Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

Hydrodynamic and geomorphological controls on suspended

sediment transport in mangrove creek systems, a case study:
Cocoa Creek, Townsville, Australia
S. Brycea,*, P. Larcombea, P.V. Riddb
a
Marine Geophysical Laboratory, School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia
Marine Geophysical Laboratory, School of Computer Science, Mathematics and Physics, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia

Received 15 February 1999; received in revised form 8 July 1999; accepted 25 February 2002

Abstract
In tide-dominated sedimentary systems, close relationships exist between tidal hydrodynamics, sediment transport and
geomorphology. Tropical coastlines contain many tide-dominated mangrove creeks, yet few studies to date have examined the detail
of such relationships for these environments. Time-series observations of tidal height, currents and suspended sediment
concentrations were taken between 1992 and 1996 in Cocoa Creek, a mangrove creek system near Townsville, NE Australia. The
creek and surrounding mangrove swamps and salt ats were surveyed with an echo-sounder and total survey station, respectively.
For within-channel tides, the ood tide is always the fastest, at up to 0.5 m s
1. In contrast, for overbank tides (i.e. tidal height
> 1.5 m Australian Height Datum, AHD) ebb currents are fastest in July, December and January, but ood currents are fastest in
August and September, at up to 1 m s
1 in both cases. The tidal asymmetry of overbank tides in Cocoa Creek is controlled by the
interaction between offshore tidal forcing and the intertidal storage effect of the mangrove swamps and salt ats, with the result
being that during certain periods of the year there tends to be a predominance of either faster ood or ebb velocities on overbank
tides. Signicant tidal suspended sediment transport in the channel is only initiated at overbank height. On overbank tides,
measured net suspended sediment uxes in the channel are mostly seaward-directed (up to 180 t per tidal cycle). However, the net
ux measured over a neapspring period may be either landwards or seawards (up to 465 and 60 t, respectively). Furthermore, on
the larger overbank tides (where the maximum tidal height > 1.85 m AHD) net sediment uxes may be reduced because of a
limited supply of available material. Thus hydrodynamic and sediment sampling durations of up to a month may not be
representative of long-term trends. Given that our large dataset has not identied a clear long-term net transport direction within the
creek system, we conclude tentatively that the geomorphology of Cocoa Creek may be near a long-term equilibrium.
2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: tidal creek; mangroves; sediment transport; Australia

1. Introduction
Studies of hydrodynamics and sediment transport in
mostly temperate salt marsh systems (Bayliss-Smith,
Healy, Lailey, Spencer, & Stoddart, 1979; Boon, 1975;
Boon & Byrne, 1981; Friedrichs & Aubrey, 1988;
Pethick, 1980) have provided the initial understanding of hydrodynamic and geomorphological controls
on sediment transport for tide-dominated creeks and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sonya.bryce@jcu.edu.au (S. Bryce).

estuaries. Most of these studies used tidal height data to

model tidal hydrodynamics, and sediment transport
equations to estimate sediment uxes and the net
direction of sediment movement. Some of this work
formed the basis for early attempts to understand
sediment transport processes, and calculate sediment
uxes and transport rates in their tropical equivalents,
mangrove creek systems (Fisher, 1994; Lessa, 1995;
Lessa & Masselink, 1995; Wolanski, Jones, & Bunt,
1980; Woodroffe, 1985a). These studies employed
methods such as water sampling, applying sediment
transport equations and computer modelling, and they
commonly assumed that sediment transport patterns

0272-7714/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0272-7714(02)00192-0

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

reected tidal asymmetry, and, further, that tidal

asymmetry is similar for each spring tide period. Using
these assumptions some relationships between tidal
dynamics, sediment transport and geomorphology in
mangrove creek systems have thus been proposed (Lessa
& Masselink, 1995; Wolanski et al., 1980; Woodroffe,
1985a,b). In tidal mangrove creeks, Wolanski et al.
(1980) found that on overbank tides, large water surface
gradients are created due to large frictional effects
caused by mangrove vegetation density, producing a
shorter and faster ebb tide that helps to scour the bed
of the main creek channel and thus export sediments
from the creek system. Lessa and Masselink (1995)
and Woodroffe (1985b) also found a similar velocity
asymmetry relationship in the channel with peak ood
and ebb speeds increasing as the maximum tidal elevation is increased. The magnitude of suspended sediment
uxes was found to be dependent on the maximum
tidal elevation reached (Woodroffe, 1985a).
However, studies which have used time-series data to
actually measure sediment transport (e.g. Bryce, Larcombe, & Ridd, 1998; Furukawa, Wolanski, & Mueller,
1997; Larcombe & Ridd, 1995, 1996; Wolanski, Gibbs,
Mazda, Mehta, & King, 1992a) have revealed a high
degree of spatial and temporal complexity in the sediment
dynamics of these tidal systems. While ndings to date
indicate that mangrove swamps are most likely to be
places of sediment accumulation (Furukawa et al., 1997;
Larcombe & Ridd, 1996), the sediment dynamics within
the main channel remain unclear, and as a consequence, it
is not known whether these tidal creek systems are net
importers or exporters of sediment (Larcombe & Ridd,
1995, 1996; Woodroffe, 1985a). No long-term datasets of
measured currents and sediment transport have been
presented for mangrove creek systems.
This paper details the tidal hydrodynamics, main
geomorphic features and sediment transport processes
of Cocoa Creek, a small mangrove creek system near
Townsville, Australia. The datasets were collected over
a period of 4 years and cover dierent temporal and
spatial scales that are representative of long-term trends.
Firstly, we investigate the internal and external factors
responsible for the tidal asymmetry of the system, and
secondly assess their eect upon suspended sediment
transport as well as noting issues of local sediment
availability.
1.1. Cocoa Creek
Cocoa Creek is one of three tidal mangrove creek
systems in the southern part of Cleveland Bay near
Townsville, north Queensland (Fig. 1). The main
channel of Cocoa Creek meanders for 9.5 km through
a chenier plain, and extends 1.2 km seawards of the
mouth across low-intertidal mudats. The channel is
fringed by a 30150 m-wide mangrove swamp with the

largest trees (<7 m high) located at the mouth. The total

catchment area is approximately 21 km2 of which 70% is
made up of salt ats and mangrove swamps. There is
a distinct vertical zonation of major geomorphological
units in the catchment (Table 1).
Annual rainfall at Townsville is approximately
1100 mm year
1 of which 65% falls in the summer wet
season (JanuaryMarch), so that freshwater input is
minimal to the creek for much of the year. The effects of
freshwater runoff events during the wet season are very
limited because only around 30% of the catchment sits
above the supratidal zone and any signicant rates of
rainfall (even up to 30 mm h
1) will be rapidly mixed
into the strongly tidal system. During the wet season,
winds are inconsistent northerlies of 57 kn and may
only reach signicantly greater speeds and variable
direction when associated with the passing of tropical
cyclones. The dry season (MayNovember) experiences
consistent southeasterly winds of 1015 kn.
Tides are semi-diurnal and mesotidal with mean
spring and neap tidal ranges of 2.3 and 0.4 m, respectively. Marine water initially enters the mangroves
and salt ats via a network of small tributaries before
overbanking of the main channel takes place at a tidal
elevation of approximately 1.5 m Australian Height
Datum (AHD). The maximum tidal height reached in
the Townsville area is 2.1 m AHD. Mean sea level
here is 0.1 m above AHD. At Cocoa Creek, only some
spring tide periods include overbank tides, and periods
of 3.5-week duration between overbank tides are
common. Strong tidal currents ensure that the water
column is vertically well-mixed at all times of the year.
Groundwater outow to the main channel is thought to
be minimal because the surrounding salt at stratigraphy is composed of mostly impermeable silts and
clays (Ridd, Renagi, Hollins, & Brunskill, 1997).

2. Data collection and analysis

Many coastal plain settings around the world, including most of northern Australia, contain extensive
wetland/intertidal systems with often poorly dened
catchment boundaries. Such systems may act as open
drainage systems, that is water may enter and leave the
system in a number of places (Fig. 1). Spatial coverage
of data therefore becomes important when monitoring
the movement of water and sediment within a specic
creek system.
2.1. Topographic and bathymetric data
Topographic surveys of the high-intertidal areas of
Cocoa Creek were made to: (1) investigate relationships
between the main geomorphic features and the timing of
measured peaks in tidal current velocity at sites in the

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417

Fig. 1. Locality map and geomorphology of Cocoa Creek and the adjacent coastal plain.

Table 1
Major geomorphological features within the intertidal area of Cocoa
Creek catchment and the corresponding tidal elevation range at which
they occur
Geomorphology
Chenier/beach ridges
Salt water couch
meadow
Salt at
Mangrove swamp
Low-intertidal mudats

Substrate
lithology

Elevation range
(m AHD)

Sand and gravel

Clay

+3.65 to +2.00
+2.00 to +1.85

Silt and clay

Silt and clay
Shelly mud

+1.85 to 1.40
+1.40 to +1.10
+0.50 to
0.40

main channel; and (2) estimate tidal storage volumes for

comparison with other mangrove creek systems.
In the upper part of the catchment, eight survey
transects were made across the most topographically
variable and expansive high-intertidal areas (Fig. 2).
Elevations were reduced to AHD by surveying into
survey bench marker C017 (Grid Reference 05 02 304,
78 65 278 on Australian Mapping Grid, 1984). For the
lower part of the catchment, we referred to 1 : 1500 and
1 : 2500 topographic maps of the lower creek locality and
adjacent salt at of Cocoa Creek (contour interval
0.1 m; AUSLIG, 1994a,b).

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

Bathymetric proles of the main channel were

recorded to provide cross-sectional data at the main
instrument sites for calculation of tidal discharge and
sediment transport ux. Geophysical surveying of the
main channel was undertaken in August 1994 and June
1998 using a Furuno FG-200 Mark 3 echo-sounder,
deployed from a dinghy travelling at speeds of 1 kn or
less. Surveying included 16 separate axial sections of the
creek and 37 cross-channel transects. All positioning
was undertaken using a hand-held global positioning
system (GPS-Garmin), aerial photograph (1 : 25 000) and
topographic map (1 : 100 000). At the time, the horizontal
error of the GPS in the Townsville area was 50 m,
thus requiring the use of all three tools for positioning.
During the recording of longitudinal bathymetric
proles, reference points were noted every 50200 m.
2.2. Hydrodynamic and turbidity data
This paper draws on a series of hydrodynamic and
turbidity datasets, taken within a 4-year period, and
totalling over 1.2 instrument years. During this period,
wet seasons were extremely dry, with average annual
rainfall signicantly lower than the long-term average.
Individual datasets cover springneap cycles of up to 4
weeks in duration, at up to eight sites between the lowintertidal mudat and the supratidal salt at, and
including most times of the year (the main monitoring
sites are shown in Fig. 2 and described in Table 2).
Typically, the number and combination of instruments
deployed at each monitoring site (as well as the number
of monitoring sites) was limited by instrument availability, and is detailed below.
Tidal currents and water depths were measured using
three types of current meters (Interocean S4, Aanderaa
and Seapac 2100). The limited number of current meters
and their availability meant that a eld deployment
could consist of a maximum of three channel sites where
tidal currents were measured simultaneously (i.e. containing one instrument in the water column at each site).
Most current meter data was recorded at the upper and
lower creek sites, close to road access, and with one
instrument in the vertical. A site was also located at the
mouth, acting as a control point for measuring the
import and export of water and sediment. Pressure
sensors on the instruments were located at 0.21.0 m
above the bed, mounted on a frame and placed in the
deepest part of the channel at each site. Most frequently,
a 1-min average was recorded every 10 min, over deployments of 34 weeks duration.
Turbidity data were measured using optical backscattering nephelometers (instruments described in Ridd
& Larcombe, 1994) attached to a frame in the deepest
part of the channel, with sensors located at 0.2 m above
the bed. Data were also taken on the salt at and
low-intertidal mudat, with optical sensors approximately

0.1 m above the bed. A maximum of ve nephelometers

were deployed simultaneously to obtain the greatest
spatial coverage of data (i.e. with one instrument in the
vertical). Data are 10-s to 1-min averages recorded every
210 min. Nephelometers were cross-calibrated using
laboratory standards. Calibrations to mg l
1 were undertaken by collecting a minimum of 20 water samples in
the eld next to a recording nephelometer, or by sampling suspensions of Cocoa Creek sediments and salt
water in a laboratory tank, followed by ltering of the
water samples (e.g. as described in Larcombe, Ridd,
Wilson, & Prytz, 1995). The positioning of all main
channel instrument deployments was measured from a
reference point on the adjacent bank.

3. Results
3.1. Tidal asymmetry in Cocoa Creek
Some mangrove creek systems, including Cocoa
Creek, have a characteristic double peak in ow speed
during an overbank ood tide (Fig. 3). The tidal
asymmetry is therefore slightly different to that described
for most shallow estuaries in previous studies (e.g. Boon
& Byrne, 1981; Friedrichs & Aubrey, 1988; Speer &
Aubrey, 1985). Past usage of the terms ood and ebb
dominance in reference to estuarine tidal asymmetry has
usually implied that the ood (or ebb) tide is shorter in
duration and faster, with a single peak in speed. This
inference would be inapplicable here, and so the terms
will not be used. A closer examination of the nature of
tidal asymmetry of overbank tides in Cocoa Creek,
reveals the signicantly different consequences for sediment transport in this system. For example, in reference
to Fig. 3a and tides of the 24 February 1994, the
overbank ood tide has two peaks at around 0.68 m s
1
and corresponds to a tidal range of 2.85 m. The subsequent ebb tide has a single peak of 0.71 m s
1, (i.e.
slightly larger than the ood peaks), but this peak is
very short in duration. In addition, the ebb tide range is
2.60 m, slightly smaller than the ood tide. So, although
the ebb tide has a higher peak current speed, it is unlikely
to be as signicant as the ood tide in terms of sediment
transport because the ood tide has persistently higher
current speeds due to the larger tidal range.
3.1.1. Velocity asymmetry over an annual timescale
At the mouth, lower creek and upper creek sites
during neap and intermediate tides, maximum tidal
current speeds are usually fastest on the larger ood
tide of the day. Flood and ebb speeds generally increase
with the onset of a spring tide period (Fig. 3). In the
lower creek, maximum speeds recorded in the channel on
overbank tides tend to be faster on the ood tide during

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419

Fig. 2. (a) Locality map of the main instrument sites and surveyed transects at Cocoa Creek. (b) Channel cross-sections at the three main instrument
sites. L and R stands for true left and true right (i.e. looking seawards). (c) Topographic proles of two salt at areas in the Cocoa Creek catchment.

Table 2
Geomorphological description of the main instrument sites at Cocoa Creek
Site

Thalweg distance
upstream (km)

Width at
MSL (m)

Maximum depth
(m AHD)

Channel cross-section
(bankfull m2)

Channel shape
(in prole)

Bed sediment

Upper creek
Mid-creek
Lower creek
Salt at
Mouth
Low-intertidal mudat

7.5
6.2
1.5
1.5
0.05

0.3

15
21
27

30

2.0

1.5

5.5
1.5

4.0

0.4

40
45
95

110

Symmetrical
Asymmetrical
Slightly asymmetrical

Slightly asymmetrical

Muddy gravel
Sand
Coarse sand
Silt and clay
Shelly sandy mud
Muddy sand

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

Fig. 3. (a) Current speed, direction and tidal elevation (all measured at 1 m above the bed) at the lower creek site for days 1826 February 1994 (neap
to spring tide). Note that tidal speeds on the overbank ood tide are slightly faster. F, larger ood tide of the day; E, larger ebb tide of the day. (b)
Current speed (measured at 1 m above the bed) at the lower creek site and current speed) and tidal elevation (both measured at 1 m above the bed) at
the upper creek site for days 1014 December 1993. Note that at the lower creek site, tidal speeds on the overbank ebb tide are fastest. F, larger ood
tide of the day; E, larger ebb tide of the day.

S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

421

the months of August, September and (early) February

and on the ebb tide during July, December, January and
(late) February. Here, when the ebb speeds in the
channel are fastest, the overbank ebb tide is usually of
greater duration (by up to 90 min) than the ood. In the
upper creek, tidal velocities were recorded during three
springneap periods (December and February) when,
during overbank tides, the ebb tides were faster than the
ood. These datasets show that currents at the upper
creek site are strongly asymmetric (Fig. 3).
For the months of MarchJune and October
November, we only have time-series data of <7 days in
duration and cannot assess in detail the nature of the
tide. However, tidal predictions for Townsville Port for
1995 and 1996 (Queensland Department of Transport,
19931996) show two periods of approximately 10.5weeks duration (SeptemberNovember 1995 and OctoberDecember 1996) where only one high water would
have exceeded overbank in Cocoa Creek. Thus, based on
our observations of within-channel tides, we infer that
most of these tides may have had a faster ood ow.

3.1.2.3. Overbank flood peak in speed (F2). At sites

within the creek, the rapid increase in speed to a second
ood peak (F2), occurs when the tide locally is at
1.6 m AHD and has overbanked to inundate a large
area of salt ats (Fig. 2c). F2 maximum speeds are
generally slower than F1 (i.e. for high waterHW
<1.8 m AHD), and occur approximately 70 min before
high water.

3.1.2. Tidal stage and velocityasymmetry relationships

The shape of velocity-stage proles in Cocoa Creek
(Fig. 4) can be divided into two types, representing tides
which either remain within-channel (mostly neap and
intermediate tides), or which overbank (some spring
tides).

3.1.3. Water surface slopes

Water surface slopes drive tidal current speeds within
the creek system and we have investigated the relationships between the timing of maximum water surface
slopes and specic tidal velocity peaks. Using depth
measurements recorded by pressure sensors on a current
meter placed at each site, water surface slopes were
calculated between the mouth and the upper creek
localities for a small spring tide (HW of 1.54 m AHD)
and a very large spring tide (HW 2.22 m AHD). For
the ood tide, the steepest surface water slopes were
1.3  10
4 and 2.7  10
4 on the small and large overbank
tide, respectively, coincident with the within-channel
ood peak in speed (F1) recorded at the mouth. Slopes
reduced towards bankfull stage (FMIN), to peak again
just after the tide overbanked (coincident with the
velocity peak F2). On the ebb tide, maximum water
surface slopes of 5.4  10
5 persisted for a 2-h period
for the smaller spring tide and slopes up to 2.1  10
4
occurred for a 6-h period for the larger tide. Calculated
total slope errors (i.e. taking into account the accuracy
of instruments and differences in water elevation
between sites at HW) are 2  10
5 and 8  10
5 for the
small and large overbank tide, respectively.

(a) For within-channel tides, the fastest speed occurs

early in the ood tide (e.g. see also Bayliss-Smith
et al., 1979; Woodroffe, 1985b) attaining 0.40.5 m s
1.
Ebb tides do not exceed 0.3 m s
1.
(b) Overbank tides are characterized by a double peak
in speed on the ood tide (Figs. 3 and 4) and an
extended peak in speed on the ebb (Fig. 4; see also
Larcombe & Ridd, 1996; Lessa & Masselink, 1995;
Woodroffe, 1985b). An overbank tide can be
divided up into four stages:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Within-channel ood peak in speed (F1);

Bankfull minimum ood speed (FMIN);
Overbank ood peak in speed (F2); and
Within-channel maximum ebb speed (EMAX).

3.1.2.1. Within-channel flood peak in speed (F1). At the

mouth, the initial ood peak in speed (F1) may occur
within a large range of tidal elevations. At the lower
creek site, it occurs mid-tide, approximately at 0.1 m
AHD (i.e. MSL). At the upper creek site the peak is
shorter in duration, and occurs when the tide locally is
at
0.5 to
0.1 m AHD. Flood tide speeds can reach up
to 1.0 m s
1.
3.1.2.2. Bankfull minimum speed (FMIN). At all sites,
tidal speeds decrease as bankfull height is approached.

3.1.2.4. Within-channel maximum ebb speed (EMAX). At

the upper creek site, maximum ebb speeds occur when
the ebb tide is between 1.30 and 0.95 m AHD (Fig.
4c) whereas further seawards, this stage forms part of a
longer extended ebb period (Fig. 4a, b).
It should be noted that these four stages have been
described for a spring tide period where speeds are
fastest on the ebb tide. For overbank tides where speeds
are fastest on the ood, the magnitudes of the peaks
are dierent but the tidal stage at which each occurs is
the same.

3.1.4. Water budget

At three of the main instrument sites, water discharge
has been calculated using the velocity area method and a
single velocity measurement in the channel (most
commonly recorded at 1 m above the bed and subsequently depth-averaged; Fig. 5). Although the presented results are not directly comparable between
sites, they indicate the general magnitudes of discharge

Fig. 4. Velocity-stage diagrams at three channel sites (during three spring tide periods where ebb speeds were fastest). The mouth proles are part of a small spring tide period where the maximum
tidal height reached is 1.56 m AHD. In contrast, the lower creek and upper creek proles are parts of larger spring tide periods, reaching maximum tidal heights of 1.85 m AHD and 1.92 m
AHD, respectively. Abbreviations of velocity peaks: F1, initial ood peak; FMIN, bankfull minimum speed; F2, second ood peak; EMAX, within-channel maximum ebb speed. The jagged nature of
the proles at the lower creek locality reects a higher sampling frequency than used at the upper creek and mouth localities.

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

423

Fig. 5. Tidal discharge curves for within-channel and overbank tidal cycles at the upper creek, lower creek and mouth localities. Water uxes were
estimated using the depth-averaged velocity multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the channel for a given stage when overbank speeds were faster
on the ebb tide. Maximum tidal elevations in AHD are shown for each tidal cycle. F, ood tide; E, ebb tide and OB, overbank tide.

present in the main channel of Cocoa Creek. The greatest discharges are in the lower creek and on the ebb
tide, and the duration of the ebb tide is longer than the
ood at the mouth and lower creek. Using the same
datasets water budgets have also been calculated where
the total discharge over a tide was determined by
summing estimates of discharge for 10-min periods
(upper creek and mouth) and 2-min periods (lower
creek). At the upper creek, results lie between an export
of 3.9  104 m3 and import of 6.8  104 m3, and generally
show a slight export, on average 3% of the total
combined ood and ebb ux. At the lower creek, results
lie between an export of 1.7  105 to 2.9  105 m3, and
generally show an average export of 30% of the total
combined ood and ebb ux. At the mouth, results lie
between an export of 2.4  104 to 1.5  105 m3, and also
show an average export of 20% of the total combined
ood and ebb ux. Some differences in volume can be

accounted for through the errors involved in using a

single point measurement of current to predict the
velocity prole across the channel (approximately 12%,
Boon, 1978) and the possibility of water exchange at
high tide with the adjacent Crocodile Creek catchment
(locality shown in Fig. 1).
3.2. Suspended sediment concentrations in the channel
3.2.1. Variation in suspended sediment
concentrations between sites
The calculated tidal excursion of large overbank tides
is >9 km, so at these times, suspended sediment is
potentially transported along most of the channel
length. During neap and intermediate tides, suspended
sediment concentrations (SSCs) throughout the creek
generally remain below 100 mg l
1 (Fig. 6). On overbank
tides, SSCs increase signicantly at all sites and a

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

Fig. 6. (a) Plot showing the variation in SSCs (at 0.2 m above the bed) over a neap to spring tide period in January 1996 at the mouth, lower creek,
mid-creek and upper creek localities. Numbers in brackets denote distance landwards of the mouth. Note the difference in scale on the upper creek
dataset as compared with the other three sites. (b) Expanded view of four tides. Note the phase lag between the mouth and upper creek site.

complex distribution of SSCs develops along the creek.

On a typical overbank tide:
1. SSCs peak sharply just after the within-channel
ood peak in speed (F1) at the mouth, lower creek

(Fig. 6) and upper creek sites. In the mid-creek,

SSCs steadily rise (Fig. 6);
2. As bankfull elevation is approached, SSCs decrease
rapidly to a minimum at the mouth and lower creek,
but decrease less sharply elsewhere (Fig. 6b);

S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

3. Shortly following the overbank ood peak in speed

(F2) at the mouth and lower creek (Fig. 7) sites, a
small SSC peak occurs, also present in the mid- and
upper creek sites as a small rise in SSCs from an
already turbid water column (Fig. 6). SSCs remain
high in the mid- and upper creek until high water; and
4. On the ebb tide at the mouth and lower creek, SSCs
rise steadily to reach a maximum at approximately MSL, where they remain until low
water (Fig. 6). In the upper and mid-creek, SSCs
peak locally between 1.5 and 0.6 m AHD,
i.e. when the ow is contained within the channel.

3.2.2. Variation in SSCs through a spring tide period

SSCs are nearly always highest on the rst few
overbank tides of a spring tide period (e.g. Fig. 7). For
example, SSCs calculated at the lower creek during the
ebb tide of the higher HW of the day (HW 1.90 m
AHD) are notably reduced compared to the previous
overbank tide (from a HW of 1.92 m AHD), despite
similar peak ebb speeds (>0.85 m s
1) and rates of tidal
rise and fall (Fig. 7). This phenomenon has consistently
been recorded in the lower creek, and is also found
elsewhere in the creek (e.g. mouth and lower creek in Fig.
6), being more pronounced when the ebb is the faster
spring tide current. This indicates that sediment availability is limited for the latter part of the spring tide
period.

425

3.2.3. Vertical distribution of SSC

Vertical proles of turbidity were measured at various sites along the main channel on three occasions:
 a small ebb tide during a large spring tide period (27
April 1994);
 a large spring tide (16 February 1996); and
 a neap ebb tide following a cyclone event (11
January 1996).
On the rst two occasions, which represent periods of
no freshwater inuence, the vertical distribution of SSC
was generally uniform, especially on spring tides. On the
third occasion, runo produced a slightly stratied
water column but there was only a 20 mg l
1 topbottom
difference in SSC. At this time, near-bed SSCs were
always highest (generally the basal 0.5 m). In addition,
turbidity proles measured in three cross-channel sites
at the mouth during the early ood of an intermediate
tide (8 June 1994), showed a maximum cross-channel
difference of only 10 mg l
1.
3.2.4. Effect of waves on SSCs
An analysis of wind data recorded at Townsville
airport and SSCs at the lower creek site (for six turbidity
datasets collected from July 1993 to February 1994; data
not presented but available in Bryce, 2001) showed no
correlation between winds and high SSCs. It is inferred
here that an increase in local wave climate is a potential
mechanism for re-suspending muddy sediments in the

Fig. 7. Current speed (measured at 1 m above the bed) at the lower creek site and near-bed SSCs (at 0.2 m above the bed) on the low-intertidal
mudat, lower creek and salt at sites during a spring tide period where ebb tide speeds were fastest (1016 December 1993). Numbers on current
speed gure are the maximum high water elevations reached in m AHD. F, larger ood tide of the day; E, larger ebb tide of the day. Note the
signicantly smaller SSC scale used for the salt at data in comparison to the other two sites.

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

nearshore zone off Cocoa Creek (as found in other parts

of Cleveland BayLarcombe et al., 1995). During the
periods covered by the wind data, wind direction ranged
from NE to SE and speeds rarely rose above 10 kn, thus
representing typical background conditions during the
wet and dry season, rather than conditions related to
meteorological storm events.
3.3. Suspended sediment concentrations on the
low-intertidal mudflat and salt flat
On the low-intertidal mudat, peak SSCs during
within-channel tides rarely exceeded 150 mg l
1. During
some of the larger overbank tides, there was little or no
turbidity registered on the overbank ood tide whereas
SSCs of up to 400 mg l
1 were observed on the subsequent ebb tide (Fig. 7). SSCs on the salt at were low
(Fig. 7), with a maximum SSC on the ood tide of up to
100 mg l
1 on the largest overbank tides but generally
4060 mg l
1 (from observation of ve spring tide
periods). SSCs recorded on the salt at during the ebb
tide were generally <50 mg l
1.
3.3.1. Suspended sediment fluxes in the channel
Suspended sediment uxes have been calculated at
the lower creek site and are the product of the mean
cross-sectional current and SSC. The calculations assume that suspended sediments are homogenous across
the creek and throughout the water column, assumptions which are consistent with the SSC data described
above and similar to the ndings of Larcombe and Ridd

(1996) in nearby Gordon Creek (locality Fig. 1). At the

lower creek site, the vertical velocity prole was derived using the KarmanPrandtl equation, which assumes
a logarithmic vertical prole with the depth-averaged
velocity occurring at a height of 0.38 of the ow depth
above the bed. A roughness length of 1.0 cm was used,
after applying the equation of Lettau (1969) to echosounder records of bedforms on the channel bed. Suspended sediment uxes were calculated over:
(a) a spring tide period in July 1993 (for 1-week period,
faster ebb tide);
(b) a spring tide period in September 1993 (for 1-week
period, faster ood tide; and
(c) a 3-week period in February 1994, (Fig. 8; faster
ood tide see Fig. 3a).
The average calculated error on the suspended
sediment ux per tide is 21%, comprising 9% for
the natural (random) variation in water volume at the
mid-estuary site, and 12% for the cross-calibration of
the nephelometers and conversion of turbidity data to
SSCs. The average systematic error in calculating water
volumes at the lower creek per tidal cycle (i.e. an average
export of 30% of the total ood and ebb volume, as
previously mentioned) was adjusted for in the calculation of sediment uxes for each ood tide.
For within-channel tides, net suspended sediment
uxes per tidal cycle are mostly landwards (Fig. 8), but
on overbank tides, net uxes are strongly seawards. For
a complete springneap period, calculated net uxes
may be landwards or seawardsfor the three datasets

Fig. 8. Measured net suspended sediment ux per tidal cycle at the lower creek locality (February 1994).

S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

outlined above, results are approximately 61 t seawards

(for July) and approximately 465 and 91 t landwards
(September and February, respectively). The estimated
gross ux of sediment moved for these same datasets
were 1936, 1282 and 3368 t for July, September and
February, respectively. Taking into consideration the
errors involved in calculating the net uxes per tidal
cycle (error bars shown in Fig. 8), the net movement of
suspended sediment over a springneap period could be
very small in either direction.

4. Discussion
4.1. Factors driving tidal asymmetry
Tidal asymmetry in shallow estuaries takes the form
of unequal durations and/or unequal magnitudes in the
ood and ebb tide. It mostly results from the frictional
interaction of the tide with the channel and intertidal
areas (Friedrichs & Aubrey, 1988; Speer & Aubrey,
1985). In the literature, the type of tidal asymmetry
present in a channel has been expressed using the
following parameters: (1) the relative tidal amplitude
(ratio of offshore M2 tidal amplitude (a) to channel
depth at MSL (h) = a/h) and (2) the relative estuarine
intertidal storage (ratio of volume of intertidal storage
(Vs) to the channel volume at MSL (Vc) Vs/Vc). In
estuaries where the fastest speeds are during the ood
tide, tidal asymmetry is thought to be controlled by the
a/h ratio, whereas ow in those estuaries with fastest
speeds on the ebb are thought to be controlled by a large
relative estuarine intertidal storage. For a/h < 0.2, an
estuary would tend to have a fast and short ebb tide, and
for a/h > 0.3, it would tend to have a fast and short
ood tide (Friedrichs & Aubrey, 1988; Table 3). Ratios
of the total tidal amplitude to channel depth at MSL
were calculated for the lower creek site at Cocoa Creek
over four spring tide periods (Table 3). The total tidal
amplitude near the creek mouth was used instead of the
M2 amplitude because the tidal wave may have already
undergone some distortion on passing across Cleveland
Bay (i.e. before it reaches Cocoa Creek).
Most values of a/h at lower Cocoa Creek fall into
the transitional to ood range of Friedrichs and
Aubrey (1988) rather than consistently reecting the measured tidal asymmetry, indicating that the relative tidal

427

amplitude does not alone determine the tidal asymmetry

in Cocoa Creek.
To evaluate more fully the eect of external tidal
forcing upon the creek (i.e. the nature of any oshore
tidal asymmetry that may be imposed on the system), an
analysis of predicted and measured tidal heights (for
Townsville port for the period July 1993 to June 1994)
was undertaken, and the ratio of the rate of ood rise to
ebb fall for overbank tides calculated. Results fall
mostly between 1.0 and 1.4 (Fig. 9), indicating that the
regional tidal forcing is dominated by a tide with a
relatively fast ood tide. The nature of this tidal forcing
might partially explain the apparent offset between the
calculated a/h results (mostly transitional to faster ood
tidesee Table 3) and the measured asymmetry (i.e.
Cocoa Creek demonstrates both faster ood and ebb
tides at different times of the year), when compared to
a/h results found elsewhere (Friedrichs & Aubrey, 1988).
Wolanski, Mazda, and Ridd (1992b) associated faster
ebb tidal speeds in mangrove creek systems to a high
ratio of Vs/Vc, and for seven mangrove creek systems
they noted that ratios of Vs : Vc ranged from 2 to 7 (with
one exception of 44). This range is comparable to Cocoa
Creek (Table 4). Wolanski et al. (1992b) reported the
slopes of the swamp substrate were 14  10
3 (mostly
23  10
3), generally steeper than for Cocoa Creek
(Table 4). These data indicate that the intertidal storage
capacity of overbank tides at Cocoa Creek should be
sufcient to repeatedly induce a relatively fast and brief
ebb tide, but this is not always the case (e.g. Fig. 3). A
potential explanation for this discrepancy is the regional
tidal forcing (see above), but there may also be an
additional mechanism. The slope of the ebb tide over the
salt ats are often steeper than the salt at substrate
itself (12  10
3) so that areas closest to the creek drain

Table 3
Comparison of the Friedrichs and Aubrey (1988) ratio of relative tidal
amplitude (a/h) ndings (see text) to calculated a/h values for overbank
tides at Cocoa Creek

Friedrichs and Aubrey (1988)

Lower Cocoa Creek on
overbank tidal (this paper)

Faster ebb tide

Faster ood tide

<0.2
0.210.23

>0.3
0.180.47

Fig. 9. Calculated ratios of rising rate of ood tide to falling rate of

ebb tide for overbank tides at Cocoa Creek over a 12 month period.
Data are from measured and predicted tidal heights at Townsville Port
where the elevation of high water exceeds 1.5 m AHD.

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

Table 4
Measured substrate slopes and calculated estuarine intertidal storage
ratios (Vs : Vc) at signicant tidal elevations, Cocoa Creek
Tidal elevation
(m AHD)

Substrate
slope

Intertidal storage
volume : channel
storage volume (Vs : Vc)

+1.85 (upper limit

of salt at)
+1.60 (salt at)
+1.50 (overbank)
+1.30 (mangrove fringe)

4.3  10
4

8.6

12  10
3
3.8
2  10
41  10
3 2.6
110
1
1.7

rst (Aucan, 1998). Later in the ebb, the upper salt at

areas slowly drain through small tributaries, resulting in
a prolonged ebb ow.
The tidal asymmetry of Cocoa Creek is thus dependent on the interaction between at least two controls: the
oshore forcing of a shorter and faster ood tide, and
the internal forcing of a faster ebb tide, imparted by the
intertidal storage eect. This balance is signicant because of its consequences for sediment transport.
4.2. Suspended sediment transport
4.2.1. Controls on SSC and suspended sediment fluxes
The primary control upon SSCs and sediment transport in Cocoa Creek are the tidal currents. On timescales
of hours, advection is a signicant factor in the SSC
variations, especially during overbank tides (Fig. 10). At
most sites, on the ood tide, SSCs rise as mud is resuspended off the bed, but the exception is in mid-creek,
where the bed is sandy (Bryce, 2001) and SSCs tend to
peak only upon the arrival of turbid water from the
lower creek. Later in the ood tide, with deepening
water and slowing tidal currents, SSCs in the nearshore
zone decrease, so that less turbid water is advected into
the creek system.
Over timescales of weeks, for example between two
spring tide periods, the relative magnitude of SSCs on
overbank tides appears to be, in part, controlled by the
local availability of re-suspendable sediment (e.g. Fig.
6). Differences in SSC magnitudes do not appear to
be due to the effects of wind under background conditions (i.e. through re-suspension of muddy nearshore
sediment which is then available for import by tidal
currents), although this may become more important
during storm events.
During all neap and intermediate tides (i.e. withinchannel tides), suspended sediment transport in the
channel is controlled by the shorter and faster ood tide,
in which suspended sediment uxes are moved landwards. Greater sediment transport occurs during spring
tide periods, where the direction and magnitude of net
suspended sediment ux is inuenced by:
(a) Tidal asymmetry. For spring tide periods with faster
ood overbank tides, the net landward movement of

suspended sediment is dependent on the total amount

moved during within-channel tides. This is because
the maximum current speeds of the overbank ood
and ebb tides are of similar magnitude (Fig. 3a)
and result in little net ux. In contrast, for spring
tide periods with a faster overbank ebb tide, the
export of suspended sediment is driven by an ebb tide
which is far faster than the preceding ood ow
(Fig. 3b).
(b) Sediment availability. During neap tides net suspended sediment uxes per tidal cycle tend to be
below 20 t and the remaining within-channel tides
rarely exceed 80 t (Fig. 11). Approaching the largest
overbank tides (i.e. HW approximately 1.85 m
AHD), large amounts of suspended sediment are
exported on the rst few overbank tides (immediately prior to the largest tide itself), limiting the
amount of suspended sediment available for export
on subsequent large tides. This produces a wide
variation in net suspended sediment uxes at
equivalent high tidal ranges (Fig. 11) and can be
considered as a hysteresis effect in sediment
concentration.
4.2.2. Implications for suspended sediment
transport on annual and longer timescales
During all neap and intermediate tides, suspended
sediments are pumped towards the head of the creek,
thereby providing a temporary local supply of sediment for potential transport on the rst few overbank
tides, some of which may be removed by overbank tides.
SSC data from the salt at (Fig. 7) suggests that, during overbank ood tides, some negrained sediment
is transported up onto the salt at, while some may
also be transported seawards on the subsequent ebb. In
the latter part of the year (late September to early
December) the relative absence of overbank tides indicates a sustained period of sediment accumulation in
the head of the creek. Later (DecemberFebruary),
when the wet season coincides with spring tide periods
of mostly faster ebb currents and seaward-directed net
suspended sediment uxes, this store of sediment might
be exported seawards out of the creek. SSC data from
the low-intertidal mudat at the creek mouth suggests
that on the ebb tide, suspended sediment is exported
from the system (Fig. 7). We do not have reliable
sediment transport data for the months of MarchJune,
but we infer from the tidal characteristics that there will
be periods of ood-directed and ebb-directed net
suspended sediment ux. It is thus clear that the
direction of net suspended sediment uxes in Cocoa
Creek is highly variable on timescales of months.
On the timescale of years to decades, despite the large
nature of our datasets it is not obvious as to whether
Cocoa Creek is either a net importer or exporter of
muddy sediment. SSCs from the salt at suggest that

S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

429

Fig. 10. Plan view of the turbidity distribution (expressed as SSCs) in Cocoa Creek at various stages of an overbank tide on 18 January 1996,
together with the main controlling factors. The tidal elevations expressed in AHD at the mouth and upper creek sites are taken from real depth
values. The distribution pattern of SSCs is also based on turbidity data measured during a deployment of four nephelometers along the main channel
(locations shown in Fig. 2a), each placed at approximately 0.2 m above the bed.

sediment is not being deposited on the salt at, and

therefore over geological time, the area in which marine
water is held up at high tide, is not being reduced. This
implies that large overbank ebb tides will still continue
to scour the main channel and remove ne sediment that
has been pasted on the walls of the channel during neap
and intermediate tides, and including spring tide periods
with faster ood tides. In addition, while land-based
sources of muddy sediment to the Cocoa Creek tidal
system are negligible, the shallow inner shelf of adjacent
Cleveland Bay contains a virtually unlimited supply of
mobile muddy sediments available to be transported
into the small Cocoa Creek system (Carter, Johnson, &

Hooper, 1993). Geologically, the creek system is therefore not limited by sediment supply, and we conclude
tentatively that the geomorphology of Cocoa Creek may
be near a long-term equilibrium.

5. Conclusions
The tidal asymmetry of Cocoa Creek is controlled by
the interaction between oshore tidal forcing and the
intertidal storage eect of the mangrove swamps and
salt ats. The result is that there tends to be a predominance of either faster ood or ebb current speeds

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S. Bryce et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56 (2003) 415431

Fig. 11. Measured net suspended sediment ux per tidal cycle at the lower creek site of Cocoa Creek versus measured high-water elevation at
Townsville Port (the closest port datum). Note that most seaward-directed suspended sediment uxes occur on overbank tides. We have illustrated
uxes calculated for successive overbank tides of late February 1994 (spring period commencing in Fig. 3a). The data describe an open loop whereby
tides of equivalent elevation (most notably where HW > 1.85 m AHD) produce high net seaward suspended sediment uxes early in the spring tide
period, but up to 100 t less only a few tides later. m July 1993; } September 1993; d February 1994.

during certain periods of the year and that the nature of

tidal asymmetry is therefore not the same for all
overbank tides.
For within-channel tides, a small amount of suspended sediment is transported mostly landwards, controlled by tidal asymmetry. Signicant tidal suspended
sediment transport in the channel is only initiated
at overbank height (approximately 1.5 m AHD)
when resulting net uxes are mostly seawards. On the
larger overbank tides (where the maximum tidal height
> 1.85 m AHD) net sediment uxes are reduced
because of a limited supply of available material.
The complex but strong relationships between hydrodynamics, sediment transport and geomorphology
demonstrated in this and some other tropical tidedominated systems (e.g. Bryce et al., 1998; Larcombe
& Ridd, 1995, 1996) indicates that complex sediment
transport regimes are likely to be the rule rather than the
exception. Given this complexity, and that the availability of sediment within these systems is limited
at times, sediment uxes should not be estimated for
such systems using only sediment transport equations.
This study also highlights the importance and necessity of using long time-series datasets to unravel linkages between sedimentary processes and the long-term
sedimentary status of tidal mangrove creek systems.

Acknowledgements
Many thanks go to Ross Hyne for assistance with
eldwork, and loan of a boat, vehicles and other eld

equipment. Thanks are also due to Mick Fitzpatrick

from the Townsville Port Authority for access to tidal
data, Russell Jaycock from the Bureau of Meteorology
for the wind data and Gregg Brunskill of the Australian
Institute of Marine Science for access to AUSLIG
topographic maps. This work was funded by an ARC
Large Grant to P.L. and P.V.R., and by James Cook
University. The two anonymous journal reviewers are
thanked for their helpful comments in improving the
manuscript.

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