I.

II.

HeLa Cells
A. What are HeLa cells?
1. Theyre cervical cancer cells
2. They reproduce indefinitely
a) Immortal
3. They come from Henrietta Lacks
a) She also is mistakenly called Helen
Lane
B. Who was Henrietta Lacks?
1. Family
a) Husband - David Lacks
b) 5 Children
(1) Daughter Deborah
2. Died 4 Oct. 1951
3. Family didnt learn about cell usage until the 70s
a) Scientists never asked for familys
consent
C. Usage of HeLa Cells
1. The Geys
a) George and Margaret
b) First used HeLa cells for cancer
research
2. Critical in the polio vaccine
3. Shipped almost everywhere
4. Used in almost all research
a) Leukemia
b) Genes
5. Mightve contaminated cell culture supplies
Cell Division/Mitosis
A. Review
1. Growth
a) Living things reproduce cells to grow
2. Cell Division
a) A cell splits into 2 daughter cells
3. Cells are small for the big SA:V ratio
B. DNA during the Cell Cycle
1. Chromatin
a) Uncoiled DNA
b) Like this in Interphase
2. Chromosomes
a) Coiled chromatin
b) Humans have 46
(1) 23 homologous pairs

C. Structure of Chromosomes *Important

1. Chromatid
a) Basically of chromosome
b) Sister chromatids

(1) 2 identical chromatids

halves
2. Centromere
a) Button like structure keeping sister
chromatids together
3. Overall structure
a) Chromatin makes chromatids
b) Centromere binds chromatids
together, making a chromosome
D. Cell Cycle
1. Interphase
a) The period between divisions
b) Biggest portion
c) G1, S, and G2 phases
d) G1
(1) Cell grows and
makes proteins
e) S
(1) Stands for synthesis
(2) When DNA is
replicated
f) G2
(1) Organelles and cell
are getting ready for mitosis
2. Mitosis
a) Splitting the nucleus
b) 4 stages
(1) Prophase
(2) Metaphase
(3) Anaphase
(4) Telophase
3. Cytokinesis
a) Splitting the cytoplasm
(1) Cell membrane
pinches
E. Mitosis *Important
1. Short part of cells life
2. Prophase
a) Chromatin coils into chromosomes
b) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
start breaking down
c) Centrioles move to ends of cells
d) Spindles start to form
e) Setup phase
3. Metaphase
a) Chromosomes line up in middle of
cell
b) Spindles attach to centromeres
4. Anaphase(Apart)

a) Spindle splits up chromosomes

b) Chromatids become single
chromosomes
5. Telophase
a) Starts to pull apart
b) Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin
c) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
start to reappear
d)
e)
6. Cytokinesis
a)
b)

Centrioles and spindles disappear

Opposite of prophase
Division of cytoplasm
Animal version
(1) Cell membrane

pinches off
c) Plant version
(1) Cell plate/wall forms
III.

between cells
Meiosis/reproduction
A. Reproduction
1. Process of making offspring
2. Sexual or Asexual
3. Sexual
a) Has 2 parents
b) Mix of their DNA
c) Creates a diverse population
4. Asexual
a) 1 parent
b) Multiple ways
(1) Binary fission
(a) split in
two
(2) Fragmentation
(a) Regro
w from parts
(b) Sea
stars
(3) Budding
(a) Create
s buds
(b) Hydra
c) Identical population
B. Sexual Reproduction
1. Fertilization
a) Male and female sex cells join
2. Gametes
a) Theyre sex cells
b) the regular amount of
chromosomes

(1) Humans gametes

have 23
c) Zygotes form from fusion of 2
gametes
C. Germ v. Somatic cells
1. Germ
a) Capable of sexual reproduction
b) Gametes
2. Somatic
a) Not capable of s.r.
D. Chromosome # *Important
1. Genes are on the chromosomes
a) Development and cell processes
2. Haploid
a) Cell w/ half the regular # of
chromosomes
b) Like gametes
3. Diploid
a) Cell w/ 2 sets of each chromosome
(1) 1 mom, 1 dad
b) Normal body cells
4. Homologous Chromosomes
a) Matching pairs of chromosomes
(1) Size
(2) Shape
(3) Genes
b) 1 from mom and 1 from dad
5. Tetrad
a) The 4 sister chromatids in a
homologous pair
E. What is Meiosis
1. Division of cells to make gametes
2. Cell splits twice to get haploids
F. Stages of Meiosis *Important
1. Meiosis I
a) Chromosomes line up in
homologous pairs
2. Meiosis II
a) Chromosomes line up single file
3. Prophase I
a) Homologous pairs finding each other
b) Genetic material exchanged
(1) Called crossing-over
4. Metaphase I
a) Homologous pairs(tetrads) line up in
middle
b) Spindles attach and all that
5. Anaphase I
a) Homologous pairs pulled apart

IV.

6. Telophase I
a) 2 new haploid cells
(1) the # of
chromosomes
7. Prophase II
a) Prep like mitosis
b) Theres two cells now
8. Metaphase II
a) Chromosomes line up single file
(1) Like mitosis
9. Anaphase II
a) Chromosomes pulled apart
b) Cells briefly become diploids
10. Telophase II
a) 4 new haploid cells
b) Each w/ half the regular # of
chromosomes
Intro to Genetics
A. Terminology *Important
1. Genes
a) Factors that control traits
b) Found on chromosomes
2. Allele
a) Each trait has 2+ alleles that control
it
b) Different forms of a gene
c) Ex.: f, T, i, I, L
3. Dominant
a) Capital letter, T
b) Always expressed
c) BB, Bb,
4. Recessive
a) Lower case, t
b) Only expressed if both alleles are
recessive
c) tt
5. Homozygous
a) Both alleles are the same
b) Homozygous dominant
(1) BB, AA, TT
c) Homozygous recessive
(1) bb, aa, tt
6. Heterozygous
a) Each allele is different
b) Bb, Aa, Tt
7. Phenotype
a) Physical trait expressed by gene
b) Brown eyes, blonde hair
8. Genotype
a) The genetic makeup of an organism

b) BB, TT, Tt
B. Gregor Mendel
1. Father of Genetics
2. Tested pea plants
a) Height
b) Seed shape
c) Color, etc
3. Plant reproduction
a) Self-pollination
(1) Pollen(male) fertilizes
ovule(female) of the same plant
(a) Purebr
ed
b) Cross-Pollination
(1) Pollen fertilizes ovule
of different plant
(a) Hybrid
4. But why the pea plant?
a) No intermediate traits
(1) Very contrasting
b) Self-Pollinates
c) Grows easily
C. Law of Segregation
1. For each trait a parent gives one allele
2. The parents alleles separates
3. BB + bb = Bb
D. Punnett squares
1. Diagram used to show outcomes of a cross
2. Shows genotype and phenotype ratio of offspring
3. Monohybrid cross
a) Cross of one trait
b) 2x2 square
4. Dihybrid cross
a) Cross of 2 traits
b) 4x4 square
c) Law of independent assortment
(1) Each trait is inherited
separately from other traits
d) FOIL *Important
(1) First alleles
(2) Outside alleles
(3) Inside alleles
(4) Last alleles
E. Genetic traits
1. Tongue rolling
2. Widows peak
3. Earlobe attachment
4. Hitchhikers thumb
5. Bent little finger
6. Mid-digital hair

V.

7. Facial dimples
8. Hallux length
9. Index finger length
10. PTC tasting
Beyond Mendelian genetics
A. Chromosome theory
1. Genes are a series of DNA bases
2. Genes control traits
3. Genes are located on chromosomes
a) In nucleus
B. Complex Gene Interactions *Important
1. Polygenic Inheritance
a) Many genes control 1 trait
b) Eyes, hair, skin
2. Incomplete Dominance
a) Neither allele is dominant;
intermediate trait is expressed
b) Red and white snapdragon cross;
offspring is pink
3. Codominance
a) Both alleles are dominant; both traits
shown
b) black + white = Black and white
c) Checkered chicken / roan cow
C. Kinds of chromosomes *Important
1. Autosomes
a) Chromosomes with normal body
genes
b) Humans have 44
2. Sex Chromosomes
a) 2 mismatched chromosomes
b) Determine gender and other traits
c) X chromosome
(1) Large
(2) Carries lots of traits
(3) Female
chromosome
d) Y chromosome
(1) Itty bitty
(2) Carries only male sex
traits
D. Gender Inheritance
1. Guys have XY chromosomes
2. Girls have XX
3. 50% either way
a) Not cumulative
E. Sex-linked traits
1. Also called x-linked
2. Genes for traits on sex chromosomes
a) No traits on Y

F. 4 Inheritance Patterns
1. Autosomal dominant
a) Trait is carried on autosome
b) Trait is dominant
2. Autosomal recessive
a) Trait is on autosome
b) Trait is recessive
3. X-Linked Dominant
a) Carried on sex chromosomes
(1) Only on X
chromosome
b) Trait is dominant
4. X-Linked Recessive
a) Carried on sex chromosomes
(1) Only on X
chromosome
b) Trait is recessive
5. X-Linked Examples
a) Colorblindness
(1) X-Linked recessive
b) Hemophilia
(1) X-Linked recessive
G. Other human traits
1. Sickle-Cell Anemia
a) Autosomal Codominance/Incomplete
Dominance
b) Red blood cells irregular
(1) Cant carry O2
c) HAHA normal blood
d) HSHS Severe sickle cells
e) HAHS Mild w/ sickle and regular cells
2. Blood types*Important
a) Autosomal codominant/multiple
alleles
b) Type A, B, O, or AB
c) Rh + or d) O can donate to anything
e) AB can receive anything
f) Rh- can go into Rh+, but not the
other way around
g) O- is universal donor
h) AB+ is universal recipient
i) Type O is recessive, i
j) Type A is dominant, IA
k) Type B is dominant, IB
l) AB is codominant
H. Mutations
1. Change in chromosomes or genes
2. Chromosome Mutations

a) Change in structure or # of
I.

chromosomes
5 Chromosome mutations *Important
1. Deletion
a) Part of chromosome is left out
2. Duplication/Insertion
a) Part of chromosome is repeated
3. Inversion
a) Part of chromosome is
reversed/desrever
4. Translocation
a) Part of chromosome breaks off and
joins elsewhere
5. Nondisjunction
a) Homologous pairs dont separate in
meiosis
6. Trisomy
a) One chromosome pair has 3
chromosomes
b) Nondisjunction
c) Down, Klinefelter
7. Monosomy
a) One chromosome is missing
b) Nondisjunction
c) Turner syndrome
8. Triploidy
a) Only in plants
b) An entire extra set of chromosomes
c) Nondisjunction
9. Examples
a) Turner
(1) Missing X
chromosome
(2) Only in females
(3) Nondisjunction
b) Klinefelter
(1) Guy has 2 Xs
(2) XXY
(3) Only in dudes
(4) Nondisjunction

J. Gene Mutations *Important

1. Mutation at gene level
2. Single DNA base
3. Point mutation
a) Single DNA base is exchanged
b) G for T, or A for C, etc.
c) Affects a single amino acid

4. Frameshift mutation
a) A DNA base is inserted
b) Shifts over entire gene
c) Affects all amino acids and codons
K. Karyotype
1. Diagram of someones genes
2. Shows chromosomal mutations
a) Nondisjunction
b) Deletion
c) Duplication
d) Inversion
e) Monosomy and things like that
3. Arranged from largest to smallest
a) Sex chromosomes put in special

VI.

place
L. Pedigree *Important
1. Diagram showing relationships and tracks a certain
trait
Bacteria *Important
A. Scientific name - Moneran
B. Single-celled
C. Prokaryotic
D. Heterotrophic/Autotrophic
E. Smaller than Eukaryotes
F. Bacteria shapes
1. Bacillus/rod
2. Spirillus/spiral
3. Coccus/round
a) Diplococcus: In pairs
b) Streptococcus: Chains/lines
c) Staphlyococcus: Clusters
G. Bacterial Structure
1. DNA, single chromosome
2. Plasmids, little extra loops of DNA
3. Cell Wall
a) Made of peptoglycin
b) Some are double layered
c) Some are single layered
d) Gram Stain Test *Important
(1) Chemical test
(2) If bacteria stain
purple
(a) Single
layer
(b) Gram
Positive
(3) If they stain pink
(a) Double
layer

(b) Gram

VII.

Negative
H. Bacterial Movement
1. Flagella *Item of Interest
2. Snake-like organism
3. Excrete mucus and slide
4. Just dont move
I. Obtaining Energy
1. Autotroph
a) Makes own food
b) Can use light(Phototrophic)
c) Can use chemicals(Chemotrophic)
2. Heterotroph
a) Chemotrophicheterotrophs
(1) Uses chemicals to eat
things
J. Respiration
1. Obligate Aerobe
a) Need O2 to survive
2. Obligate Anaerobe
a) Cant or dont use O2
b) Might even be poison
3. Facultative Anaerobe
a) Can do both
K. Reproduction
1. Binary Fission
2. Genetic Recombination
a) Conjugation
(1) 2 Bacteria exchange
genetic material
b) Transformation
(1) Bacteria suck up DNA
from environment
c) Transduction
(1) Transfer of DNA
through a virus
3. Endospore formation *Item of Interest
a) Thick wall
b) Resists harsh conditions
(1) Boiling, radiation, acid
c) Can be revived after centuries
Viruses *Important
A. Smaller than bacteria
1. Need electron microscope to see
B. Not considered living
1. Not made of cells
2. Dont grow and reproduce
a) Reproduce by infecting cells
3. Not directed by DNA
C. Come in a crap-ton of shapes

VIII.

IX.

Bacteria, Viruses, and Humans

A. Bacteria play an important role in industry
B. Bacteria and viruses are critical in research
C. Kochs Postulates *Item of Interest
1. Isolate the pathogen
2. Grow the pathogen
3. Infect healthy animal
4. Isolate same pathogen
D. Bacteria cause diseases by destroying body cells and making
toxins
E. Antibiotics increase bacterial resistance
F. Viruses reproduce inside host cells
1. Makes it hard to create a drug that wont also hurt
host cell
G. Emerging diseases are diseases that come out because of
environmental changes
Protists *Important
A. Eukaryotes that cant be classified as
1. Plants
2. Animals
3. Fungi
B. Very diverse
C. Endosymbiont Hypothesis
1. The complex organelles of protists came from
bacteria living in a host cell
D. Ciliates
1. Use cilia to move
E. Kinds of Protists
1. Animal-Like
a) Digest food
b) Mobile
c) Paramecium *Item of Interest
(1) Long
(2) Engulf food
(3) Digest w/ lysosome
(4) Eject out anal pore
d) Sarcodina
(1) Move w/ pseudopod
(2) Project cytoplasm
and cell follows
(3) Feeds w/
phagocytosis
(4) Amoeba *Item of
Interest
e) Flagellates
f)

(1) Use flagella

Sporozoans

(1) Use spores to

reproduce
(2) Dont move
(3) Parasitic/Cause
disease
2. Plant-like
a) Photosynthesis
b) Cell wall
c) Euglena *Item of Interest
(1) Big red spot
(a) Detect
s light
(b) Uses
photosynthesis
d) Chrysophyta
(1) DIATOMS *Item of
Interest
(2) Glass-like wall
e) Dinoflagellates
(1) Red tide
f) Red algae
g) Brown algae
h) Green algae
(1) SPIROGYRA
3. Fungus-like
a) Cellular slime mold
(1) Single celled protist
(2) Live in colonies like
primitive multiceller
b) Acellular
(1) Single celled protist
(2) Many nuclei
c) Slimy mold
(1) Plasmodium
d) Water molds
e) Downy mildew *Item of Interest
(1) Cover grapes
X.

Fungi *Important
A. Threadlike bodies
B. Chitinous cell wall
C. Heterotrophs
D. Eukaryotic
E. Multicellular
F. Depend on food
1. Saprophytes
2. Obtain food from decaying matter
G. Absorb food through cell wall
H. Organisms of decay
I. Reproduction
1. Sexually

a) Hyphae
(1) Hyphae in stem
2. Asexually
a) Spores
b) Spores made in sporangia
J. MYCELIUM *Item of Interest
K. Yeast
1. Unicellular stage of fungi
2. Asexual reproduction
a) Budding
L. Mold
1. Mature stage
2. Asexual
M. Chytridiomycota
1. Protist like fungi
2. Aquatic fungi
3. Ex. water molds
4. Many unicellular
5. Produce spores and gametes w/ flagella
N. Zygomycota
1. Common molds
2. Ex. black bread mold
3. Many unicellular
4. Form spores
O. Ascomycota
1. Sac fungi
2. Largest phylum of kingdom fungi
a) Over 30,000
3. Cup fungi, morels, yeast
4. Sexual and asexual - most asexually
P. Basidiomycota
1. Most mushrooms are in this phylum
2. Name comes from specialized reproduction system
basidium
a) Resemble club
3. Coral fungus, jelly fungi, shelf fungi, toadstools,
puffballs
Q. Basidiocarps
1. Form at outer edges of mycelial matts
2. Grow out from center point
3. Grow in rings
R. Deuteromycota
1. Fungi that cant go anywhere else
2. Resembles ascomycetes, basiomycetes
3. Not zygomycetes
4. Ringworm, tomato blight, athletes foot
S. Ecological Significance
1. Fungi recycles organic material
2. Without it
a) Dead stuff everywhere

3. Thats found in the few places without fungus

4. Spores easily airborne