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DEPTH AND LOCATION OF FOOTINGS

Foundation must be located properly (both vertical and horizontal orientation) so


as not to be adversely affected by outside influences. Outside influences would
include adjacent structures; water including frost and groundwater; significant soil
volume changes and underground defects (caves, for example). Thus, depth and
location of foundations are dependent on the following factors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Frost Action
Significant Soil Volume Changes
Adjacent Structures and Property Lines
Groundwater
Underground Defects
Scour and Undermining by Water

These factors are discussed in the following paragraphs:

Frost Action
In areas where the air temperature falls below the freezing point, the moisture in
the soil near the surface of the ground may freeze. When the temperature
subsequently rises above the freezing point, any frozen moisture may melt. As
the soil moisture freezes and melts, it alternately expands and contracts.
Repeated expansion and contraction of soil moisture beneath a footing may
cause it to be lifted during cold weather and dropped during warmer weather.
Such a sequence usually cannot be tolerated by the structure.
The general solution to prevention of frost action on footing is to place the
foundation below the depth of soil that is expected ever to be penetrated by frost.
Since frost penetration varies with location, local building codes often dictate
minimum depths of footings.

Significant Soil Volume Changes


Many soils, particularly certain clays having high plasticity, shrink significantly
upon drying and swell significantly upon wetting. This volume change is greatest
near the ground surface and decreases with increasing depth. The specific depth
and volume change relationship for a particular soil is dependent on the type of
soil and the level of groundwater. The volume change is usually insignificant
below a depth of from 5 to 10 feet and does not occur below the groundwater
table. Generally speaking, the soil beneath the centre of a structure is more
protected from sun and precipitation, and therefore, moisture change and
resulting soil movement are smallest there. On the other hand, the soil beneath
the edges of a structure is less protected, and moisture change and
consequently soil movements are greatest there.
No specific test has been developed to indicate which soils are likely to undergo
sever volume change when subjected to large changes in moisture. Studies by

the Bureau of Reclamation and by G.F. Sowers indicate that susceptible soils can
often be identified by the plasticity index (PI) and the shrinkage limit as shown in
the following table:
Likelihood of volume
change with change in
moisture
Little
Little to moderate
Moderate to sever

Plasticity Index
Shrinkage limit
Arid regions
00 15
15 30
30 or more

Humid regions
00 30
30 50
50 or more

12 or more
10 12
10 or less

Whether a susceptible soil will tend to swell or shrink depends on its initial
moisture. Theoretically, a moist soil can shrink until it reaches the shrinkage limit
(as determined for an undisturbed sample). If it is initially drier than the shrinkage
limit, it should not shrink. Sower found that there is a little or no swelling in highly
plastic clays if their initial moisture content corresponds to a water plasticity ratio
(liquidity index, LI) of 0.2 or more.
In areas where the local experience is often misleading, the following rules for
foundation depth are useful:
1. Minimum depth, 5 ft; maximum depth, GWL
2. Below all strata susceptible to high volume changes as shown by the PI or
cracking, but within the above limits.
3. Below large roots
4. Below any level of artificially increased temperature (such as steam lines).

Adjacent Structures and Property Lines


Adjacent structures and property lines often affect the horizontal location of a
footing. Adjacent (existing) structures may be damaged by construction of a new
foundation nearby as a result, for example, of vibration, shock resulting from
blasting, undermining by nearby excavation, or lowering of the water table. After
new foundation has been constructed, the (new) load they place on the soil may
cause settlement of previously existing structure as a result of new stress pattern
in the surrounding soil.
Since damage to existing structures by new construction may result in problems
of liability, new structures should be located and designed very carefully. In
general, the deeper the new foundation and closer to the old structures, the
greater the potential for damage to the old structures. Accordingly, old and new
foundations should be separated as much as is practical. This is particularly
important if the new foundation will be lower than the old one. A general rule is
that a straight line drawn downward and outward at a 45 angle for average soil
(30 in soft soil) from the end of the bottom of any (or existing) higher footing
should not intersect any existing (or new) lower footing.

Limit for horizontal spacing in all soils


b

30 o
b

45 o
Soft soil

Limit for bottom of new footing


deeper than the old footing

Average soil

Foundation depth must be selected with future nearby excavation in mind. This is
particularly true close to the property lines, where only limited legal control over
the construction operations on the adjoining site may be possible. Under such
conditions, a minimum foundation depth of 10 ft would be prudent. When future
deep excavations are planned, such as for an addition having a basement, the
foundations for the initial part of a structure should be placed deep enough so
that they will be unaffected by the addition. If this is not done, underpinning will
be required in the future, which is usually far more expensive than the additional
depth would have been in the initial construction.

Groundwater
The presence of groundwater within the soil immediately around a footing is
undesirable for several reasons:

First, footing construction below the GWL is difficult and expensive. Generally,
the area must be drained prior to construction.

Second, groundwater around a footing can reduce the strength of soils by


reducing their ability to carry the foundation pressure.

Third, groundwater around a footing may cause hydrostatic uplift problems.

Fourth, frost action may increase and

Fifth, if the groundwater reaches the lowest floor of the structure,


waterproofing problems are encountered.

For these reasons footing should be placed above the groundwater level
wherever practical to do so.

Underground Defects
Footing location is also affected by the presence of underground defects. These
include faults, caves and mines as well as man-made discontinuities such as
sewer lines and underground cables and utilities. Minor breaks in bedrock
seldom are a problem unless they are active. Structures should never be built on
or near tectonic faults that may slip. Certainly, foundations placed directly above
a cave or mine should be avoided if it all possible. The man-made discontinuities
listed above are often encountered, and obviously foundations should not be
placed above them. When they are encountered where a footing is desired,
either they or the footing should be relocated. As a matter of fact, a survey of
underground utility lines (or even an exploration) should be made prior to
excavation for a foundation in order to avoid damage to the utility lines during
excavation.

Scour and Undermining by Water


The foundations of bridges in streams and those of other structures adjacent to
streams and large bodies of water are subject to undermining by scour.
Numerous failures of bridges have occurred when their foundations have been
placed above the level of scour. Similarly, the foundations of buildings can suffer.
For safety, the depth of bridge piers and similar foundations should be well below
the scour depth. Protection by deep sheet piling driven around the area and by
riprap may be effective, but these should not be considered a substitute for
adequate depth.
Scour depth, D =

q2

1.338
f

in meters

Where
q = discharge per unit width in cumecs
f = Lacys silt factor = 1.76 m3/2
= 0.5 for fine silt
= 9 for gravels
m = weighted mean diameter D50, mm

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