Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Contents
1
Water lter
1.1
Methods of ltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
1.2.2
Point-of-use lters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Certication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1
NSF International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2
Underwriters Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3
1.4
Water polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Adsorption
2.1
Isotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Linear
2.1.2
Freundlich
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Langmuir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4
BET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5
Kisliuk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.1.6
Adsorption enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.2.1
11
2.2.2
Silica gel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.2.3
Zeolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2.4
Activated carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.3
13
2.4
Adsorption chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
2.5
14
2.6
Adsorption spillover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
CONTENTS
2.7
Polymer adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.8
Adsorption in viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.9
In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
15
2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
17
17
Ion exchange
18
3.1
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.1.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.2
Regeneration wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.4
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Other applications
Media lter
24
4.1
Filter design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.2
25
4.3
25
4.4
25
4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
Screen lter
27
5.1
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Disk lter
28
29
7.1
History
30
7.2
Method of operation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
7.3
Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
7.4
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
7.5
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
7.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
7.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
7.8
References
35
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.1
37
8.2
37
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
iii
8.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
8.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
8.5
References
38
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cloth lter
39
9.1
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.2
Eectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
9.3
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
9.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
9.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
10 Algae scrubber
10.1 Concepts
42
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
48
49
49
10.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
50
10.2 History
51
11.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
11.2 Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
11.3 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
11.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
53
12 Carbon ltering
54
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
54
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
55
12.6 References
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 Distillation
57
13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
61
62
63
64
64
65
iv
CONTENTS
13.4.1 Simple distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
65
66
66
66
68
68
68
69
69
70
70
71
71
71
13.8 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
72
13.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
13.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
13.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
14 Water purication
81
82
14.2 Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
14.2.1 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
14.2.2 Pre-treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
83
14.2.4 Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
85
14.2.6 Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
87
88
14.2.9 Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
90
91
92
92
14.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
93
94
96
14.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
CONTENTS
98
98
15 Membrane technology
99
15.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
108
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
vi
CONTENTS
119
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Chapter 1
Water lter
A water lter removes impurities from water by means of a ne physical barrier, a chemical process or a biological
process. Filters cleanse water to dierent extents for purposes like irrigation, drinking water, aquariums, ponds and
swimming pools.
1.2 Types
1.2.1
1.2.2
Point-of-use lters
1.2.3
1.3. CERTIFICATION
mechanical hand pump, although some use a siphon drip system to force water through while others are built into
water bottles. Dirty water is pumped via a screen-ltered exible silicon tube through a specialized lter, ending up
in a container. These lters work to remove bacteria, protozoa and microbial cysts that can cause disease. Filters may
have ne meshes that must be replaced or cleaned, and ceramic water lters must have their outside abraded when
they have become clogged with impurities.
These water lters should not be confused with devices or tablets that disinfect water which remove or kill viruses
such as hepatitis A and rotavirus.
1.3 Certication
Three organizations are accredited by the American National Standards Institute, and each one of them certied products using American National Standard Institute/National Science Foundation standards. Each American National
Standards Institute/National Science Foundation standard requires verication of contaminant reduction performance
claims, an evaluation of the unit, including its materials and structural integrity, and a review of the product labels and
sales literature. Each certies that home water treatment units meet or exceed National Standard Institute/National
Science Foundation and Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standards. American National Standard
Institute/National Science Foundation standards are issued in two dierent sets, one for health concerns (such as
removal of specic contaminants (Standard 53, Health Eects) and one for aesthetic concerns (Aesthetic Eects,
such as improving taste or appearance of water). Certication from these organizations will specify one or both of
these specic standards.
1.3.1
NSF International
NSF International as it is now known started out as the National Sanitation Foundation in 1944 at the University of
Michigan School of Public Health. [2] The NSFs water treatment Device Certication Program requires extensive
product testing and unannounced audits of production facilities. One goal of this not for prot organization is to
provide assurance to consumers that the water treatment devices they are purchasing meet the design, material,and
performance requirements of national standards.[3]
1.3.2
Underwriters Laboratories
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., is an independent, accredited testing and certication organization that certies
home water treatment units which meet or exceed EPA and American National Standard Institute/National Science
Foundation drinking water standards of contaminant reduction, aesthetic concerns, structural integrity, and materials
safety.
1.3.3
The Water Quality Association is a trade organization that tests water treatment equipment, and awards its Gold Seal
to systems that meet or exceed ANSI/NSF standards for contaminant reduction performance, structural integrity, and
materials safety.
Filters that use reverse osmosis, those labeled as absolute one micron lters, or those labeled as certied by an American National Standards Institute (ANSI)- accredited organization to American National Standard Institute/National
Science Foundation Standard 53 for Cyst Removal provide the greatest assurance of removing Cryptosporidium.
As with all lters, follow the manufacturers instructions for lter use and replacement.[4]
magnetic resins from a solution by passing the solution over a bed of magnetic particulate.[5] In this sense, water
polishing is simply another term for whole house water ltration systems. Polishing is also done on a large scale in
water reclamation plants.[6]
1.5 History
During the 19th and 20th centuries, water lters for domestic water production were generally divided into slow
sand lters and rapid sand lters (also called mechanical lters and American lters). While there were many smallscale water ltration systems prior to 1800, Paisley, Scotland is generally acknowledged as the rst city to receive
ltered water for an entire town. The Paisley lter began operation in 1804 and was an early type of slow sand lter.
Throughout the 1800s, hundreds of slow sand lters were constructed in the UK and on the European continent.
An intermittent slow sand lter was constructed and operated at Lawrence, Massachusetts in 1893 due to continuing
typhoid fever epidemics caused by sewage contamination of the water supply.[7] The rst continuously operating slow
sand lter was designed by Allen Hazen for the city of Albany, New York in 1897.[8] The most comprehensive history
of water ltration was published by Moses N. Baker in 1948 and reprinted in 1981.[7]
In the 1800s, mechanical ltration was an industrial process that depended on the addition of aluminum sulfate prior
to the ltration process. The ltration rate for mechanical ltration was typically more than 60 times faster than
slow sand lters, thus requiring signicantly less land area. The rst modern mechanical ltration plant in the U.S.
was built at Little Falls, New Jersey for the East Jersey Water Company. George W. Fuller designed and supervised
the construction of the plant which went into operation in 1902.[9] In 1924, John R. Baylis developed a xed grid
backwash assist system which consisted of pipes with nozzles that injected jets of water into the lter material during
expansion.[10]
1.7 References
[1] Types of Filters. Mountain Empire Community College. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
[2] http://www.nsf.org/about-nsf/mission-values-history
[3] http://www.nsf.org/about-nsf/mission-values-history
[4] Water Health Series: Filtration Facts (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency.
[5] Water Polishing Process. (Patent description.) Retrieved 2009-11-26.
[6] http://www.hydromentia.com/Products-Services/Algal-Turf-Scrubber/Product-Documentation/Assets/ATS-Technical-Brochure.
pdf
[7] Baker, Moses N. (1981). The Quest for Pure Water: the History of Water Purication from the Earliest Records to the
Twentieth Century. 2nd Edition. Vol. 1. Denver: American Water Works Association, 64-80.
[8] Allen Hazen. (1930). Jour. American Water Works Association. 22:9, 1268-70.
[9] Fuller, George W. (1902). The Filtration Works of the East Jersey Water Company, at Little Falls, New Jersey. Transactions of the ASCE. 29 (February)): 153-202.
[10] Baylis, John R. (1959). Review of Filter Bed Design and Methods of Washing. Journal AWWA. 51:11 1433-54.
Chapter 2
Adsorption
Not to be confused with Absorption.
See also: Physisorption and Chemisorption
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface.[1] This
Brunauer, Emmett and Tellers model of multilayer adsorption is a random distribution of molecules on the material surface.
process creates a lm of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent. This process diers from absorption, in which
a uid (the absorbate) permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid (the absorbent).[2] Adsorption is a surface-based
process while absorption involves the whole volume of the material. The term sorption encompasses both processes,
while desorption is the reverse of it. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon.
IUPAC Denition
Increase in the concentration of a substance at the interface of a condensed and a liquid or gaseous layer owing to the
operation of surface forces.
Note 1: Adsorption of proteins is of great importance when a material is in contact with blood or body uids. In the
case of blood, albumin, which is largely predominant, is generally adsorbed rst, and then rearrangements occur in
favor of other minor proteins according to surface anity against mass law selection (Vroman eect).
Note 2: Adsorbed molecules are those that are resistant to washing with the same solvent medium in the case of
adsorption from solutions. The washing conditions can thus modify the measurement results, particularly when the
interaction energy is low. [3]
Similar to surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy. In a bulk material, all the bonding requirements (be they ionic, covalent, or metallic) of the constituent atoms of the material are lled by other atoms in
the material. However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are not wholly surrounded by other adsorbent atoms
and therefore can attract adsorbates. The exact nature of the bonding depends on the details of the species involved,
6
2.1. ISOTHERMS
but the adsorption process is generally classied as physisorption (characteristic of weak van der Waals forces) or
chemisorption (characteristic of covalent bonding). It may also occur due to electrostatic attraction.[4]
Adsorption is present in many natural, physical, biological, and chemical systems, and is widely used in industrial
applications such as activated charcoal, capturing and using waste heat to provide cold water for air conditioning
and other process requirements (adsorption chillers), synthetic resins, increase storage capacity of carbide-derived
carbons, and water purication. Adsorption, ion exchange, and chromatography are sorption processes in which
certain adsorbates are selectively transferred from the uid phase to the surface of insoluble, rigid particles suspended
in a vessel or packed in a column. Pharmaceutical industry applications, which use adsorption as a means to prolong
neurological exposure to specic drugs or parts thereof, are lesser known.
However, it should be remarked that the distinction between adsorption and absorption vanishes as we go from
perfectly crystalline macroscopic materials to porous/structured materials, aggregates and composites made out of
increasingly smaller grains, viz., micron-sized particles to nanoparticles, sub-nano particles and nally molecules (or
atoms). In such nano-composites, the internal surface area of particulate matter is very very large. Then the adsorption on internal surfaces simply becomes absorption when viewed from the bulk. Then the distinction between
adsorption and absorption vanishes. On the other hand, the distinction is clearest between bulk solids without internal
structure, but having only surfaces where only adsorption can occur on the outer surfaces, and nanocomposites or
aggregates with internal structure where absorption by the host material is simply adsorption on internal surfaces of
the host material. As an example, we may consider a crystalline piece of silicon dioxide (quartz) which can adsorb
water molecules on its surface. However, if the quartz is ground into very ne sand, the pile of sand (an aggregate)
has a very large internal surface area. A very large amount of water can be adsorbed by the internal surfaces of
the grains in the pile of sand, and this absorption is simply internal adsorption. If water is made to ow thorugh
such a pile of sand, ions and toxins in the water may be preferentially adsorbed by the surfaces of the grains of sand,
providing a simple, well-known water purication application.
The word adsorption was coined in 1881 by German physicist Heinrich Kayser (1853-1940).[5]
2.1 Isotherms
Adsorption is usually described through isotherms, that is, the amount of adsorbate on the adsorbent as a function
of its pressure (if gas) or concentration (if liquid) at constant temperature. The quantity adsorbed is nearly always
normalized by the mass of the adsorbent to allow comparison of dierent materials. To date, 15 dierent isothem
models were developed.[6]
2.1.1
Linear
2.1.2
Freundlich
where x is the quantity of adsorbate adsorbed in moles, m is the mass of the adsorbent, P is the pressure of adsorbate
(this can be changed to concentration if investigating solution rather than gas) and k and n are empirical constants
for each adsorbent-adsorbate pair at a given temperature. The function is not adequate at very high pressure because
in reality x/m has an asymptotic maximum as pressure increases without bound. As the temperature increases, the
constants k and n change to reect the empirical observation that the quantity adsorbed rises more slowly and higher
pressures are required to saturate the surface.
CHAPTER 2. ADSORPTION
2.1.3
Langmuir
K=
k
k1
(1 )P
or
KP
1 + KP
where P is the partial pressure of the gas or the molar concentration of the solution. For very low pressures KP
and for high pressures 1
is dicult to measure experimentally; usually, the adsorbate is a gas and the quantity adsorbed is given in moles,
grams, or gas volumes at standard temperature and pressure (STP) per gram of adsorbent. If we call v the STP
v
volume of adsorbate required to form a monolayer on the adsorbent (per gram of adsorbent), = vmon
and we obtain
an expression for a straight line:
1
1 1
1
=
+
v
Kvmon P
vmon
Through its slope and y-intercept we can obtain v and K, which are constants for each adsorbent/adsorbate pair at
a given temperature. v is related to the number of adsorption sites through the ideal gas law. If we assume that
the number of sites is just the whole area of the solid divided into the cross section of the adsorbate molecules, we
can easily calculate the surface area of the adsorbent. The surface area of an adsorbent depends on its structure; the
more pores it has, the greater the area, which has a big inuence on reactions on surfaces.
If more than one gas adsorbs on the surface, we dene E as the fraction of empty sites and we have:
E =
1+
1
n
i=1
K i Pi
2.1. ISOTHERMS
Also, we can dene j as the fraction of the sites occupied by the j-th gas:
j =
Kj Pj
n
1+
Ki Pi
i=1
2.1.4
BET
The derivation of the formula is more complicated than Langmuirs (see links for complete derivation). We obtain:
1
x(c 1)
x
=
+
.
v(1 x)
vmon c
vmon c
10
CHAPTER 2. ADSORPTION
x is the pressure divided by the vapor pressure for the adsorbate at that temperature (usually denoted P /P0 ), v is
the STP volume of adsorbed adsorbate, vmon is the STP volume of the amount of adsorbate required to form a
monolayer and c is the equilibrium constant K we used in Langmuir isotherm multiplied by the vapor pressure of
the adsorbate. The key assumption used in deriving the BET equation that the successive heats of adsorption for all
layers except the rst are equal to the heat of condensation of the adsorbate.
The Langmuir isotherm is usually better for chemisorption and the BET isotherm works better for physisorption for
non-microporous surfaces.
2.1.5
Kisliuk
Two adsorbate nitrogen molecules adsorbing onto a tungsten adsorbent from the precursor state around an island of previously
adsorbed adsorbate (left) and via random adsorption (right)
In other instances, molecular interactions between gas molecules previously adsorbed on a solid surface form signicant interactions with gas molecules in the gaseous phases. Hence, adsorption of gas molecules to the surface
is more likely to occur around gas molecules that are already present on the solid surface, rendering the Langmuir
adsorption isotherm ineective for the purposes of modelling. This eect was studied in a system where nitrogen
was the adsorbate and tungsten was the adsorbent by Paul Kisliuk (19222008) in 1957.[8] To compensate for the
increased probability of adsorption occurring around molecules present on the substrate surface, Kisliuk developed
the precursor state theory, whereby molecules would enter a precursor state at the interface between the solid adsorbent and adsorbate in the gaseous phase. From here, adsorbate molecules would either adsorb to the adsorbent or
desorb into the gaseous phase. The probability of adsorption occurring from the precursor state is dependent on the
adsorbates proximity to other adsorbate molecules that have already been adsorbed. If the adsorbate molecule in the
precursor state is in close proximity to an adsorbate molecule that has already formed on the surface, it has a sticking
probability reected by the size of the SE constant and will either be adsorbed from the precursor state at a rate of
kEC or will desorb into the gaseous phase at a rate of kES. If an adsorbate molecule enters the precursor state at a
location that is remote from any other previously adsorbed adsorbate molecules, the sticking probability is reected
by the size of the SD constant.
These factors were included as part of a single constant termed a sticking coecient, kE, described below:
kE =
SE
.
kES .SD
As SD is dictated by factors that are taken into account by the Langmuir model, SD can be assumed to be the
adsorption rate constant. However, the rate constant for the Kisliuk model (R) is dierent from that of the Langmuir
model, as R is used to represent the impact of diusion on monolayer formation and is proportional to the square root
of the systems diusion coecient. The Kisliuk adsorption isotherm is written as follows, where is fractional
coverage of the adsorbent with adsorbate, and t is immersion time:
2.2. ADSORBENTS
11
d(t)
= R (1 )(1 + kE ).
dt
Solving for yields:
(t) =
1 eR (1+kE )t
.
1 + kE eR (1+kE )t
2.1.6
Adsorption enthalpy
Adsorption constants are equilibrium constants, therefore they obey the van 't Ho equation:
(
ln K
T1
)
=
H
.
R
As can be seen in the formula, the variation of K must be isosteric, that is, at constant coverage. If we start from the
BET isotherm and assume that the entropy change is the same for liquefaction and adsorption we obtain
Hads = Hliq RT ln c,
that is to say, adsorption is more exothermic than liquefaction.
2.2 Adsorbents
2.2.1
Adsorbents are used usually in the form of spherical pellets, rods, moldings, or monoliths with a hydrodynamic radius
between 0.25 and 5 mm. They must have high abrasion resistance, high thermal stability and small pore diameters,
which results in higher exposed surface area and hence high capacity for adsorption. The adsorbents must also have
a distinct pore structure that enables fast transport of the gaseous vapors.
Most industrial adsorbents fall into one of three classes:
Oxygen-containing compounds Are typically hydrophilic and polar, including materials such as silica gel and
zeolites.
Carbon-based compounds Are typically hydrophobic and non-polar, including materials such as activated
carbon and graphite.
Polymer-based compounds Are polar or non-polar functional groups in a porous polymer matrix.
2.2.2
Silica gel
Silica gel is a chemically inert, nontoxic, polar and dimensionally stable (< 400 C or 750 F) amorphous form of SiO2 .
It is prepared by the reaction between sodium silicate and acetic acid, which is followed by a series of after-treatment
processes such as aging, pickling, etc. These after-treatment methods results in various pore size distributions.
Silica is used for drying of process air (e.g. oxygen, natural gas) and adsorption of heavy (polar) hydrocarbons from
natural gas.
12
CHAPTER 2. ADSORPTION
2.2.3
Zeolites
Zeolites are natural or synthetic crystalline aluminosilicates, which have a repeating pore network and release water
at high temperature. Zeolites are polar in nature.
They are manufactured by hydrothermal synthesis of sodium aluminosilicate or another silica source in an autoclave
followed by ion exchange with certain cations (Na+ , Li+ , Ca2+ , K+ , NH4 + ). The channel diameter of zeolite cages
usually ranges from 2 to 9 (200 to 900 pm). The ion exchange process is followed by drying of the crystals, which
can be pelletized with a binder to form macroporous pellets.
Zeolites are applied in drying of process air, CO2 removal from natural gas, CO removal from reforming gas, air
separation, catalytic cracking, and catalytic synthesis and reforming.
Non-polar (siliceous) zeolites are synthesized from aluminum-free silica sources or by dealumination of aluminumcontaining zeolites. The dealumination process is done by treating the zeolite with steam at elevated temperatures,
typically greater than 500 C (930 F). This high temperature heat treatment breaks the aluminum-oxygen bonds and
the aluminum atom is expelled from the zeolite framework.
2.2.4
Activated carbon
Activated carbon is a highly porous, amorphous solid consisting of microcrystallites with a graphite lattice, usually
prepared in small pellets or a powder. It is non-polar and cheap. One of its main drawbacks is that it reacts with
oxygen at moderate temperatures (over 300 C).
Activated carbon can be manufactured from carbonaceous material, including coal (bituminous, subbituminous, and
lignite), peat, wood, or nutshells (e.g., coconut). The manufacturing process consists of two phases, carbonization
and activation. The carbonization process includes drying and then heating to separate by-products, including tars
and other hydrocarbons from the raw material, as well as to drive o any gases generated. The process is completed
by heating the material over 400 C (750 F) in an oxygen-free atmosphere that cannot support combustion. The
carbonized particles are then activated by exposing them to an oxidizing agent, usually steam or carbon dioxide at
13
Silica gel adsorber for NO2 , Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, ca.1930s
high temperature. This agent burns o the pore blocking structures created during the carbonization phase and so,
they develop a porous, three-dimensional graphite lattice structure. The size of the pores developed during activation is
a function of the time that they spend in this stage. Longer exposure times result in larger pore sizes. The most popular
aqueous phase carbons are bituminous based because of their hardness, abrasion resistance, pore size distribution,
and low cost, but their eectiveness needs to be tested in each application to determine the optimal product.
Activated carbon is used for adsorption of organic substances and non-polar adsorbates and it is also usually used for
waste gas (and waste water) treatment. It is the most widely used adsorbent since most of its chemical (e.g. surface
groups) and physical properties (e.g. pore size distribution and surface area) can be tuned according to what is needed.
Its usefulness also derives from its large micropore (and sometimes mesopore) volume and the resulting high surface
area.
14
CHAPTER 2. ADSORPTION
15
16
CHAPTER 2. ADSORPTION
Freundlich equation
Langmuir equation
Molecular sieve
Pressure Swing Adsorption
Reactions on surfaces
Wetting
Micromeritics
Kelvin probe force microscope
Fluidized Bed Concentrator
Dual polarisation interferometry
Henry adsorption constant
Polanyi Adsorption
2.11 References
[1] Glossary. The Brownelds and Land Revitalization Technology Support Center. Retrieved 2009-12-21.
[2] absorption (chemistry)". Memidex (WordNet) Dictionary/Thesaurus. Retrieved 2010-11-02.
[3] Glossary of atmospheric chemistry terms (Recommendations 1990)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 62: 2167. 1990.
doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00155. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8.
[4] Ferrari, L.; Kaufmann, J.; Winnefeld, F.; Plank, J. (2010). Interaction of cement model systems with superplasticizers
investigated by atomic force microscopy, zeta potential, and adsorption measurements. J Colloid Interface Sci. 347 (1):
1524. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2010.03.005. PMID 20356605.
[5] Kayser, Heinrich (1881). Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 10.1002/andp.18812480404 248 (4): 526537. Bibcode:1881AnP...248..526K.
doi:10.1002/andp.18812480404.. In this study of the adsorption of gases by charcoal, the rst use of the word adsorption
appears on page 527: Schon Saussure kannte die beiden fr die Grsse der Adsorption massgebenden Factoren, den Druck
und die Temperatur, da er Erniedrigung des Druckes oder Erhhung der Temperatur zur Befreiung der porsen Krper
von Gasen benutzte. (Saussaure already knew the two factors that determine the quantity of adsorption [namely,] the
pressure and temperature since he used the lowering of the pressure or the raising of the temperature to free the porous
substances of gases.)
[6] Foo, K.Y.; Hameed, B.H. (2010). Insights into the modeling of adsorption isotherm systems. Chemical Engineering
Journal 156 (1): 210. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2009.09.013. ISSN 1385-8947.
[7] Czepirski, L.; Balys, M. R.; Komorowska-Czepirska, E. (2000). Some generalization of Langmuir adsorption isotherm.
Internet Journal of Chemistry 3 (14). ISSN 1099-8292.
[8] Kisliuk, P. (1957). The sticking probabilities of gases chemisorbed on the surfaces of solids. Journal of Physics and
Chemistry of Solids 3 (12): 95101. Bibcode:1957JPCS....3...95K. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(57)90054-9.
[9] Wilson, CJ; Clegg, RE; Leavesley, DI; Pearcy, MJ (2005). Mediation of Biomaterial-Cell Interactions by Adsorbed
Proteins: A Review. Tissue engineering 11 (1): 118. doi:10.1089/ten.2005.11.1. PMID 15738657.
[10] Sivaraman B., Fears K.P., Latour R.A. (2009). Investigation of the eects of surface chemistry and solution concentration
on the conformation of adsorbed proteins using an improved circular dichroism method. Langmuir 25 (5): 30506.
doi:10.1021/la8036814. PMC 2891683. PMID 19437712.
[11] Scopelliti, Pasquale Emanuele; Borgonovo, Antonio; Indrieri, Marco; Giorgetti, Luca; Bongiorno, Gero; Carbone, Roberta;
Podest, Alessandro; Milani, Paolo (2010). Zhang, Shuguang, ed. The eect of surface nanometre-scale morphology on
protein adsorption. PLoS ONE 5 (7): e11862. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...511862S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011862.
[12] Pilatowsky, I.; Romero, R.J.; Isaza, C.A.; Gamboa, S.A.; Sebastian, P.J.; Rivera, W. (2011). Chapter 5: Sorption Refrigeration Systems. Cogeneration Fuel Cell-Sorption Air Conditioning Systems. Green Energy and Technology. Springer. pp.
99,100. ISBN 978-1-84996-027-4. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
17
[13] Brandt, R. K.; Hughes, M. R.; Bourget, L. P.; Truszkowska, K.; Greenler, R. G. (1993). The interpretation of CO adsorbed
on Pt/SiO2 of two dierent particle-size distributions. Surface Science 286 (12): 1525. Bibcode:1993SurSc.286...15B.
doi:10.1016/0039-6028(93)90552-U.
[14] Uner, D. O.; Savargoankar, N.; Pruski, M.; King, T. S. (1997). The eects of alkali promoters on the dynamics of
hydrogen chemisorption and syngas reaction kinetics on Ru/SiO2 catalysts. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis.
Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis 109: 315324. doi:10.1016/S0167-2991(97)80418-1. ISBN 9780444826091.
[15] Narayan, R. L.; King, T. S. (1998). Hydrogen adsorption states on silica-supported Ru-Ag and Ru-Cu bimetallic catalysts
investigated via microcalorimetry. Thermochimica Acta 312 (12): 105114. doi:10.1016/S0040-6031(97)00444-9.
[16] VanderWiel, D. P.; Pruski, M.; King, T. S. (1999). A Kinetic Study of the Adsorption and Reaction of Hydrogen on
Silica-Supported Ruthenium and Silver-Ruthenium Bimetallic Catalysts during the Hydrogenation of Carbon Monoxide.
Journal of Catalysis 188 (1): 186202. doi:10.1006/jcat.1999.2646.
[17] Uner, D. O. (1998). A sensible mechanism of alkali promotion in Fischer Tropsch synthesis:Adsorbate mobilities.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research 37 (6): 22392245. doi:10.1021/ie970696d.
[18] Zupanc, C.; Hornung, A.; Hinrichsen, O.; Muhler, M. (2002). The Interaction of Hydrogen with Ru/MgO Catalysts.
Journal of Catalysis 209 (2): 501514. doi:10.1006/jcat.2002.3647.
[19] Trens, P.; Durand, R.; Coq, B.; Coutanceau, C.; Rousseau, S.; Lamy, C. (2009). Poisoning of Pt/C catalysts by CO and
its consequences over the kinetics of hydrogen chemisorption. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 92 (34): 280284.
doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.08.004.
[20] Rozanov, V. V.; Krylov, O. V. (1997). Hydrogen spillover in heterogeneous catalysis. Russian Chemical Reviews 66 (2):
107119. Bibcode:1997RuCRv..66..107R. doi:10.1070/RC1997v066n02ABEH000308.
[21] The Thermodynamics of Tetiris, Ars Technica, 2009.
[22] Barnes, Brian C.; Siderius, Daniel W.; Gelb, Lev D. (2009). Structure, Thermodynamics, and Solubility in Tetromino
Fluids. Langmuir 25 (12): 670216. doi:10.1021/la900196b. PMID 19397254.
Chapter 3
Ion exchange
Ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and a complex. In
most cases the term is used to denote the processes of purication, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and
other ion-containing solutions with solid polymeric or mineralic 'ion exchangers.
Typical ion exchangers are ion exchange resins (functionalized porous or gel polymer), zeolites, montmorillonite,
clay, and soil humus. Ion exchangers are either cation exchangers that exchange positively charged ions (cations)
or anion exchangers that exchange negatively charged ions (anions). There are also amphoteric exchangers that
are able to exchange both cations and anions simultaneously. However, the simultaneous exchange of cations and
anions can be more eciently performed in mixed beds that contain a mixture of anion and cation exchange resins,
or passing the treated solution through several dierent ion exchange materials.
Ion exchangers can be unselective or have binding preferences for certain ions or classes of ions, depending on their
chemical structure. This can be dependent on the size of the ions, their charge, or their structure. Typical examples
of ions that can bind to ion exchangers are:
H+ (proton) and OH (hydroxide)
Single-charged monatomic ions like Na+ , K+ , and Cl
Double-charged monatomic ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+
Polyatomic inorganic ions like SO4 2 and PO4 3
Organic bases, usually molecules containing the amine functional group -NR2 H+
Organic acids, often molecules containing -COO (carboxylic acid) functional groups
Biomolecules that can be ionized: amino acids, peptides, proteins, etc.
Along with absorption and adsorption, ion exchange is a form of sorption.
Ion exchange is a reversible process and the ion exchanger can be regenerated or loaded with desirable ions by washing
with an excess of these ions.
3.1 Applications
Ion exchange is widely used in the food & beverage, hydrometallurgy, metals nishing, chemical & petrochemical,
pharmaceutical, sugar & sweeteners, ground & potable water, nuclear, softening & industrial water, semiconductor,
power, and a host of other industries.
Most typical example of application is preparation of high purity water for power engineering, electronic and nuclear industries; i.e. polymeric or mineralic insoluble ion exchangers are widely used for water softening, water
purication, water decontamination, etc.
Ion exchange is a method widely used in household (laundry detergents and water lters) to produce soft water. This
is accomplished by exchanging calcium Ca2+ and magnesium Mg2+ cations against Na+ or H+ cations (see water
18
3.1. APPLICATIONS
Ion exchanger
19
20
softening). Another application for ion exchange in domestic water treatment is the removal of nitrate and natural
organic matter.
Industrial and analytical ion exchange chromatography is another area to be mentioned. Ion exchange chromatography
is a chromatographical method that is widely used for chemical analysis and separation of ions. For example, in
biochemistry it is widely used to separate charged molecules such as proteins. An important area of the application
is extraction and purication of biologically produced substances such as proteins (amino acids) and DNA/RNA.
Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including separating uranium from plutonium and
other actinides, including thorium, and lanthanum, neodymium, ytterbium, samarium, lutetium, from each other and
the other lanthanides. There are two series of rare earth metals, the lanthanides and the actinides, both of whose
families all have very similar chemical and physical properties. Using methods developed by Frank Spedding in the
1940s, ion-exchange used to be the only practical way to separate them in large quantities, until the advent of solvent
extraction techniques that can be scaled up enormously.
A very important case is the PUREX process (plutonium-uranium extraction process), which is used to separate the
plutonium and the uranium from the spent fuel products from a nuclear reactor, and to be able to dispose of the waste
products. Then, the plutonium and uranium are available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor
fuel and nuclear weapons.
The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements, such as zirconium and
hafnium, which is also very important for the nuclear industry. Zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons,
3.1. APPLICATIONS
21
used in building reactors, but hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods.
Ion exchangers are used in nuclear reprocessing and the treatment of radioactive waste.
Ion exchange resins in the form of thin membranes are used in chloralkali process, fuel cells and vanadium redox
batteries.
Ion exchange can also be used to remove hardness from water by exchanging calcium and magnesium ions for sodium
ions in an ion exchange column. Liquid (aqueous) phase ion exchange desalination has been demonstrated.[2] In this
technique anions and cations in salt water are exchanged for carbonate anions and calcium cations respectively using
electrophoresis. Calcium and carbonate ions then react to form calcium carbonate, which then precipitates leaving
behind fresh water. The desalination occurs at ambient temperature and pressure and requires no membranes or solid
ion exchangers. Theoretical energy eciency of this method is on par with electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
3.1.1
Other applications
In soil science, cation exchange capacity is the ion exchange capacity of soil for positively charged ions. Soils
can be considered as natural weak cation exchangers.
In pollution remediation and geotechnical engineering, ion exchange capacity determines the swelling capacity
of swelling or Expansive clay such as Montmorillonite, which can be used to capture pollutants and charged
ions.
In planar waveguide manufacturing, ion exchange is used to create the guiding layer of higher index of refraction.
Dealkalization, removal of alkali ions from a glass surface.
Chemically strengthened glass, produced by exchanging K+ for Na+ in soda glass surfaces using KNO3 melts.
22
3.4 References
[1] Mischissin, Stephen G. (7 February 2012). University of Rochester - Investigation of Steam Turbine Extraction Line
Failures (PDF). Arlington, VA. p. 25-26. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
[2] Shkolnikov, Viktor; Bahga, Supreet S.; Santiago, Juan G. (August 28, 2012). Desalination and hydrogen, chlorine, and
sodium hydroxide production via electrophoretic ion exchange and precipitation (PDF) 14 (32). Phys. Chem. Chem
Phys.
[3] Kemmer, pp.12-7&12-25
[4] Betz, p.59
[5] Ion Exchange. WaterProfessionals.
[6] Kemmer, p.12-8
Betz Laboratories (1976). Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning (7th Edition). Betz Laboratories.
Ion Exchangers (K. Dorfner, ed.), Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1991.
C. E. Harland, Ion exchange: Theory and Practice, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 1994.
Friedrich G. Helerich (1962). Ion Exchange. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-68784-1.
Kemmer, Frank N. (1979). The NALCO Water Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
Ion exchange (D. Muraviev, V. Gorshkov, A. Warshawsky), M. Dekker, New York, 2000.
A. A. Zagorodni, Ion Exchange Materials: Properties and Applications, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
23
Chapter 4
Media lter
This article is about a type of water lter. For software lters used for decoding audio and video, see Filter (video).
A media lter is a type of lter that uses a bed of sand, peat, shredded tires, foam, crushed glass, geo-textile fabric,
Peat-Sand Filter in United States. The lter treats stormwater runo from a residential area. Stormwater from streets is rst routed
to a small detention basin (rear of photo, behind berm), which removes coarse sediment. After ltration an under-drain piping
system discharges the ltered water to an adjacent stream.
crushed granite or other material to lter water for drinking, swimming pools, aquaculture, irrigation, stormwater
management and other applications.
25
Media lters are used to protect water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. They can be eective at removing pollutants
in stormwater such as suspended solids and phosphorus. Sand is the most common lter material.[1][2] In other lters,
sometimes called organic lters, wood chips or leaf mold may be used.[3]
26
4.6 References
[1] Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA; and American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. Urban Runo
Quality Management. WEF Manual of Practice No. 23; ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practice No. 87.
1998. ISBN 1-57278-039-8. Chapter 5.
[2] Atlanta Regional Commission. Atlanta, GA.Georgia Stormwater Management Manual. Section 3.2.4: Sand Filters.
August 2001.
[3] ibid., Section 3.3.3: Organic Filter.
Chapter 5
Screen lter
For a device that ts over a computer screen, see monitor lter.
A screen lter is not a type of lter using a rigid or exible screen to separate sand and other ne particles out of
water for irrigation or industrial applications.[1] These are generally not recommended for ltering out organic matter
such as algae, since these types of contaminants can be extruded into spaghetti-like strings through the lter if enough
pressure drop occurs across the lter surface. Typical screen materials include stainless steel (mesh), polypropylene,
nylon and polyester.
5.1 Information
Self-cleaning screen lters incorporate an automatic backwash cycle to overcome these limitations. Backwash cycles
are far more frequent when compared to a media lter with similar capacity, and each backwash requires far less water
to perform. Their ability to quickly remove contaminants from water before they leach their nutrients make such
lters popular choices for recirculating aquaculture systems. They have also become popular in closed loop industrial
systems such as cooling tower, heat exchanger, and other equipment protection applications. Similar devices with
larger openings designed only to keep out large objects are called strainers.
5.3 References
[1] Whiting, Joanne E. Drinan ; associate editor, Nancy E. (2000). Water and Wastewater Treatment a Guide for the Nonengineering Professionals. Hoboken: CRC Press. p. 62. ISBN 9781420031799.
27
Chapter 6
Disk lter
A disc lter is a type of water lter used primarily in irrigation, similar to a screen lter, except that the lter cartridge
is made of a number of discs stacked on top of each other like a pile of poker chips. The water passes through the
small grooves in between and the impurities are trapped behind. The higher or lower ltration quality, dened this as
the higher or lower quantity and size of particles that the ltering element is able to retain, depend on the geometry
and size of the channels, the length of these and the number of generated intersection points.
Some types of disc lters can be backushed in such a way that the discs are able to separate and spin during the
cleaning cycle.
SEE OPERATION VIDEO
28
Chapter 7
Slow sand lters are used in water purication for treating raw water to produce a potable product. They are typically
1 to 2 metres deep, can be rectangular or cylindrical in cross section and are used primarily to treat surface water. The
length and breadth of the tanks are determined by the ow rate desired by the lters, which typically have a loading
rate of 0.1 to 0.2 metres per hour (or cubic metres per square metre per hour).
Slow sand lters dier from all other lters used to treat drinking water in that they work by using a complex biological
lm that grows naturally on the surface of the sand. The sand itself does not perform any ltration function but simply
acts as a substrate, unlike its counterparts for UV and pressurized treatments.
Although they are often the preferred technology in many developing countries because of their low energy requirements and robust performance, they are also used to treat water in some of the most developed countries, such as the
UK, where they are used to treat water supplied to London. Slow sand lters now are also being tested for pathogen
control of nutrient solutions in hydroponic systems.
29
30
7.1 History
The rst documented use of sand lters to purify the water supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery
in Paisley, Scotland, John Gibb, installed an experimental lter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public.[1][2] This
method was rened in the following two decades by engineers working for private water companies, and it culminated
in the rst treated public water supply in the world, installed by engineer James Simpson for the Chelsea Waterworks
7.1. HISTORY
31
Original map by John Snow showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854.
Company in London in 1829.[3][4] This installation provided ltered water for every resident of the area, and the
network design was widely copied throughout the United Kingdom in the ensuing decades.
The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream, and the virtues of the system were made starkly apparent
after the investigations of the physician John Snow during the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak. Snow was sceptical
of the then-dominant miasma theory that stated that diseases were caused by noxious bad airs. Although the germ
theory of disease had not yet been developed, Snows observations led him to discount the prevailing theory. His 1855
essay On the Mode of Communication of Cholera conclusively demonstrated the role of the water supply in spreading
the cholera epidemic in Soho,[5] with the use of a dot distribution map and statistical proof to illustrate the connection
between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. His data convinced the local council to disable the water
pump, which promptly ended the outbreak.
The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of the water supply companies in London, including minimum
standards of water quality for the rst time. The Act made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of
pure and wholesome water, and required that all water be eectually ltered from 31 December 1855.[6] This was
followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a worldwide precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe.
The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was formed at the same time, water ltration was adopted throughout the
country, and new water intakes on the Thames were established above Teddington Lock.
32
The raw water is let in to the lter room slowly from the pipe on the right. The water will pass through the sand layers down to the
bottom of this room. The Schmutzdecke layer can be observed in this picture.
Slow sand lters work through the formation of a gelatinous layer (or biolm) called the hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke
in the top few millimetres of the ne sand layer. The Schmutzdecke is formed in the rst 1020 days of operation[7]
and consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic insect larvae. As an epigeal biolm ages,
more algae tend to develop and larger aquatic organisms may be present including some bryozoa, snails and Annelid
worms. The surface biolm is the layer that provides the eective purication in potable water treatment, the underlying sand providing the support medium for this biological treatment layer. As water passes through the hypogeal
layer, particles of foreign matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble organic material is adsorbed.
The contaminants are metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The water produced from an exemplary slow
sand lter is of excellent quality with 90-99% bacterial cell count reduction.[8]
Slow sand lters slowly lose their performance as the biolm thickens and thereby reduces the rate of ow through
the lter. Eventually, it is necessary to refurbish the lter. Two methods are commonly used to do this. In the rst,
the top few millimetres of ne sand is scraped o to expose a new layer of clean sand. Water is then decanted back
into the lter and re-circulated for a few hours to allow a new biolm to develop. The lter is then lled to full volume
and brought back into service.[8] The second method, sometimes called wet harrowing, involves lowering the water
level to just above the hypogeal layer, stirring the sand; thus precipitating any solids held in that layer and allowing
the remaining water to wash through the sand. The lter column is then lled to full capacity and brought back into
service. Wet harrowing can allow the lter to be brought back into service more quickly.[7]
7.3 Features
Slow sand lters have a number of unique qualities:
1. Unlike other ltration methods, slow sand lters use biological processes to clean the water, and are non-
7.3. FEATURES
33
pressurized systems. Slow sand lters do not require chemicals or electricity to operate.
2. Cleaning is traditionally done by use of a mechanical scraper, which is usually driven into the lter bed once
the bed has been dried out. However, some slow sand lter operators use a method called wet harrowing,
where the sand is scraped while still under water, and the water used for cleaning is drained to waste.
3. For municipal systems there usually is a certain degree of redundancy, since it is desirable for the maximum
required throughput of water to be achievable with one or more beds out of service.
34
While many municipal water treatment works will have 12 or more beds in use at any one time, smaller communities
or households may only have one or two lter beds.
In the base of each bed is a series of herringbone drains that are covered with a layer of pebbles which in turn is
covered with coarse gravel. Further layers of sand are placed on top followed by a thick layer of ne sand. The whole
depth of lter material may be more than 1 metre in depth, the majority of which will be ne sand material. On top
of the sand bed sits a epigeal layer of raw, unltered water.
7.4 Advantages
As they require little or no mechanical power, chemicals or replaceable parts, and they require minimal operator
training and only periodic maintenance, they are often an appropriate technology for poor and isolated areas.
Slow sand lters, due to their simple design, may be created DIY. DIY-slow sand lters have been used in
Afghanistan and other countries to aid the poor.[11]
Slow sand lters are recognized by the World Health Organization , Oxfam, United Nations and the United
States Environmental Protection Agency as being superior technology for the treatment of surface water
sources. According to the World Health Organization, Under suitable circumstances, slow sand ltration
may be not only the cheapest and simplest but also the most ecient method of water treatment.
7.5 Disadvantages
Due to the low ltration rate, slow sand lters require extensive land area for a large municipal system.[9] Many
municipal systems in the U.S. initially used slow sand lters, but as cities have grown they subsequently installed
rapid sand lters, due to increased demand for drinking water.
7.7 Notes
[1] Filtration of water supplies (PDF), World Health Organization
[2] Buchan, James. (2003). Crowded with genius: the Scottish enlightenment: Edinburghs moment of the mind. New York:
Harper Collins.
[3] History of the Chelsea Waterworks
[4] Christman, Keith. (1998). The history of chlorine. Waterworld, 14 (8), 66-67.
[5] Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine (2008) Par S. William Gunn, M. Masellis ISBN 0-387-72263-7
[6] An Act to make better Provision respecting the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, (15 & 16 Vict. C.84)
[7] Centre for Aordable Water and Sanitation Technology, Biosand Filter Manual: Design, Construction, & Installation,
July 2007.
7.8. REFERENCES
35
[8] National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (U.S.), Morgantown, WV. Slow Sand Filtration. Tech Brief Fourteen, June
2000.
[9] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)(1990). Cincinnati, OH. Technologies for Upgrading Existing or
Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities. Document no. EPA/625/4-89/023.
[10] HDR Engineering (2001). Handbook of Public Water Systems. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 353. ISBN 978-0471-29211-1. Retrieved 2010-03-28.
[11] DIY slow sand lter
7.8 References
Learn More: Water (slow sand lter)". Refugee Camp Project -. Doctors Without Borders. Archived from the
original on 2007-07-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Slow Sand Filtration, World Health Organization, 1974 ISBN 92-4-154037-0
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Water Manual for Refugee Situations, Geneva, November
1992. Slow sand lters recommendations listed on, p. 38.
Small System Compliance Technology List for The Surface Water Treatment Rule, United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 815-R-97-002 August 1997. Slow sand ltration is listed on, p. 24.
Chapter 8
The rapid sand lter or rapid gravity lter is a type of lter used in water purication and is commonly used in
municipal drinking water facilities as part of a multiple-stage treatment system.[1]
The rst modern rapid sand ltration plant was designed and built by George W. Fuller in Little Falls, New Jersey.
Fullers ltration plant went into operation in 1920[2] and its success was responsible for the change to this technology
in the U.S.[3] Rapid sand lters were widely used in large municipal water systems by the 1920s, because they required
smaller land areas compared to slow sand lters.
36
37
38
8.4 Notes
[1] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)(1990). Cincinnati, OH. Technologies for Upgrading Existing or
Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities. Document no. EPA/625/4-89/023.
[2] Qasemy, Nawid. Rapid Sand Filtration. Authorstream.com. nawid11. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
[3] Fuller, George W. (1902). The Filtration Works of the East Jersey Water Company, at Little Falls, New Jersey. Transactions of the ASCE. 29 (February)): 153-202.
8.5 References
Spellman, Frank R. (2008). Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations. CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4200-7530-4.
Chapter 9
Cloth lter
This article is about decontamination of drinking water. For other uses, see cheesecloth.
Developed for use in Bangladesh, the cloth lter is a simple and cost-eective appropriate technology method for
Women at a village pond in Matlab, Bangladesh washing utensils and vegetables. The woman on the right is putting a sari lter onto
a water-collecting pot (or kalash) to lter water for drinking.
reducing the contamination of drinking water. Water collected in this way has a greatly reduced pathogen count though it will not necessarily be perfectly safe, it is an improvement for poor people with limited options.
9.1 Method
The method used in Bangladesh is as follows: an old sari is folded to make four or eight layers. The folded cloth
is placed over a wide-mouthed container used to collect surface water. It is usually sucient to rinse the cloth and
dry it in the sun for a couple of hours. In the monsoon seasons, it may be advisable to use a cheap disinfectant to
decontaminate the material.
39
40
The preferred cloth is used cotton sari cloth. Other types of clean, used cloth can be used with some eect, though
the eectiveness will vary signicantly. Used cloth is more eective than new cloth, as the repeated washing reduces
the space between the bres.[1]
9.2 Eectiveness
The cloth is eective because most pathogens are attached to particles and plankton, particularly a type of zooplankton called copepods, within the water. By passing the water through an eective lter, most cholera bacteria and
other pathogens are removed. It has been demonstrated to greatly reduce cholera infections in poor villages where
disinfectants and fuel for boiling are dicult to get.
In sub-Saharan Africa where guinea worm infections (dracunculiasis) are endemic, infection is prevented by use of a
nylon mesh with pore size of approximately 150 m to lter out the copepods that host the parasite.[2][3][4]
An old cotton sari, folded, creates a smaller eective mesh size (approximately 20-m). This should be small enough
to remove all zooplankton, most phytoplankton, and thus a large proportion of the cholera in the water (99%, according to laboratory studies). However, the nylon net with the larger mesh size was found to be almost equally
eective.[2]
The cloth lter provides less than ideal purication on its own - usually ltering is an initial step, to be followed by
further disinfection. However, where there are no other options, water professionals may consider that it is of course,
better than nothing [5]
9.3 Background
The cloth lter has been studied and reported on by Rita Colwell and Anwar Huq from the University of Maryland
Biotechnology Institute, together with other researchers from the USA and Bangladesh. They report that:
It is common practice in villages in Bangladesh to use cloth, frequently a at, unfolded piece of an old
sari, to lter home-prepared drinks.[2]
The researchers studied the application of this technique to drinking water, with folded cloth. They studied the pore
size of the cloth, the eect of folding the cloth on the eective pore size, the ability of the cloth to remove particles
and plankton, as well as the eect on rates of cholera when used in a Bangladesh village.[6]
9.4 References
[1] Moss J (January 27, 2003). Cloth Filters Fight Cholera. Development Report (Voice of America).
[2] Colwell RR, Huq A, Islam MS et al. (February 2003). Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple ltration.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 100 (3): 10515. doi:10.1073/pnas.0237386100. PMC 298724. PMID 12529505.
[3] Fighting the 'ery serpent' in Sudan. ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). Reuters. June 6, 2008. The
Carter Center distributes cloth lters and plastic drinking pipes with gauze at one end to block the larvae.
[4] Hopkins DR, Ruiz-Tiben E, Diallo N, Withers PC, Maguire JH (October 2002). Dracunculiasis eradication: and now,
Sudan. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 67 (4): 41522. PMID 12452497. More than 278,000 cloth lters for household use
in preventing the infection were distributed in Sudan in 1995 (compared with 93,000 the year before), and approximately
600,000 or more have been distributed each year since then. In 2001, however, in addition to distributing nearly 850,000
lters for household use, more than 7.8 million pipe lters were also distributed throughout endemic areas ....
[5] Hogan J (13 January 2003). Old clothes lter out cholera. New Scientist.
[6] Huq, Anwar; Mohammed Yunus; Syed Salahuddin Sohel; Abbas Bhuiya; Michael Emch; Stephen P. Luby; Estelle RussekCohen; G. Balakrish Nair; R. Bradley Sack; Rita R. Colwell.Awabdeh (2010). Simple sari cloth ltration of water is
sustainable and continues to protect villagers from cholera in Matlab, Bangladesh. MBio 1 (1).
41
Chapter 10
Algae scrubber
Newest algae scrubber designs use upowing air bubbles to generate turbulence; when illumination is added, algae grows inside the
unit and consumes nutrients.
An algae scrubber is a water ltering device (not to be confused with a scrubber pad used to clean glass) which
uses light to grow algae; in this process, undesirable chemicals are removed from the water.[1] Algae scrubbers have
allowed saltwater and freshwater aquarium and pond hobbyists the ability to operate their tanks the way that oceans
and lakes operate: using natural ltration in the form of primary production.
10.1 Concepts
Both iron fertilization and ocean nourishment are techniques that boost the primary production of algae in the ocean,
which consumes massive amounts of nutrients and CO2 . It is this same consumption of nutrients that algae perform
in an aquarium or pond.
42
10.2. HISTORY
43
Commercial oating surface algae scrubber uses red LED lights and up-owing air bubbles to cause algae to grow in the growth
compartment. Inside of the compartment is lined with rough textures which enhance algal attachment; ribbons/strings allow further
algal attachment.
An algae scrubber lters water by moving water rapidly over a rough, highly illuminated surface, which causes algae
to start growing in large amounts. As the algae grow, they consume nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, nitrite,
ammonia, ammonium and even metals such as copper from the water.[2] These nutrients are normally a problem in
aquariums and ponds because they cause nuisance algae to grow, and also because they cause sickness and/or other
problems in aquarium sh, invertebrates and corals.[3] An algae scrubber allows algae to grow, but the algae grow
inside the lter instead of in the aquarium or pond. This removes excess nutrients (scrubs the water), diminishing
nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond . Nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond are not to be confused with the
desired algae in the algae scrubber lter itself. The algae that grow in the algae scrubber can then be removed, or fed
back to the livestock.
Algae scrubbers are used in both saltwater and freshwater, and remove nuisance algae of multiple types: cyano or
slime, bubble, hair, Chaetomorpha, Caulerpa, and lm algae, as well as dinoagellates and Aiptasia.
44
Periodic removal of the algae that has grown inside of an algae scrubber removes nutrients (ammonia, nitrate, phosphate) from the
aquarium water, thus providing the needed ltration.
10.2 History
The algae scrubber was invented by Dr. Walter Adey, who beginning in the late 1970s, was Director of the Marine Systems Laboratory at the Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (Washington DC, USA).[4] His
research of various types of algae, especially in their ecological role on coral reefs, gave him insight into how the
ocean (in particular a reef) recycles nutrients. He designed and built various exhibits ranging in size up to 3000
gallons, and modeled dierent aquatic ecological systems including a tropical coral reef/lagoon which after 8 years
of closure [to the environment], had its chemical parameters controlled solely by an algal turf scrubber. This system,
studied by a multidisciplinary team of biologists, demonstrated calcication [coral growth] rates equal to the best 4
percent of wild reefs, and at 543 identied species, and an estimated 800 species, ranked per unit area as the most
biodiverse reef ever measured.[5]
In three editions of his book, Dynamic Aquaria, Dr Adey described his work in detail and discussed in scientic
principles the physical, chemical, and biological considerations for building a functioning ecological system within an
enclosure, from aquarium size, to microcosm (up to 5000 gallons), or mesocosm size (>5000 gallons). In describing
the algal turf scrubber he designed, he explained that removing excess nutrients was not its only function. By operating
the scrubber at night when the main tank had shifted to a dierent respiratory phase (plants were now absorbing oxygen
rather than producing it) the scrubber maintained oxygen levels and helped buer pH by preventing high levels of
carbon dioxide from building up.
Recycling means how the nutrients go from plants to animals, and back to plants again. On land, you see recycling
by following the oxygen ow: Green plants use carbon dioxide and release oxygen; animals use this oxygen and
release carbon dioxide. In oceans and lakes, the nutrients go from algae to animals, and back to the algae again.
Dr. Adey built several versions of algae scrubbers for aquariums at the Smithsonian. He called them Algal Turf
Scrubbers, because at the time it was believed that turf algae was the best type of algae to grow in a scrubber. He
also was granted the rst U.S. patent for a dumping-bucket algae scrubber,[6] which described a complex dumping
device that poured water onto a horizontal surface, thus simulating waves in a reef environment. After several years
10.2. HISTORY
45
of development, he participated in a test of a large algae scrubber on the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium: The Reef
Tank represents the rst application of algal scrubber technology to large volume aquarium systems. Aquaria using
conventional water purication methods (e.g. bacterial lters) generally have nutrient levels in parts per million, while
46
Upowing scrubber
algal scrubbers have maintained parts per billion concentrations [much lower], despite heavy biological loading in the
Reef Tank. The success of the algal scrubbers in maintaining suitable water quality for a coral reef was demonstrated
in the observed spawning of scleractinian corals and many other tank inhabitants.[1]
Unfortunately, it was not known at the time (1988) that calcium and alkalinity needed to be added to an enclosed
reef tank, in order to replace that which is utilized by the growing calcifying organisms. Even ve years after that,
the Pittsburgh Zoo was just starting to test a mesocosm scrubber reef tank to see if calcium levels would drop: It
was hypothesized that Ca2+ and the substitutive elements Sr2+ and Mg2+ might have reduced concentrations in a coral
reef microcosm due to continuous reuse of the same seawater as a consequence of the recycling process inherent
in the coral reef mesocosm. [...] The scleractinians (Montastrea, Madracis, Porites, Diploria, and Acropora) and
calcareous alga (Halimeda and others) present in the coral reef mesocosm are the most likely organisms responsible for
the signicant reduction in concentration of the Ca2+ and Sr2+ cations. [...] Ca is not normally a biolimiting element,
and strontium is never a biolimiting element; HCO3 [alkalinity] can be. It appears that, because of a minor limitation
in the design parameters of the mesocosm, these elements and compounds may have become limiting factors. [...]
10.2. HISTORY
47
It is surprising that the organisms could deplete the thousands of gallons of seawater (three to six thousand) of these
elements even within two or more years.[7] After other researchers added calcium and/or connected their tanks to
the ocean (which also supplies calcium and alkalinity), corals began growing again. Nevertheless, problem nutrients
(ammonia, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, CO2 , metals) were always kept at very low numbers.
Dr. Adey licensed his patent to very few individuals, who for a short number of years sold a limited number of
aquarium scrubbers to hobbyists. The complexity of the design, however, and the cost of the license, caused the
scrubber units to be very expensive. This, combined with the fact that the units were noisy, splashy, and unreliable
(the dumping mechanism would get stuck) caused the sales to be slow. The scrubbers were just starting to make
headway into the aquarium hobby in the 1990s when Adey decided to withdraw his license and no longer allow
anybody to make or sell them. He turned his attention instead to commercial and industrial applications, and entered
private business making large scale scrubber installations for lakes and rivers.[8]
As the internet developed in the 1990s, aquarium and pond hobbyists began discussing nuisance algae problems, and
started noticing a trend: Aquariums and ponds with very high amounts of nuisance algae had no detectable nutrients
in the water. This at rst seemed odd, since the amount of nuisance algae should increase as the nutrients in the water
increased. How could there be a very large amount of nuisance algae, but no measurable nutrients in the water to
support this? Biologists then began pointing out that when the amount of nuisance algae became large enough, the
algae actually consumed all the available nutrients from the water faster than new nutrients were added. Dr. Adeys
principles were at work again.
Interest in using algae for nutrient control once again increased, this time in the form of keeping the algae in a sump
or other small aquarium which was connected to the main aquarium via plumbing. With added lighting and ow, algae
would grow in this area, and the algae would consume nutrients from the water just as Dr. Adeys algae scrubber units
did. Sumps or other small aquariums used for this purpose became known as refugiums.[9] The name refugium
was used because the growing algae provided a safe place for small and microscopic animals to breed and grow, and
thus was a refuge from the large sh and invertebrates in the main aquarium that would otherwise consume them.
However while the refugiums did indeed consume nutrients from the water, they did not consume them fast enough
in all situations; this caused many hobbyists to continue to have nuisance algae problems in their main aquariums.
48
More recent variations are built with a simple waterfall driven by gravity, using a simple PVC plumbing pipe to
ow water down a piece of plastic knitting screen (also known as plastic canvas), which is roughed up to allow algae
to attach. In almost every case, these homemade algae scrubbers reduced the nutrients to very low levels, and this
reduced or eliminated all nuisance algae problems.
In addition, turf algae, which was the focus of Dr. Adeys dumping-bucket design, is replaced by green hair
algae.[10] This is because turf algae tends to be dark brown and thick (like articial turf on sports elds), and it
blocks the light and water from reaching the screen. This slows the growth (and ltering) of the algae because the
bottom layers of algae that are attached to the screen start to die and detach. Green algae, however (especially lightgreen hair algae), allows light and water to penetrate all the way down to the screen if the growth is kept less than 20
mm thick,[11] which allows the algae to grow faster and absorb more nutrients without dying and losing attachment to
the screen. This is fortunate because green hair algae is the exact type of algae that grows automatically in a properly
49
10.3.1
Generally, and except for specic continuous-ltering or continuous-cultivating versions, algae scrubbers require the
algae to be removed (harvested) periodically from the scrubber. This removal of algae has the eect of removing
undesired nutrients from the water because the algae used the nutrients in order to grow. The algae is generally
removed either:
Every 7 to 21 days, or
When it is black, or
When it lls up the scrubber, or
When it starts letting go, or
When nutrients start to rise in the water.
For waterfall versions, the screen is removed from the pipe and cleaned in a sink with running water. The pipe is
removed also, and the slot is cleaned with a toothbrush, to remove any algae that have grown up into it. After the algae
are removed, the screen and pipe are put back in the scrubber. For upow versions, the cleaning method depends on
the type:
Glass-attached version: The magnet portion outside the glass is removed, and the inside portion is lifted out of the
water. If the growth is thick green hair algae, then it is just removed by hand. If the growth is thin green hair (as
occurs in freshwater) or dark slime, then the inside unit is taken to the sink and cleaned with a toothbrush. After
cleaning, the inside and outside parts are put back into place on the glass.
Floating-surface version: If the growth is thick green hair algae then it is just removed by hand by lifting the LED lid
up and pulling the growth out. If the growth is thin green hair or dark slime, then the oating portion is taken to the
sink and cleaned with a toothbrush.
Drop-in version: The entire unit is lifted out of the water, and the lid is removed. If the growth is thick green hair
algae then it is just removed by hand. If the growth is thin green hair or dark slime, then the whole unit is taken to
the sink and cleaned with a toothbrush.
If the screen is not cleaned like this periodically, the algae will get too thick and block light and ow from reaching
the roots of the algae, and these areas will die and let go, putting nutrients back into the water.[10]
10.5 References
[1] Nutrient Cycling In The Great Barrier Reef Aquarium. Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium,
Australia, 1988, Vol. 2
50
[2] Algal Response To Nutrient Enrichment In Forested Oligotrophic Stream. Journal of Phycology, June 2008
[3] Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment, Second Edition, 2010
[4] Smithsonian Institution, Dept. of Botany
[5] WalterAdey.com
[6] U.S. Patent 4333263, Issue Date June 8, 1982
[7] An Introduction to the Biogeochemical Cycling of Calcium and Substitutive Strontium in Living Coral Reef Mesocosms
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/zoo.1430120505/abstract
[8] Hydromentia Water Treatment Technologies
[9] Reef Invertebrates, 2003, page 46
[10] AlgaeScrubber.Net
[11] Production within dense mats of the lamentous macroalga Chaetomorpha linum in relation to light and nutrient availability,
gure 5. http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/134/m134p207.pdf
Chapter 11
11.1 Procedure
Backwashing of granular media lters involves several steps. First, the lter is taken o line and the water is drained
to a level that is above the surface of the lter bed. Next, compressed air is pushed up through the lter material
causing the lter bed to expand breaking up the compacted lter bed and forcing the accumulated particles into
suspension. After the air scour cycle, clean backwash water is forced upwards through the lter bed continuing the
lter bed expansion and carrying the particles in suspension into backwash troughs suspended above the lter surface.
In some applications, air and water streams are simultaneously pushed upwards through the granular media followed
by a rinse water wash.[3]:213-4 Backwashing continues for a xed time, or until the turbidity of the backwash water is
below an established value. At the end of the backwash cycle, the upward ow of water is terminated and the lter
bed settles by gravity into its initial conguration. Water to be ltered is then applied to the lter surface until the
lter clogs and the backwash cycle needs to be repeated.[3]:264-8[4]:10.53-10.58[5]:937-9[6]:8.11-8.18[7]:353-6
Some water treatment lters use surface wash systems that break up the heavily clogged, granular media surface layer.
Surface wash systems are buried in the top of the lter media or are suspended above the lter media surface. John
R. Baylis developed a xed grid system which consisted of pipes with nozzles that injected jets of water into the lter
material during expansion.[8] Rotating arms use jets of water to break up the clogged lter surface and to rotate a
movable arm through the lter material. A surface wash step in a backwash cycle usually takes place at the beginning
of the lter bed cleaning process.[3]:199-200[7]:357-60
11.2 Treatment
Spent backwash water is either discharged without treatment to a sanitary sewer system or is treated and recycled
within the plant.[4]:22.37-22.40 Historically, backwash water was discharged directly to surface water supplies; however,
direct discharge is now highly regulated through NPDES discharge permits and is often discouraged. Used back51
52
Backwashing cycle is run on the left lter of the test columns in a water ltration plant.[1]
wash water contains high concentrations of particulate material. Typical treatment processes include coagulation,
occulation and sedimentation. High molecular weight synthetic organic polymers are sometimes added to facilitate
the formation of settleable oc. Failure of a backwash treatment process and reintroduction of the resulting poor
quality water into the main water purication plant ow stream can cause overall process upsets and result in the
production of poor quality treated drinking water.[6]:20.11-20.13
11.3. RECYCLING
53
11.3 Recycling
As a water conservation measure, many water purication plants recycle lter backwash water and other product
streams from sludge treatment processes back to the beginning of the plant.[4]:22.40-22.43[5]:242-3 On June 8, 2001, the
USEPA released a nal regulation governing acceptable practices for recycling backwash water.[9] The purpose of the
regulation was to improve the control of microbial contaminants such as Cryptosporidium by reducing the potential
for recycled product streams to upset the removal eciency of the main treatment processes. The regulation requires
that spent lter backwash water be recycled to the front of the treatment plant so that all available particle removal
treatment processes can be employed to remove the microbial and particulate material from the backwash water.[10]
11.4 References
[1] Bungays lecture on sand ltration. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
[2] Diatomaceous Earth Pool Filters Accessed 2012-06-20.
[3] Kawamura, Susumu. (2000). Integrated Design and Operation of Water Treatment Facilities. 2nd Edition. New York:
Wiley. pp. 74-5, 104. ISBN 0-471-35093-1
[4] Edzwald, James K., ed. (2011). Water Quality and Treatment. 6th Edition. New York:McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07163011-5
[5] Crittenden, John C., et al., eds. (2005). Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd Edition. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley. ISBN
0-471-11018-3
[6] Baruth, Edward E., ed. (1990). Water Treatment Plant Design. 4th Edition. New York:McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-1418725
[7] Williams, Robert B. and Culp, Gordon L., eds. (1986). Handbook of Public Water Systems. New York:Van Nostrand
Reinhold. ISBN 0-442-21597-5
[8] Baylis, John R. (1959). Review of Filter Bed Design and Methods of Washing. Journal AWWA. 51:11 1433-54.
[9] National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Filter Backwash Recycling Rule Federal Register. 66:111 June 8, 2001.
[10] Filter Backwash Recycling Rule Accessed 2012-06-20.
Chapter 12
Carbon ltering
Carbon ltering is a method of ltering that uses a bed of activated carbon to remove contaminants and impurities,
using chemical absorption.
Each particle/granule of carbon provides a large surface area/pore structure, allowing contaminants the maximum
possible exposure to the active sites within the lter media. One pound (450 g) of activated carbon contains a surface
area of approximately 100 acres (40 Hectares).
Activated carbon works via a process called adsorption, whereby pollutant molecules in the uid to be treated are
trapped inside the pore structure of the carbon substrate. Carbon ltering is commonly used for water purication,
in air puriers and industrial gas processing, for example the removal of siloxanes and hydrogen sulde from biogas.
It is also used in a number of other applications, including respirator masks, the purication of sugarcane and in the
recovery of precious metals, especially gold. It is also used in cigarette lters.
Active charcoal carbon lters are most eective at removing chlorine, sediment, volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
taste and odor from water. They are not eective at removing minerals, salts, and dissolved inorganic compounds.
Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon lters range from 0.5 to 50 micrometres. The particle size will
be used as part of the lter description. The ecacy of a carbon lter is also based upon the ow rate regulation.
When the water is allowed to ow through the lter at a slower rate, the contaminants are exposed to the lter media
for a longer amount of time.
Carbon lters have been used for several hundred years and are considered one of the oldest means of water
purication. Historians have shown evidence that carbon ltration may have been used in ancient Egyptian cultures
for medical purposes and as a purifying agent.[2] 2000 B.C. Sanskrit text refers to ltering water through charcoal
(1905 translation of Sushruta Samhita by Francis Evelyn Place). The rst recorded use of a carbon lter to purify
potable water on a large scale occurred in 19th century England.[2]
Currently, carbon lters are used in individual homes as point-of-use water lters, groundwater remediation, landll
leachate, industrial wastewater and, occasionally, in municipal water treatment facilities. They are also used as pretreatment devices for reverse osmosis systems and as specialized lters designed to remove chlorine-resistant cysts,
such as giardia and cryptosporidium.
54
55
12.6 References
[1] Cheremisino, Paul N.; Angelo C. Morresi (1980). Carbon Adsorption Handbook. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc. pp. 154.
[2] Pope, Jason (1999-01-01). A Brief History of Activated Carbon and a Summary of Its Uses. Virginia Tech - Environmental and Water Resources Engineering. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, D.C. (2013). Granular Activated Carbon.
Drinking Water Treatability Database.
A Citizens Guide to Activated Carbon Treatment. Document no. EPA 542-F-01-020 (PDF). EPA. 2001.
Residential Air Cleaners: A Summary of Available Information. 2nd edition. Document no. EPA 402-F-09-002
(PDF). EPA.
56
Carbon ltering is usually used in water ltration systems. In this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted
from bottom).
Chapter 13
Distillation
Distiller and Distillery redirect here. For other uses, see Distiller (disambiguation) and Distillery (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Distillation (disambiguation).
Distillation is a process of separating the component substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation
and condensation. Distillation may result in essentially complete separation (nearly pure components), or it may be a
partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture. In either case the process
exploits dierences in the volatility of mixtures components. In industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation
of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction.
Commercially, distillation has many applications. For example:
In the fossil fuel industry distillation is a major class of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil for fuels
and for chemical feedstocks.
Distillation permits separation of air into its components notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon for industrial
use.
In the eld of industrial chemistry, large ranges of crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to
separate them, either from other products, or from impurities, or from unreacted starting materials.
Distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates out
other fermentation products of commercial value.
An installation for distillation, especially of alcohol, is a distillery. The distillation equipment is a still.
13.1 History
See also: Distilled beverage
Aristotle wrote about the process in his Meteorologica and even that ordinary wine possesses a kind of exhalation, and that is why it gives out a ame.[5] Later evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in
Alexandria in the 1st century AD.[6] Distilled water has been known since at least c. 200, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process.[7] Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han Dynasty (1st2nd
centuries), but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the Jin and Southern
Song dynasties.[8] A still was found in an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century.
Distilled beverages were more common during the Yuan dynasty.[8] Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians
and used it extensively in their chemical experiments.
Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century.[6][9] Fractional
distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century.[10]
In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of
Distillation)[11] the rst book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded
version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the rst major English compendium of practice,
57
58
7
6
3
5
10
9
15
14
16
11
12
13
Laboratory display of distillation: 1: A source of heat 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5:
Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving ask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat
control 12: Stirrer speed control 13: Stirrer/heat plate 14: Heating (Oil/sand) bath 15: Stirring means e.g. (shown), boiling chips or
mechanical stirrer 16: Cooling bath.[1]
though it has been claimed[12] that much of it derives from Braunschweigs work. This includes diagrams with people
in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.
As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics
and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which acted as air-
13.1. HISTORY
59
Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century Greek alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis,[2][3] from the Byzantine Greek manuscript
Parisinus graces.[4]
cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were
invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye our.[13]
These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the
condensation of alcohol more ecient. These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely
supplanted by more ecient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely
used for the elaboration of some ne alcohols such as cognac, Scotch whisky, tequila and some vodkas. Pot stills
made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot
stills are also sold for the domestic production[14] of ower water or essential oils.
Early forms of distillation were batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by
further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists
were reported to carry out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.[15]
In the early 19th century the basics of modern techniques including pre-heating and reux were developed, particularly
by the French,[15] then in 1830 a British Patent was issued to Aeneas Coey for a whiskey distillation column,[16]
which worked continuously and may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. In 1877, Ernest
Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for ammonia distillation[17] and the same and subsequent years
saw developments of this theme for oil and spirits.
With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientic rather than
empirical methods could be applied. The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the
impetus for the development of accurate design methods such as the McCabeThiele method and the Fenske equation.
The availability of powerful computers has also allowed direct computer simulation of distillation columns.
60
Hieronymus Brunschwigs Liber de arte Distillandi de Compositis (Strassburg, 1512) Chemical Heritage Foundation
61
A retort
Distillation
62
is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the
composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its
component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms (remaining
least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated.
In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully
replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a
better control of the separation process.
63
13.3.1
Batch distillation
64
A+B
Cooling
Water
A+B
Steam
Puried A
Still
Bottoms
13.3.2
Continuous distillation
13.3.3
General improvements
Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the
distillation ask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to
come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small
subsystems ('trays or 'dishes) which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vaporliquid
equilibrium.
There are dierences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the
same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing eciency) include
Air condenser
Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only)
65
Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material)
Spinning band distillation system.
Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a
condenser in which the heated vapour is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated
or puried liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also
distillation types).
13.4.1
Simple distillation
In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure
but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure. That
concentration follows Raoults law.
As a result, simple distillation is eective only when the liquid boiling points dier greatly (rule of thumb is 25 C)[18]
or when separating liquids from non-volatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components
are usually dierent enough that the distillate may be suciently pure for its intended purpose.
13.4.2
Fractional distillation
66
For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be suciently close that Raoults law must
be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components
by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive
distillations, is also referred to as rectication.[19]
As the solution to be puried is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing
on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the
rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again
by Raoults law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the
more volatile component.[20] In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position
in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.
More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teon
or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of
theoretical plates.[21]
13.4.3
Steam distillation
13.4.4
Vacuum distillation
13.4.5
Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as
exemplied above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete.
However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this
67
Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 C. Under a vacuum, it distills o into the receiver at only 70 C.
a cow or pig adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive
compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of
the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can
remain in a state of reux. To do this, the sample is rst isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum
over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed.
68
A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via
the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.
13.4.6
Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a
few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.[24] A classic example would be a distillation involving the
distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers.
This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of
compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the
boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing.
A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path
distillation apparatus which often contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.
13.4.7
Zone distillation
Zone distillation is a distillation process in long container with partial melting of rened matter in moving liquid zone
and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area. The process is worked in theory.
When zone heater is moving from the top to the bottom of the container then solid condensate with irregular impurity
distribution is forming. Then most pure part of the condensate may be extracted as product. The process may be
iterated many times by moving (without turnover) the received condensate to the bottom part of the container on
the place of rened matter. The irregular impurity distribution in the condensate (that is eciency of purication)
increases with number of repetitions of the process. Zone distillation is a distillation analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization with various
numbers of iteration of process with replacement distribution ecient k of crystallization on separation factor
of distillation.[25][26][27]
13.4.8
Other types
The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually signicantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is
vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch
process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup.
Distillation over a reactant could be classied as a reactive distillation. It is typically used to remove volatile
impurity from the distallation feed. For example a little lime may be added to remove carbon dioxide from
water followed by a second distillation with a little sulphuric acid added to remove traces of ammonia.
Catalytic distillation is the process by which the reactants are catalyzed while being distilled to continuously
separate the products from the reactants. This method is used to assist equilibrium reactions reach completion.
Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous
membrane.
Extractive distillation is dened as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile
component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream
undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process
is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.
Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible.
The unit process of evaporation may also be called distillation":
In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically
the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.
69
In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound
to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample.
The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
Other uses:
Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile
fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation
of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name wood alcohol.
Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purication using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly
distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and
sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them; As a result, many countries prohibit such applejack as a
health measure. However, reducing methanol with the absorption of 4A molecular sieve is a practical method
for production.[28] Also, distillation by evaporation can separate these since they have dierent boiling points.
13.5.1
The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum
or positive pressure, its possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the
diering vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain
identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two
boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.
70
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires
that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling
demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to
the higher temperatures required to eect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.
13.5.2
Pressure-swing distillation
71
For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the eciencies of
the vaporliquid contact devices (referred to as plates or trays) used in distillation towers are typically lower than
that of a theoretical 100% ecient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number
of theoretical vaporliquid equilibrium stages. A variety of models have been postulated to estimate tray eciencies.
In modern industrial uses, a packing material is used in the column instead of trays when low pressure drops across
the column are required. Other factors that favor packing are: vacuum systems, smaller diameter columns, corrosive
systems, systems prone to foaming, systems requiring low liquid holdup, and batch distillation. Conversely, factors
that favor plate columns are: presence of solids in feed, high liquid rates, large column diameters, complex columns,
columns with wide feed composition variation, columns with a chemical reaction, absorption columns, columns limited by foundation weight tolerance, low liquid rate, large turn-down ratio and those processes subject to process
surges.
This packing material can either be random dumped packing (13 wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet
metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass
transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor
liquid equilibrium, the vaporliquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling
packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of theoretical stages to denote the separation eciency of the
packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Dierently shaped packings have dierent surface areas and
void space between packings. Both of these factors aect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that aects the performance of random or structured
packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to
make a given separation is calculated using a specic vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly
distributed across the supercial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in
the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly.
The height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing
itself but the mal-distribution of the uids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the
problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reux to a packed bed is
critical to making the packing perform to it maximum eciency. Methods of evaluating the eectiveness of a liquid
distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.[32][33] Considerable work
as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).[34]
13.6.1
Multi-eect distillation
The goal of multi-eect distillation is to increase the energy eciency of the process, for use in desalination, or in
some cases one stage in the production of ultrapure water. The number of eects is inversely proportional to the
kWh/m3 of water recovered gure, and refers to the volume of water recovered per unit of energy compared with
single-eect distillation. One eect is roughly 636 kWh/m3 .
Multi-stage ash distillation Can achieve more than 20 eects with thermal energy input, as mentioned in the
article.
Vapor compression evaporation Commercial large-scale units can achieve around 72 eects with electrical
energy input, according to manufacturers.
There are many other types of multi-eect distillation processes, including one referred to as simply multi-eect
distillation (MED), in which multiple chambers, with intervening heat exchangers, are employed.
Distilled beverages
72
ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the avor of the
beverage. Some of these beverages are then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more avor compounds
and characteristic avors.
13.8 Gallery
13.9 See also
Sublimation
Microdistillery
13.10 References
[1] Harwood, Laurence M.; Moody, Christopher J. (1989). Experimental organic chemistry: Principles and Practice (Illustrated
ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Scientic Publications. pp. 141143. ISBN 978-0-632-02017-1.
[2] E. Gildemeister and Fr. Homan, translated by Edward Kremers (1913). The Volatile Oils 1. New York: Wiley. p. 203.
[3] Bryan H. Bunch and Alexander Hellemans (2004). The History of Science and Technology. Houghton Miin Harcourt. p.
88. ISBN 0-618-22123-9.
[4] Marcelin Berthelot Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 18871888, p.161)
[5] Berthelot, M. P. E. M. (1893). The Discovery of Alcohol and Distillation. The Popular Science Monthly. XLIII: 8594.
[6] Forbes, Robert James (1970). A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier
Blumenthal. BRILL. pp. 57, 89. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
[7] Taylor, F. (1945). The evolution of the still. Annals of Science 5 (3): 185. doi:10.1080/00033794500201451.
[8] Haw, Stephen G. (2012). Wine, women and poison. Marco Polo in China. Routledge. pp. 147148. ISBN 978-1-13427542-7. The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty ... the most likely period for the beginning of
true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties
[9] Sarton, George (1975). Introduction to the history of science. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co. p. 145. ISBN 0-88275-172-7.
[10] Holmyard, Eric John (1990). Alchemy. Courier Dover Publications. p. 53. ISBN 0-486-26298-7.
[11] Magnum Opus Hermetic Sourceworks Series. Alchemywebsite.com. Retrieved on 2014-04-20.
[12] Industrial Engineering Chemistry (1936) p. 677
[13] Sealing Technique, accessed 16 November 2006.
[14] Traditional Alembic Pot Still, accessed 16 November 2006.
[15] D. F. Othmer (1982) Distillation Some Steps in its Development, in W. F. Furter (ed) A Century of Chemical Engineering
ISBN 0-306-40895-3
[16] A. Coey British Patent 5974, 5 August 1830
[17] U.S. Patent 198,699 Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda Manufacture
[18] ST07 Separation of liquidliquid mixtures (solutions), DIDAC by IUPAC
[19] Perry, Robert H. and Green, Don W. (1984). Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN
0-07-049479-7.
[20] Fractional Distillation. fandm.edu
[21] Spinning Band Distillation. B/R Instrument Corporation (accessed 8 September 2006)
[22] Harwood & Moody 1989, pp. 151153
73
74
8
7
4
10
11
12
1
75
4
3
5
2
Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold nger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with
stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold nger bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas
inlet 6: Distillate ask/distillate.
76
Automatic Distillation Unit for the determination of the boiling range of petroleum products at atmospheric pressure
77
78
Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps
79
80
Chapter 14
Water purication
This article is about large scale, municipal water purication. For other uses, see Purication of water.
Water purication is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids
Control room and schematics of the water purication plant to Lac de Bret, Switzerland
and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water t for a specic purpose. Most water is disinfected
for human consumption (drinking water), but water purication may also be designed for a variety of other purposes,
including fullling the requirements of medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. The methods
used include physical processes such as ltration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological processes such as slow
sand lters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as occulation and chlorination and the use of
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.
Purifying water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria,
algae, viruses, fungi, as well as reducing the amount of a range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the
surfaces that come from runo due to rain.
The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international standards. These standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants, depending on the intended purpose
of water use.
81
82
Visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality. Simple procedures such as boiling or the use
of a household activated carbon lter are not sucient for treating all the possible contaminants that may be present
in water from an unknown source. Even natural spring water considered safe for all practical purposes in the
19th century must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. Chemical and
microbiological analysis, while expensive, are the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the
appropriate method of purication.
According to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO) report, 1.1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking
water supply, 88 percent of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate
sanitation and hygiene, while 1.8 million people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO estimates that 94
percent of these diarrheal cases are preventable through modications to the environment, including access to safe
water.[1] Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, lters, and solar disinfection, and storing
it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year.[2] Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a
major public health goal in developing countries.
14.2 Treatment
14.2.1
Aims
The aims of the treatment are to remove unwanted constituents in the water and to make it safe to drink or t for a
specic purpose in industry or medical applications. Widely varied techniques are available to remove contaminants
14.2. TREATMENT
83
like ne solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic and organic materials, or environmental persistent
pharmaceutical pollutants. The choice of method will depend on the quality of the water being treated, the cost of
the treatment process and the quality standards expected of the processed water.
The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purication plants. Some or most may not be used
depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw (source) water.
14.2.2
Pre-treatment
1. Pumping and containment The majority of water must be pumped from its source or directed into pipes
or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this physical infrastructure must be made from
appropriate materials and constructed so that accidental contamination does not occur.
2. Screening (see also screen lter) The rst step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as
sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purication steps. Most
deep groundwater does not need screening before other purication steps.
3. Storage Water from rivers may also be stored in bankside reservoirs for periods between a few days and many
months to allow natural biological purication to take place. This is especially important if treatment is by slow
sand lters. Storage reservoirs also provide a buer against short periods of drought or to allow water supply
to be maintained during transitory pollution incidents in the source river.
4. Pre-chlorination In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimize the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse quality eects (see chlorine below), this
has largely been discontinued.[3]
pH adjustment
Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water can have pH values that range from 7.5 to
8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of the drainage
basin or aquifer and the inuence of contaminant inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda
ash, or sodium hydroxide can be added to raise the pH during water purication processes. Lime addition increases
the calcium ion concentration, thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced draft degasiers can
be an eective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide from the water.[4][5][6] Making the water
alkaline helps coagulation and occulation processes work eectively and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being
dissolved from lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe ttings. Sucient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of
water to iron pipes. Acid (carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid) may be added to alkaline waters in some
circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from
the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water. The ability of water to precipitate calcium carbonate to
protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral
content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium concentration.[7]
14.2.3
84
hydroxides adsorb and enmesh particles in suspension and facilitate the removal of particles by subsequent processes
of sedimentation and ltration.[8]:8.28.3
Aluminum hydroxides are formed within a fairly narrow pH range, typically: 5.5 to about 7.7. Iron (III) hydroxides
can form over a larger pH range including pH levels lower than are eective for alum, typically: 5.0 to 8.5.[9]:679
In the literature, there is much debate and confusion over the usage of the terms coagulation and occulationwhere
does coagulation end and occulation begin? In water purication plants, there is usually a high energy, rapid mix
unit process (detention time in seconds) where the coagulant chemicals are added followed by occulation basins
(detention times range from 15 to 45 minutes) where low energy inputs turn large paddles or other gentle mixing
devices to enhance the formation of oc. In fact, coagulation and occulation processes are ongoing once the metal
salt coagulants are added.[10]:745
Organic polymers were developed in the 1960s as aids to coagulants and, in some cases, as replacements for the
inorganic metal salt coagulants. Synthetic organic polymers are high molecular weight compounds that carry negative,
positive or neutral charges. When organic polymers are added to water with particulates, the high molecular weight
compounds adsorb onto particle surfaces and through interparticle bridging coalesce with other particles to form oc.
PolyDADMAC is a popular cationic (positively charged) organic polymer used in water purication plants.[9]:6678
14.2.4
Sedimentation
Waters exiting the occulation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarier or settling basin. It is
a large tank with low water velocities, allowing oc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located
close to the occulation basin so the transit between the two processes does not permit settlement or oc break up.
Sedimentation basins may be rectangular, where water ows from end to end, or circular where ow is from the centre
outward. Sedimentation basin outow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of waterthat furthest from
the sludgeexits.
In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the eciency of a sedimentation process was a function of the particle settling
velocity, the ow through the tank and the surface area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a
range of overow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons per minute per square foot (or 1.25 to 2.5 meters per hour). In general,
sedimentation basin eciency is not a function of detention time or depth of the basin. Although, basin depth must
be sucient so that water currents do not disturb the sludge and settled particle interactions are promoted. As particle
concentrations in the settled water increase near the sludge surface on the bottom of the tank, settling velocities can
increase due to collisions and agglomeration of particles. Typical detention times for sedimentation vary from 1.5 to
4 hours and basin depths vary from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters).[8]:9.399.40[9]:7901[10]:1402, 171
Inclined at plates or tubes can be added to traditional sedimentation basins to improve particle removal performance.
Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase the surface area available for particles to be removed in concert with
Hazens original theory. The amount of ground surface area occupied by a sedimentation basin with inclined plates
or tubes can be far smaller than a conventional sedimentation basin.
14.2. TREATMENT
14.2.5
85
When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution easily, dissolved air otation (DAF) is often used. Water
supplies that are particularly vulnerable to unicellular algae blooms and supplies with low turbidity and high colour
often employ DAF. After coagulation and occulation processes, water ows to DAF tanks where air diusers on the
tank bottom create ne bubbles that attach to oc resulting in a oating mass of concentrated oc. The oating oc
blanket is removed from the surface and claried water is withdrawn from the bottom of the DAF tank.[8]:9.46
14.2.6
Filtration
After separating most oc, the water is ltered as the nal step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled
oc.
The most common type of lter is a rapid sand lter. Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of
activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to
taste and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple ltration
is not enough. Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles.
Eective ltration extends into the depth of the lter. This property of the lter is key to its operation: if the top
layer of sand were to block all the particles, the lter would quickly clog.[11]
To clean the lter, water is passed quickly upward through the lter, opposite the normal direction (called backushing
or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior to this step, compressed air may be blown up through the bottom
of the lter to break up the compacted lter media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This
contaminated water can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by
86
mixing with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since it re-introduces an
elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water.
Some water treatment plants employ pressure lters. These work on the same principle as rapid gravity lters, diering
in that the lter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure.
Advantages:
Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand lters can.
Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specied pore sizes.
They are quite thin and so liquids ow through them fairly rapidly.
They are reasonably strong and so can withstand pressure dierences across them of typically 25 atmospheres.
They can be cleaned (back ushed) and reused.
Slow sand lters
Slow articial ltration (a variation of bank ltration) to the ground, Water purication plant Kran, Czech Republic
Slow sand lters may be used where there is sucient land and space, as the water must be passed very slowly through
the lters. These lters rely on biological treatment processes for their action rather than physical ltration. The lters
are carefully constructed using graded layers of sand, with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom
and nest sand at the top. Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the
development of a thin biological layer, called the zoogleal layer or Schmutzdecke, on the surface of the lter. An
eective slow sand lter may remain in service for many weeks or even months if the pre-treatment is well designed
and produces water with a very low available nutrient level which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Very
low nutrient levels allow water to be safely sent through distribution systems with very low disinfectant levels, thereby
reducing consumer irritation over oensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand lters are not
backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped o when ow is eventually obstructed by
biological growth.
A specic large-scale form of slow sand lter is the process of bank ltration, in which natural sediments in a
riverbank are used to provide a rst stage of contaminant ltration. While typically not clean enough to be used
14.2. TREATMENT
87
A prole of layers of gravel, sand and ne sand used in a slow sand lter plant.
directly for drinking water, the water gained from the associated extraction wells is much less problematic than river
water taken directly from the major streams where bank ltration is often used.
14.2.7
Membrane ltration
Membrane lters are widely used for ltering both drinking water and sewage. For drinking water, membrane lters
88
can remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 umincluding giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane lters are an
eective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or
before discharging the water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used in industry,
particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). However no ltration can remove substances that are
actually dissolved in the water such as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.
14.2.8
Ultraltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used to
lter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how much
pressure is needed to drive the water through and what sizes of micro-organisms can be ltered out.
Ion exchange:[12] Ion exchange systems use ion exchange resin- or zeolite-packed columns to replace unwanted ions.
The most common case is water softening consisting of removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign
(soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins are also used to remove toxic ions such as nitrite, lead, mercury,
arsenic and many others.
Precipitative softening:[8]:13.1213.58 Water rich in hardness (calcium and magnesium ions) is treated with lime (calcium
oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution utilizing the common-ion
eect.
Electrodeionization:[12] Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion exchange membranes
allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only negative ions toward
the positive electrode. High purity deionized water is produced with a little worse degree of purication in comparison with ion exchange treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. The water is
often pre-treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.
14.2.9
Disinfection
Disinfection is accomplished both by ltering out harmful micro-organisms and also by adding disinfectant chemicals.
Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the lters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant
to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens
include viruses, bacteria, including Salmonella, Cholera, Campylobacter and Shigella, and protozoa, including Giardia
lamblia and other cryptosporidia. Following the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually
held in temporary storage often called a contact tank or clear well to allow the disinfecting action to complete.
Chlorine disinfection
Main article: Water chlorination
The most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramine or
chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many harmful micro-organisms. Because chlorine
is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is avoided by the use of sodium
hypochlorite, which is a relatively inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine
solutions can be generated on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. A solid form, calcium hypochlorite, releases
chlorine on contact with water. Handling the solid, however, requires greater routine human contact through opening
bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach which are more easily automated. The generation of liquid
sodium hypochlorite is both inexpensive and safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine.
All forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their respective drawbacks. One drawback is that chlorine from any
source reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful chemical by-products. These
by-products, trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), are both carcinogenic in large quantities and
are regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Drinking Water Inspectorate in
the UK. The formation of THMs and haloacetic acids may be minimized by eective removal of as many organics
from the water as possible prior to chlorine addition. Although chlorine is eective in killing bacteria, it has limited
eectiveness against protozoa that form cysts in water (Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which are
pathogenic).
14.2. TREATMENT
89
Pumps used to add required amount of chemicals to the clear water at the water purication plant before the distribution. From left
to right: sodium hypochlorite for disinfection, zinc orthophosphate as a corrosion inhibitor, sodium hydroxide for pH adjustment,
and uoride for tooth decay prevention.
90
14.2.10
1. Water uoridation: in many areas uoride is added to water with the goal of preventing tooth decay.[20] Fluoride
is usually added after the disinfection process. In the U.S., uoridation is usually accomplished by the addition
91
92
14.4.1
Demineralized water
Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and nanoltration remove
most to all minerals. This results in demineralized water which is not considered ideal drinking water. The World
Health Organization has investigated the health eects of demineralized water since 1980.[30] Experiments in humans
found that demineralized water increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with decreased blood serum
potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and other minerals in water can help to protect against nutritional
deciency. Demineralized water may also increase the risk from toxic metals because it more readily leaches materials
from piping like lead and cadmium, which is prevented by dissolved minerals such as calcium and magnesium. Lowmineral water has been implicated in specic cases of lead poisoning in infants, when lead from pipes leached at
especially high rates into the water. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L
with 2030 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 4080 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness
(adding magnesium and calcium) of 2 to 4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones,
kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and arthropathies have been observed.[31] Additionally, desalination processes
can increase the risk of bacterial contamination.[31]
Manufacturers of home water distillers claim the oppositethat minerals in water are the cause of many diseases,
and that most benecial minerals come from food, not water.[32][33] They quote the American Medical Association
14.5. HISTORY
93
Drinking water pollution detector Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are being used in water purication plants to detect acute
water pollution
as saying The bodys need for minerals is largely met through foods, not drinking water. The WHO report agrees
that drinking water, with some rare exceptions, is not the major source of essential elements for humans and is
not the major source of our calcium and magnesium intake, yet states that demineralized water is harmful anyway.
Additional evidence comes from animal experiments and clinical observations in several countries. Animals given
zinc or magnesium dosed in their drinking water had a signicantly higher concentration of these elements in the
serum than animals given the same elements in much higher amounts with food and provided with low-mineral water
to drink.
14.5 History
The rst experiments into water ltration were made in the 17th century. Sir Francis Bacon attempted to desalinate
sea water by passing the ow through a sand lter. Although his experiment did not succeed, it marked the beginning
of a new interest in the eld. The fathers of microscopy, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke, used the
newly invented microscope to observe for the rst time small material particles that lay suspended in the water, laying
the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens.[34]
14.5.1
Sand lter
The rst documented use of sand lters to purify the water supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery
in Paisley, Scotland, John Gibb, installed an experimental lter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public.[35] This
method was rened in the following two decades by engineers working for private water companies, and it culminated
in the rst treated public water supply in the world, installed by engineer James Simpson for the Chelsea Waterworks
Company in London in 1829.[36] This installation provided ltered water for every resident of the area, and the
network design was widely copied throughout the United Kingdom in the ensuing decades.
The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream and common, and the virtues of the system were made
starkly apparent after the investigations of the physician John Snow during the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak.
Snow was sceptical of the then-dominant miasma theory that stated that diseases were caused by noxious bad airs.
94
Drawing of an apparatus for studying the chemical analysis of mineral waters in a book from 1799.
Although the germ theory of disease had not yet been developed, Snows observations led him to discount the prevailing theory. His 1855 essay On the Mode of Communication of Cholera conclusively demonstrated the role of the
water supply in spreading the cholera epidemic in Soho,[37][38] with the use of a dot distribution map and statistical
proof to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. His data convinced the
local council to disable the water pump, which promptly ended the outbreak.
The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of the water supply companies in London, including minimum
standards of water quality for the rst time. The Act made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of
pure and wholesome water, and required that all water be eectually ltered from 31 December 1855.[39] This was
followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a worldwide precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe.
The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was formed at the same time, water ltration was adopted throughout the
country, and new water intakes on the Thames were established above Teddington Lock. Automatic pressure lters,
where the water is forced under pressure through the ltration system, were innovated in 1899 in England.[35]
14.5.2
Water chlorination
John Snow was the rst to successfully use chlorine to disinfect the water supply in Soho that had helped spread the
cholera outbreak. William Soper also used chlorinated lime to treat the sewage produced by typhoid patients in 1879.
In a paper published in 1894, Moritz Traube formally proposed the addition of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite)
to water to render it germ-free. Two other investigators conrmed Traubes ndings and published their papers
in 1895.[40] Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in
Hamburg, Germany and in 1897 the city of Maidstone England was the rst to have its entire water supply treated
with chlorine.[41]
Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand lter and a contaminated water supply led to a
serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, England.[42] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the
water to stem the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of chloride of lime to the water being treated.
The chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued
until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted.[43]
The rst continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir
14.5. HISTORY
95
Original map by John Snow showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854.
(on the Rockaway River), which served as the supply for Jersey City, New Jersey.[44] Chlorination was achieved by
controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The
treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal and the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren
Fuller.[45] Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime were rapidly installed in drinking
water systems around the world.[46]
The technique of purication of drinking water by use of compressed liqueed chlorine gas was developed by a British
ocer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Neseld, in 1903. According to his own account:
It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory ... if suitable means could be found for
using it.... The next important question was how to render the gas portable. This might be accomplished
in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very ne
capillary canal, and tted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the
amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fteen minutes the water is absolutely
safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts.[47]
U.S. Army Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the rst practical
demonstration of this in 1910. Shortly thereafter, Major William J. L. Lyster of the Army Medical Department used
a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water. For many decades, Lysters method remained the
standard for U.S. ground forces in the eld and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also
spelled Lister Bag). This work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purication.
96
Manual Control Chlorinator for the liquefaction of chlorine for water purication, early 20th century. From Chlorination of Water
by Joseph Race, 1918.
14.7 References
[1] Combating Waterborne Diseases at the Household Level (PDF). World Health Organization. 2007. Part 1. ISBN 978-924-159522-3.
14.7. REFERENCES
97
[2] Water for Life: Making it Happen (PDF). World Health Organization and UNICEF. 2005. ISBN 92-4-156293-5.
[3] Chen, Jimmy, and Regli, Stig. (2002). Disinfection Practices and Pathogen Inactivation in ICR Surface Water Plants.
Information Collection Rule Data Analysis. Denver:American Water Works Association. McGuire, Michael J., McLain,
Jennifer L. and Obolensky, Alexa, eds. pp. 376378. ISBN 1-58321-273-6
[4] Aeration and Gas Stripping, Accessed June 4, 2012.
[5] CO2 Degasiers/Drinking Water Corrosion Control, tudelft.nl.
[6] Degassing Towers, forbesgroup.co.uk.
[7] RTW corrosivity index calculator, American Water Works Association .
[8] Edzwald, James K., ed. (2011). Water Quality and Treatment. 6th Edition. New York:McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07163011-5
[9] Crittenden, John C., et al., eds. (2005). Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd Edition. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley. ISBN
0-471-11018-3
[10] Kawamura, Susumu. (2000). Integrated Design and Operation of Water Treatment Facilities. 2nd Edition. New York:
Wiley. pp. 745, 104. ISBN 0-471-35093-1
[11] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)(1990). Cincinnati, OH. Technologies for Upgrading Existing or
Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities. Document no. EPA/625/4-89/023.
[12] Andrei A. Zagorodni (2007). Ion exchange materials: properties and applications. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-044552-6.
[13] Neemann, Je; Hulsey, Robert; Rexing, David; Wert, Eric (2004). Controlling Bromate Formation During Ozonation
with Chlorine and Ammonia. Journal American Water Works Association 96 (2): 2629.
[14] Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigan K, Barnes J (October 1999). Solar disinfection of water reduces diarrhoeal
disease, an update. Arch Dis Child 81 (4): 3378. doi:10.1136/adc.81.4.337. PMC 1718112. PMID 10490440.
[15] Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce TM, McGuigan KG, Barnes J (2001). Use of solar disinfection protects children under
6 years from cholera. Arch Dis Child 85 (4): 2935. doi:10.1136/adc.85.4.293. PMC 1718943. PMID 11567937.
[16] Rose A. at al. (February 2006). Solar disinfection of water for diarrhoeal prevention in southern India. Arch Dis Child
91 (2): 13941. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.077867. PMC 2082686. PMID 16403847.
[17] Hobbins M. (2003). The SODIS Health Impact Study, Ph.D. Thesis, Swiss Tropical Institute Basel
[18] Dawney, B. and Pearce, J.M. (2012). Optimizing Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) Method by Decreasing Turbidity with
NaCl. The Journal of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for Development 2 (2): 8794. doi:10.2166/washdev.2012.043.
[19] Sciacca F, Rengifo-Herrera JA, Wth J, Pulgarin C (2010-01-08). Dramatic enhancement of solar disinfection (SODIS)
of wild Salmonella sp. in PET bottles by H(2)O(2) addition on natural water of Burkina Faso containing dissolved iron.
Chemosphere (epub ahead of print) 78 (9): 118691. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.12.001. PMID 20060566.
[20] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001). Recommendations for using uoride to prevent and control dental
decay caries in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep 50 (RR-14): 142. PMID 11521913. Lay summary CDC
(2007-08-09).
[21] Division of Oral Health, National Center for Prevention Services, CDC (1993). Fluoridation census 1992 (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-29.
[22] Reeves TG (1986). Water uoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians (PDF). Centers for Disease Control.
Retrieved 2008-12-10.
[23] Backer, Howard (2002). Water Disinfection for International and Wilderness Travelers. Clin Infect Dis. 34 (3): 355364.
doi:10.1086/324747. PMID 11774083.
[24] Curtis, Rick (1998) OA Guide to Water Purication, The Backpackers Field Manual, Random House.
[25] Is it true that you can't make a decent cup of tea up a mountain?". physics.org. Retrieved 2 November 2012.
[26] Savage, Nora; Mamadou S. Diallo (May 2005). Nanomaterials and Water Purication: Opportunities and Challenges
(PDF). J. Nanopart. Res. 7 (45): 331342. doi:10.1007/s11051-005-7523-5. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
[27] Osegovic, John P. et al. (2009) Hydrates for Gypsum Stack Water Purication. AIChE Annual Convention
98
[28] Poulsen, Kevin (26 April 2007). Mysterious Glitch Poisons Town Water Supply. Wired.
[29] Miranda, M. L.; Kim, D.; Hull, A. P.; Paul, C. J.; Galeano, M. A. O. (2006). Changes in Blood Lead Levels Associated with Use of Chloramines in Water Treatment Systems. Environmental Health Perspectives 115 (2): 221225.
doi:10.1289/ehp.9432. PMC 1817676. PMID 17384768.
[30] Health risks from drinking demineralised water. (PDF) . Rolling revision of the WHO Guidelines for drinking-water
quality. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2004
[31] Kozisek F. (2004). Health risks from drinking demineralised water. WHO.
[32] Water Distillers Water Distillation Myths, Facts, etc. Naturalsolutions1.com. Retrieved on 2011-02-18.
[33] Minerals in Drinking Water. Aquatechnology.net. Retrieved on 2011-02-18.
[34] The Use of the Microscope in Water Filter History. History of Water Filters.
[35] Filtration of water supplies (PDF), World Health Organization
[36] History of the Chelsea Waterworks
[37] Gunn, S. William A. and Masellis, Michele (2007). Concepts and Practice of Humanitarian Medicine. Springer. p. 87.
ISBN 978-0-387-72264-1.
[38] Bazin, Herv (2008). L'histoire des vaccinations. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 290.
[39] An Act to make better Provision respecting the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, (15 & 16 Vict. C.84)
[40] Turneaure, F.E., and H.L. Russell (1901). Public Water-Supplies: Requirements, Resources, and the Construction of Works
(1st ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 493.
[41] Typhoid Epidemic at Maidstone. Journal of the Sanitary Institute 18: 388. October 1897.
[42] A miracle for public health?". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
[43] Reece, R.J. (1907). Report on the Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904-5. In Thirty-Fifth Annual
Report of the Local Government Board, 1905-6: Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Ocer for 1905-6.
London:Local Government Board.
[44] Leal, John L. (1909). The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N.J. Proceedings
American Water Works Association. pp. 1009.
[45] Fuller, George W. (1909). Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the
Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir. Proceedings AWWA. pp. 11034.
[46] Hazen, Allen. (1916). Clean Water and How to Get It. New York:Wiley. p. 102.
[47] Neseld, V. B. (1902). A Chemical Method of Sterilizing Water Without Aecting its Potability. Public Health: 6013.
Chapter 15
Membrane technology
Membrane technology covers all engineering approaches for the transport of substances between two fractions with
the help of permeable membranes. In general, mechanical separation processes for separating gaseous or liquid
streams use membrane technology.
15.1 Applications
Membrane separation processes operate without heating and therefore use less energy than conventional thermal
separation processes such as distillation, sublimation or crystallization. The separation process is purely physical and
both fractions (permeate and retentate) can be used. Cold separation using membrane technology is widely used in the
food technology, biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. Furthermore, using membranes enables separations
99
100
to take place that would be impossible using thermal separation methods. For example, it is impossible to separate
the constituents of azeotropic liquids or solutes which form isomorphic crystals by distillation or recrystallization but
such separations can be achieved using membrane technology. Depending on the type of membrane, the selective
separation of certain individual substances or substance mixtures is possible. Important technical applications include
the production of drinking water by reverse osmosis (worldwide approximately 7 million cubic metres annually),
ltrations in the food industry, the recovery of organic vapours such as petro-chemical vapour recovery and the
electrolysis for chlorine production.
In waste water treatment, membrane technology is becoming increasingly important. With the help of ultra/microltration
it is possible to remove particles, colloids and macromolecules, so that waste-water can be disinfected in this way.
This is needed if waste-water is discharged into sensitive waters especially those designated for contact water-sports
and recreation.
About half of the market is in medical applications such as use in articial kidneys to remove toxic substances by
hemodialysis and as articial lung for bubble-free supply of oxygen in the blood.
The importance of membrane technology is growing in the eld of environmental protection (NanoMemPro IPPC
Database). Even in modern energy recovery techniques membranes are increasingly used, for example in fuel cells
and in osmotic power plants.
101
15.3.1
Solution-diusion model
In the solution-diusion model, transport occurs only by diusion. The component that needs to be transported
must rst be dissolved in the membrane. The general approach of the solution-diusion model is to assume that the
chemical potential of the feed and permeate uids are in equilibrium with the adjacent membrane surfaces such that
appropriate expressions for the chemical potential in the uid and membrane phases can be equated at the solutionmembrane interface. This principle is more important for dense membranes without natural pores such as those used
for reverse osmosis and in fuel cells. During the ltration process a boundary layer forms on the membrane. This
concentration gradient is created by molecules which cannot pass through the membrane. The eect is referred as
concentration polarization and, occurring during the ltration, leads to a reduced trans-membrane ow (ux). Concentration polarization is, in principle, reversible by cleaning the membrane which results in the initial ux being
almost totally restored. Using a tangential ow to the membrane (cross-ow ltration) can also minimize concentration polarization.
15.3.2
Hydrodynamic model
Transport through pores in the simplest case is done convectively. This requires the size of the pores to be
smaller than the diameter of the two separate components. Membranes which function according to this principle
are used mainly in micro- and ultraltration. They are used to separate macromolecules from solutions, colloids from
a dispersion or remove bacteria. During this process the not-passing particles or molecules form a pulpy mass (lter
cake) on the membrane, and this blockage of the membrane hampers the ltration. This blockage can be reduced
by the use of the cross-ow method (cross-ow ltration). Here, the liquid to be ltered ows along the front of the
membrane and is separated by the pressure dierence between the front and back of the membrane into retentate
(the owing concentrate) on the front and permeate (ltrate) on the back. The tangential ow on the front creates a
shear stress that cracks the lter cake and reduces the fouling.
102
Cross-ow geometry
There are two main ow congurations of membrane processes: cross-ow (or) tangential ow and dead-end ltrations. In cross-ow ltration the feed ow is tangential to the surface of membrane, retentate is removed from
the same side further downstream, whereas the permeate ow is tracked on the other side. In dead-end ltration
the direction of the uid ow is normal to the membrane surface. Both ow geometries oer some advantages and
disadvantages. Generally, dead-end ltration is used for feasibility studies on a laboratory scale. The dead-end membranes are relatively easy to fabricate which reduces the cost of the separation process. The dead-end membrane
separation process is easy to implement and the process is usually cheaper than cross-ow membrane ltration. The
dead-end ltration process is usually a batch-type process, where the ltering solution is loaded (or slowly fed) into
the membrane device, which then allows passage of some particles subject to the driving force. The main disadvantage of a dead end ltration is the extensive membrane fouling and concentration polarization. The fouling is usually
induced faster at higher driving forces. Membrane fouling and particle retention in a feed solution also builds up
a concentration gradients and particle back ow (concentration polarization). The tangential ow devices are more
cost and labor-intensive, but they are less susceptible to fouling due to the sweeping eects and high shear rates of the
passing ow. The most commonly used synthetic membrane devices (modules) are at sheets/plates, spiral wounds,
and hollow bers.
Flat plates are usually constructed as circular thin at membrane surfaces to be used in dead-end geometry modules.
Spiral wounds are constructed from similar at membranes but in the form of a pocket containing two membrane
sheets separated by a highly porous support plate.[2] Several such pockets are then wound around a tube to create
a tangential ow geometry and to reduce membrane fouling. hollow ber modules consist of an assembly of selfsupporting bers with dense skin separation layers, and a more open matrix helping to withstand pressure gradients
103
Dead-end geometry
and maintain structural integrity.[2] The hollow ber modules can contain up to 10,000 bers ranging from 200 to
2500 m in diameter; The main advantage of hollow ber modules is very large surface area within an enclosed
volume, increasing the eciency of the separation process.
permeate
permeate
feed
(solution)
concentrate
impermeable sheet
membrane
impermeable sheet
permeate ux
104
Cp
Cf
where C and C are the solute concentrations in feed and permeate respectively. Hydraulic permeability is dened
as the inverse of resistance and is represented by the equation:[2]
Lp =
J
p
where J is the permeate ux which is the volumetric ow rate per unit of membrane area. The solute sieving coecient
and hydraulic permeability allow the quick assessment of the synthetic membrane performance.
105
Filter membranes are divided into four classes according to pore size:
The form and shape of the membrane pores are highly dependent on the manufacturing process and are often dicult
to specify. Therefore, for characterization, test ltrations are carried out and the pore diameter refers to the diameter
of the smallest particles which could not pass through the membrane.
The rejection can be determined in various ways and provides an indirect measurement of the pore size. One possibility is the ltration of macromolecules (often dextran, polyethylene glycol or albumin), another is measurement
of the cut-o by gel permeation chromatography. These methods are used mainly to measure membranes for ultraltration applications. Another testing method is the ltration of particles with dened size and their measurement
with a particle sizer or by laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). A vivid characterization is to measure the
rejection of dextran blue or other colored molecules. The retention of bacteriophage and bacteria, the so-called
bacteriachallenge test, can also provide information about the pore size.
To determine the pore diameter, physical methods such as porosimetry (mercury, liquid-liquid porosimetry and Bubble Point Test) are also used, but a certain form of the pores (such as cylindrical or concatenated spherical holes) is
assumed. Such methods are used for membranes whose pore geometry does not match the ideal, and we get nominal pore diameter, which characterizes the membrane, but does not necessarily reect its actual ltration behavior
and selectivity.
The selectivity is highly dependent on the separation process, the composition of the membrane and its electrochemical
properties in addition to the pore size. With high selectivity, isotopes can be enriched (uranium enrichment) in nuclear
engineering or industrial gases like nitrogen can be recovered (gas separation). Ideally, even racemics can be enriched
with a suitable membrane.
When choosing membranes selectivity has priority over a high permeability, as low ows can easily be oset by
increasing the lter surface with a modular structure. In gas phase ltration dierent deposition mechanisms are
operative, so that particles having sizes below the pore size of the membrane can be retained as well.
106
The pore distribution of a ctitious ultraltration membrane with the nominal pore size and the D90
15.10 Notes
[1] Market Report: Global Membrane Technology Market. Acmite Market Intelligence.
[2] Osada, Y., Nakagawa, T., Membrane Science and Technology, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc,1992.
[3] Pinnau, I., Freeman, B.D., Membrane Formation and Modication, ACS, 1999.
[4] TU Berlin script - 2 Principles of Membrane Processes (; PDF-Datei; 6,85 MB) Page 6 (German)
[5] Experience and potential application of nanoltration - University of Linz (German) (PDF)
15.11 References
Osada, Y., Nakagawa, T., Membrane Science and Technology, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc,1992.
Zeman, Leos J., Zydney, Andrew L., Microltration and Ultratration, Principles and Applications., New York:
Marcel Dekker, Inc,1996.
Mulder M., Basic Principles of Membrane Technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 1996.
Jornitz, Maik W., Sterile Filtration, Springer, Germany, 2006
15.11. REFERENCES
107
Van Reis R., Zydney A. Bioprocess membrane technology. J Mem Sci. 297(2007): 16-50.
Templin T., Johnston D., Singh V., Tumbleson M.E., Belyea R.L. Rausch K.D. Membrane separation of solids
from corn processing streams. Biores Tech. 97(2006): 1536-1545.
Ripperger S., Schulz G. Microporous membranes in biotechnical applications. Bioprocess Eng. 1(1986): 4349.
Thomas Melin, Robert Rautenbach, Membranverfahren, Springer, Germany, 2007, ISBN 3-540-00071-2.
Munir Cheryan, Handbuch Ultraltration, Behr, 1990, ISBN 3-925673-87-3.
Eberhard Staude, Membranen und Membranprozesse, VCH, 1992, ISBN 3-527-28041-3.
Chapter 16
Ultraltration
Ultraltration (UF) is a variety of membrane ltration in which forces like pressure or concentration gradients lead to
a separation through a semipermeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are retained
in the so-called retentate, while water and low molecular weight solutes pass through the membrane in the permeate.
This separation process is used in industry and research for purifying and concentrating macromolecular (103 - 106
Da) solutions, especially protein solutions. Ultraltration is not fundamentally dierent from microltration. Both of
these separate based on size exclusion or particle capture. It is fundamentally dierent from membrane gas separation,
which separate based on dierent amounts of absorption and dierent rates of diusion. Ultraltration membranes
are dened by the molecular weight cut-o (MWCO) of the membrane used. Ultraltration is applied in cross-ow
or dead-end mode.
16.1 Applications
Industries such as chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing, food and beverage processing, and waste water treatment, employ ultraltration in order to recycle ow or add value to later products. Blood dialysis also utilizes ultraltration.
16.1.1
Drinking water
UF can be used for the removal of particulates and macromolecules from raw water to produce potable water. It
has been used to either replace existing secondary (coagulation, occulation, sedimentation) and tertiary ltration
(sand ltration and chlorination) systems employed in water treatment plants or as standalone systems in isolated
regions with growing populations.[1] When treating water with high suspended solids, UF is often integrated into the
process, utilising primary (screening, otation, ltration) and some secondary treatments as pre-treatment stages.[2]
UF processes are currently preferred over traditional treatment methods for the following reasons:
UF processes are currently limited by the high cost incurred due to membrane fouling and replacement.[4] Additional
pretreatment of feed water is required to prevent excessive damage to the membrane units.
In many cases UF is used for pre ltration in reverse osmosis (RO) plants to protect the RO membranes. Ultraltration
is an eective means of reducing the silt density index of water and removing particulates that can foul reverse osmosis
membranes. Ultraltration is frequently used to pretreat surface water, seawater and biologically treated municipal
water upstream of RO.[5]
108
16.1. APPLICATIONS
109
Drinking water treatment 300 m/h using ultraltration in Grundmhle waterworks (Germany)
16.1.2
Protein concentration
UF is used extensively in the dairy industry; particularly in the processing of cheese whey to obtain whey protein
concentrate (WPC) and lactose-rich permeate.[6][7] In a single stage, a UF process is able to concentrate the whey
10-30 times the feed.[8]
The original alternative to membrane ltration of whey was using steam heating followed by drum drying or spray
drying. The product of these methods had limited applications due to its granulated texture and insolubility. Existing
methods also had inconsistent product composition, high capital and operating costs and due to the excessive heat
used in drying would often denature some of the proteins.[6]
Compared to traditional methods, UF processes used for this application:[6][8]
Are more energy ecient
Have consistent product quality, 35-80% protein product depending on operating conditions
Do not denature proteins as they use moderate operating conditions
The potential for fouling is widely discussed, being identied as a signicant contributor to decline in productivity.[6][7][8]
Cheese whey contains high concentrations of calcium phosphate which can potentially lead to scale deposits on the
membrane surface. As a result substantial pretreatment must be implemented to balance pH and temperature of the
feed to maintain solubility of calcium salts.[8]
16.1.3
Other applications
Filtration of euent from paper pulp mill
Cheese manufacture, see ultraltered milk
Removal of pathogens from milk
Process and waste water treatment
Enzyme recovery
Fruit juice concentration and clarication
110
A selectively permeable membrane can be mounted in a centrifuge tube. The buer is forced through the membrane by centrifugation,
leaving the protein in the upper chamber.
16.2 Principles
The basic operating principle of ultraltration uses a pressure induced separation of solutes from a solvent through
a semi permeable membrane. The relationship between the applied pressure on the solution to be separated and the
ux through the membrane is most commonly described by the Darcy equation:
J=
111
TMP
Rt
where J is the ux (ow rate per membrane area),TMP is the transmembrane pressure (pressure dierence between
feed and permeate stream), is solvent viscosity, R is the total resistance (sum of membrane and fouling resistance).
16.3.1
Concentration polarization
When ltration occurs the local concentration of rejected material at the membrane surface increases and can become
saturated. In UF, increased ion concentration can develop an osmotic pressure on the feed side of the membrane.
This reduces the eective TMP of the system, therefore reducing permeation rate. The increase in concentrated layer
at the membrane wall decreases the permeate ux, due to increase in resistance which reduces the driving force for
solvent to transport through membrane surface. CP aects almost all the available membrane separation process. In
RO, the solutes retained at the membrane layer results in higher osmotic pressure in comparison to the bulk stream
concentration. So the higher pressures are required to overcome this osmotic pressure. Concentration polarisation
plays a dominant role in ultraltration as compared to microltration because of the small pore size membrane.[9] It
must be noted that concentration polarization diers from fouling as it has no lasting eects on the membrane itself
and can be reversed by relieving the TMP. It does however have a signicant eect on many types of fouling.[10]
16.3.2
Types of fouling
Particulate deposition
The following models describe the mechanisms of particulate deposition on the membrane surface and in the pores:
112
Depending on the shape and material of the membrane, dierent modules can be used for ultraltration process.[15]
Commercially available designs in ultraltration modules vary according to the required hydrodynamic and economic
constraints as well as the mechanical stability of the system under particular operating pressures.[16] The main modules
used in industry include:
16.4.1
113
Tubular modules
The tubular module design uses polymeric membranes cast on the inside of plastic or porous paper components with
diameters typically in the range of 5 25 mm with lengths from 0.6 - 6.4 m.[6] Multiple tubes are housed in a PVC
or steel shell. The feed of the module is passed through the tubes, accommodating radial transfer of permeate to
the shell side. This design allows for easy cleaning however the main drawback is its low permeability, high volume
hold-up within the membrane and low packing density.[6][16]
16.4.2
Hollow bre
This design is conceptually similar to the tubular module with a shell and tube arrangement. A single module can
consist of 50 to thousands of hollow bres and therefore are self-supporting unlike the tubular design. The diameter
of each bre ranges from 0.2 3 mm with the feed owing in the tube and the product permeate collected radially on
the outside. The advantage of having self-supporting membranes as is the ease at which it can be cleaned due to its
ability to be backushed. Replacement costs however are high, as one faulty bre will require the whole bundle to be
replaced. Considering the tubes are of small diameter, using this design also makes the system prone to blockage.[8]
16.4.3
Spiral-wound modules
permeate
permeate
feed
(solution)
concentrate
impermeable sheet
permeate ux
membrane
impermeable sheet
Are composed of a combination of at membrane sheets separated by a thin meshed spacer material which serves
as a porous plastic screen support. These sheets are rolled around a central perforated tube and tted into a tubular
steel pressure vessel casing. The feed solution passes over the membrane surface and the permeate spirals into the
central collection tube. Spiral-wound modules are a compact and cheap alternative in ultraltration design, oer a
high volumetric throughput and can also be easily cleaned.[16] However it is limited by the thin channels where feed
solutions with suspended solids can result in partial blockage of the membrane pores.[8]
16.4.4
This uses a membrane placed on a at plate separated by a mesh like material. The feed is passed through the system
from which permeate is separated and collected from the edge of the plate. Channel length can range from 10 60
cm and channel heights from 0.5 1 mm.[8] This module provides low volume hold-up, relatively easy replacement
of the membrane and the ability to feed viscous solutions because of the low channel height, unique to this particular
design.[16]
114
16.6.1
Pre-treatment
Treatment of feed prior to the membrane is essential to prevent damage to the membrane and minimize the eects
of fouling which greatly reduce the eciency of the separation. Types of pre-treatment are often dependent on
the type of feed and its quality. For example in wastewater treatment, household waste and other particulates are
screened. Other types of pre-treatment common to many UF processes include pH balancing and coagulation.[21][22]
Appropriate sequencing of each pre-treatment phase is crucial in preventing damage to subsequent stages. Pretreatment can even be employed simply using dosing points.
16.6.2
Membrane specications
Material
Most UF membranes use polymer materials (polysulfone, polypropylene, cellulose acetate, polylactic acid) however
ceramic membranes are used for high temperature applications.
Pore size
A general rule for choice of pore size in a UF system is to use a membrane with a pore size one tenth that of the
particle size to be separated. This limits the amount of smaller particles entering the pores and adsorbing to the pore
surface. Instead they block the entrance to the pores allowing simple adjustments of cross-ow velocity to dislodge
them.[8]
16.6.3
Operation strategy
Flow type
UF systems can either operate with cross-ow or dead-end ow. In dead-end ltration the ow of the feed solution
is perpendicular to the membrane surface. On the other hand in cross ow systems the ow passes parallel to the
membrane surface.[23] Dead-end congurations are more suited to batch processes with low suspended solids as
solids accumulate at the membrane surface therefore requiring frequent backushes and cleaning to maintain high
ux. Cross-ow congurations are preferred in continuous operations as solids are continuously ushed from the
membrane surface resulting in a thinner cake layer and lower resistance to permeation.
Flow velocity
Flow velocity is especially critical for hard water or liquids containing suspensions in preventing excessive fouling.
Higher cross-ow velocities can be used to enhance the sweeping eect across the membrane surface therefore preventing deposition of macromolecules and colloidal material and reducing the eects of concentration polarization.
Expensive pumps are however required to achieve these conditions.
115
Flow temperature
To avoid excessive damage to the membrane, it is recommended to operate a plant at the temperature specied by
the membrane manufacturer. In some instances however temperatures beyond the recommended region are required
to minimise the eects of fouling.[22] Economic analysis of the process is required to nd a compromise between the
increased cost of membrane replacement and productivity of the separation.
116
Pressure
Pressure drops over multi-stage separation can result in a drastic decline in ux performance in the latter stages of
the process. This can be improved using booster pumps to increase the TMP in the nal stages. This will incur a
greater capital and energy cost which will be oset by the improved productivity of the process.[22] With a multistage operation, retentate streams from each stage are recycled through the previous stage to improve their separation
eciency.
Multi-stage, multi-module
Multiple stages in series can be applied to achieve higher purity permeate streams. Due to the modular nature of
membrane processes, multiple modules can be arranged in parallel to treat greater volumes.[24]
16.6.4
Post-treatment
Post-treatment of the product streams is dependent on the composition of the permeate and retentate and its enduse or government regulation. In cases such as milk separation both streams (milk and whey) can be collected and
made into useful products. Additional drying of the retentate will produce whey powder. In the paper mill industry,
the retentate (non-biodegradable organic material) is incinerated to recover energy and permeate (puried water) is
discharged into waterways. It is essential for the permeate water to be pH balanced and cooled to avoid thermal
pollution of waterways and altering its pH.
16.6.5
Cleaning
Cleaning of the membrane is done regularly to prevent the accumulation of foulants and reverse the degrading eects
of fouling on permeability and selectivity.
Regular backwashing is often conducted every 10 min for some processes to remove cake layers formed on the
membrane surface.[8] By pressurising the permeate stream and forcing it back through the membrane, accumulated
particles can be dislodged, improving the ux of the process. Backwashing is limited in its ability to remove more
complex forms of fouling such as biofouling, scaling or adsorption to pore walls.[25]
These types of foulants require chemical cleaning to be removed. The common types of chemicals used for cleaning
are:[25][26]
117
16.8 References
[1] Clever, M.; Jordt, F.; Knauf, R.; Rbiger, N.; Rdebusch, M.; Hilker-Scheibel, R. (1 December 2000). Process water
production from river water by ultraltration and reverse osmosis. Desalination 131 (1-3): 325336. doi:10.1016/S00119164(00)90031-6.
[2] Lan, J.-M.; Vial, D.; Moulart, Pierre (1 December 2000). Status after 10 years of operation overview of UF technology today. Desalination 131 (1-3): 1725. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(00)90002-X.
[3] Water treatment membrane processes. New York [u.a.]: McGraw Hill. 1996. ISBN 9780070015593. |rst1= missing
|last1= in Authors list (help)
[4] Edwards, David; Donn, Alasdair; Meadowcroft, Charlotte (1 May 2001). Membrane solution to a signicant risk
Cryptosporidium groundwater source. Desalination 137 (1-3): 193198. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00218-1.
[5] Ultraltration. WaterProfessionals. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
[6] Tamime, A. Y. Membrane Processing Dairy and Beverage Applications. Chicester: Wiley. ISBN 1118457021.
[7] Nigam, Mayank Omprakash; Bansal, Bipan; Chen, Xiao Dong (1 January 2008). Fouling and cleaning of whey protein
concentrate fouled ultraltration membranes. Desalination 218 (1-3): 313322. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.02.027.
[8] Cheryan, Munir (1998). Ultraltration and Microltration Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 1420069020.
[9] Brian, P.L., 1965, Concentration polarization in reverse osmosis desalination with variable ux and incomplete salt rejection, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. 4: 439445.
118
[10] Rizvi, edited by Anil Kumar Pabby, Ana Maria Sastre, Syed S.H.; Pabby, Anil Kumar; Rizvi,, Syed S.H.; Sastre, Ana
Maria (2007). Handbook of membrane separations : chemical, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological applications. Boca
Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-9549-9.
[11] Bruijn, J P F; Salazar, F N; Borquez, R (September 2005). Membrane blocking in ultraltration: A new approach to
fouling. Food and Bioproducts Processing 83 (3): 211219.
[12] Antony, Alice; Low, Jor How; Gray, Stephen; Childress, Amy E.; Le-Clech, Pierre; Leslie, Greg (1 November 2011).
Scale formation and control in high pressure membrane water treatment systems: A review. Journal of Membrane Science
383 (1-2): 116. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2011.08.054.
[13] Flemming, H.-C.; Schaule, G.; Griebe, T.; Schmitt, J.; Tamachkiarowa, A. (1 November 1997). Biofoulingthe Achilles
heel of membrane processes. Desalination 113 (2-3): 215225. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(97)00132-X.
[14] Baker, J.S.; Dudley, L.Y. (1 September 1998). Biofouling in membrane systems A review. Desalination 118 (1-3):
8189. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(98)00091-5.
[15] Futselaar, Harry; Weijenberg, Dick C. (1 September 1998). System design for large-scale ultraltration applications.
Desalination 119 (1-3): 217224. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(98)00159-3.
[16] Belfort, Georges (1 February 1988). Membrane modules: comparison of dierent congurations using uid mechanics.
Journal of Membrane Science 35 (3): 245270. doi:10.1016/S0376-7388(00)80299-9.
[17] Membrane Products. Koch Membrane Systems. Retrieved 9 October 2013. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
[18] Water Treatment Primer for Communities in Need (PDF). US Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation. Retrieved 11 October 2013. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
[19] Operation and Maintenance Manual - UF-6-HF Ultraltration System (PDF). Con-Serv Manufacturing. Retrieved 10
October 2013. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
[20] Lan, prepared by Joseph G. Jacangelo, Samer Adham, Jean-Michel (1997). Membrane ltration for microbial removal.
Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association. ISBN 0898678943.
[21] Rosehill Recycled Water Scheme - Faireld Recycled Water Plant (PDF). Sydney Water. |rst1= missing |last1= in
Authors list (help)
[22] Nordin, Anna-Karin; Jnsson, Ann-So (1 November 2006). Case study of an ultraltration plant treating bleach plant
euent from a pulp and paper mill. Desalination 201 (1-3): 277289. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.06.004.
[23] Farahbakhsh, Khosrow; Adham, Samer S.; Smith, Daniel W. (June 2003). Monitoring the Integrity of Low-Pressure
Membranes. Journal AWWA: 95107.
[24] Water treatment membrane processes. New York [u.a.]: McGraw Hill. 1996. ISBN 0070015597. |rst1= missing |last1=
in Authors list (help)
[25] Cui, edited by Z.F.; Muralidhara, H.S. (2010). Membrane technology : a practical guide to membrane technology and
applications in food and bioprocessing (1st ed. ed.). Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 213*254. ISBN 978-185617-632-3.
[26] Gao, Wei; Liang, Heng; Ma, Jun; Han, Mei; Chen, Zhong-lin; Han, Zheng-shuang; Li, Gui-bai (1 May 2011). Membrane fouling control in ultraltration technology for drinking water production: A review. Desalination 272 (1-3): 18.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.051.
[27] Wallberg, Ola; Jnsson, Ann-So; Wickstrm, Peter (1 December 2001). Membrane cleaning a case study in a sulphite
pulp mill bleach plant. Desalination 141 (3): 259268. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(01)85004-9.
[28] Bennett, Anthony (1 November 2012). Membrane technology: Developments in ultraltration technologies. Filtration
+ Separation 49 (6): 2833. doi:10.1016/S0015-1882(12)70287-2.
[29] Ag, S (1 September 2012). Energy-ecient membrane is designed for MBR systems. Membrane Technology 2012 (9):
4. doi:10.1016/S0958-2118(12)70178-7.
Chapter 17
Solar water disinfection is a type of portable water purication that uses solar energy to make biologically-contaminated
(e.g. bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms) water safe to drink. Water contaminated with non-biological agents such
as toxic chemicals or heavy metals require additional steps to make the water safe to drink.
There are three primary subsets of solar water disinfection:
1. Electric. Solar disinfection using the eects of electricity generated by photovoltaic panels (solar PV).
2. Heat. Solar thermal water disinfection.
3. UV. Solar ultraviolet water disinfection.
Solar disinfection using the eects of electricity generated by photovoltaics typically uses an electric current to deliver
electrolytic processes which disinfect water, for example by generating oxidative free radicals which kill pathogens
119
120
by damaging their chemical structure. A second approach uses stored solar electricity from a battery, and operates at
night or at low light levels to power an ultraviolet lamp to perform secondary solar ultraviolet water disinfection.
Solar thermal water disinfection uses heat from the Sun to heat water to 70100 C for a short period of time. A
number of approaches exist here. Solar heat collectors can have lenses in front of them, or use reectors. They
may also use varying levels of insulation or glazing. In addition, some solar thermal water disinfection processes are
batch-based, while others (through-ow solar thermal disinfection) operate almost continuously while the Sun shines.
Water heated to temperatures below 100 C is generally referred to as Pasteurized water.
High energy ultraviolet radiation from the Sun can also be used to kill pathogens in water. The SODIS method
uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature (solar thermal) for disinfecting water using only sunlight
and PET plastic bottles. SODIS is a free and eective method for decentralized water treatment, usually applied at
the household level and is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water
treatment and safe storage.[1] SODIS is already applied in numerous developing countries. Educational pamphlets on
the method are available in many languages,[2] each equivalent to the English-language version.[3]
121
Colourless, transparent PET water or soda pop bottles (2 litre or smaller size) with few surface scratches are
chosen for use. The labels are removed and the bottles are washed before the rst use.
Water from contaminated sources is lled into the bottles. To improve oxygen saturation, bottles can be lled
three-quarters, shaken for 20 seconds (with the cap on), then lled completely and recapped. Very cloudy
water with a turbidity higher than 30 NTU must be ltered prior to exposure to the sunlight.
Filled bottles are then exposed to the Sun. Bottles will heat faster and to higher temperatures if they are placed
on a sloped Sun-facing corrugated metal roof as compared to thatched roofs.
The treated water can be consumed directly from the bottle or poured into clean drinking cups. The risk of
re-contamination is minimized if the water is stored in the bottles. Relling and storage in other containers
increases the risk of contamination.
The most favorable regions for application of the SODIS method are located between latitude 15N and 35N, and
also 15S and 35S.[3] These regions have high levels of solar radiation, with limited cloud cover and rainfall, and
with over 90% of sunlight reaching the earths surface as direct radiation.[3] The second most favorable region lies
between latitudes 15N and 15S. these regions have high levels of scattered radiation, with about 2500 hours of
sunshine annually, due to high humidity and frequent cloud cover.[3]
Local education in the use of SODIS is important to avoid confusion between PET and other bottle materials. Applying SODIS without proper assessment (or with false assessment) of existing hygienic practices & diarrhea incidence
may not address other routes of infection. Community trainers must themselves be trained rst.[3]
17.4 Applications
SODIS is an eective method for treating water where fuel or cookers are unavailable or prohibitively expensive.
Even where fuel is available, SODIS is a more economical and environmentally friendly option. The application of
SODIS is limited if enough bottles are not available, or if the water is highly turbid. In fact, if the water is highly
turbid, SODIS cannot be used alone; additional ltering is then necessary.[8]
A basic eld test to determine if the water is too turbid for the SODIS method to work properly is the newspaper
test.[2] For the newspaper test place the lled bottle upright on top of a newspaper headline. Look down through the
bottle opening. If the letters of the headline are readable, the water can be used for the SODIS method. If the letters
are not readable then the turbidity of the water likely exceeds 30 NTU, and the water must be pretreated.
In theory, the method could be used in disaster relief or refugee camps. However, supplying bottles may be more
dicult than providing equivalent disinfecting tablets containing chlorine, bromine, or iodine. In addition, in some
circumstances, it may be dicult to guarantee that the water will be left in the Sun for the necessary time.
Other methods for household water treatment and safe storage exist (e.g., chlorination) dierent ltration procedures
or occulation/disinfection. The selection of the adequate method should be based on the criteria of eectiveness,
the co-occurrence of other types of pollution (turbidity, chemical pollutants), treatment costs, labor input and convenience, and the users preference.
122
When the water is highly turbid, SODIS cannot be used alone; additional ltering or occulation is then necessary to
clarify the water prior to SODIS treatment.[9][10] Recent work has shown that common table salt (NaCl) is an eective
occulation agent for decreasing turbidity for the SODIS method in some types of soil.[11] This method could be used
to increase the geographic areas for which the SODIS method could be used as regions with highly turbid water could
be treated for low costs.[12]
SODIS may alternatively be implemented using plastic bags. SODIS bags have been found to yield as much as
74% higher treatment eciencies than SODIS bottles, which may be because the bags are able to reach elevated
temperatures that cause accelerated treatment.[13] SODIS bags with a water layer of approximately 1 cm to 6 cm reach
higher temperatures more easily than SODIS bottles, and treat Vibrio cholerae more eectively.[13] It is assumed this
is because of the improved surface area to volume ratio in SODIS bags. In remote regions plastic bottles are not
locally available and need to be shipped in from urban centers which may be expensive and inecient since bottles
cannot be packed very tightly. Bags can be packed more densely than bottles, and can be shipped at lower cost,
representing an economically preferable alternative to SODIS bottles in remote communities. The disadvantages of
using bags are that they can give the water a plastic smell, they are more dicult to handle when lled with water,
and they typically require that the water be transferred to a second container for drinking.
Another important benet in using the SODIS bottles as opposed to the bags or other methods requiring the water to
be transferred to a smaller container for consumption is that the bottles are a point-of-use household water treatment
method.[14] Point-of-use means that the water is treated in the same easy to handle container it will be served from,
thus decreasing the risk of secondary water contamination.
17.5 Cautions
If the water bottles are not left in the Sun for the proper length of time, the water may not be safe to drink and could
cause illness. If the sunlight is less strong, due to overcast weather or a less sunny climate, a longer exposure time in
the Sun is necessary.
The following issues should also be considered:
Bottle material Some glass or PVC materials may prevent ultraviolet light from reaching the water.[16] Commercially
available bottles made of PET are recommended. The handling is much more convenient in the case of PET
bottles. Polycarbonate (resin identication code 7) blocks all UVA and UVB rays, and therefore should not be
used. Bottles that are clear are to be preferred over bottles that have been colored. For example: the green of
some lemon/lime soda pop bottles.
Aging of plastic bottles SODIS eciency depends on the physical condition of the plastic bottles, with scratches
and other signs of wear reducing the eciency of SODIS. Heavily scratched or old, blind bottles should be
replaced.
Shape of containers The intensity of the UV radiation decreases rapidly with increasing water depth. At a water
depth of 10 cm (4 inches) and moderate turbidity of 26 NTU, UV-A radiation is reduced to 50%. PET soft
drink bottles are often easily available and thus most practical for the SODIS application.
Oxygen Sunlight produces highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) in the
water. These reactive molecules contribute in the destruction process of the microorganisms. Under normal
conditions (rivers, creeks, wells, ponds, tap) water contains sucient oxygen (more than 3 mg/L of oxygen)
and does not have to be aerated before the application of SODIS.
Leaching of bottle material There has been some concern over the question of whether plastic drinking containers
can release chemicals or toxic components into water, a process possibly accelerated by heat. The Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research have examined the diusion of adipates and phthalates (DEHA
and DEHP) from new and reused PET-bottles in the water during solar exposure. The levels of concentrations
found in the water after a solar exposure of 17 hours in 60 C (140 F) water were far below WHO guidelines
for drinking water and in the same magnitude as the concentrations of phthalate and adipate generally found
in high-quality tap water. Concerns about the general use of PET-bottles were also expressed after a report
published by researchers from the University of Heidelberg on the release of antimony from PET-bottles for soft
drinks and mineral water stored over several months in supermarkets. However, the antimony concentrations
found in the bottles are orders of magnitude below WHO[17] and national guidelines for antimony concentrations
in drinking water.[18][19][20] Furthermore, SODIS water is not stored over such extended periods in the bottles.
123
The PET recycling mark shows that a bottle is made from polyethylene terephthalate, making it suitable for solar water disinfection[15]
Regrowth of bacteria Once removed from sunlight, remaining bacteria may again reproduce in the dark. A 2010
study showed that adding just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide is eective in preventing the regrowth
of wild Salmonella.[21]
Toxic chemicals Solar water disinfection does not remove toxic chemicals that may be present in the water, such as
factory waste.
124
of Surgeons in Ireland. Clinical control trials were pioneered by Professor Ronan Conroy of the RCSI team in
collaboration with Dr Michael Elmore-Meegan.ICROSS
Currently, a joint research project on SODIS is implemented by the following institutions:
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI), Ireland (coordination)
University of Ulster (UU), United Kingdom
CSIR Environmentek, South Africa, Eawag, Switzerland
The Institute of Water and Sanitation Development (IWSD), Zimbabwe
Plataforma Solar de Almera (CIEMAT-PSA), Spain
University of Leicester (UL), United Kingdom
The International Commission for the Relief of Suering & Starvation (ICROSS), Kenya
University of Santiago de Compostela (USC), Spain
Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Switzerland
The project has embarked on a multi-country study including study areas in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Kenya.
Other developments include the development of a continuous ow disinfection unit[28] and solar disinfection with
titanium dioxide lm over glass cylinders, which prevents the bacterial regrowth of coliforms after SODIS.[29] Research has shown that a number of low-cost additives are capable of accelerating SODIS and that additives might
make SODIS more rapid and eective in both sunny and cloudy weather, developments that could help make the technology more eective and acceptable to users.[30] A 2008 study showed that natural coagulants (powdered seeds of
17.7. PROMOTION
125
ve natural legumes (peas, beans and lentils)Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), Phaseolus mungo (black lentil), Glycine
max (soybean), Pisum sativum (green pea), and Arachis hypogaea (peanut)were evaluated for the removal of turbidity), were as eective as commercial alum and even superior for clarication in that the optimum dosage was
low (1 g/L), occulation was rapid (725 minutes, depending on the seed used) and the water hardness and pH was
essentially unaltered.[31] Later studies have used chestnuts, oak acorns, and Moringa oleifera (drumstick tree) for the
same purpose.[32][33]
Other research has examined the use of doped semiconductors to increase the production of oxygen radicals under
solar UV-A.[34] Recently, researchers at the National Centre for Sensor Research and the Biomedical Diagnostics
Institute at Dublin City University have developed a novel printable UV dosimeter for SODIS applications that can
be read using a mobile phone.[35] The camera of the phone is used to acquire an image of the sensor and custom
software running on the phone analyses the sensor colour to provide a quantitative measurement of UV dose.
A signicant health problem in isolated regions of Africa is the eects of wood smoke and lung disease due to the
constant need for building res to boil water and cook. Research groups have often found that boiling of water is
neglected due to the cumbersome task of gathering wood, which may not be readily available in many areas due to
continuing depletion of wood sources. When presented with basic household water treatment options residents in
isolated regions in Africa have shown a preference for the SODIS method to boiling or other basic water treatment
methods.
17.7 Promotion
The Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG), through the Department of Water and
Sanitation in Developing Countries (Sandec), coordinates SODIS promotion projects in 33 countries including Bhutan,
Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, DR Congo, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala,
Guinea, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Laos, Malawi, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Per, Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Togo, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.[36]
SODIS projects are funded by, among others, the SOLAQUA Foundation,[37] several Lions Clubs, Rotary Clubs,
Migros, and the Michel Comte Water Foundation.
SODIS has also been applied in several communities in Brazil, one of them being Prainha do Canto Verde, Beberibe
west of Fortaleza. Villagers there using the SODIS method have been quite successful, since the temperature during
the day can go beyond 40 C (104 F) and there is a limited amount of shade.
One of the most important things to consider for public health workers reaching out to communities in need of suitable,
cost ecient, and sustainable water treatment methods is teaching the importance of water quality in the context of
health promotion and disease prevention while educating about the methods themselves. Although skepticism has
posed a challenge in some communities to adopt SODIS and other household water treatment methods for daily use,
disseminating knowledge on the important health benets associated with these methods will likely increase adoption
rates.
17.9 References
[1] Household water treatment and safe storage. World Health Organization. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
[2] Training material. Swiss Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (EAWAG) Department of Water
and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC). Retrieved 1 February 2010.
126
[3] Meierhofer R, Wegelin M (October 2002). Solar water disinfection A guide for the application of SODIS (PDF). Swiss
Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (EAWAG) Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing
Countries (SANDEC). ISBN 3-906484-24-6.
[4] Recent developments in photocatalytic water treatment technology: A review. Water Research 44 (10). 2010. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2010.02.03
[5] Hanaor, D.; Michelazzi, M.; Leonelli, C.; Sorrell, C.C. (2011). The eects of ring conditions on the properties of
electrophoretically deposited titanium dioxide lms on graphite substrates. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 31
(15): 28772885. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2011.07.007.
[6] Sand as a low-cost support for titanium dioxide photocatalysts. Wiley VCH.
[7] How does it work?" (PDF). sodis.ch. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
[8] Limitations of SODIS
[9] Treating turbid water. World Health Organization. 2010. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
[10] Clasen T (2009). Scaling Up Household Water Treatment Among Low-Income Populations (PDF). World Health Organization.
[11] B. Dawney and J.M. Pearce Optimizing Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) Method by Decreasing Turbidity with NaCl,
The Journal of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for Development 2(2) pp. 87-94 (2012). open access
[12] B. Dawney, C. Cheng, R. Winkler, J. M. Pearce. Evaluating the geographic viability of the solar water disinfection (SODIS)
method by decreasing turbidity with NaCl: A case study of South Sudan. Applied Clay Science 99:194200 (2014). open
access soon DOI: 10.1016/j.clay.2014.06.032
[13] Plastic Bags for Water Treatment: A new Approach to Solar Disinfection of Drinking Water. University of British
Columbia (Vancouver). 2011.
[14] Mintz E; Bartram J; Lochery P; Wegelin M (2001). Not just a drop in the bucket: Expanding access to point-of-use water
treatment systems.. American Journal of Public Health, 91(10), 1565-1570.
[15] Plastic Packaging Resins (PDF). American Chemistry Council.
[16] SODIS Technical Note # 2 Materials: Plastic versus Glass Bottles (PDF). sodis.ch. 20 October 1998. Retrieved 1
February 2010.
[17] Guidelines for drinking-water quality (PDF). World Health Organization. pp. 3046.
[18] Kohler M, Wolfensberger M. Migration of organic components from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to water
(PDF). Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA). Archived from the original (PDF) on 200709-21.
[19] William Shotyk, Michael Krachler and Bin Chen (2006). Contamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with
antimony from PET containers. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 8 (2): 288292. doi:10.1039/b517844b. PMID
16470261. Lay summary.
[20] Bottled Waters Contaminated with Antimony from PET (Press release). University of Heidelberg. 26 January 2006.
[21] Sciacca F, Rengifo-Herrera JA, Wth J, Pulgarin C (2010-01-08). Dramatic enhancement of solar disinfection (SODIS)
of wild Salmonella sp. in PET bottles by H(2)O(2) addition on natural water of Burkina Faso containing dissolved iron.
Chemosphere (EPUB AHEAD OF PRINT) 78 (9): 118691. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.12.001. PMID 20060566.
[22] Household water treatment and safe storage. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
[23] The WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2000). Global water supply and
sanitation assessment 2000 report. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-156202-1.
[24] Conroy RM, Elmore-Meegan M, Joyce T, McGuigan KG, Barnes J (1996). Solar disinfection of drinking water and
diarrhoea in Maasai children: a controlled eld trial. Lancet 348 (9043): 16957. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)02309-4.
PMID 8973432.
[25] Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigan K, Barnes J (October 1999). Solar disinfection of water reduces diarrhoeal
disease: an update. Archives of Disease in Childhood 81 (4): 3378. doi:10.1136/adc.81.4.337. PMC 1718112. PMID
10490440.
[26] Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigan K, Barnes J (October 2001). Solar disinfection of drinking water protects
against cholera in children under 6 years of age. Archives of Disease in Childhood 85 (4): 2935. doi:10.1136/adc.85.4.293.
PMC 1718943. PMID 11567937.
127
[27] Rose A, Roy S, Abraham V et al. (February 2006). Solar disinfection of water for diarrhoeal prevention in southern India.
Archives of Disease in Childhood 91 (2): 13941. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.077867. PMC 2082686. PMID 16403847.
[28] Caslake LF, Connolly DJ, Menon V, Duncanson CM, Rojas R, Tavakoli J (February 2004). Disinfection of contaminated
water by using solar irradiation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70 (2): 114550. doi:10.1128/AEM.70.2.1145-1150.2004.
PMC 348911. PMID 14766599.
[29] Gelover S, Gmez LA, Reyes K, Teresa Leal M (October 2006). A practical demonstration of water disinfection using
TiO2 lms and sunlight. Water Res. 40 (17): 327480. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.07.006. PMID 16949121.
[30] Fisher MB, Keenan CR, Nelson KL, Voelker BM (March 2008). Speeding up solar disinfection (SODIS): eects of
hydrogen peroxide, temperature, pH, and copper plus ascorbate on the photoinactivation of E. coli. J Water Health 6 (1):
3551. doi:10.2166/wh.2007.005. PMID 17998606.
[31] Mbogo SA (March 2008). A novel technology to improve drinking water quality using natural treatment methods in rural
Tanzania. J Environ Health 70 (7): 4650. PMID 18348392.
[32] iban M, Klanja M, Antov M, krbi B (2009). Removal of water turbidity by natural coagulants obtained from chestnut
and acorn.. Bioresource technology 100 (24): 663943. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.06.047. PMID 19604691.
[33] Nkurunziza, T; Nduwayezu, JB; Banadda, EN; Nhapi, I (2009). The eect of turbidity levels and Moringa oleifera
concentration on the eectiveness of coagulation in water treatment.. Water science and technology : a journal of the
International Association on Water Pollution Research 59 (8): 15518. doi:10.2166/wst.2009.155. PMID 19403968.
[34] Byrne JA; Fernandez-Ibaez PA; Dunlop PSM; Alrousan DMA; Hamilton JWJ (2011). Photocatalytic Enhancement for
Solar Disinfection of Water: A Review. International Journal of Photoenergy. doi:10.1155/2011/798051.
[35] Copperwhite, R; McDonagh, C; O'Driscoll, S (2011). A Camera Phone-Based UV-Dosimeter for Monitoring the Solar
Disinfection (SODIS) of Water.. IEEE Sensors Journal. doi:10.1109/JSEN.2011.2172938.
[36] Contact addresses and case studies of the projects coordinated by the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and
Technology (EAWAG) are available at sodis.ch.
[37] SOLAQUA. Wegelin & Co. Archived from the original on 2008-05-04.