Leech (1984)

There are four notional classes of metaphor according to Leech :

1) The Concretive Metaphor, which attributes concreteness or physical
existence to an abstraction. For example : a vicious circle, room of
negotiation.
2) The Animistic Metaphor, which attributes animate characteristics to the
inanimate. For example: an angry sky, the shoulder of the hill.
3) The Humanizing (Anthropomorphic) Metaphor, which attributes
characteristic of humanity to what is not human. For example : this
friendly river, laughing valleys.
4) The Synaesthetic Metaphor, which transfers meaning from one domain of
sensory perception to another. For example : dull sound, loud
perfume.
Ricoeur (1976:49)
According to Paul Ricoeur, as he writing to figurative metaphor:
metaphor is a trope, a figure of discourse that concerns denomination
representing the extension of the meaning of a name through deviation from
the literal meaning of words. For example at the statement she cut him
down with her words, the term cut him down is commonly used to bring a
person down with a short or nasty twist on words. It could mean that she
brought the person in a defeat situation by her words.

Example in Paper Towns novel using Leechs theory :

a. the world was out of order (page 5)
The line above is categorized as a concretive metaphor, because the phrase out of order is an
abstract form to illustrate an actual thing using the word world. This was led to conlude that the
world or the place is not working or unpleasant.
b. cycle of life (page 6)

The line above is categorized as a concretive metaphor, because the word cycle is an abstract
form to illustrate an actual thing using the word life. We may conclude that it described a series
of stages through something passes during its lifetime.
c. Id had nearly four years of experience looking of these clocks, but their sluggishness never
ceased to surprise (page 18)
The line above is categorized as a humanizing metaphor, because the word of sluggishness
written above is the characteristic of living things (human) to humanize something unhuman
using the word clocks. It basically explains that clocks cant be sluggish. This was led to
conclude that time feels to slow down during its current activitation.

Example using Ricoceurs theory :

The meaning of metaphor in the statement of : the world was out of order (page 5)

Paragraph explanation :
Id been in this park so many times before it was mapped in my mind, so we were only a few
steps inside when I began to sense that the world was out of order, even though I couldnt
immediately figure out what was different.
The term out of order is commonly used to define something or things that out of proper
sequence or incapable of operating or not functioning well as how it supposed to. Judging from
the situation, it could mean that the world seems to not working as usual to the character, because
the character stated Id been in this park so many times.