PROJECT WORK

OF
IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT
FOR
SUMMER TRAINING
FROM 13 JUNE 2016 TO 13 JULY 2016

SUBMITTED TO :

SUBMITTED BY :

IRRIGATION DIVISION

SACHIN BISHT

(UTTARKASHI)

(COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ROORKKE)

PREFACE

The main objective of the project is to make

the basic Concept of all my topics clear and
interesting for the Readers. An attempt has
been made to organize the Contents carefully
and present them in simple language.
Through the help of pictures, a conscious
effort has been Made to provide clear
explainations for all aspects of the Topics.
Detailed knowledge of topics is provided
here.

Sachin bisht
Student of COER

1.

About Irrigation

Irrigation comes from Latin word meaning A Supplying of water to land. It is a

process where water is supply to one place to another where the water not available to
fulfilled the need of people of that area.
As we know about that plants are also a living beings and it can require water and air.
The requirement of water varies from its type and according to its daily use or
purpose. Different types of plants requires different amount of water at different times.
The sources of water is rain, reservoir, flood water, rivers etc. The flood water is
stored for the time of dry season. In DRY SEASON, the water is not required in
proper amount for plants, human beings. So storing of water is useful because it can
fulfilled the need of plants and human beings for its in daily purpose. Sometimes
excess amount of rain can cause serious flood and damaging of crops. India is a
tropical country.
Here,
70%
peoples livelihood
directly
depend
upon the crops.
But, rest of 30%
indirectly depends
upon the crops. So
excess of rain can
damage the dreams
of more and more
people.
But
scarcity of water
is also a measure
problem, if the
crops and human
beings not get water according to its need then it also create problem so much and
crops get damages. So as for it Tubewells, Reservoir, Wells, Tanks, etc. are used.
Canal system is structure made to make division from river to provide water to crops.
It is a simple method to fulfiled the need for crops and they can provide food. A
Regulator is attached in the starting of division that can regulate the flow of water i.e.,
good for discharge value. Canal system is also help to avoid damaging of crops from
heavy rainfall. It can divided that water into different lines which can dissipates its
energy and no loses of crops occur. Irrigation is mostly used by engineers to build
dams create reservoir and canals that would carry water across the lands. So, the

people easily get the water for its crops according to its needs. So, the canal system
can easily access the water in the different part of field.
Irrigation is defined as the science of artificial application of water to land, In
accordance with the crop requirement of the water in the crop period of time for
proper nourishment.

What were the reasons behind the invention of irrigation :

In ancient times, the people were not lived near the water resources. So, they used to
face many problem that times. They thought about how the water requirement can be
fulfilled for their needs, Because that time the rainfall was an alternate to fulfilled it.
Then they added it for their agriculture as a form of irrigation. So, the irrigation
techniques were developed and made their works easier in agriculture and daily lives
like to drink, to wash, etc. for many other purposes. The main advantage of this
technique is to impart a better way to survive and work for their survival. We can say
that people were fully dependable on rainfall to store and then execute it for their
purposes.

Irrigation changed the world today

In todays world people not depend on rainfall for cultivation and other purpose. There
need should be fulfilled through the technique introduced by engineers. Now they can
store water, the water is available as nearer to it, the structures made which can supply
the water etc. Irrigation is a best method introduced by engineers for which can secure
more lives because by this technique more and more area can cultivated at a time and
must have regular amount of food regularly and get different types of according to
season.

Methods of irrigation
NLFASM
tailueb
fitorhS
iuIwadr
Irco
iarIe
aIirg
irga
ngai
atgn
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a
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a) Flow Irrigation - It is a method of irrigation in which water is supplied over the

soil surface by gravity. It is a common method all over. The 90% of farming depend
upon this type of irrigation and that water is supplied to the lower level by the action
of gravity.
b) Lift Irrigation - It is a type of irrigation method that is used where water is
available at lower level and that water is supplied to the higher level by the action of
pump.
2) Sub - Surface
Irrigation - It is a type
of irrigation method that
is used when the soil
surface does not wet.
The underground water
nourishes the plants
roots by the action of
capillarity.
a) Natural Irrigation leakage water from
channels
etc
goes
underground
and
passage through the
sub-soil, it may irrigate
crops, sown on lower lands, by capillarity. Sometimes, leakage causes the water-table
rises up which helps in irrigation on the crops by the capillarity action.
b) Artificial Irrigation -When the system of jointed drains is artificially laid below
the soil, so as to supply water to the crops by capillarity, then that is called artificial
sub-irrigation. It is a very costly process and hence, adopted in India on a very scale.
DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CANALS
Irrigation canals:The canals used for irrigation purpose are called irrigation canals. Canals may be
defined as artificial channels constructed on the ground to carry water from one place
to the other. The canals may be classified as an alluvial or non-alluvial canal which is
based on the nature of source of supply. It may be termed as inundation or a
permanent canal. Depending on how the water is fed from one system to another.

Classification of canal:5

1. Alluvial Canal- A canal flowing through alluvium soil (silt, sand and gravel) is
called an alluvial canal. A canal flowing through such sediments transports some of
this material along with the flowing water. These canals take supplies from rivers
which carry sediments rolling on the bed or held in suspension, which is passed on to
the offtaking canals. If the velocity in a canal is very high, the suspension particles are
not deposited, but if the velocity is very low, the sediment held in suspension will get
deposited.
2. Non-Alluvial canal - These canals are those that have been lined with some
suitable material to provide a rigid bed banks so as to avoid the problems with alluvial
sides (boundaries) of a canal.
3. Inundations Canals- It is type of canals which depend for their supply on the
periodical rise in the water level of the river from which they are taken off. The
supplies of these canals are not always of the desired level. These canals are filled
with water in Rainy season or in the monsoon.
4. Permanent canal- A canal is said to be permanent when its source of supply is
sufficiently well assured so as to warrant the construction of a regular grade channel
supplied for regulation and distribution. These canals are provided with permanent
masonry head works, regulator and distribution works and are constructed with
engineer skills. The lining of the irrigation canal is also a protective work as it helps in
minimizing the chances of water-logging.
5. Productive canals- The canals, which indicate at the time of design and planning,
that the total income will exceed the annual maintenance charges, are called
productive canals.
6. Link or Feeder canal- Link canal supply water from a reservoir to another place
where from a given irrigation canal system is fed. These canals are used for diverting
surplus water from one source to another.

Concept of Irrigation Canal Alignment:

Now it is clear that the irrigation is flow type, should reach the field by gravity. To
determine this requirement is always aligned in such a way that water gets proper
command over the whole irrigable area. It should be kept in mind that proper
alignment of water should introduced good irrigation system.

Alignment of canals
(i) Watershed Canal or Ridge Canal
6

(ii) Contour Canal

(iii) Side-slope Canal

Watershed Canal or Ridge Canal

1) The dividing ridge line between the catchment areas of two streams (drains) is
called the Watershed or Ridge Canal.
2) Thus between two major streams, there is the main watershed (ridge line), which
divides the drainage area of the two streams, as shown in figure. Similarly, between a
main stream and any of its tributary, there are subsidiary watersheds (ridge lines),
dividing the drainage between the two streams on either side.
3) The canal

cost

which is aligned along any natural watershed (ridge

line) is called watershed canal, or a ridge canal.
Aligning a canal (main canal or branch or
distributory) on the ridge ensures gravity
irrigation on both sides of the canal.
4) Since the drainage flows away from the
ridge, no drainage can cross a canal aligned on the
ridge. Thus, a canal aligned on the watershed saves the
of construction of cross-drainage works.

Contour Canal
Watershed canal along the ridge line are, however, not found economical in hill areas,
since the conditions in hills are vastly different compared to those of plains. In hills,
the river flows in the valley well below the watershed. Infact, the ridge line
(watershed) may be hundred of meters above the river. It therefore becomes virtually
impossible to take the canal on the top of such a higher ridge line. In such conditions,
contours canals are usually constructed.

1) Contour channels follow a contour, except for giving the required longitudinal
slope to the canal.
2) Since the river slope is much steeper than the canal bed slope, the canal encompass
more and more area between itself and the river.
3) A contour canal irrigates only on side because the area on the other side is higher,
as can be seen in figure below.

Side-Slope canal:
A side slope canal is that which is aligned at right angles to the contours i.e. along the
side slopes, as shown in figure. Since such a canal runs parallel to the natural drainage
flow, it usually does not intercept drainage channels, thus avoiding the construction of
cross-drainage structures.
It is a canal which is aligned roughly at right
angles to contours of the country but not on
watershed or valley. The canal thus runs
roughly parallel to the natural drainage of
the country and as such cross drainage
works are avoided. The side slope channel
has the advantage of not intercepting cross
drainage works but its course must follow
the shortest route the nearest valley and such
channel shall be along a line of steeped
possible slope except in very flat areas.
Definition of Important Terms

1) Gross Command Area- The whole area enclosed between an imaginary

boundary lines which can be included in an irrigation project for supplying
water to agricultural land by the net work of canals is known as gross command
area. It includes both the cultivated and uncultivated areas.
2) Uncultivable Area- The area where the agriculture cannot be done and crops
cannot be grown- marshy lands, barren lands, ponds, forest, villages etc, are
considered as uncultivable area.
3) Cultivable area- it defined as the type of area where the agriculture can be
done satisfactorily, it means the need of crops easily fulfilled.

4) Cultivable Command Area- It is defined the total area within which an

irrigation project where the cultivation can be done and crops can be grown.
5) Intensity of Irrigation- It is defined as the ratio of cultivated land for a
particular crop to the total cultivable command area.
Intensity of Irrigation,(I)= Cultivated Land/CCA

*******

2.
SURVEYING
The art of measuring the distances and angles on ground in such a way that it becomes
reproducible on a map which is drawn to scale later on that is called Surveying.
Knowing about the relative position of various objects, determination of distances
between them, measurement of angles and height, measurement of boundaries and
relative heights of various points come under the preview of surveying.
9

Surveying has been an element in

the development of the human
environment since the beginning
or recorded history. The planning
and execution of most of
construction require it. It is also
used in transport, communication,
mapping and the definition of
legal
boundaries
for
land
ownership. It is an important tool
for search in many other scientific
disciplines.
It is very essential to mark the
various points on the land,
boundary lines of the proposed
construction sites and levels (Heights) of the various locations before starting the
construction of building, bridge, embankment, railway line etc.

Classification of Surveying:
a) Compass Survey- In this survey either Trough Compass or Prismatic Compass are
used. The angles are measured as internal angles using those apparatuses and the
lengths between various points are measured by using measuring tapes.
b) Plane Table Survey- This type of survey is conducted by using a drawing board
mounted on a Tripod stand, Control over the point situated on the ground which is
called station. An alidade is used to draw line parallel to the line between the two
existing stations A and B. The alidade has a slit on the observation side and a thread
(Vertical) on the object side. Only one side of the alidade is used (usually right hand
side). The lines are drawn to the selected scale on the drawing paper pasted on the
drawing board of the plane Table. This type of survey is called Plane Table Survey
c) Levelling- Relative heights of different points situated on the ground is measured
by this apparatus. This help to know as to by how much amount a point is either
higher or lower with respect to each other and standard benchmark. Levelling is a
method conducted by apparatus called Dumpy Level or by a modern method called
Total station
In the Dumpy level the line of collimation is made horizontal by using the bubble of
the sprit level which comes into middle when the horizontal is achieved. This is done
by using leveling screens. In automatic leveling machine a rough horizontal is
achieved by using sprit level and finally fine tuning is done in an automatic manner.
10

After achieving, the horizontality of line of collimation. The instrument is turned 360
degree. The imaginary plane formed by the rotation of line of collimation by 360
degree is called the plane of collimation. All the readings of level are taken at this
plane of collimation by rotating the equipment horizontally.
In automatic machine (Total Station) it is possible to record the distance and height
electronically without actually measuring the distances on the ground.

Words Used in Leveling Survey Works:

1) Station- It is point on the ground where the leveling staff is kept (erect position) for
measuring the height of line of collimation.
2) Leveling staff- It is a collapsible 4 (five inch wide) wooden staff on which m, cm
and mm are marked.
3) Height of Instrument- The height of line of collimation with respect to reference
benchmark is called Height of Instrument.
4) Back Sight-When the leveling staff is kept erect at a point on the ground whose
level is already known by previous measurements whether done much earlier or
during the present survey after changing the instrument station, is called the Back
sight reading.
5) Fore Sight- It is the last reading taken on the leveling staff during level survey.
6) Intermediate sights (reading)- Reading taken on the leveling staff on any point on
the ground which in between back site reading and fore sight reading.
7) Reduced Level- Reduced level in surveying refers to equating elevations of survey
points with reference to a common assumed datum. It is a vertical distances between
survey point and adopted datum plane. Thus it is considered as the base elevation
which is used as reference to reckon heights or depths of other important places.
Reduced here means equating and level means elevations. Datum may be real or
imaginary location with a nominated elevation of straight zero.
8) Datum used- The most common and convenient datum which is internationally
accepted is mean sea level. Countries take their nearby sea levels as datum planes for
calculation of reduced level. The term reduced level is denoted shortly by RL. It is
called permanent benchmark (reference point) and this survey is known as Great
Trignometrical Surveying.
There two method by which the levels of different points situated on the ground.
These are:

11

1) Height of Instrument Method

2) Rise and Fall Method

Instrument used in surveying:

Staff
Tripod stand
Leveling staff
Tape or chain
d) Hydrographic survey- A survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the
shoreline and bed of a body of water. It is type of that is Used for navigation,
engineering, or resource management purposes. It is type of that tells how much part
excavated from seas and tells about the discharge and light hose place.
e) Mining Survey- It is type of survey that includes directing the digging of mine
shafts and galleries and the calculation of volume of rock. It uses specialized
techniques due to the restraints to survey geometry such as vertical shafts and narrow
passages.
f) Topographic survey- Determine natural features of a country such as Hills,
Valleys, Lakes woods etc and also arterial features such as Roads, Buildings, Canals,
Town etc. It comprises of the whole topography of the place or the country. It is type
of survey that measures the elevation of points on a particular piece of land, and
presents them as contour lines on a plot.
e) Chain Surveying-It is a type of survey that can be conducted with the help of
chain. Chain surveying is a type of survey in which the surveyors takes measurements
in the field and then completes plot calculations and other processes in the office.
Chain surveying is best used for smaller planes with few details. It is simple method
of surveying. It contains only linear measurements are made i.e. no angular
measurement are made.

Types of Chain:
1) Metric Chains
2) Steel band or Band Chain
3) Gunters Chain or Surveyors Chain
4) Engineers Chain
12

5) Revenue Chain
f) Contours- A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the
ground surface. It can also be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with
the ground surface.
For Example:
The line of intersection of the water surface of as till lake or pond with the
surrounding ground represents a contour line.

Uses of Contours
1) They can be used to learn about the shape of the land (the relief).
2) A map with only a few contour lines will be flat (and often low dying).
3) If a map has lots of contours it is a mountainous or hilly area.
4) The actual pattern of the lines will tell you more detail about the area too.

3.

CONCRETE

A composite material that consist essentially of binding medium, such as a mixture of

port land cement and water, within which are embedded particles or fragments of
aggregate, usually a combination of fine and coarse aggregate.

13

Concrete is by far the most versatile and most widely used construction material
worldwide. It can be engineered to satisfy a wide range of performance specifications,
unlike
other
building materials,
such as natural
stone
or
steel,
which
generally
have to be used as
they are. Because
the tensile strength
of concrete is much
lower
than
its
compressive
strength,
it
is
typically reinforced
with steel bars, in
which case it is known as reinforced concrete.
Materials :
A composite material is made up of various constituents. The properties and
characteristics of the composite functions of the constituent materials properties as
well as the various mix proportions. Before discussing the properties of the composite,
it is necessary to discuss those of the individual constituent as well as the effects of the
mix proportions and methods of production.
1) Cement - There are many kinds of cement but Portland cement is mostly used.
It is hydraulic cement which sets and hardens by chemical reaction with water
and is capable of doing so under water. Cement is one type of glue that binds
the concrete ingredients together and is instruments for the strength of the
composite, Portland cement is made up of four minerals components
(tri - calcium silicate, di - calcium silicate, tri - calcium aluminate and tetra
calcium alumino ferrite), each of which has its own hydration characteristics.
.

2) Aggregates- The aggregates is a granular material, such as sand, gravel,

crushed stone or iron-blast furnace slag. It is a graded by passing it through a
set of sieves with progressively smaller mesh sizes. All material that passes
through (4.75mm) is conventionally referred to as fine aggregate or sand, while
all material retained on the sieve #4sieve is referred as coarse aggregate, gravel,
or stone. By carefully grading the material set according to its need. It densely
packed then minimize the amount of cement paste needed and improved
14

durability and mechanical properties of concrete. The aggregates should control

the 75% of the volumes, so it can largely determine the properties of concrete.
Types of Aggregates:1) Fine Aggregates
2) Coarse Aggregates
3) Water- Water is a most important material in the concrete. The ratio of watercement should be correct propotion, if it is not perfect then it causes the
SEGREGATION and BLEEDING. If the value of water is low and value of
aggregates should maximum or not according to the correct proportions then it
create the problem in placing, this problem is called segregation, If the value of
water is maximum and value of aggregates is low or not according to correct
proportions then this create problem at the time of placing. This problem is
called bleeding. So it is necessary to take the ratio of water-cement-aggregates
in given proportions.

Types of process used for manufacture of concrete

MTBP
CCira
uolt
axra
mic
nic
pnh
sni
agi
pgn
con
tgg
r
i
t
o
n

B a t c h in g Tr a n s p o r t
M ix in g
C u r i n g P la c i n g
C o m p a c t io n

1) Batching It is the first step in the manufacture of concrete. It is a type of process

which judge the measurement of specified quantity used of aggregates, cement, and
admixtures that is ingredients of concrete in correct proportion. The process tells about
the relative proportion of quantities which are used to be correct, if it is not correct
then it create too much problem.
Types of Batching Process:
a) Volumetric batching
b) Mass basis weight batching
2) Mixing It is the second step in the manufacture of concrete. After batching when
the appropriate quantity of materials taken, then its time to mix them. If the amount
15

of all quantities should be in correct in proportion then it can be thoroughly mixed and
by this production of uniformly quality concrete obtained.
Type of Mixing :
a) Hand Mixing
b) Machinery Mixing
3) Transport - It is also a part of manufacturing in which the concrete mix is defined
as the transferring of concrete from the mixing plant to the construction site. Keep in
mind that not all
concrete is mixed on
the
actual
construction site and
could require some
significant
travel.
This is the most
common for readymix concretes. The
main objective in
transporting
concrete is ensure
that
the
watercement ratio, slump
or consistency, air
content and homogeneity are not modified from intended states.
Modes of Transportation :
1) Wheelbarrow
2) Truck mixer
3) Bucket
4) Chute

5) Belt Conveyor

4) Placing- The placing sequence rate and layer thickness must be controlled to ensure
that consolidation is effective and complete. Most surface defects are related to
incorrect placement, and the inability of the poker to expel air and effectively
consolidate. The poker vibrator cannot rectify what poor placement has done. Where
chutes are used for placing the concrete, they should not cause Segregation. Baffles
and spouts should be used to minimize segregation.

16

5) Curing - Curing is the process of limiting early loss of water from concrete. The
best form of curing is to keep a component immersed under water for at least 7 days.
Losing too much water too early in the life of concrete component causes high creep
and shrinkage, and may even cause a significant loss of strength. Most important is
that the poor curing determine the durability of concrete, mainly the outer concrete
which is required to provide protection to the reinforcement embedded. Mostly, longer
the life period of curing, the better will be the quality of concrete.
There are two general forms of curing * Keeping all concrete surfaces wet to prevent moisture loss.
* Creating a barrier to prevent moisture loss.

6) Compaction - It is defined as the concrete after placing should be well compacted,

which shows its durability and workability. Concrete should be fully compacted by
vibration. Where other methods of compaction are used, refer to specialist literature.
Internal vibrator should operate at more than 10000 rpm while external vibrator
attached to the formwork should operate at more than 3000 rpm. External vibrator
should ensure efficient compaction. Vibrators should be operated by experienced
workmen. There should be sufficient vibrators available in sites.

Grades of Concrete
Concrete is graded according to its compressive strength. As per IS 456:2000 the
concrete mixes are designed into fifteen grades.
In designation of a concrete mix, the letter M refers to mix and the number to the
characteristics compressive strength of 15cm cube at 28 days after mixing in N/mm 2
(MPa). The characteristics strength is defined as the strength of material below which
not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. The strength of concrete at 28
days as percentage of strength at one year is 80%.

The various grades of concrete are:

Groups

Designation

17

Characteristics Compressive
Strength

M10
10

Ordinary Concrete
15

M15
M20

20

M25
25
Standard Concrete

M30

30

M35

35

M40

40

M45

45

M50

50

M55
M60

55

High Strength
Concrete

60
M65

65

M70

70

M75

75

M80

80

18

4.

CEMENT

The hydraulic cement made by finely pulverizing the clinker produced by calcinating
to incipient fusion a mixture of argillaceous and calcareous materials. Mostly the
cement used is Portland cement. It is the cement which is fine gray powder that is the
active ingredient in concrete.
Basic chemical components of Portland cement:
*Calcium
*Silicon
*Aluminum
*Iron
Raw materials used:
*Limestones
*Sand
*Shales, clay
*Iron ore/mill scale
Process to make Portland cement :
LIMESTONES + Shale/Clay + Heat of temperature exceeded 2700 F = Clinker + Exit
Gas + Gypsum = PORTLAND CEMENT

Types of Cement Process 1) Wet process

2) Dry process

Types of cement:(i) Ordinary Portland cement- These are available in many grades, namely 33 grade,
43 grade, 53 grade etc. If 28 day strength is not less than 33N/mm2 then it is called
cement. If 28 day strength is not less than 43N/mm2 then it called 43grade cement. Use
of higher grade cement offers many advantageous for making stronger concrete.
Although they are little costlier than low grade cement, they offer 10 to 20% saving in
the cement consumption and also they offer many other hidden benefits. One of the
19

most important benefits is the faster rate development of the strength, used for
ordinary works.
(ii) Rapid Hardening cement- As the name indicated it develops the strengths rapidly.
This cement develops at the age of 3 days, the same strength as that expected of
ordinary Portland cement at 7 days. The rapid rate of development of the strength is
due to the higher fineness and higher C3S and lower C2S. Used for the Road repair
work, early removal of the formwork, cold weather concrete.
(iii) Sulphate Resisting cement- OPC is successible to the sulphate attack. Sulphate
react with the free calcium hydroxide to form calcium sulphate and the hydrate of
calcium aluminate to form calciumsulphoaluminates., the volume of which is
approximately 22.7% of the volume of the original aluminates. Their expansion results
in cracks. To remedy of this to use the cement with the low C3A is recommended.
Such cement with low C3A and content is known as the Sulphate resisting cement.
Used for marine conditions, Foundation in soil infested with sulphates, concrete used
for the fabrication of pipes etc
(iv) Quick setting cement- As the name indicates this type cement set quickly. This
property is brought out by reducing the gypsum content at the time of the clinker
grinding. This cement is required to mix, place and compacted very easily. Used for
the underwater construction.
(v) Super sulphated cement Super sulphated cement is manufactured by grinding
together a mixture of 80 to 85% of the granulated slag, 10 to 15% of the hard burnt
gypsum, 5% Portland cement clinker. This cement is high sulphate resistant. Because
of this property it is used for the Foundation where chemically aggressive condition
exists.
(vi) Low heat cement- Hydration of the cement is exothermic process which liberates
high quantity of the heat. This will cause the formation of the cracks. A low heat
evolution is brought by reducing the C3A and C3S which are the compounds evolving
the greater heat of hydration and increasing C2S. Rate of evolution of heat of
hydration, therefore will be less and evolution of heat will extend over a large period.
Therefore Low heat cement rate of the development of the strength is very low. Used
for the mass construction works.
(vii) Portland Pozzolona cement- PPC is manufactured by intergrinding OPC clinker
with 10 to 25% of the Pozzolona material. PPC produces low heat of hydration and
offer greater resistance to the attack of the aggressive water than OPC. Used for the
mass construction works, marine and hydraulic works.
(vii) Air entraining cement- This cement is manufactured by mixing small amount of
the air entraining agent with the OPC clinker at the time of grinding. At the time of
20

mixing this cement will produce air bubbles in the body of the concrete which will
modify the properties of the plastic concrete with respect to the workability,
segregation and bleeding
STONE MASONARY
Stone masonry is used for the construction of walls, columns, lintels, arches, beams
etc of a building. Stones are abundantly available in nature and when cut and dressed
to proper shapes, they provide an economical of various parts of building.

Materials use for stone masonry

1)
Igneous
Rock - It is
used
in
building
is
granite, which
was
formed
from fusion of
minerals under
great
heat
below
the
earths surface
many
thousands of
many
years
ago.
2) Sedimentary Rock - It was formed gradually over thousands of years from particle
of calcium carbonate or sand deposited by settlement in bodies of water. Gradually
layer of particles of lime or sand settled into depression in the earths surface and in
course of time these layers of lime or sand particles became compacted by the water
or earth above them.
3) Metamorphic Rock - Those that have been changed from igneous or sedimentary
stone or from earth into metamorphic stone by pressure, or heat or both in the earths
crust
Common Types of Stone Available 1) Granite
2) Sandstone
21

3) Limestone
4) Marbles
5) Slates

Type of Stone Masonry:

Masonry can be classified according to the thickness of joints, continuity of courses
and finish of face.
Broadly speaking there are two types of Stone Masonry:
1) Rubble Masonry - This consists of blocks of stones either undressed or roughly
dressed and having wider joints.
Types:
a) Random Rubble:
a. Uncoursed
b. Coursed
b) Squared Rubble
a. Uncoursed
b. Coursed
2) Ashlar Masonry This built of stones carefully dressed and has narrow joints.
Types:
a) Random rubble :
a. Uncoursed
b. Coursed
b) Squared Rubble
a. Uncoursed
b. Coursed
c. Built to regular courses

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5.
TEST ON CONCRETE
Sampling the first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This
should be done as soon as discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should
be representative of the concrete supplied. The sample is taken in one of the two ways:
For the purpose of accepting or rejecting the load: sampling after 0.2 cubic meter of
the load has been poured.
For routine quality checks: Sampling from three places in the load

a) Concrete Slump Test- This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly
made concrete. The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The
measured slump must be work if mixing should it thoroughly.

Workability of concrete is mainly affected consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in
workability. It can be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as
indicative of its workability.

b) The Compression Test- The compression test shows the compressive strength of
hardened concrete. The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can
reach in perfect conditions. The compression test measures concrete strength in the
hardened state. Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong test result can be
costly.
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The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on site is to make a
concrete cylinder for the compression test. The strength is measured in mega pascals
(MPa) and is commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at
28 days after mixing. The compressive strength is a measure of concrete ability to
resist loads which tend to crush it.

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6.

Flood Protection Work

What is Flood?
A flood is a natural event that can have far reaching effects on people and the
environment. If simply define the flood that is the flood is too much water in Wrong
Water.
What Causes Floods?
A flood is caused by a combination of heavy rainfall causing river/oceans to over flow
their banks and can happen at any time of the year, not just in the winter. Floods
generally develop over a period of days. When there is too much rainwater to fit in the
rivers and water spreads over the land next to it. However, they happen quickly when
lots of heavy rainfalls over a short period of time. These flash floods occur with little
or no warning and cause the biggest loss of human life than any other type of
flooding.
Coastal areas are also at risk from sea flooding, when storms and big waves bring
seawater onto land. The worst cases of flooding may occur if there is a combination of
storms, spring tides and low atmospheric pressure.

Flood protection workProtection work sub-divided into two main categories

(i) Bank protection- The armoring of wadi banks to resist erosion and subsequent loss
of land
(ii) Wadi training engineering works aims at encouraging wadi flow to follow a
designated course.

Launching Apron - It is a type of structure like embankment which is

constructed to transverse to river flood, extending from the banks into the river. It
is the structure of concrete that make a pathway for the flow of river. It mainly
used to protect the area from submergence due to rise in water caused afflux.
Foundation - Foundation is structure is always constructed below the ground
level so as to increase the lateral stability of the structure. It includes the
proportion of the structure below the ground level is built, so as to provide a firm
and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure on a large area of the

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soil lying underneath. The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called
foundation.
The low artificially built part of a structure which transmit the load of the
structure to the ground is called Foundation.
Types of foundation1) Shallow foundation
i. Spread foundation
ii. Grillage foundation
iii. Raft foundation
iv. Stepped foundation
v. Inverted arch foundation
2) Deep Foundation
i)
ii)
iii)

Pile Foundation
Well Foundation
Caisson Foundation

Flood Protection Work for Safety of Population and

Agricultural Land at both side of JALKUR River at
Dunda Block of under Chief Minister Announcement
Project flood protection work for safety of population and agricultural and at both side
at both side of Jalkur river Dunda Block. Construction of 3.60m high (above GL)
protection of wall of RR stone masonary in 1:5 cm in 1710.00m length, 3.0*1.5*1.5m
size CC block as launching apron Block.
Construction of 2.60m high (above GL) protection of wall of RR stone masonary in
1:5 CM in 330.00m length, 1.5*1.5*1.5m size CC block as Launching apron block at
Lwarkha Gadera a tributary of Jalkur River.
Costruction of 2.60m high (above GL) protection of wall of RR masonary in 1:5CM
in 690.00m length at Chari gad and Bogad tributary of Jalkur river. The Total cost of
project is 13.45 crore.

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Flood Protection along Jalkur gad to Protect village

Bharwad, Lodu or Dhoutri of Block Dunda, DistrictUttarkashi
HDROLIC DESIGN OF PROTYECTION WALL
Catchment Area (A) = 65Sq.Km
Peak Flood Discharge (Q) =C(A)771(National Institute of Hydrology)
Return period (T) =50 years
Coefficient for 50 Years return period (C) = 14.728
C = [-5.654+10.724{1/(T-1)}-165 ]
Discharge (Q) =368.04 cumecs
Design Discharge = 368cusecs
Silt Factor (f) = 15035

Scour Depth - Scouring is defined as a process due to which the particles of the
soil or rock around the periphery of the abutment or pier of the highway bridge
spanning over a water body ,gets eroded and removed over a certain depth called
Scour depth. Scouring usually occurs when the velocity of flowing water
increases or crosses the limiting value that the soil particles can easily handle.
The Laceys regime scour depth (Rr) is calculated as:
a) Rr =0.473(Q/f)1/3
b) Laceys Scour depth (R) = 1.35(q2/f)1/3
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R = (W/L)0.61 * Rr
W =width of alluvial stream
L = width of the stream at site

DESIGN FOR SCOUR DEPTH

By Lacey;s perimeter (P) =4.7585(Q)1/2 =91.12m
The bed width of River (B) =18m
the discharge intensity per metre bed width of River (q) = Q/B = 20.44 cumec/meter
Scour Depth ( R) =1.35* (q2/f)1/3 = 4.06m

STRAIGHT REACH
Taking 1.25 times of R
Hence, Scour depth (D) Scouring depth below H.F.L
= 1.25 * R =5.08m = 5.10m
H.F.L above bed of river (D1) = 3.00m
Depth of wall below Ground level (D2) =D-D1 = 2.08m =2.10m

Discharge- It is defined as the ratio of volume to time or the product of area and
velocity that is called Discharge.
Site Reading:

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1) Length = 10m
Width = 2m
Depth = 0.6m
Time =12second
Discharge =volume/Time
= 10*2*0.6/12 = 1m3/s
2) Length =6m
Width = 3m
Depth = 0.8m
Time=10second
Discharge = 6*3*0.8/10 = 1.44m3/s

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