is brackish below
Balotra.
Luni is the only river basin of any
significance in Western Rajasthan, which
form the bulk of arid zone.
Luni originates from western slopes of
the Aravalli ranges at an elevation of 772
m near Ajmer flowing in South West
direction and traversing a course of 511
km in Rajasthan, it finally flow into
the Rann of Kachchh (it gets lost in the
marsh).
Most of its tributaries drain the steep
north west of Aravalli hills and join it on
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left side. Its total catchment area falls in

Rajasthan.
The peculiarity of this river is that it tends
to increase its width rather than
deepening the bed because the banks are
of soils, which are easily erodible whereas
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beds are of sand. The floods develop and
disappear so rapidly that they have no | 84
time to scour the bed.
West flowing Rivers of the

Sahyadris (Western Ghats)
About six hundred small streams originate

from the Western Ghats and flow
westwards to fall into the Arabian Sea.
The western slopes of the Western Ghats
receive heavy rainfall from the south-west
monsoons and are able to feed such a
large number of streams.
Although only about 3% of the areal extent
flow swiftly down the steep slope and some
of them make waterfalls.
The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) made
by the Sharavati river is the most famous
waterfall of India.
Ghaggar River Inland Drainage
Some rivers of India are not able to reach

the sea and constitute inland drainage.
Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and
parts
of Aksai
Chin in Ladakh have
inland drainage.
The Ghaggar is the most important river
of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream
which rises on the lower slopes of the
Himalayas
and
forms
boundary
between Haryana and Punjab.
It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan
near Hanumangarh after traversing a
distance of 465 km.
Earlier, this river was an affluent of the
Indus, the dry bed of the old channel is
still traceable.
Its main tributaries are the Tangri, the
Markanda,
the Saraswati and
the
Chaitanya.
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It contains a lot more water in rainy

season when its bed becomes 10 km wide
at places.
Most of the streams draining western
slopes of the Aravalli Range dry up
immediately after they enter the sandy
arid areas to the west of this range.
Usability of Rivers
Source of fresh water, irrigation, hydroelectric production, navigation etc.

The Himalayas, Vindhyas, Satpuras,
Aravalis, Maikala, Chhotanagpur plateau,
Meghalaya plateau, Purvachal, Western
and the Eastern Ghats offer possibilities of
large scale water power development.
Sixty per cent of the total river flow is
concentrated in the Himalayan rivers, 16
per cent in the Central Indian rivers (the
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahanadi, etc.),
and the rest in the rivers of the Deccan
plateau.
The Ganga and the Brahmaputra in the
north and northeastern part of the
country, the Mahanadi in Odisha, the
Godavari and the Krishna in Andhra and
Telangana the Narmada and the Tapi in
Gujarat, and the lakes and tidal creeks in
coastal states possess some of the
important and useful waterways of the
country.
In the past they were of great importance,
which suffered a great deal with the
advent of rail and roads.
Withdrawal of large quantities of water for
irrigation resulted in dwindling flow of
many rivers.
The most important navigable risers are
the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the
Mahanadi. The Godavari, the Krishna, the
Narmada and the Tapi are navigable near
their mouths only.
Indian Monsoons Factors responsible for
south-west monsoon and north-east
monsoon formation. Mechanism of Indian
Monsoons. Indian Monsoons ITCZ [InterTropical Convergence Zone].
www.pmfias.com
Indian Monsoons |ITCZ|Inter-Tropical

Convergence Zone <-- You are Here
Indian Monsoons Mechanism|Jet Stream
Theory
Indian
Monsoons
Easterly
Jet|Tibet|Somali Jet
Page
Indian Monsoons South West|North
| 85
East Monsoons
Indian Monsoons
The term monsoon has been derived from

the Arabic word mausin or from the
Malayan word monsin meaning season.
Monsoons are seasonal winds (Rhythmic
wind
movements)(Periodic
Winds)
which reverse their direction with the
change of season.
The monsoon is a double system of
seasonal winds They flow from sea to
land during the summer and from land to
sea during winter.
Some scholars tend to treat the monsoon
winds as land and sea breeze on a large
scale.
Monsoons
are
peculiar
to
Indian
Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of
Central Western Africa etc..
They are more pronounced in the Indian
Subcontinent compared to any other
region.
Indian Monsoons are Convection cells on
a very large scale.
They
are periodic
or
secondary
winds which seasonal reversal in wind
direction.
India receives south-west monsoon winds
in summer and north-east monsoon winds
in winter.
South-west monsoons are formed due to
intense low pressure system formed over
the Tibetan plateau.
North-east monsoons are associated with
high
pressure
cells
over Tibetan and Siberian plateaus.
South-west monsoons bring intense
rainfall to most of the regions in India and
north-east monsoons bring rainfall to
mainly south-eastern
coast of
India
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(Southern coast of Seemandhra and the

coast of Tamil Nadu.).
Countries
like India,
Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most
of the annual rainfall during south-west
monsoon season where as South East
China, Japan etc., during north-east
rainfall season.
Factors responsible for south-west

monsoon formation
Intense heating of Tibetan plateau during

summer months.
Permanent high pressure cell in the South
Indian Ocean (east to north-east of
Madagascar in summer).
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Mechanism of Indian Monsoons
The origin of monsoons is not fully

understood.
There are several theories that tried to
explain the mechanism of monsoons.
Page
Classical Theory
Factors that influence the onset of

south-west monsoons
Above points +
Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ).
Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
Factors that influence the

intensity of south-west monsoons
Monsoons are mentioned in scriptures like

the Rig Veda. But these scriptures didnt
make any mention of the monsoon
mechanism.
The first scientific study of the monsoon
winds was done by Arab traders.
Arab traders used the sea route to carry
out trade with India and monsoon
patterns were of prime importance for
them.
In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab
explorer, gave an account of the reversal
of ocean currents and the monsoon
winds over the north Indian Ocean.
In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund
Halley explained the monsoon as resulting
from thermal
contrasts between
continents and oceans due to their
differential heating.
Modern Theories
Strengths of Low pressure over Tibet and

high pressure over southern Indian
Ocean.
Somali Jet (Findlater Jet).
Somali Current (Findlater Current).
Indian Ocean branch of Walker Cell.
Indian Ocean Dipole.
Factors responsible for north-east

monsoon formation
Formation and strengthening of high

pressure cells over Tibetan plateau and
Siberian Plateau in winter.
Westward migration and subsequent
weakening of high pressure cell in the
Southern Indian Ocean.
Migration of ITCZ to the south of India.
All these will be discussed in detail.
Besides
differential
heating,
the
development of monsoon is influenced by
the shape of the continents, orography
(mountains), and the conditions of air
circulation in the upper troposphere
{jet streams}.
Therefore, Halley's theory has lost much of
its significance and modern theories based
on air masses and jet stream are
becoming more relevant.
Indian Monsoons Classical

Theory: Sir Edmund Halleys
Theory
Summer Monsoon
In summer the suns apparent path is

vertically over the Tropic of Cancer
| 86
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resulting in high temperature and low

pressure in Central Asia.
The pressure is sufficiently high over
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Hence
winds flowed from Oceans flow towards
landmass in summer.
This air flow from sea to land bring heavy
rainfall to the Indian subcontinent.
Winter Monsoon
In winter the suns apparent path is

vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn.
The north western part of India grows
colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal and the flow of the monsoon is
reversed.
The basic idea behind Classical theory is
similar to land and sea breeze formation
except that in the case of monsoons the
day and night are replaced by summer
and winter.
Drawbacks: The monsoons do not develop
equally everywhere on earth and the
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thermal concept of Halley fails to explain

the intricacies of the monsoons such as
the sudden burst of monsoons, delay in
on set of monsoons sometimes, etc..
Indian Monsoons Modern

theory: Air Mass Theory
According to this theory, the monsoon is

simply a modification of the planetary
winds of the tropics.
The theory is based on the migration of
ITCZ based on seasons.
Indian Monsoons Role of ITCZ

[Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone]
The southeast trade winds in the southern

hemisphere and the northeast trade winds
in the northern hemisphere meet each
other near the equator.
The meeting place of these winds is known
as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
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| 87
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Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west

monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this
position is often called the Monsoon
Trough [maximum rainfall].
The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has given
Page
the concept of Northern Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (NITCZ) in summer | 88
(July rainy season) and Southern InterTropical Convergence Zone (SITCZ) in
winter (Jan dry season).
NITCZ is the zone of clouds and heavy
rainfall that effect India.
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Jet Stream
Theory. Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
(STJ). Why no south-west monsoons
during winter? Why no south-west
monsoons in March May (summer)?
This
is
the
region
of
ascending
air, maximum clouds and heavy rainfall.
The location of ITCZ shifts north and
south of equator with the change of
season.
In the summer season, the sun shines
vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and
the ITCZ shifts northwards.
The southeast trade winds of the southern
hemisphere cross the equator and start
blowing in southwest to northeast
direction under the influence of Coriolis
force.
These displaced trade winds are called
south-west monsoons when they blow over
the Indian sub-continent.
The front where the south-west monsoons
meet the north-east trade winds is known
as the Monsoon Front (ITCZ). Rainfall
occurs along this front.
In the month of July the ITCZ shifts to
20- 25 N latitude and is located in the

Convergence Zone
Theory <-- You are Here
Indian
Monsoons
Easterly
East Monsoons
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Jet

Stream Theory
Indian Monsoon Mechanism Modern
Theory: Jet Stream Theory.
Jet stream Theory is the latest theory

regarding the origin of the monsoons and
has earned worldwide acceptance from the
meteorologists.
To understand how Jet streams affect
Indian monsoons, we need to know the
basic mechanism of Jet Stream induced
weather conditions.
How Jet Streams Affect Weather?
Jet
streams
have
distinct peaks
(ridges) and troughs.
Ridges occur where the warm air mass
pushes against the cold air mass. Troughs
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occur where cold air mass drops into

warm air.
The region on earth below the trough is at
low pressure and the region below ridge is
at high pressure.
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divergence at the surface (high pressure

cyclonic conditions).
These ridges and troughs give rise to jet
streaks which are also responsible for
cyclonic
and
anticyclonic
weather
conditions at the surface.
Page
| 89
This condition occurs due to weakening of

jet stream due to lesser temperature
contrast
between
sub-tropics
and
temperate region (Our concern is STJ
only).
Usually the trough region [the region
exactly below the jet stream trough]
creates cyclonic condition (low pressure)
at the surface of earth whereas the ridge
regions creates anticyclonic condition.
Troughs create upper level divergence
which is associated with convergence at
the surface (low pressure cyclonic
conditions) and ridges create upper level
convergence which is associated with
The winds leaving the jet streak are

rapidly diverging,
creating
a
lower
in the atmosphere. The air below rapidly
replaces the upper outflowing winds. This
in turn creates the low pressure at the
surface. This surface low pressure creates
conditions where the surrounding surface
winds rush inwards. The Coriolis effect
creates the cyclonic rotation (cyclonic
vortex) that is associated with depressions
[low pressure cells].
The winds entering the jet streak are
rapidly converging because of the high
in the atmosphere. This convergence at
upper troposphere leads to divergence
(high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic
condition).
The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic
rotation that is associated with clear
weather.
But how does this mechanism of jet
streams influence Indian Monsoons?
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Indian Monsoon Mechanism

Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
(STJ)
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream STJ in

Winter
Sub-Tropical Jet stream plays a significant

role in both hindering the monsoon winds
as well as in quick onset of monsoons.
STJ Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
Sub-Tropical Jet stream is a narrow band

of fast moving air flowing from west to
east [Westerlies].
STJ in northern hemisphere flows between
25 to 35 N in the upper troposphere at a
height of about 12-14 km (all this already
discussed in previous posts on Jet
Streams). (Here we will consider STJ only.
Polar Jet has no influence on Indian
monsoons).
The wind speeds in a westerly jet stream
are commonly 150 to 300 km p.h. with
extreme values reaching 400 km p.h.
Westerly jet stream blows at a very high

speed during winter over the sub-tropical
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zone.
This jet stream is bifurcated by the
| 90
Himalayan ranges and Tibetan Plateau.
The two branches reunite off the east
coast of China.
The northern branch of this jet stream
blows along the northern edge of the
Tibetan Plateau.
The southern branch blows to the south of
the Himalayan ranges along 25 north
latitude.
A strong latitudinal thermal gradient
(differences in temperature), along with
other factors, is responsible for the
development of southerly jet.
Western Disturbances
The burst of monsoons depends upon

the upper air circulation which is
dominated by STJ.
Seasonal Migration of Sub-Tropical

Jet Stream STJ
In winter STJ flows along the southern

slopes of the Himalayas but in summer it
shifts northwards, rather dramatically,
and flows along the northern edge of
Himalayas in early June and in late
summer (July-August) along the northern
edge of the Tibetan Plateau.
The periodic movement of the Jet stream
is often the indicator of the onset (STJ
shits to the north of Himalayas in a matter
of days) and subsequent withdrawal (STJ
returns back to its position south of
Himalayas) of the monsoon.
Northward movement of the subtropical jet
is the first indication of the onset of the
monsoon over India.
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Meteorologists believe that southern

branch of jet stream exercises a
significant influence on the winter
weather conditions in India.
The upper jet is responsible for steering
of the western depressions [Western
Disturbances] from the Mediterranean
Sea.
Some of the depressions continue
eastwards, redeveloping in the zone of
jet stream confluence about 30 N,
105 E (near east coast of China).
Winter rain and heat storms in northwestern plains and occasional heavy
snowfall in hilly regions are caused by
these disturbances.
These are generally followed by cold
waves in the whole of northern plains.
The southern branch is stronger, with an

average speed of about 240 km compared
with 70 to 90 km p.h. of the northern
branch.
Air subsiding beneath this upper westerly
current gives dry out blowing northerly
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winds from the subtropical anticyclone

over northwestern India and Pakistan.
Why no south-west monsoons

during winter?
Reason 1: ITCZ has left India (the winds

that blow over India are mostly offshore
land to land or land to ocean so they
carry no moisture).
Reason 2: During winter, the southern
branch of STJ is strong and is to the
south of Himalayas. The ridge of the jet
lies over north-western India and is
associated with strong divergence of winds
and creates a high pressure region (subtropical high pressure belt) over entire
north India. [This is how the mechanism
of jet streams influence Indian Monsoons
in winter season]
Reason 3: There is already a strong high
pressure over Tibet. [High Pressure due to
STJ + High Pressure over Tibet = strong
divergence = no rainfall]
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream STJ in

Summer
With the beginning of summer in the

month of March, the STJ [upper
westerlies] start their northward march.
The southerly branch of STJ remains
positioned south of Tibet, although
weakening in intensity.
The weather over northern India becomes
hot, dry and squally due to larger
incoming solar radiation and hot winds
like loo.
Over
India,
the Equatorial
Trough
(ITCZ) pushes
northwards
with
the
weakening of the STJ [upper westerlies]
south of Tibet, but the burst of the
monsoon does not take place until the
upper-air circulation has switched to its
summer pattern.
By the end of May the southern jet breaks
and later it is diverted to the north of Tibet
Plateau and there is sudden burst of
monsoons (the ridge moves northwards
into Central Asia = high pressure over
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north-west India moves northwards into

Central Asia = makes way for south-west
monsoon winds). An Easterly jet emerges
over peninsular India with the northward
migration of STJ.
The upper air circulations are reversed
Page
with the emergence of Easterly jet
[convergence in upper layers is replaced | 91
by divergence == divergence in lower
layers is replaced with convergence ==
high pressure at lower layers is replaced
by low pressure system]. The easterly
winds become very active in the upper
troposphere and they are associated with
westerly winds in the lower troposphere
(south-west monsoon winds).
Western and eastern jets flow to the north
and south of the Himalayas respectively.
The eastern jet becomes powerful and is
stationed at 15 N latitude.
This results in more active south-west
monsoon and heavy rainfall is caused.
Why no south-west monsoons in

March May (summer)?
There is good suns insolation from March

May but still there is no s-w monsoons.
Reason: The ridge region of Southern
branch
of
STJ
creates
strong
divergence (high pressure) in northwest India. The diverging air blocks
incoming winds and prevents strong
convergence of winds along ITCZ.
During the summer season in the

Northern Hemisphere, low pressure areas
develop at the ground surface near
Peshawar (Pakistan) and north-west India
due to intense heating of ground surface
during April, May, and June.
As long as the position of the upper air jet
stream is maintained above the surface
low pressure (to the south of Himalayas),
the dynamic anti-cyclonic conditions
persist over north-west India.
The winds descending from the upper air
high pressure [because of the ridge of STJ]
obstructs the ascent of winds from the
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surface low pressure areas, with the result

that the weather remains warm and dry.
This is why the months of April and May
are generally dry and rainless in spite of
high temperatures (low pressure on land)
and high evaporation.
Indian Monsoons Role of Tropical

Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet],
Indian Monsoons Role of Tibet, Indian
Monsoons Role of Somali Jet and Indian
Monsoons Role of Indian Ocean Dipole.

Convergence Zone
Theory
Indian
Monsoons
Easterly
Jet|Tibet|Somali Jet <-- You are Here
East Monsoons
Indian Monsoons Role of

Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)
[African Easterly Jet]
The establishment and maintenance of the

TEJ is not fully understood but it is
believed that the jet may be caused by the
uniquely high
temperatures
and
heights over the Tibetan Plateau during
summer.
The TEJ plays an important role in kick
starting southwest monsoon.
This jet descends over the Indian Ocean
(near Madagascar) and intensifies its high
pressure cell so as to move as south-west
monsoon.
Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)
There are major high velocity winds in the

lower troposphere called low-level jets
(LLJs).
In the tropics, the most prominent of these
are the Somali
Jet and the African
Easterly Jet [Tropical Easterly Jet].
The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature
of the northern hemispheric summer over
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southern Asia and northern Africa. The

TEJ is found near between 5 and 20N.
It is fairly persistent in its direction, and
intensity from June through the beginning
of October. Its position fluctuates between
5 and 20N.
Page
TEJ comes into existence quickly after the
STJ has shifted to the north of the | 92
Himalayas (Early June).
TEJ flows from east to west over
peninsular India at 6 9 km and over the
Northern African region.
The formation of TEJ results in
the reversal of upper air circulation
patterns [High pressure switches to low
pressure] and leads to the quick onset of
monsoons.
Recent observations have revealed that the
intensity and duration of heating of
Tibetan Plateau has a direct bearing on
the amount of rainfall in India by the
monsoons.
When the summer temperature of air over
Tibet remains high for a sufficiently long
time, it helps in strengthening the easterly
jet and results in heavy rainfall in India.
The easterly jet does not come into
existence if the snow over the Tibet
Plateau does not melt. This hampers
the occurrence of rainfall in India.
Therefore, any year of thick and
widespread snow over Tibet will be
followed by a year of weak monsoon
and less rainfall.
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Indian Monsoons Role of Tibet
The Tibetan Plateau is an enormous block

of highland acting as a formidable barrier.
Due to its protruded height it receives 23C more insolation than the neighboring
areas.
The plateau affects the atmosphere in two
ways: (a) as a mechanical barrier, and (b)
as a high- level heat sources.
At the beginning of June the subtropical
jet stream is completely withdrawn from
India and occupies a position along 40 N
(to the north of Tibetan Plateau).
The plateau accentuates the northward
displacement of the jet stream. Hence the
burst of monsoon in June is prompted by
the Himalayas and not by the thermally
induced
low
pressure
cell
over
Tibet. (Tibetan plateau is responsible for
south-west monsoons. But it is the STJ
that facilitates sudden outburst of
monsoons with its sudden northward
migration)
In the middle of October the plateau
proves to be the most important factor in
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causing the advance of the jet south of the

Himalayas or bifurcating it into two parts.
The winter Tibetan Plateau cools rapidly
and produces a high pressure cell.
(Cyclonic condition over Tibet ceases and
an anticyclonic condition is established).
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The high pressure cell over Tibet
| 93
strengthens N-E monsoons.
Tibet gets heated in summer and is 2C to
3C warmer than the air over the adjoining
regions.
Because the Tibet Plateau is a source of
heat for the atmosphere, it generates an
area of rising air (convergence)(intense low
pressure cell).
During its ascent the air spreads outwards
in upper troposphere (divergence) and
gradually sinks (subsidence) over the
equatorial part of the Indian Ocean.
It finally approaches the west coast of
India as a return current from a southwesterly direction and is termed as
equatorial westerlies.
It picks up moisture from the Indian
Ocean and causes rainfall in India and
adjoining countries.
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| 94
Indian Monsoons Role of Somali

Jet
Polar and subtropical jet streams are the

permanent jet streams which greatly
influence the weather of temperate
regions.
Temporary jet streams are narrow winds
with speeds more than 94 kph in the
upper, middle and sometimes in lower
troposphere. They are few. Important ones
are Somali Jet and The African Easterly jet
or Tropical Easterly Jet.
These two jet streams play an important
role in the formation and progression of
Indian Monsoons.
The progress of the southwest monsoon
towards India is greatly aided by the onset
of Somali jet that transits Kenya, Somalia
and Sahel.
It was observed to flow from Mauritius and
the northern part of the island of
Madagascar before reaching the coast of

Kenya at about 3 S.
It strengthens permanent high near
Madagascar and also helps to drive S-W
monsoons towards India at a greater
pace and intensity.
The importance of the low level jet arises
from the fact that its path around 9 N
coincides with a zone of coastal upwelling.
As the strong winds drive away the surface
coastal waters towards the east, extremely
cold water from the depths of the sea rise
upwards to preserve the continuity of
mass.
The peculiar feature of Somali Current
is reversal in direction with the onset of
the summer monsoon.
In winter, this current is from north to the
south running southwards from the coast
of Arabia to the east African coastline; but
with the advent of the summer monsoon it
reverses its direction and flows from the
south to the north.
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(EQUINOO)(Oscillation of pressure cells

between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).
During the positive phase of the
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation
(EQUINOO), there is enhanced cloud
formation and rainfall in western part of
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the equatorial ocean near the African
coast while such activity is suppressed | 95
near Sumatra.
While EQUINOO and IOD go in step
during strong positive IOD events, they do
not always do so.
Indian Monsoons Role of Indian

Ocean Dipole
Indian ocean Dipole is a recently

discovered phenomena that has a
significant influence on Indian monsoons.
Indian ocean Dipole is a SST anomaly (Sea
Surface Temperature Anomaly different
from normal) that occurs occasionally in
Northern or Equatorial Indian Ocean
Region (IOR).
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined
by the difference in sea surface
temperature between two areas (or poles,
hence a dipole) a western pole in the
Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and
an eastern pole in the eastern Indian
Ocean south of Indonesia.
IOD develops in the equatorial region of
Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in
October.
With a positive IOD winds over the Indian
Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results
in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean
near African Coast) being much warmer
and eastern Indian Ocean around
Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
In the negative dipole year, reverse
happens making Indonesia much warmer
and rainier.
Positive IOD is good for Indian Monsoons
as more evaporation occurs in warm
water.
Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric
component of the IOD is named as
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation

Convergence Zone
Theory
Indian
Monsoons
Easterly
East Monsoons <-- You are Here
How Jet Streams affect

Indian Monsoons? [Indian
Monsoon Mechanism]
Summing up all
previous posts.
the
points from
the
As the summer time approaches, there is

increased solar heating of the Indian
subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau.
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In the peak summer months (25th of May

10th of Jun), with the apparent
northward movement of the sun, the
southern branch of the SJT, which flows
to the south of the Himalayas, shifts to the
north of the Himalayas.
When the suns position is about to reach
the Tropic of Cancer (June), the SJT shifts
to the north of the Tibetan Plateau (1st of
Jun 20th of June). The ITCZ is close to
its peak position over the Tibetan Plateau.
The altitude of the mountains initially
disrupts the jet but once it has cleared the
summits it is able to reform over central
Asia.
Its movement towards the north is one of
the main features associated with the
onset of the monsoon over India.
With the northward shift of SJT, an
Easterly Jet is formed over the Indian
plains. It generally forms in the first week
of June and lasts till late October.
It can be traced in the upper troposphere
right up to the west coast of Africa.
The northward shift of SJT and ICTZ
moves the subtropical high pressure belt
to the north of the Tibetan Plateau and the
Easterly Jet creates a low pressure region
in the Indian plains (Easterly Jet creates
anticyclonic
conditions
in
upper
troposphere).
This low pressure in the northern plains
coupled with the intense low of the
Tibetan Plateau leads to the sudden onset
of south-west monsoons (1st of Jun 20th
of June).
The monsoon cell is situated between the
Indian Ocean (North of Madagascar)(High
Pressure Cell) and Tibetan plateau (Low
Pressure Cell).
In summer the sub-tropical easterly jet
fluctuates between the plains region of
India and peninsular India varying the
Indian Monsoons in May - Dry Season
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intensity of rainfall from location to

location.
During March to May, the building up of
this cell is blocked by the STJ which tends
to blow to the south of the Himalayas
(Northwest India and Plains region are
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occupied by Subtropical High Pressure
Belt. This high pressure belt undermines | 96
the influence of low pressure cell over
Tibet).
As long as the STJ is in this position the
development of summer monsoons is
inhibited (the high pressure belt stays over
north India).
With the STJ out of the way (high pressure
belt migrates to the north of Tibet) the sub
continental monsoon cell develops (Somali
Jet) very quickly indeed, often in a matter
of a few days.
Warmth and moisture are fed into the cell
by a lower level tropical jet stream which
brings with it air masses laden with
moisture from the Indian Ocean.
The end of the monsoon season is brought
about when the atmosphere over the
Tibetan Plateau begins to cool (August
October), this enables the STJ to
transition back across the Himalayas.
With the southward shift of ITCZ,
subtropical high pressure belt returns
back to the Indian plains and the rainfall
ceases.
This leads to the formation of a
anticyclonic winter monsoon cell typified
by sinking air masses over India and
relatively moisture free winds that blow
seaward.
This gives rise to relatively settled and dry
weather over India during the winter
months.
Indian Monsoons Seasonal

Variations
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Indian Monsoons in June - Onset of Monsoons Jun 1st - June 1oth
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Indian Monsoons in July - Monsoon winds reach North-West India
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Indian Monsoons in August - Monsoons Retreat from North-West India
Indian Monsoons in September - Maximum Rainfall in parts of South India
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Indian Monsoons in October - Retreating Monsoons - Cyclones in Late October
Indian Monsoons in November - North-East Monsoons - Peak Cyclone Season in early

November
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100
Indian Monsoons in December - Maximum Rainfall Month in Tamil Nadu and

Southern Andhra Coast
Indian Monsoons in January - North-East Monsoons weaken
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Indian Monsoons in February - Dry Season Begins
Indian Monsoons in March - Dry Season intensifies
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102
Indian Monsoons in April - Dry Season- Occasional Thunderstorms in South and

Central India
Projects to understand monsoons
First
attempt
was
made
during
International India Ocean Expedition
(HOE) from 1962 to 1965.
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It
was
organized
jointly
by
the
International Council of Scientific Unions
(ICSU), Scientific Committee on Ocean
Research (SCOR) and UNESCO with World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) joining
the meteorology programme.
ISMEX
Two more experiments were conducted,

jointly, by India and the former USSR in
1973 and 1977, with limited participation
from other countries.
These experiments are known as the IndoSoviet Monsoon Experiment (ISMEX) and
Monsoon-77 respectively.
MONEX
Data collection effort was made under the

aegis of MONEX-1979.
It was organised jointly by many
researching organizations and the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO) under
The ridge of the jet stream creates

anticyclonic
(with
clockwise
air
circulation) conditions over North-West
India.
Consequently, the winds tend to descend
over the north-western parts of India,
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their World Weather Watch (WWW)

programme.
It is so far the largest scientific effort made
to understand monsoons.
Details are not necessary. Remember the
names. They can be asked in prelims.
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MONEX was asked in previous papers.
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Western
Disturbances
Weather
103
associated with Western Disturbances Importance of Western Disturbances.
Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand.
Western Disturbances
In the winter season, the sub-tropical jet

(STJ) is bifurcated into two branches due
to physical obstruction of the Himalayas
and Tibetan Plateau.
One branch is flows to the south of the
Himalayas, while the second branch is
positioned to the north of the Tibetan
Plateau.
resulting
into
the
development
of
atmospheric stability and dry conditions
(anticyclonic condition = no rainfall).
But the sub-tropical jet (STJ) causes
periodic changes in general weather
conditions.
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104
east across Afghanistan, Pakistan and

reach north-west India.
These
storms
are residual
frontal
cyclones which move at the height of
2000 metres from the mean sea level.
On an average, 4 to 6 cyclonic waves
reach
north-western
India
between
October and April each year.
Weather associated with Western

Disturbances
The STJ drives the temperate low

pressures over Mediterranean Sea towards
The arrival of these temperate storms

[remnants of temperate cyclones] [western
disturbances]
causes precipitation leading to an abrupt
decrease in air temperature over NorthWest India.
The weather becomes clear after the
western disturbances passes away.
Western Disturbances also bring heavy
snowfall in the Himalayan Region and
a cold wave to north Indian plains.
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Importance of Western
Disturbances
The western disturbances affect weather

conditions during the winter season up to
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Patna (Bihar) and give occasional rainfall

which is highly beneficial for the
standing rabi crops, (wheat, barley,
mustard, gram, lentil, etc.).
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Cloudburst in Jammu and

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand
A cloudburst is
an intense
torrential
rainfall brought by a thunderstorm that
lasts for a relatively short duration (few
minutes to few hours).
Cloudburst leads to flash floods and
causes lot of damage to life and property.
Every intense rainfall is not a Cloudburst.
Cloudburst specifically occurs when an air
105
mass with high humidity is struck at a

place due to various reasons.
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In 2010, South-Western strip of Russia

(Caucasus Region, Moscow etc.) saw
higher than normal temperatures (highest
in in the last 100 years) and there were
numerous cloudbursts in Jammu and
Kashmir.
A strong upper-atmospheric high was
located over European Russia towards the
beginning of summer.
It diverted the jet stream (meandering of
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream) and its raingiving train (trough) of summer storms
farther north than usual, giving much of
Southern European Russia drought
conditions.
In addition, southern desert heat from
central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula and
North Africa began to flow northward,
which strengthened this ridge of STJ and
tightened its hold over the region.
Indian Climate - What type of

Climate Does India Have?
The stalled system prevented weather

systems being drawn across Russia and
the obstacle acted as a barrier trapping
hot air to the south and cold air to the

north.
The consequence of this static mass of hot
air was the heat wave that devastated
Russia.
With the jet stream stalled the SubPage
Tropical Jet was unable to transit across
the Himalayas as it would do ordinarily, |
the monsoon cell to the south, fed by
106
warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had
nowhere to go and as a consequence it
deposited vast amounts of rain over
Pakistan, Himalchal Pradesh and Jammu
and Kashmir and this led to extensive
flooding.
Indian Climate Climate of India Features of Indian Climate - Factors
Influencing The Climate Of India:
Physiography, Monsoon Winds, El Nino,
La Nina etc..
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India's climate closely resembles the

climate that of a tropical country although
its northern part (north of tropic of cancer)
is situated in the temperate belt.
Indian subcontinent is separated from the
rest of Asia by the lofty Himalayan
ranges which
block
the cold
air
masses moving southwards from Central
Asia.
As a result, during winters, the northern
half of India is warmer by 3C to 8C than
other areas located on same latitudes.
During summer, due to over the head
position of the sun, the climate in the
southern parts resemble equatorial dry
climate.
The north Indian plains are under the
influence
of
hot
dry
wind
called 'loo' blowing from the Thar, Baloch
and Iranian Deserts, increasing the
temperatures to a level comparable to that
of the southern parts of the country.
Thus the whole of India, south of the
Himalayas can be climatically treated as a
tropical country.
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The seasonal reversal of winds in Arabian

Sea and Bay of Bengal give India a
typical tropical monsoon climate.
So Indian climate, to be precise,
is tropical monsoon type (a distinct wet
and dry climate) rather than just a
tropical or half temperate climate.
Features of Indian Climate

India has high Regional Climatic Diversity
because of its topographical diversity
(location, altitude, distance from sea and
relief).
Rainfall
The climate in most of the regions is

characterized by distinct wet and dry
seasons. Some places like Thar desert,
Ladakh have no wet season.
Mean annual rainfall varies substantially
from region to region. Mawsynram and
Cherrapunji in
Meghalaya
receives
around 1,000 cm of annual rainfall while
at Jaisalmer the annual rainfall rarely
exceeds 12 cm.
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of
Odisha see intense rainfall in July and
August while the Coromandel Coast goes
dry during these months.
Places like Goa, Hyderabad and Patna

receive south-west monsoon rains by the
first quarter of June while the rains are
awaited till early July at places in
Northwest India.
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Temperature
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Diurnal and annual temperature ranges 107

are substantial.
Highest diurnal temperature ranges occur
in the Thar desert and the highest annual
temperature ranges are recorded in the
Himalayan regions.
Both
diurnal
and
mean
annual
temperature ranges are least in coastal
regions.
In December, the temperature may dip to
40C at some places in J&K while in
many coastal regions average temperature
is 20-25C.
Winters are moderately cold in most of the
regions while the summers are extremely
hot.
Himalayan regions experience brutal
winters while the summers are moderate.
Factors Influencing Indian

Climate
Latitudinal location
Distance from the Sea
The Himalayas
Physiography
Monsoon Winds
Upper Air Circulation
El Nino and La Nina
Tropical
Cyclones
Disturbances
and
Western
Latitudinal location
Indian climate resembles the climate of a

tropical country.
The
mainland
of
India
extends
between 8N to 37N.
Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are in
tropics and hence receive high solar
insolation. The summer temperatures are
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extreme and winters temperatures are

moderate in most of the regions.
The northern parts on the other hand lie
in the warm temperate zone. They receive
comparatively less solar insolation. But
summer are equally hot in north India
because of hot local wind called 'loo'.
Winter are very cold due to cold waves
brought by the western disturbances.
Some places in Himalayas record low
temperatures particularly in winter.
Coastal regions see moderate climatic
conditions irrespective of latitudinal
position.
Why rainfall decreases form east to

west in plains region (Indus-Ganga
Plains)?
Distance from the Sea
Coastal regions have moderate or equable

or maritime climate where as interior
locations are deprived of the moderating
influence of the sea and experience
extreme or continental climate.
The monsoon winds first reach the coastal
regions and hence bring good amount of
rainfall.
Himalayas and Indian Climate
This is the most important factor that

influences Indian Climate.
The
Himalayas
act
as
a climatic
divide between India and Central Asia.
During winter, Himalayas protect India
from cold and dry air masses of Central
Asia.
During monsoon months these mountain
ranges act as an effective physical
barrier for rain bearing south-west
monsoon winds.
Himalayas divide the Bay of Bengal
branch of monsoon winds into two
branches one branch flowing along the
plain regions towards north-west India
and the other towards South-East Asia.
If the Himalayas were not present, the
monsoon winds would simply move into
China and most of the north India would
have been a desert.
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In summer, there are many minor low

pressure cells that exist all over the plain Page
region.
As the monsoon winds move from east to |
west the moisture levels decrease due to 108
successive rainfall at each low pressure
regions.
By the time winds reach western parts of
the plains (Delhi, Haryana etc.) all the
moisture
in
the
monsoon
winds
in exhausted.
Then how come Haryana and Punjab
not deserts like Rajasthan?
They receive rainfall due to Western

Disturbances in winter. (In summer the
rainfall is very low.)
Physiography and Indian Climate
Physiography is the most important factor

that determines the mean annual rainfall
received by a region.
Why are some parts in peninsular
India semi-arid?
Places on the windward side of an

orographic barrier receive great amount of
rainfall where as those on the leeward side
remain arid to semi-arid due to rainshadow effect.
Example: The south-west monsoon winds
from
the
Arabian
sea
strike
almost perpendicular at
the
Western
Ghats and cause copious rainfall in the
Western Coastal plain and the western
slopes of the Western Ghats.
On
the
contrary,
vast
areas
of
Maharashtra,
Karnataka,
Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in
rain-shadow or leeward side of the
Western Ghats and receive scanty rainfall.
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Monsoon Winds and Indian

Climate
Why no significant rainfall in Gujarat

and Rajasthan? Explain the formation
of Thar Desert?
Monsoons winds flowing in Rajasthan and

Gujarat are not obstructed by any
orographic barrier and hence these
regions receive no rainfall.
[Monsoon winds blow almost parallel to
Aravalis and hence there is no orographic
rainfall].
[No convection cell or vertical wind
movements arise in Rajasthan and
Gujarat: Monsoon winds blow towards low
pressure cells in Tibet and hence only
horizontal wind movements exist in
Gujarat and Rajasthan]
[Sub-tropical high pressure belt: In winter
the region experiences strong divergence
because of the STJ Sub-Tropical Jet.]
How come Cherrapunji and
Mawsynram receive abnormally high
rainfall?
Mawsynram and Cherrapunji

are the wettest places on earth with mean
annual rainfall over 1000 cm.
Copious rainfall in these places is due
to funneling
effect followed
by orographic
upliftment. [Funneling
effect = clouds are channeled into a
narrow region between mountains and
hence the cloud density is extraordinary]
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1.
2.
3.
4.
The most dominating factor of the Indian

climate is the 'monsoon winds'.
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Important features of Indian Monsoons
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are
109
Sudden onset (sudden burst)
Gradual progress
Gradual retreat
Seasonal reversal of winds
The complete reversal of the monsoon
winds brings about a sudden change in
the seasons.
The harsh summer season suddenly giving
way to monsoon or rainy season.
The south-west monsoons from the
Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal bring
rainfall to the entire country.
The north-eastern winter monsoon do not
cause much rainfall except along the
Caromandel coast (TN coast) after getting
moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
Upper Air Circulation
The changes in the upper air circulation

over Indian landmass is brought about by
Jet streams. (Explained in detail in
Indian Monsoons)
Westerly Jet Stream
Westerly jet stream blows at a very high

speed during winter over the sub-tropical
zone.
Southern branch of the jet stream
exercises a significant influence on the
winter weather conditions in India.
This jet stream is responsible for
bringing western disturbances from the
Mediterranean region in to the Indian subcontinent.
Winter rain and heat storms in northwestern plains and occasional heavy
snowfall in hilly regions are caused by
these disturbances.
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These are generally followed by cold waves

in the whole of northern plains.
Easterly Jet Stream
Reversal in upper air circulation takes

place in summer due to the apparent shift
of the sun's vertical rays in the northern
hemisphere.
The westerly jet stream is replaced by the
easterly jet stream which owes its origin to
the heating of the Tibet plateau.
This helps in the sudden onset of the
south-west monsoons.
La Nina
Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of

Bengal and Arabian Sea and the influence
large parts of the peninsular India.
Majority of the cyclones originate in
the Bay of Bengal and influence the
weather conditions during the south-west
monsoon
season (low
intensity
cyclones).
Some cyclones are born during the
retreating monsoon season, i.e., in
October and November (high intensity
cyclones) and influence the weather
conditions along the eastern coast of
India.
The western disturbances originate over
the Mediterranean sea and travel eastward
under the influence of westerly jet stream.
They influence the winter weather
conditions over most of Northern-plains
and Western Himalayan region.
Adversely affects monsoon rainfall and

cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal.
Good for cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea.
Droughts are common during El Nino
events due to less monsoonal and cyclonic
rainfall.
Southern Oscillation is simply the

oscillation or alternating positions of low
pressure and high pressure cells over
eastern and western Pacific.
Southern Oscillation coinciding with El
Nino is called ENSO or El Nino Southern
Oscillation. (SO usually coincides with EL
Nino. This why El Nino is usually referred
to as ENSO)
ENSO = [warm water in eastern Pacific +
low pressure over eastern Pacific] + [cool
water in western Pacific + high pressure in
western Pacific]
Climatic conditions same as El Nino.
Winter Season Summer Season Indian
Climate:
Pressure,
Winds,
Rainfall,
Temperature,
Cyclones,
Western
Disturbances. Loo, Andhis, Norwesters.
Indian Climate Seasons
El-Nino, La Nina, ENSO and Indian

Climate
El Nino
Good for monsoons and cyclogenesis in

Bay of Bengal.
Suppressed cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea.
Floods are common.
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ENSO
Tropical Cyclones and Western

Disturbances
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The cold weather season or winter season,

The hot weather season or summer
season,
The south-west monsoon season or Rainy
season, and
The season of the retreating monsoon or
cool season.
Winter Season in India
November March. January is the

coldest month.
Sun's apparent path is to the south of
equator.
Clear sky, pleasant weather, low
temperature, low humidity, high range
of temperature, cool and slow northeast trade winds.
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110
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The diurnal range of temperature,

especially in interior parts of the country,
is very high.
Temperature in Winter Season
The isotherm of 20C runs roughly parallel

to the Tropic of Cancer.
To the south of this isotherm the
temperatures are above 20C. Here there
is no distinctly defined winter weather.
Pressure in Winter Season
High air pressure prevails over large parts

of
north-west
India
due
to
low
temperatures coupled with divergence
induced by the ridge of the STJ.
Pressure is comparatively lower in south
India.
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Some parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu

typically experiences temperatures near
30C.
To the north mean temperatures are below
21C and the winter weather is distinct.
The mean minimum temperature is about
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5C over north-west India and 10C over
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the Gangetic plains.
Dras Valley in Kashmir is the coldest
111
place in India. The minimum temperature
recorded at Dras was 45C in 1908.
The winds start blowing from high

pressure area of north-west to low
pressure area of south-east. The wind
velocity is low due to low pressure
gradient.
The path of the winds depend on pressure
gradient and physiography.
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112
Western Disturbances in Winter

Season
The spell of fine weather over northwestern and northern India is often
broken due to inflow of western
disturbances.
They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab,
and Haryana.
They move eastwards across the subHimalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh.
They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga
plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
After the passage of the disturbance,
widespread fog and cold waves lowering
the minimum temperature by 5 to
10C below normal are experienced.
Fog lowers visibility and causes great
inconvenience for transportation.
Tropical Cyclones in Winter

Season
This is the season of least tropical cyclone

activity.
The frequency of tropical cyclones
decreases with the advancement of the
season.
This
is
due
to low
sea
surface
temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest
south.
The storms which are born in the Bay of
Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy
rainfall.
Some of them cross the southern
peninsula over to the Arabian Sea.
Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea
and move towards either north or west.
Precipitation in Winter Season
The retreating winter monsoons pick up

some moisture while crossing the Bay of
Bengal and cause winter rainfall in
Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh,
south-east Karnataka and south-east
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Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of

November).
The highest seasonal rainfall of about 75
cm between October and December.
Most of it occurs along the south-eastern
coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of
Andhra Pradesh. Thereafter, it gradually
decreases.
The western disturbances also cause a
little rainfall in north-west India.
The amount of rainfall gradually decreases
from the north and north-west to east (it is
opposite in rainy season).
The northeastern part of India also gets
rainfall during the winter months.
March to June.
High temperature and low humidity are
the chief characteristics.
Sometimes referred to as pre-monsoon
period.
Temperature in Summer Season
High sun's insolation due to apparent

movement of sun between the equator and
the Tropic of Cancer.
The southern parts of the country are
distinctly warmer in March and April
whereas in June, north India has higher
temperatures.
In March, the highest temperatures occur
in the southern parts (40-45C).
In April the highest temperature of about
45C is recorded in the northern parts of
Madhya Pradesh.
In May the highest temperature shifts to
Rajasthan where temperatures as high as
48C may be recorded.
In June the maximum temperature is in
Punjab and Haryana.
The
highest
temperatures
recorded
are 50.5C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956
and 50.6C at Ganganagar on 14th June,
1935.
The highest temperatures are recorded
just before the onset of the southwest
monsoons (late May).
The diurnal range of temperature is also

very high. It may be as high as 18C in
some parts.
The maximum summer temperatures are
comparatively lower in the costal and
southern peninsular regions due to
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moderating effect of the sea.
The temperatures along the west coast are |
comparatively lower than those prevailing
113
on the east coast due to the prevailing
westerly winds.
There is large contrast between land and
sea temperatures.
Northern and central parts of India
experience heat waves in this season.
[A heat wave is an abnormally high
temperature experienced by a regions.
Temperature increase of the order of 6 to
7C above normal is termed as 'moderate'
and 8C and more as 'severe' heat wave]
Summer Season in India
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Most of the heat waves develop over

Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location
far away from the sea). From here they
spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The strong north westerly winds (caused
due to strong divergence in north-west
India) with a long land journey over hot
regions check the onward march of the
sea breeze over eastern coastal belt and
create heat wave conditions over Odisha
and Andhra Pradesh.
The heat waves strike by the end of April
and their maximum occurrence is in May.
They last till the onset of southwest
monsoon.
The normal duration of heat waves is 4 to
5 days. However, heat waves are rare over
the peninsula south of 13N latitude due
to maritime conditions prevailing there.
Pressure in Summer Season
The atmospheric pressure is low all over

the country due to high temperature.
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But
strong
dynamically
induced
divergence over north-west India prevents
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the onset of south-west monsoons.
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116
Winds in Summer Season
There is a marked change in the direction

and speed of the winds from winter.
The winds are by and large light and
variable.
Andhis
Loo
Loo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch

and Thar deserts.
In May and June, high temperature in
northwest India builds steep pressure
gradient.
Hot, dust laden and strong wind known as
loo blows.
Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M.,
increases gradually and reaches maximum
intensity in the afternoon.
It blows with an average speed of 30-40

km per hour and persists for days.
The strong dust storms resulting from the

convective phenomena are locally known
as andhis (blinding storms). They move
like a solid wall of dust and sand.
The wind velocity often reaches 50-60
kmph and the visibility is reduced to a few
metres.
Such dust storms are common in
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu
region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh.
They are short lived. The squall and
showers which follow these storms bring
down
the
temperature
sharply
temporarily.
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Frontal Thunderstorms in Summer

Season
The strong convectional movements

related to the westerly jet stream lead to
thunderstorms in eastern and northeastern part of the country.
They normally originate over Chota
Nagpur plateau and are carried eastwards
by westerly winds.
The areas with highest incidence of
thunderstorms
are Assam,
Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur,
Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the
adjoining areas of Odisha and Jharkhand.
parts
of Karnataka
(Blossom
Showers) and Tamil Nadu, particularly
during evenings and nights.
Western Disturbances in Summer

Season
In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of

Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the
direction of squalls is mainly from the
northwest,
and
they
are
called norwesters.
They are often very violent with squall
speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour.
Hailstones sometimes accompany showers
and occasionally attain the size of a golf
ball.
They cause heavy damage to standing
crops, trees, buildings, livestock and even
lead to loss of human lives.
However, they are, sometimes, useful for
tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam,
these storms are known as 'Barodoli
Chheerha'.
The period of maximum occurrence of
these storms is the month of Vaisakh
(mid-March to mid-April) and hence, they
are locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the
black storms or a mass of dark clouds of
Vaiasakha.
Convectional Thunderstorms in
Summer Season
In the south the thunderstorms occur

in Kerala (Mango Showers) and adjoining
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Their frequency and intensity gradually
117
decrease with advancement of summer.
Approximately 4, 3 and 2 western
disturbances visit north-west India in
March, April and May respectively.
They cause snowfall in higher reaches of
the Himalayas.
Tropical Cyclones in Summer

Season
Norwesters and Thunderstorms in

Summer Season
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Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of

Bengal and Arabian Sea.
A few cyclones are formed in the Bay of
Bengal in the month of March but they do
not affect the mainland of India.
Their frequency rises steeply in April and
the number of cyclones originating in May
is more than double than those originating
in April.
About three-fourths of the tropical
cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal and
the rest originate in the Arabian Sea.
Most of the depressions in April originate
to the south of 10N while those
originating in May are born to the north of
this latitude.
Most of the storms of this season initially
move west or north-west but later they
recurve northeast and strike Bangladesh
and the Arakan Coast of Myanmar.
Very few hit Indian coast while some
dissipate over the sea itself.
The whole of the east coast of India, the
coastal areas of Bangladesh and Arakan
Coast of Myanmar are liable to be hit by
tropical storms in May.
Many of them are quite severe and cause
heavy damage to life and property.
In the Arabian Sea, major storms are
formed in May between 7 and 12 N
latitudes.
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Most of them move away from the Indian

coast in a north-westerly direction and
dissipate in the sea.
Few originate close to the Indian coast.

They move towards the north-east and hit
somewhere along the west coast of India.
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Precipitation in Summer Season
This season is not totally rainless (only

one per cent of the annual rainfall).
In the northeastern parts of the country,
dust storms bring little rainfall.
The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in
the form of snow caused by western
disturbances.
The norwesters bring some rainfall in
Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The
intensity of rainfall is high.
The rainfall brought by the norwesters is
known as the spring storm showers.
This small amount of rainfall is very useful
for the cultivation of tea, jute and rice and
is known as tea showers in Assam.
Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka
receive rainfall from thunderstorms.
Such
showers
are
called mango
showers in Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh because they are very beneficial
to mango crop.
In Karnataka they are called cherry
blossoms due to their effect on the coffee
plantations.
South West Monsoon Season South

West Monsoons Arabian Sea branch &
Bay of Bengal branch, Break in South
West Monsoons, Advance & Withdrawal.
Isoline, Isobar, Isotherm &

Isohyet
ISOLINE:
imaginary
lines
joining
regions with equal rainfall or any other
parameter.
ISOBAR: imaginary lines joining regions
with equal pressure.
ISOTHERM: imaginary lines joining
regions with equal temperature.
ISOHYET:
imaginary
lines
joining
regions with equal rainfall.
Rainy Season South West

Monsoon Season
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South West Monsoon Season June to

mid-September.
South West Monsoon Season is also
known as hot-wet season.
Sudden onset is the important feature of
South West Monsoons.
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With the onset of monsoons, temperature
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falls drastically and humidity levels rise.
Temperature during South West

Monsoon Season
Sudden onset of South West Monsoons

leads to significant fall in temperature [3
to 6C].
The temperature remains less uniform
throughout the rainy season.
The temperature rises in September with
the cease of south-west monsoons.
There is rise in temperature whenever
there is break in the monsoons.
The diurnal range of temperature is small
due to clouds and rains.
The highest temperatures are experienced
at places west of the Aravali [38 to 40C].
This is due to lack of clouds and hot
continental air masses.
Other parts of Northwest India also have
temperatures above 30C.
The temperatures are quite low over the
Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall.
The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and
adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have
temperatures above 30C as they receive
little rainfall during this season.
Pressure and Winds During South

West Monsoon Season
Low pressure conditions prevail over

northwest India due to high temperature.
ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the
Ganga plain. There are frequent changes
in its location depending upon the weather
conditions.
The atmospheric pressure increases
steadily southwards.
Over the peninsular region, due to
pressure gradient between north and
south, winds blow in a southwest to
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northeast direction from Arabian sea and

Bay of Bengal.
Their direction undergoes a change in
Indo-Gangetic plain where they move from
east to west.
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Rainfall During South West

Monsoon Season
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120
Three fourths of the total annual rainfall is

received during this season.
The average rainfall over the plains of
India in this season is about 87 per cent.
Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon
is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
The advance of the monsoon is much
faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the
Arabian Sea.
The normal date of onset of the southwest
monsoon over Kerala i.e. the first
place of entry in the mainland of India is
1st June.
The
monsoons
advance
quickly
accompanied with a lot of thunder,
lightning and heavy downpour. This
sudden
onset
of
rain
is
termed
as monsoon burst.
Sometimes monsoons are delayed or they
come much earlier than normal.
Normally the onset occurs between 29th
May and 7th June.
The earliest onset was on 11th May in
1918 and 1955, while the most delayed
onset was on 18th June in 1972.
South West Monsoons Arabian

Sea branch and Bay of Bengal
branch
Monsoon winds beyond south Kerala

progress in the form of two branches viz.
the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of
Bengal branch.
The Arabian Sea branch gradually

advances northwards. It reaches Mumbai
by 10th June.
The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather
rapidly over most of Assam. The normal
date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June.
On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas
the Bay branch is deflected westward by
the Himalayan barrier and it advances
up the Gangetic plain.
The two branches merge with each other
mostly around Delhi to form a single
current.
The combined current gradually extends
to west Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan and finally to Himachal
Pradesh and Kashmir.
By the end of June the monsoon is usually
established over most parts of the country.
By mid-July, the monsoon extends into
Kashmir and the remaining parts of the
country.
By this time it reaches Kashmir, it
has shed most of its moisture.
Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon is
much powerful than the Bay of Bengal
branch for reasons:
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1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the Bay

of Bengal, and
2. the entire Arabian Sea current advances

towards India, whereas only a part of
the Bay of Bengal current enters India,
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the remainder proceeding to Myanmar,

Thailand and Malaysia.
Both the branches reach Delhi more or

less at the same time.
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest
monsoons is divided into three distinct
streams on arriving in the mainland of
India.
The first stream strikes the west coast of

India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of
over 250 cm. It strike perpendicular to
Western
Ghats
causing
plentiful
Orographic Rainfall [400 to 500 cm
annual rainfall on the windward side].
Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 3050 cm on the leeward side of the crest.
There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on
the immediate leeward side of the Western
Ghats. But once it is passed, the air starts
rising again and the amount of rainfall
increases further east.
The second stream enters NarmadaTapi
troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches
central India. It does not cause much rain
near the coast due to the absence of major
orographic obstacle across the rift.
Some parts of central India receive rainfall
from this stream (Ex: Nagpur).The third
stream moves parallel to the Aravali Range
without
causing
much
rainfall.
Consequently the whole of Rajasthan is a
desert area.
However, some orographic effect is occurs
on the south-eastern edge of the Aravali
Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall
while the surrounding plains have only 60
to 80 cm rainfall.
The first stream crosses the GangaBrahmaputra

delta and
reaches Meghalaya.
Here
that
the
orographic effect results in intense
rainfall. Cherrapunji receives an annual
rainfall of 1,102 cm, major portion of

which occurs from June to August.
Mawsynram (present champion) located
at 1,329 m above sea level just 16 km to
the
west
of Cherrapunji
(X
champion) records higher annual rainfall
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of 1,221 cm.
Both the stations are located on the |
southern slopes of the Khasi hills at the
123
northern end of a deep valley running
from south to north.
The second stream of the Bay of Bengal
branch
moves
along Himalayan
foothills as they are deflected to the west
by the Himalaya and brings widespread
rainfall to Ganga plain.
The rainfall by this stream is characterized
by a steady decline as we move from east
to west up the plain. [Previous Prelims
Question]
The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively
dry during the south-west monsoon period
because of
1. rain shadow effect of the Arabian Sea

current and
2. Bay of Bengal current which flows
parallel to the coast.
Break in the South West Monsoons
The Bay of Bengal Branch of the

southwest monsoon is divided into two
distinct streams.
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During the Monsoon season, there are

periods when the Monsoon trough shifts
to the foothills of Himalayas, which leads
to sharp decrease in rainfall over most
parts of the country but increase along the
Himalayas and parts of Northeast India
and Southern Peninsula.
During July and August, there are certain
periods when the monsoons become weak.
Rainfall practically ceases over the country
outside the Himalayan belt and southeast
peninsula. This is known as break in the
monsoon.
Breaks are likely to occur during the
second week of August and last for a
week.
The breaks are believed to be brought
about by the northward shifting of
the monsoon trough (minimum low
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pressure cell in ITCZ). The axis of the

trough lies at the foothills of the
Himalayas during the break period.
The monsoon trough is a portion of the

Intertropical
Convergence
Zone
as
depicted by a line on a weather map
showing the locations of minimum sea
level pressure, and as such, is a
convergence zone between the wind
patterns of the southern and northern
hemispheres.
During the break period, heavy rainfall

occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions
and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
On an average one or two breaks do occur
during the rainy season. 85 out of 100
years there is a break in the monsoons.
Depressions in South West

Monsoon Season
A major part of the South West Monsoon

rainfall is generated by depressions
[intense low pressure] originating in the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Some
depressions develop over land also.
About 3-4 depressions are formed per
month from June to September.
Almost all of them are sucked inward
through the deltas of great rivers [They
need moisture to be alive], the Ganga, the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and
the Cauvery and cause heavy rain in these
areas.
The location of depressions strongly
coincide with the latitudinal position of
ITCZ.
Most of the depression originate to the
west of 90 E in Bay of Bengal and move
in north-west direction.
In the Arabian Sea in June-July, the
depressions move either in north-west or
in northerly direction and may affect west
Gujarat or Maharashtra.
Storms during August and September are
rare and are formed close to MaharashtraGujarat coast.
Most of the rainfall in central and

northern parts of the country is caused by
these depressions.
The absence of depressions or a change in
their tracks result in deficit or no rain.
Chief Characteristics of South

West Monsoon Rainfall
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Major part of monsoon rains are received

between June and September.
Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed
by relief and is orographic in its mode.
The amount of rainfall decreases with
increasing distance from the sea.
The rainless interval during south west
monsoon season is known as 'breaks'. The
breaks in rainfall are related to tropical
cyclones which originate in the Bay of
Bengal.
There are large scale spatial variations in
the distribution of rainfall.
Monsoons often fail to keep date.
Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before
the scheduled time causing considerable
damage to the crops.
North East Monsoon Season Retreating
Monsoon Season Temperature, Cyclones
& Precipitation during Retreating Monsoon
Season. Annual Rainfall.
Retreating Monsoon Season

North East Monsoon Season
Starts with the beginning of the

withdrawal
of southwest
monsoon
[middle of September November] and
lasts till early January.
The monsoons withdraw from the extreme

north-west end of the country in
September, from the peninsula by October
and from the extreme south-eastern tip by
December.
In Punjab the south-west monsoons reach
in the first week of July and withdraw
from there in the second week of
September.
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The
south-west
monsoons
reach
Coromandel coast in the first week of June
and withdraw from there only in the
middle of December.
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Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing

monsoons, the withdrawal is rather
gradual and takes about three months.
Advance and Withdrawal of South

West Monsoons
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Temperature during Retreating

Monsoon Season
With retreat of the monsoons, the clouds

disappear and the sky becomes clear.
The day temperature starts falling steeply.
The diurnal range of temperature
increases due to lack of cloud cover.
Pressure and Winds during

Retreating Monsoon Season
As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon

trough weakens and gradually shifts
southward. Consequently the pressure
gradient is low.
Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of

the north monsoon is not clearly defined.
The direction of winds over large parts of
the country is influenced by the local
pressure conditions.
Cyclones during Retreating

Monsoon Season
Most severe and devastating tropical

cyclones originate in the Indian seas
especially in the Bay of Bengal.
The highest frequency of the cyclones is in
the month of October and the first half of
November.
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25% of them later recurve northeast and

strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat coast.
In
north-west
India
the
western
disturbances produce clouding and light
rainfall in the otherwise fine weather.
The precipitation is in the form of snow in
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higher reaches of Jammu and Kashmir,
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Himachal Pradesh and in Kumaon Hills.
Precipitation during Retreating

Monsoon Season
More cyclones are born in October and

then in November and more cyclones
originate in the Bay of Bengal than in
the Arabian Sea.
In October, the Cyclones of the Bay of

Bengal originate between 8N and 14N.
Initially they move in a west or
northwesterly direction, but many of them
later recurve and move towards the northeast.
Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms cross
or affect the Indian coast.
The areas most vulnerable to these
storms include the coastal belts of Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West
Bengal.
Many of the cyclones which strike the
eastern coast of India, south of 15N
latitude cross the southern Peninsula and
enter Arabian Sea.
During this process, they may weaken,
but on re-entry over the Arabian sea they
intensify into cyclonic storms.
The storms of Arabian sea originate
between 12N and 17N latitudes in
October and between 8 N and 13 N
latitudes in November.
Generally they move away from the coast
in a north-westerly direction. But about
The humidity and cloud cover are much

reduced with the retreat of the south-west
monsoons and most parts of the country
remain without much rainfall.
October-November is the main rainy
season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining
areas of Andhra Pradesh to the south of
the Krishna delta as well as a secondary
rainy period for Kerala.
The retreating monsoons absorb moisture
while passing over the Bay of Bengal and
cause this rainfall.
Annual Rainfall [South West

Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons]
Areas of very high rainfall
Areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200

cm and above.
These include western side of Western
Ghats [Thiruvananthapuram in the south
to Mumbai in the north].
The average annual rainfall in this belt is
200-400 cm.
Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of
Manipur, Tripura and north-eastern tip of
West Bengal also receive 200 cm or more,
with isolated pockets receiving over 400
cm.
Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is the
wettest part of the country with
Mawsynram and Cherrapunji getting
1,221 and 1,102 cm of annual rainfall
respectively.
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Areas of high rainfall
100-200 cm annual rainfall.
Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats,

major part of the northern plain, Odisha,
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Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and

Tamil Nadu.
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Isohyet (the line joining places of equal

rainfall).
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Areas of low rainfall
50-100 cm annual rainfall.

Large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra.
western
Madhya
Pradesh,
Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, eastern Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar
Pradesh.
Areas of very low rainfall
These are desert and semi-desert areas

receiving less than 50 cm of annual
rainfall.
They include large areas of western
Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh
region of Jammu and Kashmir.
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zone in the north and tropical zone in

the south.
This line runs roughly across the root of
the peninsula, more or less along or
parallel to the Tropic of Cancer.
The two major climatic regions are further
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divided into eleven regions depending
upon the amount of rainfall and |
temperature.
130
Temperate or Continental India
The Himalayan region (heavy rainfall)

The north-western region (moderate
rainfall)
The arid low land
The region of moderate rainfall
The transitional zone
Tropical India
Climatic Regions of India - Stamp's
Classification of Climatic Regions of India:
Temperate, Tropical
Koeppen's
Classification of Climatic Regions of India.
Climatic Regions of India
India has tropical monsoon climate with

large regional variations in terms of
rainfall and temperature.
While classifying Indian climatic regions,
most geographers have given more
importance
to rainfall than
to
temperature as variations in rainfall are
much more marked than those of
temperature.
Here we will see two classifications Stamp's and Koeppen's. For GS this is
more than enough.
Stamp's Classification of Climatic

Regions of India
Stamp used 18C isotherm of mean

monthly temperature for January to divide
the country into two broad climatic
regions, viz., temperate or continental
Region of very heavy rainfall

Region of heavy rainfall
Region of moderate rainfall
The Konkan Coast
The Malabar Coast
Tamil Nadu
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Temperate or Continental India

Region
Avg Temperature
Annual Rainfall
Himalayan Region
Sumer = 4-7C
East = Over 200 cm
Winter = 13-18C
West = much less
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Summer = 16C
Below 200 cm
North-western Region
131
Northern
parts
of Punjab
and Winter = 24C
southern parts of Jammu and

Kashmir
Arid Lowland
Winter = 16 to 24C
Below 40 cm
Thar desert of Rajasthan, south Summer = 48C

western
part
of
Haryana
and
Kachchh of Gujarat
Winter = 15-18C
40 - 80 cm
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Summer = 33-35C

Pradesh, Union Territory of Delhi,
north-west Plateau area of Madhya
Pradesh and eastern Rajasthan
Transitional Zone
Winter = 15-19C Summer 100 -150 cm

= 30 - 35C
Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
Tropical India
Region of very heavy rainfall
Meghalaya,
Assam,
Tripura,
Winter = 18C in Summer = Over 200

32-35C
Mizoram and Nagaland

Region of heavy rainfall
Chhattisgarh,
Winter = 18-24C
100 - 200 cm
Jharkhand, Summer = 29-35C
Gangetic West Bengal, Odisha and

coastal Andhra Pradesh
Winter = 18-24C Summer 50 -100 cm

= 32C in
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between
and
Western
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Eastern
Ghats
Konkan Coast
Annual = 24-27C.
Over 200 cm
Mumbai in the north to Goa in the
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south
Malabar Coast
Annual = 27C
Over 250 cm
Annual = 24C
100 to 150 cm
Goa to Kanniyakumari
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of
(Retreating monsoon)
Andhra Pradesh
Koeppen's Classification of
Climatic Regions of India
Koeppen's
Classification
of
Climatic
Regions of India is an empirical
classification based on mean annual and
mean
monthly
temperature
and
precipitation data.
Koeppen identified a close relationship
between the distribution of vegetation and
climate.
He selected certain values of temperature
and precipitation and related them to the
distribution of vegetation and used these
values for classifying the climates.
Koeppen recognized five major climatic
groups, four of them are based on
temperature and one on precipitation.
The capital letters:
1. A, C, D and E delineate humid climates

and
2. B dry climates.
[Don't have to remember all these
alphabets. Only remember the climatic
regions and their characteristics. That's
enough
Alphabet codes will help you to remember
the concept in the long run. But if you
found them hard, just ignore them]
The climatic groups are subdivided into

types, designated by small letters, based
on seasonality of precipitation and
temperature characteristics.
The seasons of dryness are indicated by
the small letters : f, m, w and s, where
1.
2.
3.
4.
f - no dry season,
m - monsoon climate,
w - winter dry season and
s - summer dry season.
The above mentioned major climatic types

are further subdivided depending upon
the seasonal distribution of rainfall or
degree of dryness or cold.
a: hot summer, average temperature of
the warmest month over 22C
c: cool summer, average temperature of
the warmest month under 22C
f: no dry season
w: dry season in winter
s: dry season in summer
g: Ganges type of annual march of
temperature; hottest month comes
before the solstice and the summer
rainy season.
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h: average annual temperature under

18C
1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and

2. arid or desert (W).
m (monsoon): short dry season.
The capital letters S and W are employed

to designate the two subdivisions of dry
climate:
Capital letters T and F are similarly used

to designate the two subdivisions of polar
climate
1. tundra (T) and

2. icecap (F).
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134
Koeppen divided India into nine climatic

regions making use of the above scheme.
Koeppen's Scheme Climatic Regions of India

Climate type
Amw
(Monsoon type with
short dry winter
season)
As
(Monsoon type with
dry season in high
sun period)
Aw
(Tropical Savanah
type)
BShw
(Semi-arid Steppe
type)
BWhw
(Hot desert type)
Region
Western coastal region, south of Mumbai
Annual rainfall
over 300 cm
Coromandel coast = Coastal Tamil Nadu and

adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh
75 - 100 cm
Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring

Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips
Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats,
large part of Rajasthan and contiguous areas
of Haryana and Gujarat
Most of western Rajasthan
[wet winters, dry

summers]
75 cm
12 to 25 cm
less than 12 cm
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Cwg
(Monsoon type with
dry winters)
Dfc
(Cold, Humid
winters type with
shorter summer)
Et
(Tundra Type)
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Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern

Rajasthan, Assam and in Malwa Plateau
100 - 200 cm
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of

Assam
~200 cm
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Mountain areas of Uttarakhand
Rainfall varies from |

year to year.
135
The average temperature varies from 0 to

10C
E
Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and
Precipitation occurs
(Polar Type)
Himachal Pradesh in which the temperature in the form of snow
of the warmest month varies from 0 to 10C
Forests Natural Vegetation of India
sub-tropical, temperate and finally
alpine.
India: Moist Tropical, Dry Tropical,
Soil is an equally determining factor in few
Montane
Sub-tropical,
Montane
regions. Mangrove
forests,
swamp
Temperate, Alpine Forests.
forests are some of the examples where
soil is the major factor.
Topography is responsible for certain

Forests Natural Vegetation of
minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal
India
forests, etc..
Climate, soil and topography are the

major factors that influence Natural
Vegetation of a place.
The main climatic factors are rainfall and
temperature. The amount of annual
rainfall has a great bearing on the type of
vegetation.
Annual
Rainfall
200 cm or
more
100 to 200
cm
50 to 100
cm
25 to 50 cm
Below
cm
Type of Vegetation
Classification of Natural
Vegetation of India
Evergreen Rain Forests
Monsoon
Deciduous
Forests
Drier
Deciduous
or
Tropical Savanna
Dry Thorny Scrub (Semiarid)
25 Desert (Arid)
Temperature is the major factor in

Himalayas and other hilly regions with an
elevation of more than 900 metres.
As the temperature falls with altitude in
the Himalayan region the vegetal cover
changes with altitude from tropical to

India is primarily based on spatial and
annual variations in rainfall. Temperature,
soil and topography are also considered.
India's vegetation can be divided into 5
main types and 16 sub-types as given
below.
A. Moist Tropical Forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen

Tropical Semi-Evergreen
Tropical Moist Deciduous
Littoral and Swamp
B. Dry Tropical Forests
Tropical Dry Evergreen

Tropical Dry Deciduous
Tropical Thorn
C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests
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Sub-tropical broad leaved hill

Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
Sub-tropical dry evergreen
D. Montane Temperate Forests
Montane Wet Temperate

Himalayan Moist Temperate
Himalayan Dry Temperate
E. Alpine Forests
Sub-Alpine
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Moist Alpine scrub

Dry Alpine scrub
Forest Type in India
% of
Area
Moist 37
Tropical
Deciduous
Tropical Dry Deciduous
Tropical Wet Evergreen
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill
Tropical
SemiEvergreen
Rest below 4 %
28
8
6
4
Moist Tropical Forests
Total
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Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or

Rain Forests
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm

The annual temperature is about 25-27C
The average annual humidity exceeds 77
per cent and
The dry season is distinctly short.
Characteristics
Evergreen: Due to high heat and high

humidity, the trees of these forests do not
shed their leaves together.
Mesosphytic: Plants adopted to neither
too dry nor too wet type climate.
What are mesophytes?
Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as

water lily or pondweed, that grow in
saturated soil or water, or xerophytic
plants, such as cactus, that grow in
extremely dry soil, mesophytes are
ordinary plants that exist between the
two extremes.
Mesophytic environments are marked
by average to hot temperatures and soil
that is neither too dry nor too wet.
Lofty: The trees often reach 45 60 metres

in height.
Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical
rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by
large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
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All
plants
struggle
upwards
(most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting
in a peculiar layer arrangement. The entire
morphology looks like a green carpet when
viewed from above.
Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot
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reach the ground due to thick canopy. The
undergrowth
is
formed
mainly
of |
bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
137
Distribution
Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to

1370 metres above sea level).
Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Timber
Hardwood: The timber of these forests is

fine-grained, hard and durable.
It has high commercial value but it is
highly challenging to exploit due to dense
undergrowth, absence of pure stands
and lack of transport facilities [Read
previous posts on Climatic regions to
understand how lumbering industry
works
in
Equatorial
Rainforests
(hardwood) and Taiga Climatic (softwood)
conditions].
The important species of these forests
are mahogany, mesua, white cedar,
jamun, canes, bamboo etc.
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
They are transitional forests between

tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
deciduous forests.
They are comparatively drier areas
compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm

Mean annual temperature varies from
24C to 27C
The relative humidity is about 75 per cent
The dry season is not short like in tropical
evergreen forests.
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Distribution
Western coast
Assam
Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas
Odisha and
Andamans.
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Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.

Mean annual temperature of about 27C
The average annual relative humidity of 60
to 75 per cent.
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Spring (between winter and summer) and
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summer are dry.
Characteristics
The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.

They are more gregarious [living in
flocks or colonies more pure
stands] than the wet evergreen forests.
These forests are characterized by many
species.
Trees usually have buttressed trunks
with abundant epiphytes.
Characteristics
The trees drop their leaves during the

spring and early summer when sufficient
moisture is not available.
The general appearance is bare in extreme
summers (April-May).
Tropical moist deciduous forests present
irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
Heavily buttressed trees and fairly
complete undergrowth.
These forests occupy a much larger area
than the evergreen forests but large tracts
under these forests have been cleared for
cultivation.
Distribution
Buttressed Trunks
The
important
species
are
laurel,
rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo
Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian
chestnut,
champa,
mango,
etc.
Himalayan region.
Timber
Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical

evergreen forests except that these forests
are
less
dense
with more
pure
stands (timber industry here is better
than in evergreen forests).
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Belt running along the Western Ghats

surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
A strip along the Shiwalik range including
terai and bhabar from 77 E to 88 E.
Manipur and Mizoram.
Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh.
Chota Nagpur Plateau.
Most of Odisha.
Parts of West Bengal and
Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Timber
These provide valuable timer like Teak.

The main species found in these forests
are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla,
jamun, bamboo, etc.
It is comparatively easy to exploit these
forests due to their high degree of
gregariousness (more pure stands).
Littoral and Swamp Forests
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They can survive and grow both in fresh

as well as brackish water (The mixture of
seawater and fresh water in estuaries is
called brackish water and its salinity can
range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries
and creeks prone to tidal influences
(delta or tidal forests).
Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the
sea or a lake) forests occur at several
places along the coast.
Swamp forests are confined to the deltas
of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna and the Cauvery.
Dense mangroves occur all along the
coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal
creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and
mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
The most pronounced and the densest is
the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where
the predominant species is Sundri
(Heriteera).
Timber
It provides hard and durable timber which

is used for construction, building
purposes and making boats.
The important species found in these
forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw
pines, canes and palms, etc.
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Dry Tropical Forests

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Distribution
Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.

Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the

north-east monsoon winds in October
December].
Mean annual temperature is about 28C.
The mean humidity is about 75 per cent.
The growth of evergreen forests in areas of
such low rainfall is a bit strange.
Characteristics
Short statured trees, up to 12 m high,

with complete canopy.
Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
The important species are jamun,
tamarind, neem, etc.
Most of the land under these forests has
been cleared for agriculture or casuarina
plantations.
Casuarina plantation
It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance.

They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as coastal
sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid regions.
They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in height
on an average.
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139
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140
Casuarina plantation
Distribution
Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
Benefits
Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities.

Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force.
It is also used for tourism promotion in view of its ornamental appearance.
It provides top quality firewood.
The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture of
paper for writing, printing, and wrapping.
It is got some serious medicinal values as well.
Wasteland development
The characteristics which make it a suitable species for wasteland development

include adaptability to wide range of habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought
resistant, ability to reclaim land and stabilize sand dunes.
Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, watermelons, sesamum, and pulses can
also be raised along with the plantation.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.
Characteristics
These are similar to moist deciduous

forests and shed their leaves in dry
season.
The major difference is that they can grow
in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
They represent a transitional type - moist

deciduous on the wetter side and thorn
forests on the drier side.
They have closed but uneven canopy.
The forests are composed of a mixture of a
few species of deciduous trees rising up to
a height of 20 metres.
Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the
ground to permit the growth of grass and
climbers.
Distribution
They occur in an irregular wide strip

running from the foot of the Himalayas to
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Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan,

Western Ghats and West Bengal.
The important species are teak, axlewood,
rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders,
laurel, satinwood, etc.
Large tracts of this forest have been
cleared for agricultural purposes.
These forests have suffer from over
grazing, fire, etc.
Tropical Thorn Forests
Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.

Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
Mean temperature is 25-30C.
Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88E

longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to
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Characteristics
141
Forests of evergreen species.

Commonly found species are evergreen
oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and
pines.
Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that
grows non-parasitically on a tree or other
plant] are common.
These forests are not so distinct in the
southern parts of the country. They occur
only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 10701525 metres above sea level.
It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is not so
luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
The higher parts of the Western Ghats
such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of
the Satpura and the Maikal Range,
highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the
Aravali Range carry sub-types of these
forests.
Characteristics
The trees are low (6 to 10 metres

maximum) and widely scattered.
Acacias
and
Euphorbias
are
very
prominent.
The Indian wild date is common. Some
grasses also grow in the rainy season.
Distribution
Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western

Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts
of Saurashtra.
Here they degenerate into desert type in
the Thar desert.
Such forests also grow on the leeside of
the Western Ghats covering large areas of
Maharashtra,
Karnataka,
Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
The important species are neem, babul,
cactii, etc.
Humidity is 80 per cent.

Distribution
Climatic Conditions
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Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests

Distribution
Western Himalayas between 73E and

88E longitudes at elevations between
1000 to 2000 metres above sea level.
Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
Timber
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests

Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill
Forests
Climatic conditions
Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.

Average annual temperature is 18-21C.
Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree

which forms pure stands.
It provides valuable timber for furniture,
boxes and buildings.
It is also used for producing resin and
turpentine.
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
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Himalayan Moist Temperate

Forests
Distribution
Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and

the western Himalayas up to about 1000
metres above sea level.
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm

in December-March).
The summers are sufficiently hot and
winters are very cold.
Characteristics
Montane Wet Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 Page

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Distribution
142
Occurs in the temperate zone of the

Himalayas between 1500 and 3300
metres.
Cover the entire length of this mountain
range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim.
Low scrub forest with small evergreen

stunted trees and shrubs.
Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the
most predominant species.
Montane Temperate Forests
Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m

above sea level
Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm
Mean annual temperature is about 11C
to 14C and the
Average relative humidity is over 80 per
cent.
Characteristics
These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks

have large girth.
Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns
and other epiphytes.
The trees rarely achieve a height of more
than 6 metres.
Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch,
plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea,
magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc.
are important species.
It provides fine wood which is of much use

for construction, timber and railway
sleepers.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in

the Eastern Himalayan region.
Characteristics
Mainly composed of coniferous species.

Species occur in mostly pure strands.
Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are
most important trees.
They form high but fairly open forest with
shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.
Timber
Distribution
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Climatic Conditions
Precipitation is below 100 cm and is

mostly in the form of snow.
Characteristics
Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs

in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are
the main trees.
Distribution
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Such forests are found in the inner dry

ranges of the Himalayas where south-west
monsoon is very feeble.
Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul,
Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.
Alpine Forests
Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500.

These forests can be divided into: (1) subalpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry
alpine scrub.
The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine
scrub and grasslands.
It is a mixture of coniferous and broadleaved trees in which the coniferous trees
attain a height of about 30 m while the
broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are
important species.
The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen
dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc.
which occurs from 3,000 metres and
extends upto snowline.
The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost
limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs,
over 3,500 metres above sea level and
found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle,
artemesia etc. are important species.
Soil Soil Types: Sandy - Clayey - Loamy.
Soil Profile Soil Horizon: O horizon, A
Horizon, E horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon
or Parent rock, R Horizon or Bedrock.
Soil
Soil is the thin top layer on the earths

crust comprising rock particles mixed with
organic matter.
Pedology is the study of soils in their
natural environment. Pedogenesis is the
natural process of soil formation that
includes a variety of processes such as
weathering, leaching, calcification etc..
The Soil formation is mainly related to the
parent rock material, surface relief,
climate and natural vegetation.
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The soil is formed by the breaking down of

rocks by the action of wind, water and
climate. This process is called
Soil Types Sandy-Clayey-Loamy
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The soil is classified on the basis of the
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proportion of particles of various sizes.
If soil contains greater proportion of big 143
particles it is called sandy soil.
If the proportion of fine particles is
relatively higher, then it is called clayey
soil.
If the amount of large and fine particles is
about the same, then the soil is called
1. Water can drain quickly through the

spaces between the sand particles. So,
sandy soils tend to be light, well aerated
and dry.
2. Clay particles, being much smaller, pack
tightly together, leaving little space for air.
Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the
tiny gaps between the particles of clay. So
clay soils have little air. But they are
heavy as they hold more water than the
sandy soils.
3. The best topsoil for growing plants is
Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and
another type of soil particle known as silt.
Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The
size of the silt particles is between those of
sand and clay. The loamy soil also has
humus in it. It has the right water holding
capacity for the growth of plants.
Clayey and loamy soils are both

suitable for growing cereals like wheat,
and gram. Such soils are good at
retaining water.
For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic
matter and having a good capacity to
retain water are ideal.
For lentils (masoor) and other pulses,
loamy soils, which drain water easily,
are required.
For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which
drain water easily and can hold plenty
of air, are more suitable.
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A vertical section through different layers

of the soil is called the soil profile.
Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour,
depth and chemical composition. These
layers are referred to as
A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel
to the soil surface, whose physical
characteristics differ from the layers above
and beneath.
Horizons are defined in most cases by
obvious physical features, chiefly colour
and texture.
The uppermost horizon is generally dark
in colour as it is rich in humus and
minerals. The humus makes the soil fertile
and provides nutrients to growing plants.
This layer is generally soft, porous and
can retain more water. It is called the
topsoil or the A-horizon.
The next layer has a lesser amount of
humus but more of minerals. This layer is
generally harder and more compact and is
called the B-horizon or the middle layer.
The third layer is the C-horizon, which is
made up of small lumps of rocks with
cracks.
O Horizon
Layers dominated by organic material.

Some O layers consist of undecomposed or
partially decomposed litter (such as
leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens).
They may be on top of either mineral or
organic soils.
A Horizon or Surface soil
It is the part of top soil.

In this layer, organic matter is mixed with
mineral matter.
It is the layer of mineral soil with the most
organic matter accumulation and soil life.
This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron,
clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and
other soluble constituents.
When depletion is pronounced, a lighter
colored "E" subsurface soil horizon is
apparent at the base of the "A" horizon.
E horizon
"E" stands for eluviated layer.
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It is the horizon that has been significantly

leached of clay, iron, and aluminum
oxides, which leaves a concentration of
resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the
sand and silt sizes.
These are present only in older, welldeveloped soils, and generally occur
between the A and B horizons.
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Parent Material
Relief
Climate
Natural Vegetation
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145
B Horizon or Subsoil
It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical

or physical alteration of parent material.
This layer accumulates all the leached
minerals from A and E horizon.
Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic
compounds accumulate in this horizon
[illuviation (opposite of eluviation)].
C Horizon or Parent rock
Weathered parent material accumulates in

this layer, i.e. the parent material in
sedimentary deposits.
It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.
This layer may accumulate the more
soluble compounds (inorganic material).
R Horizon or Bedrock
This layer denotes the layer of partially

weathered bedrock at the base of the soil
profile.
Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely
comprise continuous masses of hard rock.
Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong
similarities to this bedrock layer.
These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet
of the other profiles.
Soil formation in Indian Conditions
Factors that influence soil formation:
Parent Material Gondwana rocks &
Deccan basalts, Relief, Climate & Natural
Vegetation.
Factors that influence soil

formation in Indian Conditions
Parent Material
The rocks from which soils are formed are

called parent materials.
In most of the cases, the parent material
determines
the colouration,
mineral
composition and texture of the soil.
In some cases, the soil formed may or may
not have the same physical properties of
the parent rock.
Climatic factors induce chemical changes
which also affect physical properties of the
soil.
The surface rocks are exposed to the
process of weathering. In this process, the
rocks are converted into fine grains and
provide a base for the soil formation.
In Indian Conditions, parent material is
generally categorized into:
1. Ancient crystalline and metamorphic

rocks
2. Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
3. Gondwana rocks
4. Deccan basalts
5. Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks of extra peninsular India {Rock
System}
Ancient crystalline and metamorphic
rocks
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They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian

era)(formed due to solidification of molten
magma about 4billion years ago)].
They form the Basement Complex of
peninsular India.
They are basically granites, gniesses and
schists.
These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic
materials and give rise to red soils on
weathering.
The red colour of these soils is due to the
presence of iron oxide.
Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000

m thick).
On
weathering
they
give calcareous [containing
calcium
carbonate;
chalky]
and argillaceous [consisting
of
or
containing clay] soils.
The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous
minerals.
Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary

rocks
These rocks are also sedimentary in

nature and they are much younger.
On weathering they give rise to
comparatively less mature soils.
The soil is more or less of uniform
character but of low fertility.
Deccan basalts
Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the

Peninsular India many hundred million
years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.
Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures
covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq
km.
Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite,
aluminium and magnesium.
Consequently the weathering of these
rocks has given rise to soils of darker
colour.
The is fertile with high moisture holding
capacity and
is
popularly
known
as regur or black cotton soil.
Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and

Himalayas) India have given rise to soils
with high porosity.
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These soils are generally immature recent
and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial |
soils on weathering.
146
Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and
clay. These soils have little relation with
the original rocks.
On the other hand, the soils of peninsular
plateau are generally coarse-grained and
are closely related to the parent rocks. The
peninsular soils are generally less fertile.
Relief
Gondwana rocks
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The relief is the most important factor for

soil formation in places with steep slopes
like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus
etc.
Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant
and
it
hinders
soil
formation.
Example: Chambal
ravines,
higher
reaches of Himalayas where there is
minimal or no forest cover (most on the
steep southern slopes) etc.
The areas of low relief or gentle slope
generally experience deposition and have
deep soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
The exceptions in the plateau are river
basins where the soil layers are
sufficiently deep.
Climate
Temperature and rainfall are the most

important factors in soil formation.
They determine the effectiveness of
weathering of the parent material, the
quantity of water seeping through the soil
and the type of micro-organisms present
therein.
Two different parent materials may
develop the same soil in the same type of
climate. Similarly, the same parent
material may produce two different types
of soils in two different types of climates.
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The
crystalline
granites
produce
laterite soil in relatively moist parts of
the monsoonal region and non-laterite
soil in drier areas.
Hot summer and low rainfall develops
black soil as is found in some parts of
Tamil Nadu irrespective of the parent
rock.
In
Rajasthan,
both
granite
and
sandstone give birth to sandy soil under
arid climate.
In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation
always exceeds precipitation. There is little
vegetation and the soils badly lack humus
content. Hence the soils are invariably
of light colour.
In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and
semi-arid regions, excess of evaporation
makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the
soil is pedocal in nature [Pedocal is a
subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a
class of soil which forms in semiarid and
arid regions. It is rich in calcium
carbonate and has low soil organic
matter].
In cold climates of the Himalayan region,
the process of vegetation decay is very
slow and the soils are acidic in nature.
In areas of heavy rainfall and high
temperature, the soils are red or
lateritic. Why?
Torrential rainfall during the rainy season

washes the upper soil and leaches the
materials into deeper horizon.
During the dry summer season the
evaporation exceeds precipitation and
through
capillary
action iron
and
aluminium oxides are transported to the
surface making the soil red.
In areas of alternate wet and dry climate,
the leached material which goes deep
down in the horizon is brought up and the
blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard that
it resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is
called lateritic which literally means
brick.
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Natural Vegetation
Natural vegetation reflects the combined

effects of relief and climate.
The formation and development of soil is
very much influenced by the growth of Page
vegetation.
The decayed leaf material adds much |
needed humus to soil thereby increasing 147
its fertility.
The densely forested areas contain some of
the best soils in India. There is a close
relationship between the vegetation types
and soil types in India.
Soil Types of India Alluvial Soils Black
Soils
Characteristics,
Chemical
properties,
Distribution,
Divisions:
Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar, Khadar.
Major Soil Types of India
Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be

divided into soils of peninsular India and
soils of extra-peninsular India.
The soils of Peninsular India are formed by
the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e.
directly from the underlying rocks.
Soils of Peninsular India are transported
and re-deposited to a limited extent and
are known as sedentary soils.
The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are
formed due to the depositional work of
rivers and wind. They are very deep. They
are often referred to as transported or
azonal soils.
Major groups:
Alluvial soils,
Black soils,
Red soils,
Laterite and Lateritic soils,
Forest and Mountain soils,
Arid and Desert soils,
Saline and Alkaline soils and
Peaty and Marshy soils.
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Alluvial Soils
Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt

deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra
rivers. In coastal regions some alluvial
deposits are formed due to wave action.
Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent
material. Thus the parent material of
these soils is of transported origin.
They are the largest soil group covering
about 15 lakh sq km or about 6 per
cent of the total area.
They support more than 40% of the Indias
population
by
providing
the
most
productive agricultural lands.
Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
Chemical properties of Alluvial

Soils
They are immature and have weak

profiles due to their recent origin.
Most of the soil is Sandy and clayey soils
are not uncommon.
Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar

(calcareous concretions) beds are present
in some regions along the river terraces.
The soil is porous because of its loamy
(equal proportion of sand and clay) nature.
Porosity and texture provide good drainage
and other conditions favorable for
agriculture.
These soils are constantly replenished by
the recurrent floods.
The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.

The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid
and alkalies are adequate
The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary
within a wide range.
Distribution of Alluvial Soils in

India
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They occur all along the Indo-GangeticBrahmaputra plains except in few places
where the top layer is covered by desert
sand.
They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery, where they are called deltaic
alluvium (coastal alluvium)
Some alluvial soils are found in the
Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts
of Gujarat.
They are mostly flat and regular soils and

are best suited for agriculture.
They are best suited to irrigation and
respond well to canal and well/tube-well
irrigation.
They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat,
sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.
Geological divisions of alluvial

soils
Geologically, the alluvium of the Great

plain of India is divided into newer or
younger khadar and older bhangar soils.
Bhabar
The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide

running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a
porous, northern most stretch of IndoGangetic plain.
Rivers descending from the Himalayas
deposit their load along the foothills in the
form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans
(often pebbly soils) have merged together
to build up the bhabar belt.
The porosity of bhabar is the most unique
feature. The porosity is due to deposition
of huge number of pebbles and rock debris
across the alluvial fans.
The streams disappear once they reach
the bhabar region because of this porosity.
Therefore, the area is marked by dry river
courses except in the rainy season.
The area is not suitable for agriculture

and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.
Terai
Crops in Alluvial Soils
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Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy)
and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30 |
km wide) to the south of Bhabar running 149
parallel to it.
The underground streams of the Bhabar
belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a swampy
lowland with silty soils.
The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and
organic matter but are deficient in
phosphate.
These soils are generally covered by tall
grasses and forests but are suitable for a
number of crops such as wheat, rice,
sugarcane, jute etc..
This thickly forested region provides
shelter to a variety of wild life.
Bhangar
The Bhangar is the older alluvium along

the river beds forming terraces higher
than the flood plain (about 30 metres
above the flood level).
It is of a more clayey composition and is
generally dark colored.
A few metres below the terrace of the
bhangar are beds of lime nodules known
as
Khadar
The Khadar is composed of newer

alluvium and forms the flood plains along
the river banks.
The banks are flooded almost every year
and a new layer of alluvium is deposited
with every flood. This makes them the
most fertile soils of Ganges.
They are sandy clays and loams, more dry
and
leached,
less
calcareous
and
carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer
of alluvium is deposited by river flood
almost every year.
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Chemical Composition of Black

Soils
Black Soils
The parent material for most of the black

soil are the volcanic rocks that were
formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and
the Rajmahal trap).
In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form
the parent material. The former are
sufficiently deep while the later are
generally shallow.
These are the region of high temperature
and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil
group typical to the dry and hot regions of
the Peninsula.
Characteristics of Black Soils
A typical black soil is highly argillaceous

[Geology (of rocks or sediment) consisting
of or containing clay] with a large clay
factor, 62 per cent or more.
In general, black soils of uplands are of
low fertility while those in the valleys are
very fertile.
The black soil is highly retentive of
moisture.
It
swells
greatly
on
accumulating moisture. Strenuous effort
is required to work on such soil in rainy
season as it gets very sticky.
In summer, the moisture evaporates, the
soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and
deep cracks. The lower layers can still
retain moisture. The cracks permits
oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths
and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
The black colour is due to the presence of

a
small
proportion
of titaniferous
magnetite
or
iron
and
black
constituents of the parent rock.
In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra
Pradesh, the black colour is derived from
crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
Various tints of the black colour such as
deep black, medium black, shallow black ,
a mixture of red and black may be found
in this group of soils.
10 per cent of alumina,

9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium Page
carbonates,
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Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent)
150
and
phosphates, nitrogen and humus are
low.
Distribution of Black Soils
Spread over 46 lakh sq km (16.6 per

cent
of
the
total
area)
across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Crops in Black Soils
Colour of Black Soils
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These soils are best suited for cotton crop.

Hence these soils are called as regur and
black cotton soils.
Other major crops grown on the black
soils include wheat, jowar, linseed,
virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and
millets.
Rice and sugarcane are equally important
where irrigation facilities are available.
Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are
also successfully grown on the black soils.
This soil has been used for growing a
variety of crops for centuries without
adding fertilizers and manures, with little
or no evidence of exhaustion.
Indian Soil Types: Red Soils, Laterite
Lateritic Soils, Forest Mountain Soils,
Arid Desert Soils, Saline Alkaline Soils,
Peaty Marshy Soils.
Previous post: Alluvial Soil Black Soil.
Red Soils
Red soils along with its minor groups form

the largest soil group of India.
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The main parent rocks are crystalline

and metamorphic
rocks like
acid
granites, gneisses and quartzites.
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota
Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar,
West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and
the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or
Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern
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states.
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Characteristics of Red Soils
The texture of these soils can vary from

sand to clay, the majority being loams.
On the uplands, the red soils are poor,
gravelly, and porous. But in the lower
areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.
Chemical Composition of Red Soils
They are acidic mainly due to the nature

of the parent rocks. The alkali content is
fair.
They
are
poor
in
lime,
magnesia, phosphates,
nitrogen and
humus.
They are fairly rich in potash and
potassium.
Color of Red Soils
The red colour is due to the presence

of iron oxide.
When limestone, granites, gneisses and
quartzites are eroded the clay enclosed
within the rocks remains intact with other
forms of non-soluble materials.
In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron oxide
develops in the clay, when the soil is
present above the water table giving the
soil a characteristic red colour.
The colour is more due to the wide
diffusion rather than high percentage of
iron oxide content.
Crops in Red Soils
Laterite soils are mostly the end products

of weathering.
They are formed under conditions of high
temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods.
Heavy
rainfall
promotes leaching
(nutrients
gets
washed
away
by
water) of soil whereby lime and silica are
leached away and a soil rich in oxides of
iron and aluminium compounds is left
behind.
'Laterite' means brick in Latin. They
harden greatly on loosing moisture.
Laterite soils are red in colour due to little
clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.
Chemical composition of Laterite

Lateritic Soils
These soils mostly occur in the regions of

low rainfall.
They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6
per cent) of the total area of the country.
These soils are spread on almost the whole
of Tamil Nadu.
Other regions with red soil include parts of
Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra,
The red soils are mostly loamy and

hence cannot retain water like the black
soils.
The red soils, with the proper use of
fertilizers and irrigation techniques, give
good yield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses,
millets, tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and
fruits.
Laterite Lateritic Soils
Distribution of Red Soils
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Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric

oxides.
They
are
very poor in
lime,
magnesia, potash and nitrogen.
Sometimes, the phosphate content may
be high in the form of iron phosphate.
In wetter places, there may be higher
content of humus.
151
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Distribution of Laterite Lateritic

Soils
Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq

km.
Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found
on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000
to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern
Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan,
Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
They also occur at lower levels and in
valleys in several other parts of the
country.
They are well developed in south
Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and
are widely scattered in other regions.
Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive

leaching.
When manured and irrigated, some
laterites
are
suitable
for
growing plantation crops like tea, coffee,
rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
In some areas, these soils support grazing
grounds and scrub forests.
Economic value of Laterite

Lateritic Soils
Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable

building material.
These soils can be easily cut into cakes
but hardens like iron when exposed to air.
As it is the end-product of weathering, it
cannot be weathered much further and is
durable.
In the Himalayan region, such soils are

mainly found in valleys, less steep and
north facing slopes. The south facing
slopes are very steep and exposed to
denudation and hence do not support soil
formation.
Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern
Ghats also.
Chemical properties of Forest

Mountain Soils
The forest soils are very rich in humus.

They are deficient in potash, phosphorus
and lime.
They require good deal of fertilizers for
high yields.
Crops in Forest Mountain Soils
They are suitable for plantations of tea,

coffee, spices and tropical fruits in
peninsular forest region.
Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits
are grown in the Himalayan forest region.
Arid Desert Soils
These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km

or 8.67% of the total land area of India.
They
are
mainly heterogeneous
soils found on the hill slopes covered by
forests.
The formation of these soils is mainly
governed by the characteristic deposition
of organic matter derived from forests and
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152
Forest Mountain Soils
their character changes with parent

rocks, ground-configuration and climate.
Consequently, they differ greatly even if
they occur in close proximity to one
another.
Distribution of Forest Mountain

Soils
Crops in Laterite Lateritic Soils
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The desert soils consist of Aeolian

sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10
per cent).
They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km
(4.32%).
The presence of sand inhibits soil growth.
Desertification of neighboring soils is
common due to intrusion of desert sand
under the influence of wind [Aeolian
sand].
Distribution of Arid Desert Soils
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Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of

Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The sand
here is blown from the Indus basin and
the coast by the prevailing south-west
monsoon winds.
Sandy soils without clay factor are also
common in coastal regions of Odisha,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
They are usually poor in organic matter.

Some
desert
soils
are alkaline with
varying
degree
of
soluble
salts
like calcium carbonate.
Calcium content increases downwards
and the subsoil has ten times more
calcium.
The phosphate content of these soils is
as high as in normal alluvial soils.
Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is
available in the form of nitrates.
Crops of Arid Desert Soils
Phosphates and nitrates make these soil

fertile wherever moisture is available.
There is a possibility of reclaiming these
soils if proper irrigation facilities are
available.
In large areas, only the drought resistant

and salt tolerant crops such as barley,
cotton, millets, maize and pulses are
grown.
Saline Alkaline Soils
Chemical properties of Arid

Desert Soils
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In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil |

is impregnated (soak or saturate with a 153
substance) with saline and alkaline
efflorescences (become covered with salt
particles).
Undecomposed
rock
fragments,
on
weathering,
give
rise
to sodium,
magnesium and calcium salts and
sulphurous acid.
Some of the salts are transported in
solution by the rivers.
In regions with low water table, the salts
percolate into sub soil and in regions with
good drainage, the salts are wasted away
by flowing water.
But in places where the drainage system
is poor, the water with high salt
concentration becomes stagnant and
deposits all the salts in the top soil once
the water evaporates.
In regions with high sub-soil water table,
injurious salts are transferred from below
by the capillary action as a result of
evaporation in dry season.
Capillary action
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Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity.
The force behind capillary action is surface tension.
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154
Surface tension
Surface tension is the elastic tendency of liquids (a membrane like surface) that
makes them acquire the least surface area possible.
Surface tension causes insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser than water, to
float and stride on the water surface.
Surface tension offers the necessary buoyant force (buoyancy) required for an object
to float in water [Ships flots because of difference in density as well surface
tension].
What gives water droplet its shape?
When a water droplet is freely falling, it acquires a spherical shape.

When a water drop is on a surface, it acquires the shape of a hemisphere (half a
sphere).
All this is due to surface tension.
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This kind of trivial GK can help in many exams.
Distribution of Saline Alkaline

Soils
Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000

sq km of area.
These soils are found in canal irrigated
areas and in areas of high sub-soil water
table.
Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Karnataka,
Bihar,
Uttar
Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper
or excess irrigation), Rajasthan and
Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
The accumulation of these salts makes the
soil infertile and renders it unfit for
agriculture.
In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of
Khambhat are affected by the sea
tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast
areas comprising the estuaries of the
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the
Sabarmati have thus become infertile.
Along the coastline, saline sea waters
infiltrate into coastal regions during storm
surges (when cyclones make landfall) and
makes the soil unfit for cultivation. The
low lying regions of coastal Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind of
soil degradation.
Peaty Marshy Soils
These are soils with large amount of

organic
matter and considerable
amount of soluble salts.
The most humid regions have this type of
soil.
They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
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Distribution of Peaty Marshy

Soils
Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of

Kerala where it is called kari.
Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha
and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West
Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of
Uttarakhand.
Chemical Properties of Peaty

Marshy Soils
They are
phosphate.
deficient
in
potash
and
Crops of Peaty Marshy Soils
Most of the peaty soils are under water

during the rainy season but as soon the
rains cease, they are put under paddy
cultivation.
Characteristics of Indian Soils
Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the

peninsular plateau are much older than
the soils of the great northern plain.
Indian soils are largely deficient in
nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and
other organic materials.
Plains and valleys have thick layers of
soils while hilly and plateau areas depict
thin soil cover.
Some soils like alluvial and black soils are
fertile while some other soils such as
laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in
fertility and do not yield good harvest.
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Indian soils have been used for cultivation

for hundreds of years and have lost much
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of their fertility.
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156
Problems Of Indian Soils
Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal

Ravines etc.), deficiency in fertility (Red,
lateritic and other soils), desertification
(around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions

like parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.),
waterlogging
(Punjab-Haryana
plain)
salinity
and
alkalinity
(excessively
irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana,
Karnataka
etc.),
wasteland,
over
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exploitation of soils due to increase in

population and rise in living standards
and encroachment of agricultural land
due to urban and transport development.
Soil
Degradation
Soil
Erosion,
Deforestation,
Overgrazing,
Faulty
Methods of Agriculture, Soil Salinity & Soil
Alkalinity, Desertification, Waterlogging.
Soil degradation is the decline in soil

quality caused by its improper use,
usually
for
agricultural,
pastoral,
industrial or urban purposes.
Soil degradation is a serious global
environmental problem and may be
exacerbated by climate change. It
encompasses physical (soil erosion),
chemical (salinity and alkalinity, pollution)
and biological deterioration (pollution and
deterioration of vegetal cover).
We will see pollution and soil degradation
white studying environment.
For now we will study about the rest.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by

agents like wind and water.
Top soil has most of the nutrients
necessary for a plants growth. With
depth, the fertility of the soil decreases.
Thus, erosion results in reduction of
fertility of the soil by washing away the
fertile top layer.
Erosion by wind and water is much
quicker than the soil formation process.
So once fertile soil layer is lost, it requires
a lot of time and resources to restore it.
Prevention is a more practical measure. It
is less time and resource consuming.
In Indias case, the problem of soil erosion
is particularly severe due to over
dependence on agriculture and improper
land management.
Notable
Quotable: Soil
erosion
is
essentially a problem created by man
and also faced by man himself.
Water Erosion
Soil Degradation
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Water erosion leads to rilling, gullying,
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sheet-wash and rain peeling.
If erosion continues unchecked for a long 157
time, numerous finger-shaped grooves
may develop in the silt laden soils. The
whole pattern resembles the shape of a
tree. This is called rill erosion.
With further erosion of the soil, the rills
deepen and become enlarged and are
turned into Gullies formed over a large
area gives rise to badland topography
(Chambal Ravines).
When a gully bed is eroded further, the
bed gradually deepens and flattens out
and a ravine is formed. The depth of a
ravine may extend to 30 metres or more.
Further erosion of ravine beds gives rise to
Canyons are few hundred meters deep and
wide. (Grand Canyon on Colorado River).
When the entire top sheet of soil is washed
away by water or by wind, leaving behind
barren
rock,
it
is
called sheet
erosion. Sheet erosion attacks a large
area of top soil and renders the land
almost unfit for cultivation.
In the coastal areas, waves dash along the
coast and cause heavy damage to soil.
During the landfall of cyclones, storm
surges destroy beaches and wash away
the top layer. In estuaries, tidal bores
cause
extensive
damage
to
the
surrounding banks. This is called sea
erosion.
In the higher reaches of the Himalayan
region, soil erosion is caused by sowing
moving glaciers. This is called glacial
erosion.
Wind Erosion
Wind erosion or Aeolian erosion is quite

significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
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Winds usually blow at high speeds in

deserts due to absence of trees (physical
obstruction).
These winds remove the fertile, arable,
loose soils leaving behind a depression
devoid of top soil (the depression
formation in deserts is the first step in
Oasis
formation.
Oasis
forms
in
depressions when there is underground
water that gets accumulated above rocks).
Desertification around desert regions is
due to wind erosion.
Wind erosion is accentuated when the soil
is dry, soils are subjected to overgrazing
and devoid of vegetation cover.
Very fine and medium sands are moved by
wind in a succession of bounds and leaps,
known as
Coarse sand is not usually airborne but
rather is rolled along the soil surface. This
type of erosion is called surface creep.
Very coarse sand and gravels are too large
to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded soils
have surfaces covered with coarse
fragments larger than 1.00 mm in
diameter. This kind of arid soil surface is
known as desert pavement.
Extent Of Soil Erosion In India
80 million hectares or about one-fourth of

our total area is exposed to wind and
water erosion.
One-eighth of land has undergone serious
erosion.
Wind erosion is a serious problem in arid
and semi-arid parts of north west India.
About one-ninth of land is subject to
severe wind erosion in Rajasthan and
adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana,
Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
It is estimated that 34 lakh tonnes of
fertile soils is removed by wind every year.
The loss due to water erosion is 53.34
million hectares annually.
Factors affecting Soil Erosion
Intensity and duration of rainfall,

Wind speed,
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Nature of soil and the physiography,

Strong winds in dry areas,
Human density,
Deforestation,
Overgrazing,
Faulty methods of agriculture,
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Diversion of natural drainage courses,
Wrong orientation of roads and railways, |
embankments and bridges.
158
Effects of Soil Erosion
Fertile top soil is eroded.

Flooding and leaching result in loss of
mineral nutrients.
Ground water level is lowered.
There is decrease in soil moisture.
Frequency and intensity of floods and
drought increases.
Rivers, canals and tanks are silted and
their water holding capacity decreases.
The incidence and damaging power of
landslides increases.
Deforestation
Population explosion has created pressure

on forest land and resources and this
causes
deforestation.
Deforestation
accentuates soil erosion (soil degradation).
Roots of trees and plants bind the soil
particles and regulate the flow of water,
thus
saving
soil
from
erosion.
Deforestation make soil vulnerable to wind
and water erosion.
The large scale damage to soil in Shiwalik
range, the Chos of Punjab, the ravines of
Chambal valley are due to deforestation.
Overgrazing
During the rainy season, there is plenty of

vegetation and animals get enough fodder.
But during the dry period, there is
shortage of fodder and the grass is grazed
to the ground and torn out by the roots by
animals.
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This leads to loose structure of the soil

and the soil is easily washed away by
rains.
Moreover, soil is pulverized (reduce to fine
particles) by the hoofs of animals, and
thus proves detrimental to top soil when
heavy showers fall on it.
Soil erosion due to overgrazing is a
common site in the hilly areas.
Faulty Methods of Agriculture
Much of the soil erosion in India is caused

by faulty methods of agriculture.
Wrong ploughing, lack of crop rotation
and practice of shifting cultivation are the
most adversely affecting methods of
agriculture.
If the fields are ploughed along the slope,
there is no obstruction to the flow of water
and the water washes away the top soil
easily.
In some parts of the country, the same
crop is grown year after year which spoils
the chemical balance of the soil. This soil
is exhausted and is easily eroded by wind
or water.
Shifting cultivation practiced in some
areas in the north-eastern states. In this
method, a piece of forest land is cleared by
felling and burning of trees and crops are
grown. The removal of the forest cover
leads to the exposure of the soil to rains
and sun which results in heavy loss of top
soil, especially on the hill slopes.
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity
In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil

is impregnated (soak or saturate with a
substance) with saline and alkaline
efflorescences (become covered with salt
particles).
Undecomposed
rock
fragments,
on
weathering,
give
rise
to sodium,
magnesium and calcium salts and
sulphurous acid.
Some of the salts are transported in
solution by the rivers.
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In regions with low water table (due to

over irrigation in canal irrigated areas), the
salts percolate into sub soil and in regions
with good drainage, the salts are wasted
away by flowing water.
But in places where the drainage system
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is poor, the water with high salt
concentration becomes stagnant and |
deposits all the salts in the top soil once
159
the water evaporates.
In regions with high sub-soil water table,
injurious salts are transferred from below
by the capillary action as a result of
evaporation in dry season.
In canal irrigated areas plenty of the water
is available and the farmers indulge in
over irrigation of their fields.
Under such conditions, the ground water
level rises and saline and alkaline
efflorescences consisting of salts of
sodium, calcium and magnesium appear
on the surface as a layer of white salt
through capillary action.
Alkalinity implies the dominance of
sodium salts, specially sodium carbonate.
Although salts of alkali are somewhat
different in their chemical properties from
the salts of saline soils both soils occur in
the same areas.
Sandy soils are more prone to alkalinity
and the loamy soils to salinity-alkalinity.
It is estimated that about 80 lakh hectares
of land (2.43% of the country's total area)
is affected by the problem of salinity and
alkalinity.
Vast tracts of canal irrigated areas in
Uttar Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana; arid
regions of Rajasthan, semi-arid areas of
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana and Karnataka etc. are facing
this problem.
Although
Indira
Gandhi
canal
in
Rajasthan has turned the sandy desert
into a granary, it has given birth to serious
problems of salinity and alkalinity.
Effects of salinity and alkalinity
Salinity and alkalinity have adverse effect

on soil and reduce soil fertility.
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Cultivation is not possible on saline soils

unless they are flushed out with large
quantities of irrigation water to leach out
the salts.
Choice of crops is limited to salinity
tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc..
Quality of fodder and food produced in
poor in quality.
Salinity and alkalinity create difficulties in
building and road construction.
These cause floods due to reduced
percolation of water.
Steps to treat salinity and

alkalinity
Providing outlets for lands to drain out

excess water and lower water table.
Seal leakages from canals, tanks and
other water bodies by lining them.
Making judicious use of irrigation
facilities.
Improve vegetal cover to avoid further
degradation by planting salt tolerant
vegetation.
Crop rotation..
Liberal application of gypsum to convert
the alkalies into soluble compounds.
Alkali can be removed by adding sulphuric
acid or acid forming substances like
sulphur and pyrite.
Organic residues such as rice husks and
rice straw can be added to promote
formation of mild acid as a result of their
decomposition.
Flushing the salt by flooding the fields
with excess water. However, this practice
can lead to accumulation of saline water
in the downstream area.
Desertification is the spread of desert like

conditions in arid or semi-arid areas due
to man's influence or climatic change.
A large part of the arid and semi-arid
region lying between the Indus and the
Aravali range is affected by spreading
desert conditions.
Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by

wind. The sand carried by wind is
deposited on the adjoining fertile lands
whose fertility dwindles and slowly the
fertile land start merging with the
advancing desert.
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It has been estimated that the Thar Desert
is advancing at an alarming rate of about |
0.5 km per year.
160
The process of desertification is attributed
to uncontrolled grazing, reckless felling of
trees and growing population. Climate
change have also contributed to the
spread of deserts.
Ecological implications of
desertification
Drifting of sand and its accumulation on

fertile agricultural land.
Excessive soil erosion by wind and to
some extent by water.
Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and
other water bodies thereby decreasing
their water containing capacity.
Lowering of water table leading to acute
water shortage.
Increase in area under wastelands.
Decrease in agricultural production.
Increase in frequency and intensity of
droughts.
Measures of Controlling
Desertification
Desertification
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Intensive tree plantation in the transition

zones.
Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts
with different plant species. Mulches serve
as an effective physical barrier to the
moving sand.
Grazing should be controlled and new
pastures should be developed.
Indiscriminate felling of trees should be
banned.
Alternative sources of fuel can reduce the
demand for fuelwood.
Sandy and wastelands should be put to
proper use by judicious planning.
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Waterlogging
The flat surfaces and depressions results

in waterlogging.
Waterlogged soils are soaked with water
accumulated during rainy season or due
to leakage from various water sources.
Extent of waterlogged soils is about 12
million hectares in India half of which
lies along the coast and the other half in
the inland area.
Waterlogging is believed to be one of the
chief causes of salinity.
Proper layout of drainage schemes is the
only way to overcome the menace of
waterlogging.
The basic methods of removing excess
water from waterlogged soils are (a)
surface drainage and (b) vertical drainage.
Surface
Drainage.
Surface
drainage
involves the disposal of excess water over
ground surface through an open drainage
system with an adequate outlet.
Vertical Drainage. Any bore or well from
which the underlying water is extracted is
defined as vertical drainage. It works well
in Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped
water is used for irrigating the neighboring
regions.
Soil Conservation Various Methods Crop Rotation, Strip Cropping, Contour
Ploughing,
Mulching,
Terrace
farming, Shelter belts, Sand fences.
Soil Conservation
Soil conservation is the prevention of soil

from erosion or reduced fertility caused by
overuse, acidification, salinization or other
chemical soil contamination.
Soil erosion is the greatest single evil to
Indian agriculture and animal husbandry.
Notable Quotable from Kullar's Indian
Geography: "With soil conservation people
rise and with its destruction they fall.
Neglect of soil is like killing the hen that
lays the golden egg."
Crop Rotation
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Adopting
sustainable
agricultural
practices is the most important measure
to conserve soil.
In many parts of India, a particular crop is
sown in the same field year after year.
This practice leads to exhaustion of
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certain nutrients in the soil making it
|
infertile.
Crop rotation is a practice in which a
161
different crop is cultivated on a piece of
land each year.
This helps to conserve soil fertility as
different crops require different nutrients
from the soil. Crop rotation will provide
enough time to restore lost nutrients.
For example, potatoes require much
potash but wheat requires nitrate. Thus it
is best to alternate crops in the field.
Legumes such as peas, beans, and many
other plants, add nitrates to the soil by
converting free nitrogen in the air into
nitrogenous nodules on their roots. Thus if
they are included in the crop rotation
nitrogenous fertilizers can be dispensed
with.
Strip Cropping
Crops may be cultivated in alternate

strips, parallel to one another. Some strips
may be allowed to lie fallow while in others
different crops may be sown.
Various crops are harvested at different
intervals. This ensures that at no time of
the year the entire area is left bare or
exposed.
The tall growing crops act as wind breaks
and the strips which are often parallel to
the contours help in increasing water
absorption by the soil by slowing down
run off.
Use of Early Maturing Varieties
Early maturing varieties of crops take less

time to mature and thus put lesser
pressure on the soil. In this way it can
help in reducing the soil erosion.
Contour Ploughing
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If ploughing is done at right angles to the

hill slope, the ridges and furrows break
the flow of water down the hill.
This prevents excessive soil loss as gullies
are less likely to develop and also reduce
run-off so that plants receive more water.
Checking Shifting Cultivation
Checking and reducing shifting cultivation

by persuading the tribal people to switch
over to settled agriculture is a very
effective method of soil conservation.
This can be done by making arrangements
for their resettlement which involves the
provision of residential accommodation,
agricultural implements, seeds, manures,
cattle and reclaimed land.
Contour barriers
Ploughing the Land in Right

Direction
Ploughing the land in a direction

perpendicular to wind direction also
reduces wind velocity and protects the top
soil from erosion.
Rocks are piled up across a channel to

slow down the flow of water. This prevents
gullies and further soil loss.
Terrace farming
The bare ground (top soil) between plants

is covered with a protective layer of
organic matter like grass clippings, straw,
etc.
Stones, grass, soil are used to build

barriers along contours. Trenches are
made in front of the barriers to collect
water.
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They intercept downslope flowing water
and soil particles. These barriers slow |
down the water movement and reduce its 162
erosive force. They also filter out and trap
many of the suspended soil particles,
keeping them from being washed out of
the field.
A long term advantage of barriers is that
soil tends to build up behind them,
creating a terrace effect. Barriers can be
classified as live (strips of living plants),
dead (rocks, crop residues), or mixed (a
combination of the previous two).
Rock dam
Mulching
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In terracing, a number of terraces are cut

along the hill slope.
These are made on the steep slopes so
that flat surfaces are available to grow
crops. They can reduce surface run-off
and soil erosion.
Benefits
Protects the soil from erosion.

It helps to retain soil moisture.
Reduces compaction from the impact of
heavy rains.
Conserves moisture, reducing the need for
frequent watering.
Maintains a more even soil temperature.
Prevents weed growth.
Organic mulches also improve the
condition of the soil. As these mulches
slowly decompose, they provide organic
matter which helps keep the soil loose.
Contour Bunding
Contour
bunding
involves
the
construction of banks along the contours.
Terracing and contour bunding which
divide the hill slope into numerous small
slopes, check the flow of water, promote
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absorption of water by soil and save soil

from erosion.
Retaining walls of terraces control the flow
of water and help in reducing soil erosion.
Intercropping
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Different crops are grown in alternate rows

and are sown at different times to protect
the soil from rain wash.
163
Contour ploughing
Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill

slope to form a natural barrier for water to
flow down the slope
Shelter belts or Windbreaks
In the coastal and dry regions, rows of

trees are planted to check the wind
movement to protect soil cover.
Afforestation
It includes the prevention of forest

destruction along with growing new forests
or increase area under forests.
A minimum area 20 to 25 per cent of
forest land was considered healthy for soil
and water conservation for the whole
country.
It was raised to 33 per cent in the second
five year plan 20 per cent for the plains
and 60 per cent for hilly and mountainous
regions.
Checking Overgrazing
Sand fences
Sand fences are barriers made of small,

evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric. They
are erected to reduce wind velocity and to
trap blowing sand. Sand fences can be
used as perimeter controls around open
construction sites to keep sediments from
being blown offsite by the wind.
Overgrazing accentuates erosion. During

the dry period, there is shortage of fodder
and the grass is grazed to the ground and
torn out to the roots by animals. Soil is
pulverized (reduce to fine particles) by the
hoofs of animals. All this leads to weak top
layer.
So overgrazing needs to be checked to
prevent soil erosion.
This can be done by creating separate
grazing grounds and producing larger
quantities of fodder.
Dams
Much of the soil

can be avoided
across the rivers
checks the speed
from erosion.
erosion by river floods

by constructing dams
in proper places. This
of water and saves soil
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But indiscriminate dam construction can

worsen the condition by creating floods
and landslides like it happens in the
Himalayan region.
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164
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Table of Contents
Factors that influence the location of Iron
and Steel industry .................................. 2
Iron Ore Raw Material .......................... 2
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Petroleum and Mineral Oil - World

distribution ...........................................32
Natural gas ...........................................36
World Distribution of Natural Gas .........37
Types of Iron Ore .................................... 8
OPEC Organization of Petroleum

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Exporting Countries ..............................38
|1
Distribution of Natural Gas in India.......38
Iron Ore Distribution in India ................. 9
Petroleum and Gas Value Chain ............39
Coal ......................................................11
Upstream Sector....................................39
Formation of Coal ..................................11
Midstream sector ...................................41
Types of Coal .........................................12
Downstream sector ................................41
Distribution of Coal in India ..................14
Unconventional Gas Reservoirs .............42
Gondwana Coal .....................................14
Coalbed Methane...................................43
Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India .14
Coalbed Methane in India ......................43
Tertiary Coal .........................................19
Shale Gas Shale Gas Formation ..........43
Tertiary Coal Lignite............................20
Shale Gas Reserves Across the World ....44
Tertiary Coal Peat ...............................20
Shale Gas Reserves in India...................44
Problems of Coal Mining in India ...........20
Extraction of Shale Gas .........................44
Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal...........21
Problems Associated With Shale Gas

Exploitation ...........................................47
Iron Ore Distribution Across the World ... 5
Coal Reserves in India by State ..............21

Coal Production in India by State ..........22
Indias Coal Imports and Exports ...........22
Major Coalfields in India ........................22
Distribution of Coal across the World ....23
Global Coal Reserves .............................24
Top Producers and Consumers of Coal in
the World ..............................................25
Distribution of Coal in USA ...................25
Distribution of Coal in China .................26
Petroleum and Mineral Oil .....................26
Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil 27
Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil
in India .................................................27
Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India - If

US can then why cant India? ................47
Shale Gas: Low Potential, High Risk and a
Better Alternative ..................................47
Manganese ............................................48
Manganese Ore Distribution in India .....49
State wise reserves of Manganese ..........49
Export of Manganese .............................50
World Manganese Ore Distribution ........50
Gold Reserves in India ...........................50
Gold Distribution Across the World .......52
Silver Distribution India & World ........52
Chromite ...............................................53
On-shore Oil Production In India ...........28
Chromite Ore Distribution In India ........53
Off-Shore Production in India ................28
Chromite Ore Distribution Across the

World ....................................................53
Petroleum Refining ................................29

Share of Oil in India's Power Generation 30
India's Oil Imports .................................30
Copper ..................................................54
Copper Reserves in India .......................54
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Major Copper Reserves Across the World

.............................................................55
Magnesite ..............................................83
Nickel ....................................................56
Sillimanite .............................................84
Bauxite .................................................56
Gypsum ................................................84
Bauxite Distribution in India .................56
Salt .......................................................85 Page
Kyanite..................................................84
Bauxite Distribution World .................57
Conservation of Mineral Resources ........85 | 2
Lead ......................................................58
Iron Ore Raw Material, Impurities in Iron

Ore, What exactly happens in a blast
furnace? Smelting, Beneficiation. Iron Ore
Distribution Across the World.
Zinc.......................................................58
Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores - India
and World .............................................58
Tungsten ...............................................58
Factors that influence the

location of Iron and Steel
industry
Pyrites ...................................................59
Nuclear fission ......................................59
Nuclear Reactor .....................................61
Types of Nuclear Reactors......................63
Light-water reactor (LWR) ......................63
Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactor (PHWR)
.............................................................65
Atomic Minerals ....................................66
Uranium ...............................................67
Uranium in India ...................................69
Nuclear Power Plants in India ................69

Thorium ................................................69
India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power

Programme ............................................72
What Hinders Deployment of ThoriumFuelled Reactors In India? .....................74

Solution to Indias Fissile Shortage
Problem Procuring Fissile Material
Plutonium .............................................75
Graphite ................................................76
Iron Ore Raw Material
Major Producers of Graphite India &

World ....................................................77
The below data is important for Prelims

[Will be helpful to answer some logic
based questions in mains]
Diamonds..............................................77
Differences Between Graphite and
Diamond ...............................................78
Mica ......................................................79
Limestone..............................................82
Dolomite................................................82
Asbestos ................................................83
Raw materials iron ore, coal, limestone,

etc.
Transportation and other infrastructure
road, rail, ports etc.
Investment and Entrepreneurship =
banking facilities, human capital for
managerial roles.
Labour unskilled to semi-skilled
workforce for manual operations, skilled
workforce for technical operations.
Market
construction
industry,
automobile industry etc.
Government policy Development agenda,
land acquisition, ease of doing business =
labor laws, unambiguous and fair taxation
policy, least government interference, less
red
tapeism,
quick
environmental
clearance
[Read
more
from:
www.mrunal.org/geography].
To understand about the factors that

influence the location of Iron and Steel
Industry, we have to understand about
iron ore smelting.
Smelting is a process of converting ore to
metal by removing impurities.
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Commonly found impurities in

Iron Ore
Silicon
Found in small quantities.

Slightly raises the Strength and Hardness
of Steel.
Acts as a de-oxidizing Agent ==> small
quantities is good. [Oxides decrease the
strength of Iron]
A VERY harmful element.

Forms Iron Sulphide which is a
very brittle
Greatly reducing the Strength of Steel ==>
very bad.
So, the unwanted impurities must be

removed and this is done by smelting
iron ore in a blast furnace.
What exactly happens in a blast

furnace?
Phosphorous
Combines with Iron to form a Phosphide.

It increases the hardness and Tensile
strength of Steel.
It SERIOUSLY affects the ductility and
resistance to shock or impact ==> bad.
Added to all classes of Steel to improve

the machinability of the Steel.
It improves tool life ==> small quantities
is good.
Inputs in to blast furnace
A powerful and most effective deoxidant.

Has a good effect on Sulphur ==> small
quantities is good.
It forms a low melting point brittle film

round the grain boundaries making the
Steel practically useless ==> very bad.
Oxygen
Final product liquid slag, liquid iron

(pig iron) and gases.
Beneficiation = Improve
Concentration of Iron
Tin
Ore == iron ore,

Fuel == coke,
Flux == limestone,
Output
Manganese
In a blast furnace, fuel (coke), iron ore,

and flux (limestone) are continuously
supplied through the top of the furnace.
A hot blast of air (sometimes with oxygen
enrichment) is blown into the lower
section.
In a blast furnace, iron oxides are
converted into liquid iron called "hot
metal".
[Oxides make iron brittle. To make iron
strong the oxides need to be removed]
Lead
Has a bad influence on the properties of

steel ==> very bad. [Oxides make Iron
and steel weak]
Of the impurities, some are beneficial
when present in small quantities while the
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others are harmful no matter what their
|3
proportion is.
Sulphur
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Ore is either Hematite (Fe2O3) or

Magnetite (Fe3O4) and the iron content
ranges from 50% to 70%.
This iron rich ore can be charged directly
into a blast furnace without any further
processing.
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Iron ore that contains a lower iron content

must be processed or beneficiated to
increase its iron content.
[Beneficiation Improves
concentration of iron ore]
the
Why coke and not coal in

smelting?
To separate impurities, iron needs to be

melted.
The coke is the fuel that melts iron.
Coal has many impurities and the most
dangerous one is
Coal is cooked to produce coke. This
process is called destructive distillation.
Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a
high carbon content.
The cooked coal, called coke contains 90
to 93% carbon, some ash and sulfur but
compared to raw coal is very strong.
Role of limestone = Remove

Sulphur
It is acts as flux (a substance mixed with

a solid to lower the melting point,
especially in smelting).
Limestone melts and reacts with Sulphur
to form Slag (All solid and liquid
impurities).
So CO and CO2 are the gaseous

pollutants coming out of blast furnace.
Pig Iron
Pig iron is the intermediate product of

smelting iron ore.
Iron (Fe) = 93.5 - 95.0%
Silicon (Si) = 0.30 - 0.90%
Sulfur (S) = 0.025 - 0.050%
Manganese (Mn) = 0.55 - 0.75%
Phosphorus (P) = 0.03 - 0.09%
Titanium (Ti) = 0.02 - 0.06%
CARBON (C) = 4.1 - 4.4% [The strength of
steel can be varied by varying the carbon
content]
Cast iron
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

The CaO formed from this reaction is used
to remove sulfur from the iron.
FeS + CaO + C = CaS + FeO + CO
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Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced
(removed) by a series of chemical | 4
reactions.
3Fe2O3 + CO = CO2 + 2Fe3O4
Fe3O4 + CO = CO2 + 3 FeO
FeO + CO = CO2 + Fe
CO or CARBON MONOXIDE is produced
by burning coke.
The CaS [newly married couple] becomes

part of the slag.
The slag is also formed from any
remaining Silica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3),
Magnesia (MgO) or Calcia (CaO) that
entered with the iron ore or coke.
The liquid slag then trickles to the bottom

of the furnace where it floats on top of
the liquid iron since it is less dense.
Reduction = Remove Oxygen
[Limestone marries Sulphur and takes

it away from Iron == Very Good]
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Carbon content greater than 2%.

Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main
alloying elements.
Cast iron tends to be
Applications: automotive industry parts,
cast iron pan.
Steel
Carbon content
weight).
Stainless steel
is up
to
2.1%
(by
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Steel alloy with a minimum of 5%

chromium content by mass.
Nickel is another important element of
steel alloy.
Also contains manganese, molybdenum,
and other metals.
Stainless steel does not readily corrode,
rust or stain with water as ordinary steel
does.
in large
century.
quantities
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in
the
mid-19th
Iron Ore Distribution Across the

World
Wrought iron
Cast iron assumes its finished shape the

moment the liquid iron alloy cools down in
the mold.
Wrought iron is a very different material
made by mixing liquid iron with some
slag.
The result is an iron alloy with a much
lower carbon content.
Wrought iron is softer than cast iron and
much less tough, so you can heat it up to
shape it relatively easily, and it's also
much less prone to rusting.
Wrought iron is what people used to use
before they really mastered making steel
Iron Ore in China Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula
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Iron Ore in Europe Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine
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Iron ore in Africa Transvaal, Liberia
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Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan Ural region, Magnitogorsk
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Iron Ore in North America Great Lakes [Mesabi Region], Labrador
Iron Ore in South America Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais
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Iron Ore in Australia Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron

Knob
Types of Iron Ore Haematite, Magnetite,

Limonite & Siderite. Distribution of Iron
Ore in India Iron ore in Orissa,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka &
other states.
Types of Iron Ore
Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite & Siderite.
Haematite
Reddish; best quality; 70 per cent

metallic content.
Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock
systems of the peninsular India.
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80 per cent of haematite reserves are in

Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and
Andhra Pradesh.
In the western section, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Goa has this kind of ore.
Black ore; 60 to 70 per cent metallic

content.
Dharward and Cuddapah systems.
Magnetic quality.
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
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Iron carbonate; inferior quality; less than | 9

40 per cent iron.
Contains many impurities {previous post};
mining is not economically variable.
However, it is self-fluxing due to presence
of lime.
Iron Ore Distribution in India
Limonite
Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of

Himachal Pradesh.
Advantage == open cast mines == easy
and cheap mining.
Siderite
Magnetite
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Hematite and magnetite are

the
most important iron ores in India
Inferior ores; yellowish in colour; 40 to 60

per cent iron metal.
Damuda series in Raniganj coal field,
Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in
Exact Numbers not important. Haematite
Remember 1st and 2nd position.
Reserves
~18,000 million
tonnes
Magnetite
~10,500 million tonnes
Which type of iron ore

is abundant in India?
1. Haematite
Major states
2. Magnetite
Odisha 33%
Karnataka 73%
Jharkhand 26%
Andhra Pradesh 14%
Chhattisgarh 18%
Rajasthan 5%
Rest in Andhra
Pradesh, Assam,
Bihar, Maharashtra,
MP, Rajasthan, UP
TN 4.9%
Rest in Assam, Bihar, Goa,

Jharkhand, Kerala, MH,
Meghalaya and Nagaland
Which of the above are true?
Q1. Statements
Karnataka has more than half of the

reserves of magnetite ore in India.
Jharkhand has the highest reserves of
haematite ore in India.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Both
1 only
2 only
None
two
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Iron Ore in Orissa
The ores are rich in haematites.

India's richest haematite deposits are
located in Barabil-Koira valley.
Others:
Sundargarh,
Mayurbhanj,
Cuttack,
Sambalpur,
Keonjhar
and
Koraput districts.
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Iron Ore in Jharkhand
Iron Ore in Chhattisgarh
Bailadila mine is the largest mechanised

mine in Asia [Ore benefication only done
here]
A 270 km long slurry (a semi-liquid
mixture) pipeline from the Bailadila to
Vizag plant transports the ore slurry.
Smelting
is
done
in
Vizag
[Vishakhapatnam] iron and steel factory.
Bailadilas high grade ore is exported
through Vishakhapatnam to Japan [No
iron ore in Japan. But market is huge due
to automobile
industry]
and
other
countries.
The Dalli-Rajhara range is 32 km long
[ferrous content 68-69 per cent] range
with significant reserves.
25 per cent of reserves.

First mine in Singhbhum district in 1904.
Iron ore of here is of highest quality and
will last for hundreds of years.
Noamandi mines in Singhbhum are the
richest.
Magnetite ores occur near Daltenganj in
Palamu district.
Iron Ore in Karnataka
Iron ores are widely distributed.
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High grade ore deposits are those

of Kemmangundi in Bababudan hills of
Chikmagalur district and Sandur and
Hospet in Bellary [Lot of Mining Mafia].
Most of the ores are high grade haematite
and magnetite.
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West
Bengal:
Burdwan,
Birbhum,
Darjeeling.
Jammu and Kashmir: Udhampur and
Jammu.
Gujarat: Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Vadodara.
Kerala: Kozhikode.
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Coal Formation of Coal Types of Coal | 11

Peat,
Lignite,
Bituminous
Coal
&
Anthracite Coal. Carbon content in
different types of coal. Importance of each
type.
Coal
Also called black gold.

Found in sedimentary strata [layers of
soil].
Contains carbon,
volatile
matter,
moisture and ash [in
some
cases Sulphur and phosphorous]
Mostly used for power generation and
metallurgy.
Coal reserves are six times greater than oil
and petroleum reserves.
Carboniferous Coal
Iron Ore in other states
Andhra
Pradesh
(1.02%):
Kurnool,
Guntur, Cuddapah, Ananthapur, Nellore.
Maharashtra
(0.88%):
Chandrapur,
Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg.
Madhya Pradesh (0.66%).
Tamilnadu:
Salem,
Tiruchirapalli,
Coimbatore, Madurai etc.
Rajasthan: Jaipur, Alwar, Sikar, Bundi,
Bhilwara.
Uttar Pradesh: Mirzapur.
Uttaranchal: Garhwal, Almora, Nainital.
Himachal Pradesh: Kangra and Mandi.
Haryana: Mahendragarh.
Most of the worlds coal was formed

in Carboniferous age [350 million years
ago][Best quality coal].
Carboniferous age: In terms of absolute
time, the Carboniferous Period began
approximately 358.9 million years ago and
ended 298.9 million years ago. Its
duration is approximately 60 million
years.
The name Carboniferous refers to coalbearing strata.
Formation of Coal
Amount
of oxygen,
nitrogen
and
moisture content decreases with time
while
the proportion
of
carbon
increases [The quantity of carbon doesnt
increase, only its proportion increases due
to the loss of other elements].
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Capacity of coal to give energy depends

upon the percentage or carbon content
[Older the coal, much more is its carbon
content].
Percentage of carbon in coal depends
upon the duration and intensity of heat
and pressure on wood. [carbon content
also depends on depth of formation. More
depth == more pressure and heat ==
better carbon content].
Coal formed millions of years ago when

the earth was covered with huge swampy
[marshy] forests where plants - giant ferns
and mosses - grew.
As the plants grew, some died and fell into
the swamp waters. New plants grew up to
take their places and when these died still
more grew.
In time, there was thick layer of dead
plants rotting in the swamp. The surface
of the earth changed and water and dirt
washed
in, stopping
the
decaying
process.
More plants grew up, but they too died
and fell, forming separate layers. After
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millions of years many layers had formed,

one on top of the other.
The weight of the top layers and the water
and dirt packed down the lower layers of
plant matter.
Heat and pressure produced chemical and
Page
physical changes in the plant layers
which forced out oxygen and left rich | 12
carbon deposits. In time, material that
had been plants became coal.
Coals are classified into three main ranks,
or types: lignite, bituminous coal, and
anthracite.
These classifications are based on
the amount of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen present in the coal.
Coals
other
constituents
include hydrogen,
oxygen,
nitrogen,
ash, and sulfur.
Some of the undesirable chemical
constituents
include chlorine
and
sodium.
In
the
process
of
transformation
(coalification), peat is altered to lignite,
lignite is altered to sub-bituminous,
sub-bituminous coal is altered to
bituminous coal, and bituminous coal is
altered to anthracite.
Types of Coal
Peat, Lignite, Bituminous & Anthracite

Coal.
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This division is based on carbon, ash and

moisture content.
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| 13
Bituminous Coal
Peat
First stage of transformation.

Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent
carbon == more impurities.
Contains sufficient volatile matter and lot
of moisture [more smoke and more
pollution].
Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less
heat, emits more smoke and leaves a lot
of ash.
Lignite
Brown coal.
Lower grade coal.
40 to 55 per cent carbon.
Intermediate stage.
Dark to black brown.
Moisture content is high (over 35 per
cent).
It
undergoes SPONTANEOUS
COMBUSTION [Bad. Creates fire accidents
in mines]
Soft coal; most widely available and used

coal.
Derives its name after a liquid called
Moisture and volatile content (15 to 40 per
cent)
Dense, compact, and is usually of black
colour.
Does not have traces of original
vegetable material.
Calorific value is very high due to high
proportion of carbon and low moisture.
Used in production of coke and gas.
Anthracite Coal
Best quality; hard coal.

Very little volatile matter.
Negligibly small proportion of moisture.
Semi-metallic lustre.
Ignites slowly == less loss of heat ==
highly efficient.
Ignites slowly and burns with a nice
short blue flame. [Complete combustion
== Flame is BLUE == little or no
pollutants. Example: LPG]
In India, it is found only in Jammu and
Kashmir and that too in small quantity.
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Distribution of Coal in India Gondwana

Coal: Gondwana Coalfields. Tertiary Coal:
Tertiary Coalfields, Lignite, Peat. Coking
Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal, Coal Reserves,
Coal Production, Imports.
Distribution of Coal in India
Gondwana coal fields [250 million years

old]
Tertiary coal fields [15 60 million
years old]
Gondwana Coal
Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per cent

of the total reserves and 99 per cent of
the
production
of
coal
in
India. Satpuras, denudation [weathering +
erosion] has exposed coal bearing
Gondwana strata.
The carbon content in Gondwana
coal [250 million years old] is less
compared to the Carboniferous coal [350
million years old][Almost Absent in
India] because of its much younger age.
Gondwana coal forms India's metallurgical
grade as well as superior quality coal.
The Damuda
series
(i.e.
Lower
Gondwana) possesses the best worked
coalfields accounting for 80 per cent of the
total coal production in India. 80 out of
113 Indian coalfields are located in the
rock systems of the Damuda series [lower
Gondwana Age].
Coalfield
Korba coalfield
Birampur coalfield
Hasdo-Arand coalfield
Chirmiri coalfield
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Coking as well as non-coking and

bituminous as well as sub-bituminous
coal are obtained from Gondwana coal
fields.
Anthracite is generally not found in the
Gondwana coal fields.
Page
The volatile compounds and ash (usually
13 - 30 per cent) and doesnt allow Carbon | 14
percentage to rise above 55 to 60 per
cent. [It requires few million years more if
the quality has to get better. Remember
Gondwana coal is 100 million years
younger than Carboniferous coal].
Gondwana coal is free from moisture, but
it contains Sulphur and
These basins occur in the valleys of
certain
rivers
viz.,
the
Damodar
(Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi
(Chhattisgarh-Odisha); the Son (Madhya
Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the
Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh);
the Indravati, the Narmada, the Koel, the
Panch, the Kanhan and many more.
Distribution of Gondwana Coal in

India
First coal mine was opened in 1774

at Raniganj in West Bengal.
Coal industry was nationalized in 197374. [The present government made some
serious changes during the last year
[2015] by allowing private sector to play a
bigger role in coal production].
India is now the third largest coal
producer in the world after China and
the USA.
Coal industry provides employment to
nearly seven lakh persons.
Gondwana Coalfields == exclusively found
in the Peninsular plateau of India.
Gondwana Coalfields in
Chhattisgarh
Extent
Korba district.
Surguja district.
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Lakhanpur coalfield
Jhilmili coalfield
Johilla coalfield
Sonhat coalfield
Tatapani-Ramkota coalfields
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Shandol district & Koriya district

Johilla valley
Surguja district
Surguja district
Jharkhand
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| 15
1st in reserves [28%].

2nd in production [20%].
Most of the coal fields are located in a
narrow belt running in east-west direction.
Jharia coalfield
Jayanti coalfields
Bokaro coalfield
Danbad
district
Hazaribagh
district
Major coalfields are present in Dumka

(Santhal Parganas), Hazaribagh, Dhanbad
and Palamu.
Jharia,
Bokaro,
Girdih
and
Karanpura are the major coal fields
One of the oldest and the richest coalfields of India;

store house of the best metallurgical coal [coking
coal]
inferior quality and has high ash content
It is a long but narrow strip in the catchment area of
the Bokaro river.
West Bokaro [900

m deep]
East Bokaro [600
m deep]
Girdih
(Karharbari)
coalfield
Karanpura and
Gives out of the finest coking coal in India for

metallurgical purposes.
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Ramgarh
coalfields
Auranga coalfield Palamu district inferior quality; used in cement furnaces and brick
kilns
Hutar coalfield
Deltenganj
coalfield
Devgarh
Dumka district inferior quality
coalfields
Rajmahal
Rajmahal hills inferior quality
coalfield
Coalfield locations can be asked in
Gondwana Coalfields in Odisha
Prelims.
Talcher field
Rampur-Himgir
Talcher town to
Rairkhol in Dhenkanal
and Sambalpur
districts
Sambalpur and
Ranks second in reserves (24,374 million

tonnes) after Raniganj;
Coal from this field is most suitable for steam
and gas production.
Most of the coal is utilised in thermal power
and fertilizer plants at Talcher.
Coal occurs here in middle and lower Barakar
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| 16
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coalfields
Ib river coalfield
Sundargarh
Sambalpur and
Jharsuguda district
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seams.
inferior quality
Much of the coal is of inferior quality.
Gondwana Coalfields in Madhya

Pradesh
Singrauli
(Waidhian)
coalfield
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Sidhi and Shandol largest coalfield of Madhya Pradesh

districts
Jhingurda, Panipahari, Khadia, Purewa
Turra are important coal seams
and
Jhingurda with a total thickness of 131 m is the

richest coal seam of the country.
Pench-KanhanTawa
Sohagpur coalfield
Umaria coalfield
Chhindwara
district
Shandol district
Umaria district
thermal power plants at Singrauli and Obra

Ghoravari seam in Kanhan field is 4.6 m thick
and contains coking coal
inferior quality with high percentage of moisture
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and ash.
Gondwana Coalfields in Andhra

Pradesh
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| 18
6th in reserves [7.07 %].

5th in production [9.69 %].
Most of the coal reserves are in
the Godavari valley.
Adilabad,
Karimnagar,
Warangal,
Khammam, East Godavari, and West
Godavari.
The actual workable collieries are situated
at Singareni and Kothagudam.
Almost the entire coal is of non-coking

variety.
These are the southern most coalfields of
India and a source of coal supply to
most of south India.
Maharashtra
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| 19
3 per cent reserves.

7 per cent of the production.
Gondwana Coalfields in West

Bengal
Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri are the chief

producing districts.
RANIGANJ is the largest coalfield of West
Bengal.
Raniganj == Barddhaman, Bankura and
Purulia districts; Small part of this field is
in Jharkhand state.
The coal here is non-coking steam coal.
Dalingkot coalfield == Darjeeling district.
Gondwana Coalfields in Uttar

Pradesh
Do not possess coal reserves.

A small portion of the Singrauli field of
Madhya Pradesh falls within Mirzapur
district.
A high grade coal seam, about 1 to 1.5 m
thick occurs near Kotah.
Tertiary Coal
4 % of India's coal.
11 % of the coal reserves.
Tertiary coal 15 to 60 million years old.

Carbon content is very low.
Mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula
[Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh etc.]
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Coal generally has low carbon and high

percentage of moisture and Sulphur.[It
takes few hundred million years for the
carbon content to improve].
Important areas of Tertiary coal include
parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of
Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and the union territory of
Pondicherry also bear tertiary coal
reserves [exceptions].
Tertiary Coalfields in Assam
Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills, Dilli-Jeypore

and Lakhuni.
Makum coalfield in Sibsagar district is
the most developed field.
Assam coals contain very low ash and
high coking qualities but the sulphur
content is high, as a result of which this
coal is not suitable for metallurgical
purposes.
But these coals
are
best suited
for hydrogenation process and are used
for making liquid fuels.
Tertiary Coalfields in Arunachal

Pradesh
Kalakot and surrounding

Jammu, south of Pirpanjal.
regions
90 per cent of the reserves.

57 per cent of the production.
Neyveli Lignite fields of Cuddalore
district.
These are the largest deposits of lignite in
south - east Asia.
Neyveli mines suffer from the artesian
structure [mining goes deep and deep].
Mining in Lignite coalfields is risky due
to SPONTANEOUS
COMBUSTION of
lignite.
Lignite in Gujarat and Rajasthan
Kachchh district and Dharuch district;

poor quality.
Rajasthan == Palana in Bikaner district;
The
250
MW
thermal
plant
at Bikaner wholly depends upon lignite as
the basic fuel.
Tertiary Coal Peat
Tertiary Coalfields in Jammu and

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Jammu and

Kashmir, Kerala, Rajasthan, West Bengal Page
and Puducherry.
Tamil Nadu excels all other states | 20
regarding reserves and production of
lignite.
Lignite in Tamil Nadu
Upper Assam Coal belt extends eastwards

as Namchick-Namrup coalfield.
High in volatiles and in sulphur.
Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills.

Darrangiri field == Garo hills.
Siju, Cherrapunji, Liotryngew, Maolong
and Langrin coalfields == Khasi and
Jaintia hills.
Himachal Pradesh == Chamba district.
Tertiary Coal Lignite
Tertiary Coalfields in Meghalaya
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Confined to a few areas only.

Occurs in Nilgiri hills.
Kashmir valley, peat occurs in the
alluvium of the Jhelum.
In West Bengal peat beds are noted in
Kolkata and its suburbs.
In the Ganga delta, there are layers of peat
which are composed of forest and rice
plants.
Problems of Coal Mining in India
in
The distribution of coal is uneven.
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High ash content and low caloric value.

Large percentage of coal is taken out from
underground mines. [Very few open cast
mines]
Heavy losses due to fires in the mines.
Pilferage at several stages also adds to
losses bad transportation infrastructure.
Serious
problem
of
environmental
pollution. High ash, moisture == more
smoke.
Safety measures against environmental
pollution are very costly. Clean coal
technology == Complex technology.
Misuse of good quality coal for burning
into transport and industries.
Short life of metallurgical coal.
Selective mining leading to large scale
wastage of raw coal
Unscientific method of extraction of coal.
Coking Coal or Metallurgical Coal
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Measures to be taken
Coking coal should be used for

metallurgical industry only.
Low grade coal should be washed and
blended with superior quality coal in Page
requisite
proportion
and
used
in
| 21
industries. [Clean Coal Technology]
Selective mining should be discouraged
and all possible coal from the mines
should be taken out.
New reserves should be discovered and
new techniques should be adopted.
Alternative energy sources should be
encouraged.
Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal
Thermal Coal or Non-Coking Coal or

Steaming coal
High carbon content, less moisture, less
Sulphur content is high and hence cannot
sulphur, less ash.
be used in iron and steel industry.
Sulphur is very bad for iron and steel
industry.
Used to create coke.
Creating coke using this coal is not
Coke is produced by heating bituminous economical.
coal without air to extremely high
Moreover traces of sulphur will remain even
temperatures.
after coking.
Coking == flushing out impurities and
improving the concentration of carbon.
Coking coal is an essential ingredient in
Thermal coal is used to generate power.
steel production.
Major producers: Australia, Canada, United
Major producers: China, Australia, USA,
States.
Russia.
Major exporters: Australia, Canada, United
Major exporters: Australia, South Africa.
States.
China imports huge amount of coking coal
from Australia.
India also imports coking coal.
Coal Reserves in India by State

Name of the state
1. JHARKHAND
2. ODISHA
3. CHATTISHGARH
4. WEST BENGAL
5. MADHYA PRADESH
6. ANDHRA PRADESH
Reserves in billion tonne

80.71
75.07
52.53
31.31
25.67
22.48
% of total reserves
26.76
24.89
17.42
10.38
8.51
7.45
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7. MAHARASTRA
8. OTHERS
10.98
2.81
Coal Production in India by State
All data from 2013-2014. For latest data

you must follow newspapers or Reports
published by Ministry of Coal.
Remember top 3 positions in all data
below.
Coking Coal Production by State
Jharkhand [More than 90% of Indias

Coking coal comes from Jharkhand]
West Bengal
Madhya Pradesh
Non Coking Coal Production By

State
Major Coalfields in India

Major Coalfields in India
1. Singrauli
2. Karanpura Bokaro
3. Jharia
4. Raniganj
5. Ib & Talcher
6. Pench & Kanhan
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3.64
0.95
Chhattisgarh
Odisha
Madhya Pradesh
Jharkhand
Andhra Pradesh
Total Coal Production By State
Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand
Odisha
Madhya Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Indias Coal Imports and Exports
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7.
8.
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Singareni - Godavari Velley

Lignite: TN, Gujrat And Rajasthan
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| 23
Distribution of Coal across the World

Global Coal Reserves Top Producers and
Consumers of Coal in the World
Distribution of Coal in USA Distribution
of Coal in China.
Distribution of Coal across the

World
Most of the Russias coal in Siberian

Region is untapped.
Carboniferous coal of Great Lakes and

Appalachians region helped USA become a
leading industrialized nation.
Coal reserves in Ruhr and Rhineland
region coupled with rich iron deposits
have made Germany a leading industrial
super power of Europe.
England too benefited immensely from its
coal reserves of South Whales, Yorkshire,
Manchester, Liverpool etc. Industrial
revolution began here mainly due to rich
coal reserves.
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Brazil is a leading coal producer in South

America. Most of the coal goes into power
generation. Excess production is exported
to China.
Australia is a leading producer of coal.
Most of its coal is exported to China,
Japan etc. Australia has rick coking coal
Global Coal Reserves
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deposits. India imports coking coal mainly

from Australia.
Chinas coal is of poor quality. It imports
metallurgical grade coal from Australia.
South Africa is the only region in Africa
with significant amount of coal reserves.
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Top Producers and Consumers of
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Coal in the World
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| 25
Distribution of Coal in USA
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| 26
World's second biggest coal producing

country.
World's second biggest coal consumer
[China first].
37% of the country's electricity generation
come from coal.
Coal mining occurs in 25 states of which
Wyoming,
West
Virginia,
Kentucky,
Pennsylvania and Texas are the biggest
coal producers.
The North Antelope ROCHELLE COAL
MINE located in the Powder River Basin of
Wyoming is the world's biggest coal mine
Allegheny Mountains and Appalachian
Mountains have enormous coal deposits.
Most coal now produced in the United
States is mined in western surface mines,
especially in Wyoming's Powder River
Basin.
Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil,

Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil
in India, On-shore and Off-Shore Oil
Production in India.
Petroleum and Mineral Oil
World's third biggest coal reserves.

Largest producer and consumer of coal in
the world.
Largest user of coal-derived electricity
[68.7%].
Petra == rock; Oleum == oil.

Petroleum or Mineral oil is obtained
from sedimentary rocks of the earth.
Petroleum fuels on burning gives little
smoke and leaves no ash. So they are
better than coal.
Constituents of Petroleum and

Mineral Oil
Distribution of Coal in China
Industry hugely dependent on Coal.

Photochemical smog == Intensifying
environmental concerns all over China
due to coal burning.
90 to 95 per cent Hydrocarbons.

5
10%
organic
compounds
containing oxygen,
nitrogen,
sulphur and traces of organometallic
compounds.
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Formation of Petroleum and

Mineral Oil
All sedimentary rocks do not contain oil.

An oil reservoir must have three
prerequisite conditions.
1. Porosity [tiny gaps in soil] so as to

accommodate sufficiently large amounts of
oil;
2. permeability [allowing liquids or gases to
pass through it.] to discharge oil and/or
gas when well has been drilled;
3. the porous sandstone beds or fissured
limestone containing oil should be capped
below by impervious beds [not allowing
fluid to pass through].
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Most of the oil gets collected in

the anticlines or fault traps.
Oil on a commercial scale is usually found
in crests
of
anticlines [where
the
sedimentary rock strata are inclined and
folded].
Distribution of Petroleum and

Mineral Oil in India
Process began in tertiary period [3 million

years ago].
Most of the oil reserves in India are
associated with anticlines and fault
traps in the sedimentary rock formations
of tertiary times.
In tertiary period, aquatic life was
abundant in various forms, especially the
minor microscopic forms of flora and
fauna.
Conditions
for
oil
formation
were
favourable especially in the lower and
middle Tertiary period.
Dense
forests
and
sea
organisms
flourished
in
the gulfs,
estuaries,
deltas and the land surrounding them
during this period.
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The total sedimentary area including both

on shore and offshore comprises 27
basins.
Mumbai High, the Khambhat Gulf and
the Assam are the most productive areas.
On-shore Oil Production In India
Brahmaputra valley of north-east India.

Barmer area of Rajasthan.
Gujarat coast in western India.
Cauvery on-shore basin in Tamil Nadu.
Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and
offshore oil reserves.
Assam Oilfields
Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in

India
Oldest oil producing state in India

The main oil bearing strata extend for a
distance of 320 km in upper Assam along
the Brahmaputra valley.
Oilfields
of
Assam
are
relatively inaccessible and are distantly
located from the main consuming areas.
Oil from Assam is therefore, refined mostly
in the refineries located at Digboi,
Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni and
1 lakh sq km or 42 per cent of India
covered with sedimentary rocks.

10 lakh sq km form marine basins of
Mesozoic and Tertiary times.
Total continental shelf of probable oil
bearing rocks amounts to 2 lakh sq km.
The Digboi field
Tipam hills, Dibrugarh
district
The Naharkatiya
Left bank of Burhi Dihing
field
river
Oldest oil field of India

32 km southwest of Digboi
Oil from this area is sent to oil
refineries at Noonamati in Assam
(443 km) and Barauni in Bihar
(724 km) through pipeline.
The Moran-Hugrijan
field
40 km south-west of
Naharkatiya
Gujarat Oilfields
Ankleshwar,
Khambhat
or
Lunej,
Ahmedabad
and
Kalol,
Nawgam,
Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol, Mahesana
and Sanand are important oilfields of this
region.
Ankleshwar: Oil from this field is sent to
refineries at Trombay and Koyali.
Rajasthan Oilfields
One of the largest inland oil discoveries

was made in Banner district of Rajasthan.
Other important discoveries == Mangala
oil field, Sarswati and Rajeshwari.
Rajasthan is the largest on shore oil
producing state of India.
Off-Shore Production in India
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| 28
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Western Coast
Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet.

Mumbai High: 1974; rock strata of
Miocene age.
Sagar Samrat, Bassein: south of Mumbai
High.
Aliabet: Aliabet island in the Gulf of
Khambhat.
The
basin
and
delta
regions
of
the Godawari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery rivers hold great potential for oil
and gas production.
The Rawa field in Krishna-Godawari offshore basin is an important one.
The Narimanam and Kovilappal oilfields in
the Cauvery on-shore basin are also
important.
Petroleum Refining
Remember locations of Oil Refineries and

Major Oil producing centers. Pipeline are
the ones that connect these centers.
Advantages of Pipeline
Disadvantages of Pipelines
It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only
for a few fixed points.
Its capacity cannot be increased once it is
laid.
Salaya-Mathura Pipeline (SMPL)

Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL)
Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL)
Petroleum Product Pipelines
India's first oil refinery started working

way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam.
1954: another refinery at Tarapur
(Mumbai).
Refinery hub and refining capacity exceeds
the demand. Excess refined oil and other
petroleum products are exported.
Oil from wells is transported to nearest
refineries through pipelines.
Ideal to transport liquids and gases.

Pipelines can be laid through difficult
terrains as well as under water.
It needs very little maintenance.
Pipelines are safe, accident-free and
environmental friendly.
It
is
difficult
to
make
security
arrangements for pipelines.
Detection of leakage and repair is also
difficult.
Crude Oil Pipelines
Eastern Coast
www.pmfias.com
Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline (GSPL)

Koyali-Ahmedabad Pipeline (KAPL)
Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline (BKPL)
Panipat-Delhi Pipeline (PDPL)
Panipat-Rewari Pipeline (PRPL)
Chennai Trichy - Madurai Product
Pipeline (CTMPL)
Chennai-Bangalore Pipeline
Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni
Pipeline
== first pipeline constructed in India
Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali
Pipeline.
Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur
(HBJ)
Gas
Pipeline == world's largest underground
pipeline
Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline == longest
LPG pipeline in the world
Kochi-Mangalore-Bangalore pipeline
Vishakhapatnam Secunderabad pipeline
Mangalore-Chennai pipeline
Vijayawada-Vishakhapatnam pipeline
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| 29
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Page
| 30
India's Oil Imports
Share of Oil in India's Power

Generation
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Page
| 31
Petroleum and Mineral Oil World

distribution: Supergiants, Oilfields in
Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Russia,
United States, Mexico, Canada, Venezuela,
Brazil, United
Region.
Kingdom
and
African
www.pmfias.com
Petroleum and Mineral Oil - World

distribution
More than half of the worlds proven oil

reserves are located in the Middle
East (including Iran but not North Africa).
Canada, United States, Latin America,
Africa, and the region occupied by the
former Soviet Union contains less than 15
percent of the worlds proven reserves.
[Reserves are identified quantities of
petroleum that are considered recoverable
www.pmfias.com
under current economic and technological

conditions.]
The amount of oil a given region produces

is not always proportionate to the size of
its proven reserves.
Page
For example, the Middle East contains
more than 50 percent of the worlds | 32
proven reserves but accounts for only
about 30 percent of global oil production.
The United States, by contrast has less
than 2 percent of the worlds proven
reserves but produces about 10 percent of
the worlds oil.
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| 33
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| 34
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Supergiants
Petroleum is contained in a few large

fields, but most fields are small.
The two largest classes of fields are the
1. supergiants, fields with 5 billion or more

barrels of ultimately recoverable oil, and
2. world-class giants, fields with 500 million
to 5 billion barrels of recoverable oil.
Fewer than 40 supergiant oil fields have

been found worldwide.
The Arabian-Iranian
sedimentary
basin in
the
Persian
Gulf
region
contains two-thirds of these supergiant
fields.
The remaining supergiants are distributed
in the United States, Russia, Mexico,
Libya, Algeria, Venezuela, and
Oilfields in Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia has the largest proven oil

reserves.
Approximately 20 percent of the worlds
proven reserves.
The discovery that transformed Saudi
Arabia into a leading oil country was AlGhawr oil field. (still has 70 billion
barrels after 60 years of production)
Another
important
discovery
was
the Saffaniyah offshore field in the
Persian Gulf. It is the third largest oil field
in the world and the largest offshore.
Oil Fields in Iraq, Kuwait, & Iran
The Middle Eastern countries of Iraq,

Kuwait, and Iran are each estimated to
have 25 percent of all proven reserves in
the world.
These countries have a number of
supergiant fields.
Al-Burqan oilfield of Kuwait is the
worlds second largest oil field.
Oil Fields in Russia
Russia is thought to possess the best

potential for new discoveries.
It has significant proven reserves of 5
percent of the world totaland is
the worlds leading petroleum producer.
There are two supergiant oil fields
Page
Western Siberia and Yenisey Khatanga.
Kamchatka
peninsula and Sakhalin | 35
Island are said to have significant oil
reserves.
Volga-Caspian Region has many oil and
gas fields.
Oil Fields in United States,

Mexico, & Canada
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North America has many sedimentary

basins.
Many oilfields have been found in North
Slope region of Alaska and East Texas.
United States has produced more oil than
any other country.
Its proven oil reserves amount to 2 percent
of the world total.
The Rocky Mountain region contains an
enormous amount of petroleum reserve.
Mexico has more than 10 billion barrels of
proven oil reserves and is one of the top
10 oil producers in the world.
Canada has less than 10 billion barrels of
proven reserves of conventional liquid oil.
But huge deposits of oil sands in
the Athabasca
region
in
western
Canada bring the countrys total proven
oil reserves to approximately 175 billion
barrels, behind only oil giants Saudi
Arabia and
Canadas largest oil field is off
Oilfields in Venezuela & Brazil
Venezuela is the largest oil exporter in the

Western Hemisphere.
210 billion barrels of proven oil reserves
(worlds second largest).
Most of these reserves are located in
the Orinoco belt.
Brazil has 14 billion barrels of proven oil
reserves (second largest in South America)
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Oilfields in United Kingdom
The
United
Kingdom
is
an
important North Sea producer, and its
proven oil reserves of some three billion
barrels are the largest in the European
Union.
Oilfields in African Region
Only Gas == Non-Associated Gas Dry

Gas,
The main oil-producing countries of Africa

are: Libya, Algeria, Nigeria and Egypt.
Niger delta in Nigeria contains enormous
amount of oil.
Egypt is self-sufficient in oil production.
Algeria is another significant producer of
petroleum where much of the national
income comes from oil-export.
Libya became a consistent producer of
petroleum. The total oil reserve of Libya is
around 3 per cent of global reserve.
Hydrogen Sulphide in gas == Sour Gas,
Natural gas World Distribution of

Natural Gas, OPEC. Distribution of
Natural Gas in India, Petroleum and Gas
Value Chain: Upstream, Midstream,
Downstream sector.
Coalbed Methane == Sweet Gas.
Consists primarily of methane and

Propane, butane, pentane, and hexane are
also present.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) == Mixture
of butane and propane.
Commonly occurs in association with
crude oil.
Natural gas is often found dissolved in oil
or as a gas cap above the oil.
Sometimes, pressure of natural gas forces
oil up to the surface. Such natural gas is
known as associated gas or wet gas.
Some reservoirs contain gas and no oil.
This gas is termed non-associated gas or
dry gas.
Often natural gases contain substantial
quantities of hydrogen sulfide or other
On the market, natural gas is usually

bought and sold not by volume but
by calorific value.
In practice, purchases of natural gas are
usually denoted as MMBTUs (millions of
British thermal unit (BTU or Btu)) =
~1,000 cubic feet of natural gas.
Natural Gas Formation
Natural gas
organic sulfur compounds. In this case,

the gas is known as sour gas.
Coalbed
methane
is
called sweet
gas because of its lack of hydrogen
sulfide.
Oil + Gas == Associated Gas Wet Gas,
Source: Britannica
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Similar to the formation of Petroleum.

Natural gas was formed millions of years
ago when plants and tiny sea animals
were buried by sand and rock.
Layers of mud, sand, rock, plant, and
animal matter continued to build up until
the pressure and heat turned them into oil
and natural gas.
Uses of Natural Gas
Electric power generation.

Industrial, domestic, and commercial
usage.
Many buses and commercial automotive
fleets now operate on CNG.
It is an ingredient in dyes and inks .
Used in rubber compounding operations.
Ammonia is
manufactured
using
hydrogen derived from methane. Ammonia
is used to produce chemicals such as
hydrogen cyanide, nitric acid, urea, and a
range of fertilizers.
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| 36
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Importance of Natural Gas to

India
Power stations using gas accounted for

nearly 10 per cent of Indias electricity.
Despite the country reeling under a power
crisis, gas power stations are lying idle
due to lack of feedstock.
The
Government
has
frozen
the
construction of new gas plants until 201516 because of gas shortages.
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Existing plants are operating below

capacity on expensive imported liquefied
natural gas (LNG).
Indias oil reserves are insufficient for its
growing energy needs and situation is
made worse by policy paralysis which
Page
increases the gestation period of the
| 37
projects.
We
need
to diversify
our
energy
basket through alternate fuels so that we
need not have to bear the brunt of
external shocks.
World Distribution of Natural Gas
Natural Gas in Russia
Russia has the largest natural gas

reserves in the world (1,680 Trillion Cubic
Feet (tcf)).
It periodically changes place with the
United States as the worlds largest or
second largest producer.
Some of the worlds largest gas fields

occur in a region of West Siberia and east
of the Gulf of Ob on the Arctic Circle.
The worlds largest gas field is
Volga-Urals region also has significant gas
reserves.
Natural Gas in Europe
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Dutch coast and the North Sea (off the

coast of Norway) have proven reserves.
The United States has proven natural gas

reserves of 273 tcf.
Its largest gas field, Hugoton extends
through
the Oklahoma,
Texas
and
Kansas.
Canada has an estimated 62 tcf of proven
natural gas reserves.
The largest gas field is in Alberta.
Much of Mexicos natural comes from Gulf
of Mexico.
Natural Gas in Africa
Central
basin
of Algeria and Niger
Delta have proven reserves.
There is an enormous gas potential in the

Middle East associated with the major oil
fields in the Arabian-Iranian basin.
Iran and Qatar have the second and third
largest natural gas reserves in the world,
behind Russia.
Natural Gas in Asia
Page
12 member oil supply cartel.
| 38
Iran,
Iraq,
Kuwait,
Saudi
Arabia,
Venezuela, and later joined by Qatar,
Indonesia, UAE, Libya, Algeria, Nigeria,
Gabon and Angola.
This group bargains with international Oil
Companies so that profit margin will be
high.
They control production and supply [for
better profit margin] of crude oil to keep it
below international demand.
It is only recently that Crude oils prices
have crashed due to shale boom in US
the largest importer of oil and gas.
Distribution of Natural Gas in

India
Natural Gas in Middle East
The largest gas field in Asia is in the North

Sumatra basin of Indonesia.
OPEC Organization of Petroleum

Exporting Countries
Natural Gas in North America
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KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat,

Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer
in Rajasthan etc.
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Page
| 39
Oil & gas industry is divided in Upstream,

Midstream and Downstream sector.
Upstream Sector
Oil
exploration,
prospection
extraction/production from oil wells.
and
New Exploration Licensing Policy,

1997
Petroleum and Gas Value Chain
Promote exploration by providing a level

playing field to private players against
public enterprises.
Oil blocks are allotted under Production
Sharing Contracts.
In
Production
Sharing
Contracts,
investment and revenues is shared with
government.
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| 40
The private companies exaggerated or

inflated their investment accounts and
gobbled up public funds.
Open Acreage Licensing Policy

(OALP)
There are demands to replace NELP with

OALP.
Under OALP, oil blocks will be available
throughout for sale. [government makes
money by selling oilfields]
It allows ample time for explorer to study
the fields and bid for block of his choice.
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National Data Repository is prerequisite

for functioning of OALP.
It will be a hydrocarbon data center
which facilitate prospection of resources.
Revenue Sharing Contracts
Seen as a better alternative to OALP and

NELP.
Government gets share in revenue from
the very beginning.
In contrast PSC (Production Sharing
Contracts), allows government to have
revenue share only after costs are
recovered by the explorer.
In PSC, explorers inflate investment by
classifying revenue expenditure (salaries,
maintenance etc.) as capital expenditure
(equipment, technology etc.).
This resulted in lower government share.
It delays revenue to the government by
decades.
Deep sea offshore Blocks Production

Sharing Contracts should be adopted.
Onshore and Shallow blocks Revenue
Sharing Model should be adopted.
Rangarajan Committee
Recommendations
Suggested linking gas price to price of

imported gas and gas prices prevailing in
exchanges of USA, UK and Japan
(weighted average) so as to bring it at
parity with international prices.
This would result in increase of price from
$ 4.2 mmbtu to$ 8.4 mmbtu, this
formulae was not implemented (it will do
serious damage to vote bank).
Midstream sector
This sector involves transportation of oil

and gas from blocks to refineries and from
refineries to distribution centers.
Most
cost
effective
way
is
through pipeline, in comparison to road
and railways which higher economic and
environmental costs.
Current pipeline infrastructure is skewed
in favor of North and West India, which
Page
accounts for 60% of gas pipelines and 80
| 41
% of gas consumptions.
To remedy this, central government has
proposed
to
set
up National
Gas
Grid under which additional 15000 km of
pipelines will be laid down.
It will be executed under PPP model and
will be eligible for Viability Gap Funding.
Further, Gas Distribution networks are
available in only few cities. In most of
cities gas is transferred through bottling
plants and distribution agency. This result
in wastage by leakages and theft.
Viability Gap Funding
Kelkar Committee
Recommendations
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In some PPP projects in India, Central and

state governments undertake to provide
support funding to successful bidders.
Projects are awarded to those whose
requirement for state funding is least.
Indian Oil Corporation and Gas Authority
of India are involved in this sector.
Storage
Government is building underground

storage capacity of 15 million metric tons
for petroleum and related products.
The first phase construction is in progress
in Vishakhapatnam, Mangalore and Padur
[All coastal cities].
Storage
facilities
are
essential
for
safeguard against shortages or supply
disruptions.
Downstream sector
This sector involves refining, processing

and
marketing
of
products
and
byproducts of crude oil.
Primary References: PIB, Britannica etc.
www.pmfias.com
Unconventional Gas Reservoirs: Shale Gas

Coalbed Methane. Shale Gas Reserves
India, World. Extraction of Shale Gas:
Hydro-fracturing or Fracking. Problems
Associated.
Unconventional Gas Reservoirs
Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural

gas are found in permeable sandstone.
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Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in

relatively impermeable sandstones, in
joints and fractures or absorbed into the
matrix of shales [Shale is a Sedimentary
Rock], and in coal.
Given current economic conditions and
Page
state of technology, they are more
| 42
expensive to exploit.
Example:
Tight
gas,
shale
gas, and coalbed methane.
www.pmfias.com
Coalbed Methane
Considerable quantities of methane is

trapped within coal seams.
A significant portion of this gas remains as
free gas in the joints and fractures of the
coal seam.
Large quantities of gas are adsorbed on
the internal surfaces of the micropores
within the coal itself.
This gas can be accessed by drilling wells
into the coal seam and pumping large
quantities of water that saturate the
seam. [water will occupy the gaps and
pores and will push out the gas]
It is now becoming an important source
of natural gas.
Unlike
much
natural
gas
from
conventional reservoirs, coalbed methane
contains very
little
heavier
hydrocarbons such
as propane
or
butane.
The presence of this gas is well known
from its occurrence in underground coal
mining, where it presents a serious safety
risk.
Fire Accidents in Coal Mines are mainly

due to Coalbed Methane, and Lignite
deposits
which
undergo spontaneous
combustion.
With one of the largest proven coal

reserves, and one of the largest coal
producer in the world, India holds
significant prospects for commercial
recovery of coalbed methane.
The country has an estimated 700-950
billion cubic metre of coalbed methane.
coalbed
methane
[private
sector
companies at present have no rights to
extract unconventional gas reservoirs
coalbed methane and shale gas].
CBM extraction falls under Ministry of
Petroleum & Natural Gas whereas coal
Page
mining falls under Ministry of Coal.
Contractors are not allowed to mine gas | 43
from coal seams or coal bed methane
(CBM) and coal in the same block due to
the turf war [common feature of Indian
Bureaucracy] between the two ministries
and
other
associated
bureaucratic
hurdles.
Extracting unconventional gas is a capital
intensive process and at the present levels
of gas prices, the companies cannot
recover their investments.
The technology required is very advanced
and the public sector companies have very
weak organizational setup to efficiently
handle such technologies and extract gas
economically.
Private sector companies have necessary
financial capabilities and managerial skills
but there is no hope due to restricting
laws and low gas prices.
In India, gas pricing is a contentious
issue. It has never been easy satisfying all
the stakeholders involved [consumer,
government, gas companies]. Gas pricing
will be critical for private companies before
they can invest in unconventional gas
projects so that they can calculate their
profit margin.
Coalbed Methane in India
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Shale Gas Shale Gas Formation
Problems in Exploration,
Extraction of Coalbed Methane in
India
The state-run firms are holding mines in

joint venture with private companies and
the latter do not have rights to explore
Shales
are fine-grained
sedimentary rocks formed of organic-rich
mud at the bottom of ancient seas.
Subsequent
sedimentation
and
the
resultant heat and pressure transformed
the mud into shale and also produced
natural gas from the organic matter
contained in it.
Over long spans of geologic time, some of
the
gas
migrated
to
adjacent sandstones and was trapped in
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Shale Gas Reserves Across the

World
them,
forming
conventional
gas
accumulations.
The rest of the gas remained locked in
the nonporous shale.
Page
| 44
Shale Gas Reserves in India
Basins of preliminary interest identified by

Indian geologists are the Cambay Basin in
Gujarat, the Assam-Arakan basin in
northeast India, and the Gondwana Basin.
Indian engineers have gathered experience
on fracking - the technology to find shale
gas - by spending time in the US and are
now able to hunt for the scarce resource
on their own.
Fracking technology sends high pressure
streams of water, sand and chemicals into
shale formations to bring up the oil and
gas.
Environmentalists
have
objected
to
fracking because of the damage to forest
cover and possible contamination of
ground water.
One estimate by Indian scientists places

potential reserves at as high as 527 tcf.
Extraction of Shale Gas
Shale gas occurs frequently at depths

exceeding 1,500 metres (5,000 feet).
Extraction is done through horizontal
drilling through the shale seam, followed
by hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, of
the rock by the injecting of fluid at
extremely high pressure.
Hydro-fracturing or Fracking
Shale rock is sometimes found 3,000

metres below the surface.
After deep vertical drilling, there are
techniques
to drill
horizontally for
www.pmfias.com
considerable
distances
in
various
directions to extract the gas-rich shale.
A mixture of water, chemicals, and sand is
then injected into the well at very high
pressures
to
create
a
number
of fissures in the rock to release the gas.
www.pmfias.com
The process of using water for breaking up

the rock is known as hydro-fracturing or
fracking.
The chemicals help in water and gas flow
and tiny particles of sand enter the
fissures to keep them open and allow
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the gas to flow to the surface.
| 45
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Page
| 46
Guar gum
Can quickly turn water into a very thick

gel.
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Adding guar gum increases viscosity of

water and makes
high-pressure
pumping and the fracturing process
more efficient.
High viscosity water is much more
effective at suspending sand grains and
carrying them into the fractures.
The guar been is grown mainly by farmers
in Rajasthan and Haryana.
Earlier, guar gum was used mainly as an
additive in ice creams and sauces.
But with the discovery of its use in shale
gas
extraction,
its price
shot
up
enormously.
Problems Associated With Shale

Gas Exploitation
Environmentalists
have
objected
to
fracking because of the damage to forest
cover
and possible contamination
of
ground water.
However, industry officials say that the
treated water can be re-used for further
fracking and need not be disposed of at
all.
All the water required must be obtained

from rain water harvesting.
Recycling and reusing of water utilized for
fracking should be the preferred method
for water management.
Enforcing clear and practical legislation on
environmental and water issues.
Coal bed methane (CBM), which is
extracted from coal beds, is also an
unconventional gas and, in terms of
depth, occurs much closer to the land
surface than shale gas.
Shale Gas Extraction Issues in

India - If US can then why cant
India?
India
suffers
from
physical
and
economic water scarcity whereas the U.S.
do not have the same water worries.
In the US, the natural gas department is

exempt from scrutiny for chemical
injection in the ground (it exempts
companies from disclosing the chemicals
used during hydraulic fracturing). There is
no such legislation in India.
Page
In US, the citizen or resident owns the
resources that lie beneath the ground. In | 47
India, soil below the land is a public
property and the companies must follow
all the necessary rules to acquire it.
The US has mapped all its shale reserves.
In India there is clarity on the exact
recoverable shale reserves.
The population density is much lower in
the US and they can afford to do it.
Government-issued
leases
for
conventional petroleum exploration do not
include unconventional sources such as
shale gas.
All locations in US is well connected with
gas pipelines. Bulk of the reserves in
eastern India lack the necessary network
of pipelines to transport the gasa task
that many private operators are wary
about undertaking.
Shale Gas: Low Potential, High

Risk and a Better Alternative
Solutions
www.pmfias.com
India has 293 billion tonnes of coal lying

under its soil. Extraction is complicated
because of environmental issues.
But, underground coal gasification, can
create 6,900 trillion cubic feet of gas
which
is
way HIGHER than
shale
reserves.
Indias shale resources at a more modest
65 trillion cubic feet. Indias CBM
potential is estimated at 450 tcf.
So, focus must be on CBM exploration
rather than on risky shale business.
Mains 2013
It is said that India has substantial
reserves of shale oil and gas, which can
feed the needs of the country. However,
tapping of resourced does not appear to
be high on the agenda. Discuss
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critically the availability and issues

involved. (10 marks - 200 words)
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Primary References:
Shale Gas in
India: Look Before You Leap, Articles
from The Hindu
Answer Yourself with the help of above

points.
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| 48
Manganese
Manganese is not found as a free element

in nature.
It is often found in combination with iron.
The most important manganese ore
is pyrolusite.
Manganese is primarily used in iron and

steel industry.
It is the basic raw material for
manufacturing steel alloys.
6 kilograms of manganese ore is required
for manufacturing one tonne of steel.
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It is also used in the manufacturing of

bleaching powder, insecticides, paints,
and batteries.
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High grade ore is found in Ratnagiri

district also.
Madhya Pradesh
Produces about 27.59 per cent of India's Page

manganese ore.
The main belt extends in Balaghat and | 49
Chhindwara districts.
It is just an extension of the Nagpur
Bhandara belt of Maharashtra.
Odisha
Manganese Ore Distribution in
India
India processes second largest reserves in

the world after Zimbabwe; 430 million
tonnes
India
is
the
world's fifth
largest
producer after China, Gabon, South
Africa and Australia.
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are the
major manganese ore producing states.
Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh together produce more than half
of India's manganese
Andhra Pradesh
State wise reserves of Manganese
Odisha (44%),
Karnataka (22%),
Madhya Pradesh (13%),
Maharashtra (8%),
Andhra Pradesh (4%)
Jharkhand and Goa (3% each),
Rajasthan, Gujarat and West
(remaining 3 per cent).
13% of India's manganese production.

Srikakulam
and
Vishakhapatnam
districts.
Srikakulam district has the distinction of
being the earliest producer (1892) of
manganese ore in India.
Cuddapah, Vijayanagaram and Guntur
are other manganese producing districts.
Karnataka
Bengal
Produces about 27.66 per cent of Indian

manganese.
The main belt is in Nagpur and Bhandara
districts.
6 per cent of India's manganese.

Uttara
Kannada,
Shimoga,
Bellary,
Chitradurg and Tumkur districts.
Other producers
Maharashtra
24 per cent production. [1st in reserves but

3rd in prduction]
Gondite [regional names] deposits occur
in
Sundargarh
district
and Kodurite and Khondolite deposits in
Kalahandi and Koraput Districts.
Manganese is also mined from the lateritic
deposits in Bolangir and Sambalpur
districts
Goa,
Panchmahals and Vadodara in Gujarat,
Udaipur and Banswara in Rajasthan and
Singhbhum and Dhanbad districts in
Jharkhand are other producers of
manganese.
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Export of Manganese
Four-fifths of the total production is

consumed domestically.
Exports constantly decreasing due to
increasing domestic demand.
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Japan is the largest buyer of Indian

manganese.
The other buyers are the USA, UK,
Germany, France, Norway.
World Manganese Ore Distribution Page

| 50
Gold Silver Distribution India & World.

Gold Reserves in India. Gold Distribution
Across the World. Silver Distribution
India & World.
Gold Reserves in India
Gold usually occurs in auriferous [(of

rocks or minerals) containing gold] rocks.
It is also found in sands of several rivers.
Gold is also known as international
currency.
Resources in terms of the metal ore
(primary) are located in
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bihar (45 per cent)

Rajasthan (23 per cent)
Karnataka (22 per cent)
West Bengal (3 per cent)
Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (2
per cent each)
Resources in terms of metal content
1. Karnataka,
2. Rajasthan,
3. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, etc.
Kolar
Gold
Field, Hutti
Gold
Field and Ramgiri Gold Field are the
most important gold fields.
Karnataka
Karnataka is the largest producer of gold

in India.
Gold mines are located in Kolar [Kolar
Gold Field], Dharwad, Hassan and
Raichur [Hutti Gold Field] districts.
Kolar Gold Fields is one of the deepest
mines of the world. [Usually, gold mines
are
the
deepest
mines
in
the
world. Mponeng Gold Mine in South
Africa is the deepest mine in the world (3.9
km deep)]
Hutti mines are exploited to their
maximum levels and the ore left behind is
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of very low grade. The mining has almost

ceased due to little or no profitability.
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The Kolar Gold Field has also run out of

quality reserves and is on the verge of
closure.
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| 51
Andhra Pradesh
Second largest producer of gold in India.

Ramagiri in Anantapur district is the most
important gold field in AP.
Alluvial Gold [gold scattered in silt] and
Placer deposits [gold bearing rocks] in
small quantity are widely spread in a large
number of rivers
Jharkhand
Sands of the Subarnarekha (gold streak)

river have some alluvial gold.
Sona nadi in Singhbhum district is
important.
Sonapat valley is another major site with
alluvial gold.
Kerala
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Countries with highest gold

deposits
The river terraces along the Punna Puzha

and the Chabiyar Puzha have some
alluvial gold.
Page
Gold Distribution Across the

World
| 52
Countries with significant deposits: South

Africa, Australia, Indonesia, Canada,
Ghana, Chile, China, USA, Russia etc.
Major Gold Producing Countries
Silver Distribution India & World
Used
in
chemicals, electroplating, photography a
nd for colouring glass, etc.
The chief ore minerals of silver are
agentine, stephanite, pyrargyrite and
proustite.
It is found mixed with several other metals

such as copper, lead, gold, zinc, etc.
India is not a major producer of silver in
the world.
Zawar
mines in Udaipur
district of
Rajasthan is the major producer of silver
[smelting of galena ore in Hindustan Zinc
Smelter].
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The Tundoo Lead Smelter in Dhanbad

district of Jharkhand is another major
silver producer.
Some silver is produced by Kolar Gold
Fields and Hutti gold mines.
The
Hindustan
Copper
Ltd.
at
Maubhandar smelter in Singhbhum
district of Jhakhand obtains silver from
copper slimes.
Silver is also produced by Vizag Zinc
smelter in Andhra Pradesh from the lead
concentrates.
Distribution of key natural resources

across India and World: Chromite Ore
Distribution In India and World. Copper
and Nickel Reserves in India and World.
Alloys of Copper.
Chromite
Chromite is an oxide of iron and

chromium = Combination of chromium,
iron and oxygen.
It is the only economic ore of chromium.
The chromium extracted from chromite is
used in chrome plating and alloying for
production of corrosion resistant super
alloys, nichrome, and stainless steel.
Used in many other metallurgical,
refractories and chemical industries.
Chromite Ore Distribution In

India
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Reserves of chromite in India is estimated

at 203 MT.
93 per cent of the resources are
in ODISHA [Sukinda valley in Cuttack
and Jajapur]
Minor deposits are spread over Manipur,
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Nagaland,
Karnataka,
Jharkhand,
| 53
Maharashtra, TN & AP.
Chromite in Odisha
Odisha is the sole producer [99 per cent]

of chromite ore.
Over 85 per cent of the ore is of high
grade [Keonjhar, Cuttack and Dhenkanal].
Chromite in Other States
Karnataka is the second largest producer.

The main production comes from Mysore
and Hassan districts.
Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh,
Tamenglong and Ukhrul districts of
Manipur are other producers.
Chromite Ore Distribution Across

the World
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Page
| 54
Iron + Nickel + Copper + Chromite

+..== Stainless Steel.
Copper + Nickel == Morel Metal.
Copper + Aluminium == Duralumin.
Copper + Zinc == Brass.
Copper + Tin == Bronze.
Copper
Copper is a good conductor of electricity

and is ductile [able to be drawn out into a
thin wire].
It is an important metal used by
automobile and defense industries.
Alloyed
with iron and nickel to
make stainless steel.
Alloyed with nickel to make morel
metal.
Alloyed
with
aluminium
to
make duralumin.
When alloyed with zinc it is known
as brass and with tin as bronze.
Copper ore is found in ancient as well as

in younger rock formations and occurs as
veins and as bedded deposits
Mining for copper is costly and tedious
affair because most of the copper ores
contain a small percentage of the metal.
India has low grade copper ore [less than
1% metal content][international average
2.5%]
The major part of supply comes from the
USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan and
Mexico.
Copper Reserves in India
46 million tonnes.
Rajasthan (50%)
Madhya Pradesh (24%)
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Jharkhand (19%)
The rest 7 per cent in AP, Gujarat,
Haryana, Karnataka etc.
Madhya Pradesh
1st in production [59.85 %].

Malanjkhand copper mines of Balaghat
district are the most important ones.
Reserves of moderate size are also found
in Betul district.
Rajasthan
2nd in production [28%]

Found along the Aravali range.
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Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Chittaurgarh,

Dungarpur, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Pali,
Sikar, Sirohi and Udaipur districts.
Khetri-Singhana
belt
in
Jhunjhunu
district is the most important copper
producing area.
Jharkhand
3rd in production [11 %].
Singhbhum is the most important copper
producing district.
Found in Hazaribagh district, Santhal
Parganas and Palamu districts.
Major Copper Reserves Across the

World
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| 55
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Nickel
Nickel does not occur free in nature.

It is found in association with copper,
uranium and other metals.
Important alloying material.
Iron + Nickel == stainless steel.
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Hence
nickel
steel
is
used
for
manufacturing armoured plates, bullet
jackets
Nickel + Copper or Silver == Coins.
Nickel-aluminium
alloys
are
used
for manufacturing
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aeroplanes and internal
combustion
| 56
engines.
Metallic nickel is used for making storage
batteries
and
as
a
catalyst
for hydrogenation or hardening of fats
and oils intended for use in soap and
foodstuffs and in making vanaspati.
Important occurrences of nickeliferous
limonite are found in the Sukinda valley
of Jajapur district, Odisha. Here it
occurs as oxide.
Nickel also occurs in sulphide form along
with copper mineralization in east
Sighbhum district, Jharkhand.
In addition, it is found associated with
uranium
deposits
at
Jaduguda,
Jharkhand.
Other important occurrences of nickel are
in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan.
Polymetallic sea nodules are another
source of nickel.
About 92 per cent resources are in
Odisha.
The remaining 8 per cent resources are
distributed in Jharkhand, Nagaland and
Karnataka.
Distribution of Key Natural Resources
across India and World. Bauxite | Lead &
Zinc - Galena | Tungsten - Wolfram |
Pyrites Distribution in India & World.
Bauxite
It is hard and has great tensile strength.
80 % of bauxite [ore of aluminium] ore is

used for making aluminium.
Found mainly as hydrated aluminium
oxides.
Total resources == 3,480 million tonnes ==
84 per cent resource are of metallurgical
grade
Bauxite Distribution in India
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Odisha alone accounts for 52 per cent

Andhra Pradesh 18 per cent
Gujarat 7 per cent
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra 5 per cent
each
Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand 4 per
cent.
Major bauxite resources are in the east
coast in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
India manages to export small quantities
of bauxite.
Major importers are Italy (60%), U.K.
(25%), Germany (9%) and Japan (4%).
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Second largest producer.

Maikala range in Bilaspur, Durg districts
and the Amarkantak plateau regions of
Surguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur are some of
the areas having rich deposits of bauxite.
Maharashtra
Third largest producer.

Largest deposits occur in Kolhapur
district.
Kolhapur district contain rich deposits
with alumina content 52 to 89 per cent.
Other districts: Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara
and Pune.
Jharkhand
Ranchi, Lohardaga, Palamu and Gumla

districts.
High grade ore occurs in Lohardaga.
Gujarat
Jamnagar, Junagadh, Kheda, Kachchh,

Sabarkantha, Amreli and Bhavnagar.
The most important deposits occur in a
belt lying between the Gulf of Kachchh
and the Arabian sea through Bhavnagar,
Junagadh and Amreli districts.
Amarkantak plateau area, the Maikala
range in Shandol, Mandla and Balaghat
districts and the Kotni area of Jabalpur
district are the main producers.
Bauxite Distribution World

Odisha
Largest bauxite producing state.

One-third of the total production of India.
Kalahandi and Koraput districts.
Extends further into Andhra Pradesh
The main deposits occur in Kalahandi,
Koraput,
Sundargarh,
Bolangir
and
Sambalpur districts.
Chhattisgarh
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| 57
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It is mainly used for alloying and for

manufacturing galvanized sheets.
It is also used for dry batteries, electrodes,
textiles, die-casting, rubber industry and
for making collapsible tubes containing
drugs, pastes and the like.
Page
Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores | 58

- India and World
Australia (31.34%),
China (18.41%),
Brazil (13.93%),
Guinea (8.36%), etc.
Tungsten
Lead
Malleable [can be hammered into thin

sheets], soft, heavy and bad conductor.
Lead is a constituent in bronze alloy and
is used as an anti-friction metal.
Lead oxide is used in cable covers,
ammunition, paints, glass making and
rubber industry.
It is also made into sheets, tubes and
pipes which are used as sanitary fittings.
It is now increasingly used in automobiles,
aeroplanes, and calculating machines.
Lead nitrate is used in dyeing and
printing.
Lead does not occur free in nature. It
occurs
as
a cubic
sulphide known
as GALENA.
Galena is found in veins in limestones,
calcareous slates and sandstones.
Zinc
Zinc is a mixed ore containing lead &

zinc.
Zinc is found in veins in association with
galena, chalcopyrites, iron pyrites and
other sulphide ores.
Rajasthan is endowed with the largest

resources of lead-zinc ore (88.61 per cent),
Andhra Pradesh (3.31 per cent),
Madhya Pradesh (2.16 per cent),
Bihar (1.67 per cent)
Maharashtra 9 (1.35 per cent).
Almost the entire production comes
from Rajasthan.
Ore of Tungsten is called

Most important property is that of selfhardening which it imparts to steel.
Over 95 per cent of the worlfram is used
by the steel industry.
Steel containing the requisite proportion of
tungsten is mainly used in manufacturing
amunitions, armour plates, heavy guns,
hard cutting tools, etc.
Tungsten is easily alloyed with chromium,
nickel, molybdenum, titanium, etc. to
yield a number of hard facing, heat and
corrosion resistant alloys.
It is also used for various other purposes
such as electric bulb filaments, paints,
ceramics, textiles, etc.
Distribution of Wolfram
Karnataka (42 per cent)

Andhra Pradesh (17 per cent)
Maharashtra (9 per cent)
Remaining 5 per cent resources are in
Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and
West Bengal
Domestic requirements are met by
imports.
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Pyrites
Pyrite is a sulphide of iron.

Chief source of sulphur.
High proportion of sulphur is injurious to
iron. Hence is it removed and used to
produce sulphur.
Sulphur is very useful for making
sulphuric acid which in turn is used in
several industries such as fertilizer,
chemicals, rayon, petroleum, steel, etc.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Reactor: Nuclear

Reactor Coolant, Moderator, Control Rods
Criticality etc. Types of Nuclear Reactors:
Light-water reactor (LWR) and Pressurized
Heavy-Water Reactor (PHWR) and more.
Prelims: General Science.

Mains:
Science
and
technology
developments and their applications and

effects in everyday life. [Nuclear Energy
and related concepts are all evergreen]
Nuclear fission
The discovery of nuclear fission began

with the discovery of the neutron in 1932
by James Chadwick in England.
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Elemental
sulphur
is
useful
for
manufacturing
explosives,
matches,
insecticides, fungicides and for vulcanizing
rubber
Pyrites occur in Son Valley in Bihar, in
Chitradurga and Uttar Kannada districts
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of Karnataka and the pyritous coal and
| 59
shale of Assam coalfields.
It is widely distributed and scattered
across the country.
Nuclear fission of heavy elements was

discovered in 1938 by German Otto
Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
It was explained theoretically in 1939 by
Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch.
In nuclear physics, nuclear fission is a
radioactive decay process in which the
nucleus of an atom splits into smaller
parts [lighter nuclei].
The fission process often produces free
neutrons and gamma photons [gamma
rays], and releases a very large amount of
energy [exothermic reaction].
[When urea is dissolved in water, the
temperature of water solution falls. This
reaction is called endothermic reaction].
Exothermic == Liberation of Heat during a
reaction. [CaCO3(calcium carbonate or
www.pmfias.com
lime) + H2O (water) Ca(OH)2(calcium

hydroxide) + CO2 + HEAT]
Endothermic == Absorption of Heat during

a reaction. [Urea + Water]
The nuclear fission process may take place

spontaneously in some cases or may be
induced by the excitation of the nucleus
with a variety of particles (neutrons,
protons, deuterons, or alpha particles) or
with electromagnetic radiation in the form
of gamma rays.
In the fission process, radioactive
products
are
formed,
and
several neutrons are emitted.
These neutrons can induce fission in a
nearby nucleus of fissionable material and
release more neutrons causing a chain
reaction.
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Uranium-235 can undergo fission when

bombarded with slow neutrons only.
Uranium-238 can undergo fission when
bombarded with fast neutrons only.
The nuclei of other heavy elements, such
as thorium also fissionable, but with fast
Page
neutrons.
| 60
How Nuclear Fission Releases

Energy?
Nuclei consist of nucleons [neutrons +

protons = mass number].
The actual mass of a nucleus is always
less than the sum of the masses of
nucleons.
This difference is known as the mass
defect and is a measure of the total
binding energy (and, hence, the stability)
of the nucleus.
This binding energy is released during the
formation of a nucleus.
This conversion of mass to energy follows
Einsteins equation, E = mc2, where E is
the energy equivalent of a mass, m, and c
is the velocity of light.
Common Fissile Material
Fissionable material That can undergo

nuclear fission chain reaction.
Fissile That can undergo Controlled or

Self-Sustained nuclear fission chain
Reaction.
If controlled in a nuclear reactor, such a

chain reaction can be used to generate
power. If uncontrolled [atomic bomb], it
can lead to an enormous explosion.
Uranium is the most common fissile used
in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.
Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are
Uranium-238
or
U-238
or 238U
(99.27%) and Uranium 235 or U-235
or 235U (0.72%).
Uranium-235,
Plutonium239 and Thorium-232 are the common
fissile material.
A slow neutron can be captured by a
uranium-235 nucleus.
A fast neutron will not be captured, so
neutrons must be slowed down by
moderation to increase their capture
probability in fission reactors.
Natural uranium is composed of 0.72% U235 (the fissionable isotope), 99.27% U238, and a trace quantity 0.0055% U-234.
The 0.72% U-235 is not sufficient to
produce a self-sustaining critical chain
reaction.
For light-water reactors, the fuel must be
enriched to 2.5-3.5% U-235.
While uranium-235 is the naturally
occurring fissionable isotope, Plutonium239 can be produced by "breeding" it from
uranium-238.
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Uranium-238, which makes up 99.3% of

natural uranium, is not fissionable by
slow neutrons.
U-238 has a small probability for
spontaneous fission and also a small
probability of fission when bombarded
with fast neutrons, but it is not useful as
a nuclear fuel source.
Thorium-232 is fissionable, so could
conceivably be used as a nuclear fuel.
The other isotope can undergo fission
upon slow-neutron bombardment is
uranium-233.
Animation from: Whatisnuclear.com
Uranium Enrichment
Natural uranium is only 0.7% U-235, the

fissionable isotope.
The other 99.3% is U-238 which is not
fissionable.
The uranium is usually enriched to 2.53.5% U-235 for use in light water reactors.
Centrifugal
separators
and
laser
enrichment procedures are used in
uranium enrichment.
The enriched uranium fuel used in fission
reactors cannot be used to make a bomb.
It takes enrichment to over 90% to obtain
the fast chain reaction necessary for
weapons applications.
Enrichment to 15-30% is typical for
breeder reactors.
A nuclear reactor is a system that

contains and controls sustained nuclear
chain reactions.
Fuel
[Enriched
uranium-235
or
Plutonium-239] is placed into the reactor
vessel along with a small neutron source.
The neutrons start a chain reaction where
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each atom that splits releases more
neutrons that cause other atoms to split. | 61
Each time an atom splits, it releases large
amounts of energy in the form of heat.
The heat is carried out of the reactor by
coolant, which is most commonly just
plain water.
The coolant heats up and goes off to a
turbine to spin a generator or drive shaft.
The coolant is the material that passes
through the core, transferring the heat
from the fuel to a turbine. It could be
water, heavy-water, liquid sodium, helium,
or something else.
The turbine transfers the heat from the
coolant to electricity, just like in a fossilfuel plant.
The containment is the structure made of
steel-reinforced concrete that separates
the reactor from the environment.
Chernobyl did not have a strong
containment structure.
Nuclear Reactor Coolant
Nuclear Reactor
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A nuclear reactor coolant usually water

or molten salt is circulated past the
reactor core to absorb the heat that it
generates.
The heat is carried away from the reactor
and is then used to generate steam.
Neutron Moderator
A neutron moderator is a medium

that reduces the speed of fast neutrons,
thereby
turning
them
into thermal
neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear
chain reaction.
When a large fissile atomic nucleus such
as
uranium-235
or
plutonium-239
absorbs a neutron, it may undergo
nuclear fission.
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The heavy nucleus splits into two or more

lighter nuclei, (the fission products),
releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation,
and free neutrons.
A portion of these neutrons may later be
absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger
further fission events, which release more
neutrons, and so on. This is known as
a nuclear chain reaction.
To control such a nuclear chain reaction,
neutron poisons and neutron moderators
can change the portion of neutrons that
will go on to cause more fission
Commonly-used
moderators
include regular (light) water (in 74.8% of
the world's reactors), solid graphite (20%
of reactors), heavy water (5% of reactors)
and
Control Rods or Reactivity

control
The power output of the reactor is

adjusted by controlling how many
neutrons are able to create more fissions.
Control rods that are made of a neutron
poison are used to absorb neutrons.
Moderators slow down neutrons

Control Rods absorb neutrons
Moderators are like accelerators

Control Rods are like brakes
Absorbing more neutrons in a control rod

means that there are fewer neutrons
available to cause fission.
So pushing the control rod deeper into the
reactor will reduce its power output, and
extracting the control rod will increase it.
Control rods are composed of chemical
elements such as boron, silver, indium
and cadmium.
Critical mass
A critical mass is the smallest amount of

fissile material needed for a sustained
nuclear chain reaction.
The critical mass of a fissionable material
depends upon its nuclear properties, its
density, its shape, its enrichment, its
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purity,
its
temperature,
and
its
| 62
surroundings.
When a nuclear chain reaction in a mass
of fissile material is self-sustaining, the
mass is said to be in a critical state in
which there is no increase or decrease in
power,
temperature,
or
neutron
population.
Criticality
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Criticality is a nuclear term that refers to

the balance of neutrons in the system.
Balance of neutrons can be achieved using
moderators and control rods.
Subcritical refers to a system where the
loss rate of neutrons is greater than the
production rate of neutrons and therefore
the neutron population decreases as time
goes on.
Supercritical refers to a system where
the production rate of neutrons is greater
than the loss rate of neutrons and
therefore
the
neutron
population
increases.
When the neutron population remains
constant, this means there is a perfect
balance between production rate and loss
rate, and the nuclear system is said to
be critical.
When a reactor is starting up, the neutron
population is increased slowly in a
controlled manner, so that more neutrons
are produced than are lost, and the
nuclear reactor becomes supercritical.
When the desired power level is achieved,
the nuclear reactor is placed into a critical
configuration to keep the neutron
population and power constant.
Finally, during shutdown, the reactor is
placed in a subcritical configuration so
that the neutron population and power
decreases.
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Therefore, when a reactor is said to

have gone critical, it actually means it
is in a stable configuration producing a
constant power.
Supercritical == Car [nuclear reactor] is
accelerating.
Critical == Car is going at a constant
speed.
Sub critical == Car is slowing down.
Types of Nuclear Reactors
Neutron poison
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A neutron poison (also called a neutron

absorber or a nuclear poison) is a
substance
with
a large
neutron
absorption cross-section, in applications
such as nuclear reactors.
There are various types of reactors based

on moderators, coolants, technologies
used.
All commercial power reactors are based Page
on nuclear fission.
They generally use uranium and its | 63
product plutonium as nuclear fuel, though
a thorium fuel cycle is also possible.
Fission reactors can be divided roughly
into two classes, depending on the energy
of the neutrons that sustain the fission
chain reaction: thermal reactors and fast
neutron reactors.
Thermal Reactors and Fast

Neutron Reactors [Breeder
Reactors]
Thermal Reactors
Thermal reactors (the most common type of
nuclear reactor) use slowed or thermal
neutrons to keep up the fission of their fuel.
Almost all current reactors are of this type.
Fast Neutron Reactors

Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to
cause fission in their fuel.
Very rare due to complexity and costs. They

are more difficult to build and more
Comparatively easy to build and operate.
expensive to operate.
These contain neutron moderator materials They do not have a neutron moderator,
that slow neutrons. The moderator is often and use less-moderating coolants.
also the coolant, usually water under high
pressure.
High probability of fission due to slow Maintaining a chain reaction requires the
neutrons. 2-5% Enriched fissile is sufficient fuel to be more highly enriched in fissile
to sustain a chain reaction.
material (about 20% or more) due to the
relatively lower probability of fission.
More radioactive waste
Fast reactors have the potential to
produce less radioactive waste because all
fissile is fissionable with fast neutrons [fuel
is highly enriched in fissile material].
Boiling water reactors (BWR), Pressurized Breeder reactors operate with fast neutrons
water reactors (PWR) and Heavy water [moderators are not required]
reactors (HWR) operate with thermal
neutrons [moderators used]
Reactors based on Coolant and

Moderator
Light-water reactor (LWR)
Light Water Reactors [LWR] and Hard

Water reactors [HWR].
The light-water reactor (LWR) is a type

of thermal-neutron
reactor that
uses NORMAL WATER, as opposed to
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heavy water, as both its coolant and

neutron moderator.
Thermal-neutron reactors are the most
common type of nuclear reactor, and lightwater reactors are the most common type
of thermal-neutron reactor.
There are three varieties of light-water
reactors: the pressurized water reactor
(PWR), the boiling water reactor (BWR),
and (most designs of) the supercritical
water reactor (SCWR).
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
The PWR uses regular water as a coolant.

The primary cooling water is kept at very
high pressure so it does not boil.
Pressurized
water
reactors
(PWRs)
constitute the large majority of all Western
nuclear power plants.
In a PWR, the primary coolant (water) is
pumped under high pressure to the
reactor core where it is heated by the
energy generated by the fission of atoms.
The heated water then flows to a steam
generator where it transfers its thermal
energy to a secondary system where steam
is generated and flows to turbines which,
in turn, spin an electric generator.
In contrast to a boiling water reactor,
pressure in the primary coolant loop
prevents the water from boiling within the
reactor.
PWRs were originally designed to serve as
nuclear marine propulsion for nuclear
submarines
The coolant water must be highly

pressurized to remain liquid at high
temperatures.
This requires high strength piping and a
heavy pressure vessel and hence increases
construction costs.
The higher pressure can increase the
consequences
of
a
loss-of-coolant
accident.
The high temperature water coolant with
boric acid dissolved in it is corrosive to
carbon steel (but not stainless steel) and
can lead to radiation exposure.
It is necessary to enrich [2-5%] the
uranium
fuel,
which
significantly
increases the costs of fuel production.
The requirement to enrich fuel for PWRs
also presents a serious proliferation risk.
PWRs are not scalable.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Very stable due to their tendency to

produce less power as temperatures
increase. Easier to operate from a stability
standpoint.
PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from
the primary loop, so the water in the
secondary loop is not contaminated by
radioactive materials.
The
control
rods
are
held
by
electromagnets and fall by gravity during
power failure. Full insertion safely shuts

down the primary nuclear reaction.
PWRs are compact reactors that fit well in
nuclear submarines and nuclear ships.
Disadvantages of Pressurized water
reactor (PWR)
Advantages of Pressurized water reactor

(PWR)
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It is the second most common type of

electricity-generating nuclear reactor after
the pressurized water reactor (PWR).
The main difference between a BWR and
PWR is that in a BWR, the reactor core
heats water, which turns to steam and
then drives a steam turbine. In a PWR, the
reactor core heats water, which does not
boil.
This hot water then exchanges heat with a
lower pressure water system, which turns
to steam and drives the turbine.
Advantages of Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR)
The reactor vessel and associated

components operate at a substantially
lower pressure compared to PWR.
Page
| 64
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Pressure vessel is subject to significantly

less irradiation compared to a PWR.
Operates at a lower nuclear fuel
temperature.
Fewer components due to no steam
generators and no pressurizer vessel.
Lower risk (probability) of a rupture
causing loss of coolant compared to a
PWR.
Can operate at lower core power density
levels using natural circulation without
forced flow.
BWRs do not use boric acid to control
fission burn-up to avoid the production of
tritium leading to less possibility of
corrosion within the reactor vessel and
piping.
BWRs are ideally suited for peaceful uses
like power generation, and desalinization,
due to low cost, simplicity, and safety
focus, which come at the expense of larger
size and slightly lower thermal efficiency.
Under these conditions water becomes a

fluid with unique properties that can be
used to advantage in the destruction of
hazardous wastes.
BWRs require more complex calculations

for managing consumption of nuclear fuel.
This also requires more instrumentation
in the reactor core.
There have been concerns raised about
the
pressure
containment
ability
after Fukushima I nuclear accidents.
Control rods are inserted from below for
current BWR designs. In case of power
failure, the reactor core can undergo
significant damage and turn catastrophic.
The supercritical water reactor (SCWR)

uses supercritical water as the working
fluid.
Supercritical water oxidation or SCWO is a
process
that
occurs
in
water at
temperatures and pressures above a
mixture's thermodynamic critical point.
SCWRs resemble light water reactors

Page
(LWRs) but operate at higher pressure and
temperature like the pressurized water | 65
reactor (PWR) and with a direct oncethrough cycle like a boiling water reactor
(BWR).
The SCWR is a promising advanced
nuclear system because of its high
thermal efficiency and simpler design.
It is still in development stage.
Advantages of Supercritical Water
Reactor (SCWR)
Disadvantages of Boiling Water Reactor

(BWR)
Supercritical Water Reactor

(SCWR)
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Supercritical water has excellent heat

transfer properties allowing a high power
density, a small core, and a small
containment structure.
As a BWR is simpler than a PWR, a SCWR
is a lot simpler and more compact than a
less-efficient BWR.
There are no steam separators, steam
dryers, internal recirculation pumps, or
recirculation flow inside the pressure
vessel.
The stored thermal and radiologic energy
in the smaller core would also be less than
that of either a BWR's or a PWR's.
Water is liquid at room temperature,
cheap,
non-toxic
and
transparent,
simplifying inspection and repair.
A fast SCWR could be a breeder reactor,
like
the
proposed
Clean
And
Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor.
A heavy-water SCWR could breed fuel
from thorium (4x more abundant than
uranium), with increased proliferation
resistance over plutonium breeders.
Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactor

(PHWR)
Uses heavy water (deuterium oxide

D2O) as
its
coolant
and
neutron
moderator.
www.pmfias.com
The heavy water coolant is kept under

pressure, allowing it to be heated to higher
temperatures without boiling, much as in
a pressurized water reactor.
While heavy water is significantly more
expensive than ordinary light water, it
creates greatly
enhanced
neutron
economy, allowing the reactor to operate
without
fuel-enrichment
facilities (offsetting the additional expense
of the heavy water) and enhancing the
ability of the reactor to make use of
alternate fuel cycles.
Advantages of Pressurized Heavy-Water
Reactor (PHWR)
It can be operated without expensive

uranium enrichment facilities.
The mechanical arrangement places most
of the moderator at lower temperatures.
The resulting thermal neutrons are "more
thermal" making PHWR more efficient. So,
PHWR uses fuel more efficiently.
Since
unenriched
uranium
fuel
accumulates a lower density of fission
products than enriched uranium fuel, it
generates less heat, allowing more
compact storage.
Disadvantages of Pressurized HeavyWater Reactor (PHWR)
The reduced energy content of natural

uranium as compared to enriched
uranium necessitates more frequent
replacement of fuel.
The increased rate of fuel movement
through the reactor also results in higher
volumes of spent fuel than in LWRs
employing enriched uranium.
Opponents
of
heavy-water
reactors
suggest that such reactors pose a much
greater risk of nuclear proliferation than
comparable light water reactors.
Natural Uranium-238 fissile [because
enrichment is not required] of a heavy-
water reactor is converted into plutonium239, a fissile material suitable for use in
nuclear weapons.
As a result, if the fuel of a heavy-water
reactor is changed frequently, significant
amounts of weapons-grade plutonium can
Page
be
chemically
extracted
from
the
irradiated natural uranium fuel by nuclear | 66
reprocessing [Pakistan is pretty good at
this].
In this way, the materials necessary to
construct a nuclear weapon can be
obtained
without
any
uranium
enrichment.
In addition, the use of heavy water as a
moderator results in the production of
small
amounts
of tritium when
the
deuterium nuclei in the heavy water
absorb neutrons.
Tritium is essential for the production of
boosted fission weapons, which in turn
enable
the
easier
production
of
thermonuclear
weapons,
including
neutron bombs.
The proliferation risk of heavy-water
reactors was demonstrated when India
produced the plutonium for Operation
Smiling Buddha, its first nuclear weapon
test, by extraction from the spent fuel of a
heavy-water research reactor known as
the CIRUS reactor [Oh no!!].
References: Mintse, Whatisnuclear.com, W
ikipedia etc..
Uranium - Distribution, Reserves and
Production. Uranium in India. Nuclear
Power Plants in India. Thorium Advantages
of
Thorium,
Thorium
Distribution.
Must Read Post: Nuclear Fission | Nuclear
Reactor Types
Nuclear proliferation and PHWR
www.pmfias.com
Atomic Minerals
Uranium and Thorium are the main

atomic minerals. Other atomic minerals
are beryllium, lithium and zirconium.
www.pmfias.com
Uranium deposits occur in Singhbhum

and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand,
Gaya district of Bihar, and in the
sedimentary rocks in Saharanpur district
of Uttar Pradesh.
But the largest source of uranium
comprise the monazite sands.
Monazite sands occur on east and west
coasts and in some places in Bihar. But
the
largest
concentration
of monazite sand is on the Kerala coast.
Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is
estimated to be contained in monazite.
Some uranium is found in the copper
mines of Udaipur in Rajasthan.
India produces about 2 per cent of worlds
uranium. The total reserves of uranium
are estimated at 30,480 tonnes.
Thorium is also derived from monozite.
The other mineral carrying thorium is
thorianite.
The known reserves of thorium in India
are estimated to be between 457,000 and
508,000 tonnes. Kerala, Jharkhand,
Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan are the
main producers.
Beryllium oxide is used as a moderator
in nuclear reactors. India has sufficient
reserves of beryllium to meet her
requirement of atomic power generation.
Lithium is a light metal which is found in
lepidolite and spodumene. Lepidolite is
widely distributed in the mica belts of
Jharkhand,
Madhya
Pradesh
and
Rajasthan.
Zirconium is found along the Kerala coast
and in alluvial rocks of Ranchi and
Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand.
Uranium
Uranium is a silvery-gray metallic

radioactive chemical element. It is only
naturally formed in supernova explosions.
www.pmfias.com
Uranium, thorium, and potassium are

the main elements contributing to natural
terrestrial radioactivity.
Uranium has the chemical symbol U and
atomic number 92.
Uranium isotopes in natural uranium
Page
are 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).
All uranium isotopes are radioactive and | 67
fissionable. But only 235U is fissile (will
support
a neutron-mediated
chain
reaction).
Traces of Uranium are found everywhere.
Commercial extraction is possible only in
locations where the proportion of Uranium
is adequate. There are very few such
locations.
Distribution of Uranium Across

the World
Largest
viable
deposits
are
found
in Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.
Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in
Southern Australia are important mines in
Australia.
High-grade deposits are only found in
the Athabasca Basin region of Canada.
Cigar Lake, McArthur River basin in
Canada are other important uranium
mining sites.
The
Chu-Sarysu
basin
in
central
Kazakhstan alone accounts for over half of
the country's known uranium resources.
List of Countries by Uranium

Reserves and Production
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| 68
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Uranium in India
India has no significant reserves of

Uranium. All needs are met through
imports.
India imports thousands of tonnes of
uranium
from Russia,
Kazakhstan,
France, and
India is trying hard to import uranium
from Australia and Canada. There are
Nuclear Power Plants in India
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some
concerns
regarding
nuclear
proliferation and other related issues
which India is trying to sort out.
Some quality reserves were recently
discovered in parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana
between Seshachalam
Page
forest and Sresailam [Southern edge of
Andhra to Southern edge of Telangana]. | 69
Thorium
www.pmfias.com
Thorium is a chemical element with

symbol Th and atomic number 90.
It is one of only two significantly
radioactive
elements
that
still
occur naturally in large quantities [other
being uranium].
Thorium metal is silvery and tarnishes
black when exposed to air.
Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its
known isotopes are unstable, with the
seven naturally occurring ones (thorium227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, and 234).
Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of
thorium and accounts for nearly all
natural thorium, with the other five
natural isotopes occurring only in traces.
Thorium is estimated to be about three to
four times more abundant than
uranium in the Earth's crust, and is
chiefly refined from monazite sands
[Monazite
contains
2.5%
thorium][Monazite is a widely scattered
on the Kerala Coast].
Thorium is predicted to be able to replace
uranium as nuclear fuel in nuclear
reactors, but only a few thorium reactors
have yet been completed.
Monazite is a reddish-brown phosphate

mineral containing rare earth metals.
Rare earths are a series of chemical
elements found in the Earths crust that
are vital to many modern technologies,
including
consumer
electronics,
computers
and
networks,
communications, clean energy, advanced
transportation, health care, environmental
mitigation, national defense, and many
others.
Because of their unique magnetic,
luminescent,
and
electrochemical
properties, these elements help make
many technologies perform with reduced
weight, reduced emissions, and energy
consumption; or give them greater
efficiency, performance, miniaturization,
speed, durability, and thermal stability.
There are 17 elements that are considered

to be rare earth elements. [Scandium,
Yttrium etc. (names are very strange
and hence I am avoiding them)]
Advantages of Thorium
Monazite Rare Earth Metals
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Page
Proliferation is not easy: Weapons-grade | 70

fissionable material (U-233) is harder to
retrieve safely from a thorium reactor [U233 produced by transmuting thorium
also contains U-232, a strong source of
gamma radiation that makes it difficult to
work with. Its daughter product, thallium208, is equally difficult to handle and easy
to detect].
Thorium reactors produce far less waste
than present-day reactors.
Thorium produces 10 to 10,000 times less
long-lived radioactive waste [minuscule
waste that is generated is toxic for only
three or four hundred years rather than
thousands of years].
They have the ability to burn up most of
the highly radioactive and long-lasting
minor
actinides
[fifteen
radioactive
metallic elements from actinium (atomic
number 89) to lawrencium (atomic
number 103) in the periodic table] that
makes nuclear waste from Light Water
Reactors a nuisance to deal with.
Thorium reactors are cheaper because
they have higher burn up.
Thorium mining produces a single pure
isotope, whereas the mixture of natural
uranium
isotopes
must
be enriched [enriching
is
costly]
to
function in most common reactor designs.
Thorium cannot sustain a nuclear chain
reaction without priming, so fission stops
by default in an accelerator driven reactor.
And five, thorium reactors are significantly
more proliferation-resistant than present
reactors. This is because the
The mainstreaming of thorium reactors
worldwide thus offers an enormous
advantage to proliferation-resistance as
well as the environment.
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For India, it offers the added benefit

that it can enter the export market
[India has the largest reserves of
thorium].
Scientists predict that the impact of
climate change will be worse on India.
Advancing the deployment of thorium
reactors by four to six decades via a
plutonium market might be the most
effective step towards curtailing carbon
emissions.
Page
| 71
Thorium Distribution
Thorium is several times more abundant

in Earth's crust than all isotopes of
uranium combined and thorium-232 is
several hundred times more abundant
than uranium-235.
United States, Australia, and India have
particularly large reserves of thorium.
India and Australia are believed to possess
more than half of world's thorium
reserves.
Primary
References: WikipediaUranium, Thorium
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India's
Three-Stage
Nuclear
Power
Programme. Fast Breeder Reactor at
Kalpakkam. Deployment of Thorium
Reactors In India? Indias Fissile Shortage
Problem.
www.pmfias.com
MUST READ:
Nuclear Fission | Nuclear Reactor Types

Uranium | Thorium Distribution
Page
| 72
India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power

Programme
India's
three-stage
nuclear
power
programme was formulated by Homi
Bhabha in the 1950s to secure the
countrys long term energy independence,
through
the
use
of uranium and thorium reserves found
in the monazite sands of coastal regions
of South India.
The ultimate focus of the programme is

on enabling the thorium reserves of
India to be utilized in meeting the
country's energy requirements.
Thorium is particularly attractive for

India, as it has only around 12% of the
global uranium reserves, but one of
the largest shares of global thorium
reserves.
However, at present thorium is not
economically
viable
because
global
uranium prices are much lower.
www.pmfias.com
The recent Indo-US Nuclear Deal and

the NSG waiver, which ended more than
three decades of international isolation of
the Indian civil nuclear programme, have
created
many
hitherto
unexplored
alternatives for the success of the threestage nuclear power programme.
Thorium itself is not a fissile material,
and thus cannot undergo fission to
produce energy.
Instead, it must be transmuted to
uranium-233 in a reactor fueled by other
fissile
materials
[plutonium-239
or
uranium-235].
The first two stages, natural uraniumfueled
heavy
water
reactors and plutonium-fueled
fast
breeder reactors, are intended to
generate sufficient fissile material from
India's limited uranium resources, so that
all its vast thorium reserves can be fully
utilized in the third stage of thermal
breeder reactors.
[Heavy water (deuterium oxide, D 2O) is

used as moderator and coolant in PHWR].
In the first stage of the programme,

natural uranium fuelled
pressurized
heavy water reactors (PHWR) produce
electricity while generating plutonium239 as by-product.
In the second stage, fast breeder reactors

(FBRs)[moderators not required] would
use
plutonium-239,
recovered
by
reprocessing spent fuel from the first
stage, and natural uranium.
In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes
fission to produce energy, while the
uranium-238 present in the fuel
transmutes to additional plutonium239.
Why
should
Uranium-238
transmuted to Plutonium-239?
be
Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239 can

sustain a chain reaction. But Uranium238 cannot sustain a chain reaction. So it
is transmuted to Plutonium-239.
[U-238 Plutonium-239 + Heat]

[In PWHR, enrichment of Uranium to
improve concentration of U-235 is not
required. U-238 can be directly fed into
the reactor core]
[Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of
the fissile isotope uranium-235. Most of
the remaining 99.3% is uranium-238
which is not fissile but can be converted in
a reactor to the fissile isotope plutonium239].
PHWRs was a natural choice for

implementing the first stage because it
had the most efficient reactor design
Page
[uranium enrichment not required] in
| 73
terms of uranium utilisation.
India correctly calculated that it would be
easier to create heavy water production
facilities (required for PHWRs) than
uranium enrichment facilities (required for
LWRs).
Almost the entire existing base of Indian
nuclear power (4780 MW) is composed of
first stage PHWRs, with the exception of
the two Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) units
at
Stage II Fast Breeder Reactor
Pic from The Hindu
Stage I Pressurized Heavy Water

Reactor [PHWR]
www.pmfias.com
But Why U-238 and not U-235?

Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of
the fissile isotope uranium-235. Most of
the remaining 99.3% is uranium-238.
Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to

"breed" more fuel than they consume.
Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is
built up thorium can be introduced as a
www.pmfias.com
blanket material in the reactor and

transmuted to uranium-233 for use in the
third stage.
The surplus plutonium bred in each fast
reactor can be used to set up more such
reactors, and might thus grow the Indian
civil nuclear power capacity till the point
where the third stage reactors using
thorium as fuel can be brought online
As of August 2014, India's first Prototype
Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam had
been delayed - with first criticality
expected in 2015, 2016..and it drags on.
Stage III Thorium Based

Reactors
A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear

power system involves a self-sustaining
series
of thorium-232-uranium233 fuelled reactors.
This would be a thermal breeder reactor,
which in principle can be refueled after
its initial fuel charge using only
naturally occurring thorium.
According to replies given in Q&A in the
Indian Parliament on two separate
occasions, 19 August 2010 and 21 March
2012, large scale thorium deployment is
only to be expected 3 4 decades after the
commercial operation of fast breeder
reactors. [2040-2070]
As there is a long delay before direct
thorium utilisation in the three-stage
programme, the country is now looking at
reactor designs that allow more direct use
of thorium in parallel with the sequential
three-stage programme
Three options under consideration are the
Accelerator
Driven
Systems
(ADS),
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
and Compact High Temperature Reactor
The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)

is a 500 MWe fast breeder nuclear reactor
presently being constructed at the Madras
Atomic Power Station in Kalpakkam,

India.
The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research (IGCAR) is responsible for the
design of this reactor.
As of 2007 the reactor was expected to
Page
begin functioning in 2010 but now it is
expected to achieve first criticality in | 74
March-April 2016.
Construction
is
over
and
the
owner/operator, Bharatiya
Nabhikiya
Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI), is
awaiting clearance from the Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board (AERB).
Total costs, originally estimated at 3500
crore are now estimated at 5,677 crore.
The Kalpakkam PFBR is using uranium238 not thorium, to breed new fissile
material, in a sodium-cooled fast reactor
design.
The surplus plutonium or uranium-233
for thorium reactors [U-238 transmutes
into plutonium] from each fast reactor can
be used to set up more such reactors and
grow the nuclear capacity in tune with
India's needs for power.
The fact that PFBR will be cooled by liquid
sodium
creates
additional
safety
requirements to isolate the coolant from
the environment, since sodium explodes if
it comes into contact with water and
burns when in contact with air.
Below text is drawn from.. Fast forwarding
to thorium-The Hindu, by JAIDEEP A.
PRABHU
What Hinders Deployment of

Thorium-Fuelled Reactors In
India?
Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at

Kalpakkam
www.pmfias.com
Most people would assume that it is a

limitation of technology. But instead, it is
due to shortage of uranium fuel that is
needed to convert fertile fuel [thorium]
into fissile [fuel that can undergo
sustained chain reaction].
Scientists at the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre have successfully tested all
www.pmfias.com
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relevant thorium-related technologies in

the laboratory.
In fact, if pressed, India could probably
begin full-scale deployment of thorium
reactors in ten years.
The single greatest hurdle, to answer the
original question, is the critical shortage of
fissile material.
reactor. Fresh thorium can replace the

depleted thorium [can be totally done
away with uranium which is very scares in
India] in the reactor core, making
it essentially
a
thorium-fuelled
reactor [thorium keeps transmuting
Page
into U-233. It is U-233 that generates the
| 75
energy].
What is a fissile material?
Present State of India's ThreeStage Nuclear Power Programme
A fissile material is one that can sustain a

chain reaction upon bombardment by
neutrons.
Thorium is by itself fertile, meaning that
it
can transmute
into
a
fissile
radioisotope [U-233] but cannot itself
keep a chain reaction going.
In a thorium reactor, a fissile material like
uranium or plutonium is blanketed by
thorium.
The fissile material, also called a driver in
this case, drives the chain reaction to
produce energy while simultaneously
transmuting the fertile material into fissile
material.
India has very modest deposits of uranium
and some of the worlds largest sources of
thorium. It was keeping this in mind that
in 1954, Homi Bhabha envisioned Indias
nuclear power programme in three stages
to suit the countrys resource profile.
1. In the first stage, heavy water reactors

fuelled by natural uranium would
produce plutonium
[U-238
will
be
transmuted to Plutonium 239 in
PHWR];
2. the second stage would initially be fuelled
by a mix of the plutonium from the first
stage and natural uranium. This uranium
would transmute into more plutonium and
once sufficient stocks have been built up,
thorium would be introduced into the fuel
cycle to convert it into uranium 233 for
the third stage [thorium will be
transmuted to U-233 with the help
plutonium 239].
3. In the final stage, a mix of thorium and
uranium fuels the reactors. The thorium
transmutes to U-233 which powers the
After decades of operating pressurized

heavy-water reactors (PHWR), India is
finally ready to start the second stage.
A 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
(PFBR) at Kalpakkam is set to achieve
criticality any day now and four more fast
breeder reactors have been sanctioned,
two at the same site and two elsewhere.
However, experts estimate that it would
take India many more FBRs and at least
another four decades before it has built up
a sufficient fissile material inventory to
launch the third stage.
Solution to Indias Fissile

Shortage Problem Procuring
Fissile Material Plutonium
The obvious solution to Indias shortage of

fissile material is to procure it from the
international market.
Favourable Conditions for

Plutonium Trade
As yet, there exists no commerce in

plutonium though there is no law that
expressly forbids it.
In fact, most nuclear treaties such as the
Convention on the Physical Protection of
Nuclear Material address only U-235 and
U-233.
This is because Plutonium has so far not
been considered a material suited for
peaceful purposes.
The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) merely
mandates that special fissionable material
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which includes plutonium if

transferred, be done so under safeguards.
Thus, the legal rubric for safeguarded sale
of plutonium and safety procedures for
moving radioactive spent fuel and
plutonium already exists but it is not too
complicated as in case Uranium.
Japan and the U.K. who are looking to
reduce their stockpile of plutonium will
certainly be happy to sell it to India.
Graphite
What compelling reason does the

world have to accommodate
India?
Indias FBRs that are tasked for civilian

purposes and can be brought under
international safeguards in a system
similar to the Indo-U.S. nuclear deal.
FBRs and large quantities of fissile
material can easily be redirected towards
weapons programme. But India has shown
no inclination to do so until now.
The U.S. could perhaps emerge as the

greatest obstacle to plutonium commerce.
S. cannot prevent countries from trading
in plutonium, it has the power to make it
uncomfortable for them via sanctions,
reduced scientific cooperation, and other
mechanisms.
The strong non-proliferation lobby in the
U.S. would not like a non-signatory of the
NPT [India] to open and regulate trade in
plutonium.
The challenge for Delhi is to convince
Washington to sponsor rather than oppose
such a venture.
References/Sources: The
Hindu, Wikipedia, Wikipedia-Thorium
Graphite - Applications of Graphite, Major
Producers of Graphite. Diamonds Diamonds in India, World. Differences
between Diamond and Graphite.
Graphite is a naturally-occurring form of

crystalline carbon.
It is also known as plumbago or black
lead.
Page
The carbon content in Graphite is never
| 76
less than 95%.
Graphite may be considered the highest
grade of coal, just above anthracite.
Carbon content in Peat < Lignite <
Bituminous < Anthracite < Graphite <
Diamond
Obstacles
www.pmfias.com
It is not normally used as fuel because it

is difficult to ignite.
It is found in metamorphic and igneous
rocks.
Graphite is extremely soft, cleaves [splits
into layers] with very light pressure.
It is extremely resistant to heat and is
highly unreactive.
Most
of
the
graphite
is
formed
at convergent plate boundaries where
organic-rich shales and limestones were
subjected to metamorphism due to heat
and pressure.
Metamorphism produces marble, schist
and gneiss that contains tiny crystals and
flakes of graphite.
Some
graphite
forms
from
the
metamorphism of coal seams. This
graphite is known as amorphous
graphite.
Graphite is a non-metal and it is the only
non-metal that can conduct electricity.
Applications of Graphite
Natural graphite is mostly consumed for

refractories,
batteries,
steelmaking,
expanded graphite, lubricants etc.
A refractory material is one that retains its
strength at high temperatures.
Natural and synthetic graphite are used to
construct the anode of all major battery
technologies
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The lithium-ion battery utilizes roughly

twice the amount of graphite than lithium
carbonate.
Natural graphite in this end use mostly
goes into carbon raising in molten steel.
[to make steel stronger]
Natural amorphous graphite are used in
brake linings for heavier vehicles, and
became important with the need to
substitute for asbestos.
Graphite lubricants are specialty items for
use at very high or very low temperatures.
Modern pencil lead is most commonly a
mix of powdered graphite and clay.
3. Jharkhand (6%),
4. Tamil Nadu (5%) and
5. Odisha (3%)
Operational Indian Graphite

Resources
Most of the Graphite Production
concentrated in these states
Major Producers of Graphite

India & World
India is a major global producer of flake

graphite.
Total Indian Graphite Resources

1. Arunachal Pradesh (43%),
2. Jammu & Kashmir (37%),
Diamond is
the
hardest
naturally
occurring substance found on Earth.
Diamonds are formed in mantle. They
brought to the earths crust due
to volcanism. Most of the diamonds occur
in dykes, sill etc. [Volcanic Landforms].
Diamond is the Diamonds are used in
ornaments, polishing the surfaces of
metals and in gem cutting.
The most important industrial use of
diamonds is in cutting-edges of drills used
for exploration and mining of minerals
Page
is
Tamil Nadu (37%),

Jharkhand (30%), [Palamu district in
Jharkhand is the most important]
Odisha (29%).
Graphite Production Across the

World
1. China (more than 50%)
2. India (20%)
3. Brazil
Graphite is not mined in the United

States. U.S. substitutes graphite with
synthetic graphite.
[Diamond is the hardest substance and it

can break other substances without itself
getting broken].
Diamonds
www.pmfias.com
Diamonds in India
The Vindhayan system have diamond

bearing regions from which Panna and
Golconda diamonds have been mined.
1. Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh;

2. Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur
district and
| 77
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3. Gravels of the Krishna river basin in

Andhra Pradesh.
Reserves have been estimated only in

Panna belt and Krishna Gravels in Andhra
Pradesh.
The new kimberlite fields are discovered
recently in Raichur-Gulbarga districts of
Karnataka.
Reserves of diamonds in India are not yet
exhausted and modern methods are being
applied for intensive prospecting and
mining.
Cutting and polishing of diamonds is done
by modem techniques at important
centres like Surat, Navasari, Ahmedabad,
Palampur etc.
Diamonds Across the World
The leading producers of natural diamond

are Russia, Botswana, Canada, Australia,
South Africa, Russia and Zaire [Congo].
Other
important
producers
include
Namibia, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone,
Venezuela, Brazil etc.
US is the largest producer of synthetic
industrial diamonds
Russia holds what is believed to be the
worlds largest and richest diamond
resources.
www.pmfias.com
Botswana is the leading diamondproducing country in terms of value, and

the second largest in terms of volume. The
two important ones are Orapa and
Jwaneng, two of the most prolific diamond
mines in the world.
Page
Botswanas resources produce the full
range of diamonds, in all sizes, colors and | 78
clarities.
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is
also one of the Africa's largest diamond
producer.
Australia is the leading producer of color
diamonds. Australia is famous for its pink,
purple and red diamonds.
South Africa has the most diverse range of
diamond deposits in the world. Deposits
include open pit and underground
kimberlite pipe/dyke/fissure mining.
Differences Between Graphite and

Diamond
Graphite and Diamond are the major

allotropes of carbon. Other important
allotrope being anthracite coal.
[Allotrope Each of two or more different
physical forms in which an element can
exist (e.g. graphite, charcoal, and diamond
as forms of carbon).]
www.pmfias.com
www.pmfias.com
Graphite and diamond share the same

composition but have very different
structures.
The carat (ct) is a unit of mass equal to
200 mg and is used for measuring
gemstones and pearls.
Graphite
Graphite contains 95% or more carbon.
Graphite is a non-metallic mineral that forms
when carbon is subjected to extreme heat and
pressure in Earths crust and in the upper
mantle.
Graphite is one of the most stable substances
on earth.
The carbon atoms in graphite are linked in a
hexagonal network that forms sheets that are
one atom thick. These sheets are poorly
connected and easily cleave or slide over one
another if subjected to a small amount of force.
This gives graphite its very low hardness, its
perfect cleavage and its slippery feel.
Page
| 79
Diamond
Diamond is 100% carbon.
Diamond is also a non-metallic
mineral that forms when carbon is
subjected to extreme heat and
pressure in the mantle.
Diamond (one of the most stable) is
less stable than graphite.
In contrast, the carbon atoms in
diamond are linked into a frameworks
structure. Every carbon atom is linked
into a three dimensional network with
strong
covalent
bonds.
This
arrangement holds the atoms firmly in
place
and
make
diamond
an
exceptionally hard material.
[Pencil Lead is not made of lead as we normally

beleive. It is made of graphite. You know why?]
Non-Metallic Mineral Distribution in India
Mica
Mica, Limestone, Dolomite, Asbestos,
Magnesite,
Kyanite,
Sillimanite
and
Gypsum.
www.pmfias.com
Mica is a naturally occurring non-metallic

mineral that is based on a collection
of silicates.
Mica is a very good insulator that has a
wide range of applications in electrical and
electronics industry.
It can withstand high voltage and has low
power loss factor.
It is used in toothpaste and cosmetics
because of its glittery appearance. It also
acts as a mild abrasive in toothpaste.
India is one of the foremost suppliers of
mica to the world. Mica-bearing igneous
rocks occur in AP, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan.
Mica Reserves in India

1. Andhra Pradesh (41 per cent)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
www.pmfias.com

Odisha (20 per cent)
Maharashtra (15 per cent)
Bihar (2 per cent)
Jharkhand (Less than 1 per cent)
Page
Mica Distribution and Production

| 80
in India
India has a near monopoly in the

production of mica [60 % of world's total].
Production decreased in recent times due
to fall in demand in the international
market. Fall in demand is due to better
synthetic alternatives that are available.
www.pmfias.com
www.pmfias.com
Page
| 81
Andhra Pradesh
1st in production [93 %].

The
mica
belt
lies
in Nellore
district [Gudur Mica mines].
Vishakhapatnam, West Godavari and
Krishna are other important mica
producing districts.
Rajasthan
2nd in production [6.3 %].
The main mica belt extends from Jaipur to

Udaipur [Along Aravalis].
Jharkhand
3rd in production.
Mica is found in a belt extending for about
150 km in length and 32 km in width from
Gaya district of Bihar to Hazaribagh and
Koderma districts of Jharkhand. This belt
contains the richest deposits of high
quality ruby mica.
www.pmfias.com
Koderma is a well-known place for mica

production in Jharkhand.
Mica Exports
India is the largest exporter of mica.

Certain grades of Indian mica are and will
remain vital to the world's electrical
industries.
Major exports are carried out through
Kolkata and Vishakhapatnam ports.
Important imports of Indian mica are
Japan (19%), the USA (17%), U.K, etc.
Limestone
Limestone rocks are composed of either

calcium carbonate, the double carbonate
of calcium and magnesium, or mixture of
both.
Limestone also contains small quantities
of silica, alumina, iron oxides, phosphorus
and sulphur.
Limestone deposits are of sedimentary
origin and exist in all the geological
sequences
from
Pre-Cambrian
to
Recent except in Gondwana.
75 per cent Limestone is used in cement
industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel
industry [It acts as flux] and 4 per cent in
the chemical industries.
Rest of the limestone is used in paper,
sugar, fertilizers, etc.
Almost all the states of India produce
some quantity of limestone.
Over three-fourths of the total limestone of
India is produced by Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu.
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of

limestone [16 per cent].
Large deposits occur in the districts of
Jabalpur, Satna, Betul, etc.
Rajasthan
www.pmfias.com
Rajasthan has about 6 per cent of the

reserves and produces over 16 per cent of
the total limestone of India. Production
occurs in almost all districts.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh possesses about one- | 82

third of the total reserves of the cement
grade limestone in the country.
Extensive deposits occur in Cuddapah,
Kumool, Guntur, etc.
Gujarat
Gujarat produces only about 11 per cent

of the total limestone of India.
High grade limestone deposits occur in
Banaskantha district.
Chhattisgarh
Chhattisgarh accounts for more than nine

per cent of total limestone of India
.Deposits of limestone occur in Bastar,
Durg and surrounding districts.
Tamil Nadu
Large scale reserves in Ramnathapuram,

Tirunelveli,
Salem,
Coimbatore
and
Madurai districts.
Karnataka
Gulbarga, Bijapur and Shimoga districts.
Dolomite
Page
Limestone with more than 10 per cent

of magnesium is called dolomite.
When the percentage rises to 45, it is true
dolomite.
Dolomite is mainly used as blast furnace
flux, as a source of magnesium salts and
in fertilizer and glass industries.
Iron and Steel industry is the chief
consumer of dolomite [90 per cent]
followed by fertilizer, ferro-alloys and
glass.
www.pmfias.com
Dolomite is widely distributed in the all

parts of the country.
Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Karnataka are
the main producing states and contribute
more than 90 per cent of the total
production.
Orissa and Chhattisgarh together
account for about 57 per cent dolomite of
India.
Orissa
Orissa is the largest producer of dolomite

[29 per cent].
The main deposits occur in Sundargarh,
Sambalpur and Koraput districts.
Chhattisgarh
Closely following Orissa is the state of

Chhattisgarh which produces about 28
per cent dolomite of India.
The main deposits occur in Bastar,
Bilaspur, Durg and Raigarh districts.
Jharkhand
Dolomite occurs in bands to the north of

Chaibasa in Singhbhum district and
Palamu district.
Rajasthan
Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Jaipur, Jaisalmer

etc. are the main producing districts.
Karnataka
Belgaum, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Mysore,

etc.
Asbestos
Two quite different minerals are included

under this name; one, a variety
of amphibole, and the other, more
important,
a fibrous
variety
of
serpentine (chrysotile).
www.pmfias.com
Chrysotile is more important variety and

accounts for 80 per cent of the asbestos of
commercial use.
Asbestos has great commercial value due
to its fibrous structure, filaments of high
tensile strength and its great resistance
Page
to fire.
It is widely used for making fire- | 83
proof cloth,
rope,
paper,
millboard,
sheeting, etc.
It is also used in making aprons , gloves,
brake-linings in automobiles etc.
Asbestos cement products like sheets,
pipes and tiles are used for building
purposes.
When asbestos is brittle, it is made into
filter pads for filtering acids.
Mixed with magnesia, it is used for
making magnesia bricks used for heat
insulation.
Two states of Rajasthan and Andhra
Pradesh produce almost the whole of
asbestos of India.
Rajasthan is the largest producer.
Important occurrences are known in
Udaipur, Dungarpur, Alwar, Ajmer and
Pali districts.
In Andhra Pradesh, asbestos of fine
quality occurs in Pulivendla taluk of
Cuddapah district.
In Karnataka, the main deposits occur in
Hassan, Mandya, Shimoga, Mysore and
Chikmaglur districts.
Magnesite
It is an alteration product of dunites

(peridotite) and other basic magnesian
rocks.
It is primarily used for manufacturing
refractory bricks.
It is also used as a bond in abrasives,
manufacture of special type of cement for
artificial stone, tiles and for extraction of
the metal magnesium.
Steel industry also uses magnesite.
Major deposits of magnesite are found
in Uttaranchal,
Tamil
Nadu
and
Rajasthan.
www.pmfias.com
Tamil Nadu is the largest producer [threefourth] of magnesite in India.

Tamil Nadu has one of the largest deposits
of magnesite in the world and the largest
in India are found at Chalk Hills near
Salem town.
Kyanite
Kyanite occurs in metamorphic aluminous

rocks.
It is primarily used in metallurgical,
ceramic,
refractory,
glass,
cement
industries due to its ability to stand high
temperatures.
It is also used in making sparking
plugs in automobiles.
India has the largest deposits of
kyanite in the world. All the three grades
of kyanite are found here. Kyanite grades
depend on aluminium content. Greater the
aluminium content, greater the quality.
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Karnataka
produce practically the whole of kyanite of
India.
Jharkhand
Jharkhand is the largest producer of

kyanite [four-fifths].
Ores with high degree of purity with
percentages of aluminium silicate reaching
95 to 97 are found in the Singhbhum
district.
Maharashtra
Maharashtra [second highest producer of

kyanite] produced 14.5 per cent of the
total kyanite in 2002-03.
Most of the reserves are in Bhandara
district.
Karnataka
Karnataka is the third largest producer

[5.6 per cent in 2002-03].
Commercially, workable deposits occur in
Hassan district.
www.pmfias.com
Sillimanite
The occurrence and uses of sillimanite are

almost the same as those of kyanite.
The main concentration of Sillimanite is
found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Page
Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.
Orissa is the largest producer of | 84
sillimanite in India. Ganjam district is an
important sillimanite producing district.
Kerala is the second largest producing
state. The beach sands of Kerala contain 5
to 6 per cent of sillimanite.
Gypsum
Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of

calcium.
It is a white opaque or transparent
mineral.
It occurs in sedimentary formations such
as limestones, sandstones and shales.
It is mainly used in making ammonia
sulphate fertilizer and in cement industry.
It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement.
It is also used in making plaster of Paris,
moulds in ceramic industry, tiles, plastics,
etc.
It is applied as surface plaster in
agriculture for conserving moisture in the
soil and for aiding nitrogen absorption.
Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of
gypsum in India [99 per cent of the total
production of India].
The main deposits occur in the Tertiary
clays and shales of Jodhpur, Nagaur and
Bikaner. Jaisalmer, Barmer, Chum, Pali
and Ganganagar also have some gypsum
bearing rocks.
The remaining gypsum is produced by
Tamil
Nadu
[Tiruchirapalli
district],
Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat and Uttar
Pradesh in order of production.
Water and phosphoric acid plants are
important sources of by product gypsum.
Marine gypsum is recovered from salt
pans during the processing for common
salt in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Phospho-gypsum is obtained as a
byproduct
while
manufacturing
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phosphoric acid whereas fluro-gypsum is

obtained while manufacturing aluminium
flouride and hydro-fluoric acid.
The recovery of by-product phosphogypsum, fluoro- gypsum, and marine
gypsum together is higher than mineral
gypsum.
Salt
Salt is obtained from sea water, brine

springs [salt water springs], wells and salt
pans in lakes and from rocks.
Rock salt is taken out in Mandi district of
Himachal Pradesh and in Gujarat. It is
less than 1 per cent of the total salt
produced in India.
Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan produces
about 10 per cent of our annual
production.
Sea brine is the source of salt in Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Gujarat coast produces nearly half of our
salt.
Conservation of Mineral
Resources
Mining
is
often
called
the robber
industry because
of
its
exploitative
nature.
Mining should be made efficient with
better
mining
and
benefication
technologies.
A clear roadmap has to be carved for the
better management of mineral resources
for decades. Stringent laws to prevent the
plundering of minerals is the need of the
hour.
Transparency must be the priority in
extraction of mineral resources. Corrupt
practices have led to mismanagement of
mineral resources making mining industry
highly inefficient.
Recycling of cyclic minerals [iron,
aluminium, copper, brass, tin] can help in
reducing the waste.
Scarce and expensive minerals must be
substituted with the abundant ones.
www.pmfias.com
Example: Aluminium substitutes copper

in electrical industry.
Instead of exporting minerals, India
should
focus
on
exporting
goods
manufactured using these minerals. This
would create more jobs locally.
Page
Innovation and research into synthetic
| 85
minerals is essential.

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00.Geomorphology.

Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH .................... 3

Mains Question on Fold Mountains ......48

Seismic waves ....................................... 4

Propagation of Earthquake Waves.......... 6

Continent Arc Convergence or New

Earths Layers ....................................... 8

Earths Chemical Composition ..............10

Composition of Earths Crust ................10

Types of Mountains - Classification of

Earth Movements .................................10

Fault in Geology ..................................53

Geomorphic processes ..........................11

Fold in geology ....................................53

Earth Movements - Endogenetic

Fold Mountains ....................................53

Block Mountains ..................................55

Exogenetic Movements .........................14

Volcanic mountains ..............................56

Residual mountains .............................56

Continental Drift Theory - Tectonics .....18

Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener,

Important mountain ranges ..................57

Convectional Current Theory - Tectonics

Great Dividing Range ............................58

Concept of Sea Floor Spreading ............26

Transantarctic Mountains ....................59

Plate Tectonics .....................................27

Ural Mountains ....................................59

Plate Tectonics - Interaction of Plates....29

Atlas Mountains ...................................59

Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics..31

Appalachian Mountains ........................60

Significance of Plate Tectonics ..............32

Movement Of The Indian Plate ..............32

Comparison: Continental Drift See Floor

Mountain ranges By height ...................61

Why are world's highest mountains are at

Ocean - Ocean Convergence or The Island

Highest mountain peaks of the world ....62

Highest peak of each continent .............62

Continent - Ocean Convergence Or The

Interaction of Plates ..............................63

Divergent boundary ..............................64

Continent - Continent Convergence or

Evolution Formation of Rift Lakes, Seas

Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent

Rift valley lakes ....................................66

East African Rift Valley .........................66

Formation of Himalayans and Tibet ......45

Great Rift Valley ...................................67

Evidences for the rising Himalayas .......48

Transcurrent boundary or transform edge

Rock Types ...........................................96

Causes of Volcanism ............................69

Sedimentary Rocks ...............................98

Lava types in Volcanism .......................70

Metamorphic Rocks ..............................99

Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ...........70

Rock cycle ..........................................101

Positive Effects of Volcanoes .................71

Some Rock-Forming Minerals .............101 Page