1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1.Manufacturing Process:
Manufacturing Process is the process of converting the raw material into finished goods using
machines. The major process a component undergoes before being converted into a final
component are casting, machining, forming, joining, assembly and finishing. Classification of
manufacturing process: [1]

Fig.1.1. Types of manufacturing process

1.1.1.CASTING:
Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold cavity and allows it to solidify. The
solidified object is taken out from the mold either by breaking or taking the mold apart. The
solidified object is called casting and the technique followed in method is known as casting
process. Basic casting is shown in fig 1.2

Fig 1.2.Casting manufacturing process.[6]

Fig 1.3.Type of metal casting processes

I.Sand Casting:
The casting process, in which the castings are made using sand mold, is known as sand
casting process. It is the most common method of making casting, which accounts for about
75% to 80% of the total output of the casting processes. Steps in sand casting process: pattern
making, mould making, core making, melting and pouring of metal, cooling and
solidification of casting, cleaning and inspection of metal. Applications are: gear box
housing, machine tool bed, machine tool frames, gears, bearing housing, etc.
II. Special Casting Process:
As the sand casting process cannot produced the components with good dimensional
accuracy and good surface finish, so it cannot be used for making the precision castings. The
special casting processes are used for making the high precision casting.
i.Die Casting:
Die casting is the process of making the casting by injecting the molten metal under high
pressure of 10 to 210MPa, into hr permanent mould, called as die. It gives high dimensional
accuracy and good surface finish, can produced with intricate shapes of thin sections.
ii.Centrifugal casting:
Centrifugal casting is known as liquid forge casting. In this process mould is rotated at high
speed and molten metal is poured into it. Due to centrifugal force, the molten metal is
directed outward from the centre .Towards the inner surface of the mould with high pressure.
This process produces casting with greater accuracy and better physical properties. This
method is mainly suitable for producing casting of symmetrical shapes.
2

Table 1.1 Comparison between various casting processes. [2]

Process

Advantages

Disadvantages

Examples

Sand

Wide range of
metals, sizes, shapes,
low cost
better accuracy,
finish, higher
production rate
Wide range of
metals, sizes, shapes
complex shapes,
good surface finish
complex shapes, high
accuracy, good finish
complex shapes,
excellent finish
good finish, low
porosity, high
production rate
Excellent
dimensional
accuracy, high
production rate
Large cylindrical
parts, good quality

Poor finish, wide

tolerance

engine blocks,
cylinder heads

limited part size

connecting rods, gear

housings

patterns have low

strength
non-ferrous metals,
low production rate
Small sizes

cylinder heads, brake

components
prototypes of
mechanical parts
impellers, injection
mold tooling
Jewellery

Shell mold

Expendable Pattern
Plaster mold
Ceramic mold
Investment
Permanent mold

Die

Centrifugal

small parts,
expensive

gears, gear housings

Costly mold, simpler
shapes only
costly dies, small
parts, non-ferrous
metals

precision gears,
camera bodies, car
wheels

Expensive, limited
shapes

pipes, boilers,
flywheels

1.1.2.CUTTING:
Cutting or machining is the process of producing work piece by removing unwanted material
from stock of material, in the form of chips. This process is the most important because all
the products get their final shape and required size by metal removal, directly or indirectly.
The major drawback of the process is loss of material in form of chips. Bar stock, extrusions,
casting, forgings, and other forms can be further shaped by the cutting process. Material
cutting can therefore be considered a finishing process in the most cases. The various types of
cutting process are turning, drilling, milling, cut-off, broaching, grinding, shaping, honing.

Fig.1.4.Different cutting processes. [7]

I.Turning:
This operation is performed for producing a cylindrical surface by removing the excess
material from the workpiece. They are two types of turning are as:
(1) Rough turning.
(2) Finishing turning.
II.Drilling:
It is defined as workpiece is hold in a suitable device such as face plate, chuck and the drill is
hold in the sleeve or barrel of the tailstock.
III.Reaming:
It is performed on already drilled. In this operation various small amount material removed. It
is performed when a very high grade of surface finish and dimensional accuracy is required.[4]

1.1.3JOINING PROCESS:
Joining process is used for joining metal parts and in general fabrication work. Such
requirements generally occurs when large and lengthy sections are required or when several
pieces are to be joined together to fabricate a required structure. This processes are also
applied when stem or water tight joint are needed. Temporary or permanent type of fastening
is also enabled by these processes. The commonly used joining processes are as follows:
I.
II.
III.
IV.

Welding
Soldering
Brazing
Adhesive Bonding

I. Welding:
It is a joining process used for various materials. The large varieties of materials that can be
welded are metals and their alloys. The term welding is also applied to the joining of other
materials such as thermoplastics. Welding joins various metals with the help of a numbers of
processes in which heat is supplied either electrically or by using a gas torch. For joining two
4

or more pieces of metal together by one of the welding processes. For welding the most
essential requirement is heat. Pressure is also required, but not in all the processes. Basic
welding process is shown in fig 1.5. Various types of welding processesare:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Gas welding
Arc welding
Resistance welding
Solid state welding
Thermo - chemical welding process
Radiant energy welding process

Fig.1.5.
process.

Welding
[8]

II.

Soldering:
Soldering is the common process for joining steel, copper and other materials at a low
temperature. It is define as a group of joining processes wherein coalescence is produced by
heating to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a liquidus not exceeding
427C and below the solidus of the base metals. The filler metal is usually distributed
between the properly fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction. Soldering is divided
into two types:

Soft solder
Hard solder

II. Brazing:
Brazing is define as a group of joining processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating
to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a liquidus above 427C and below
the solidus of the base metals. In brazing, metallic parts are joined by a non ferrous filler
metal or alloy. Filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by
capillary attraction. Borax is commonly used flux in this process.
IV. Adhesive Bonding:
Adhesive bonding is the process of joining the materials by using adhesive. The term
adhesive includes substances such as glues, cements and other bonding agents. In this two
solid surfaces brought into contact. The microscope voids between two solid surfaces can be
filled with an adhesive fluid, to form a solid adhesive. A strong adhesive bond will be
5

developed and considerable energy will be required to separate two solid pieces. Adhesive
bonding is done as shown in fig 1.6. [2].

Fig.1.6.Adhesive Bonding. [9]

1.2.Forming:
Metal forming is the process in which the component of desired shape and size is obtained
through the plastic deformation of the metal or alloy under the action of externally applied
force. Metal forming processes can be carried out on the metal in hot or cold conditions. The
external force is applied on the metal during the metal forming may be: tensile force,
compressive force, shear force, or combinations of these forces.
During process, for deformation purpose, a tool is used which is called as die. It applies
stresses to the material to exceed the yield strength of the metal. Due to this, metal deforms
into the shape of the die. For better forming of metal, the desirable properties of the metal
are: low yield strength and high ductility. These properties are highly affected by temperature.
When temperature of the metal is increased, its ductility increases and yield strength
decreases. The other factor which affects the performance of the metal forming process are,
strain rate, friction, lubrication, etc. The various metal forming processes are: forging, rolling,
extrusion, wire drawing, deep drawing, bending, etc.

Fig.1.7 Different types Forming.

1.2.1. Hot Forming:
It is the mechanical working processes which are done above recrystallization temperature of
the metal are known as hot working processes. Some metals, such as lead and tin, have a
lowrecrystallization temperature and can be hot-worked even at room temperature, but most
commercial metals requiresome heating. Hot forming is done as shown in fig.1.8.

Fig.1.8. Hot
Forming.

[10]

However,
this
temperature
should
not be too
high to
reach
the
solidus
temperature;
otherwise the
metal
will burn and become unsuitable for use. The classification of hot working processes is given
as follows:

i . Hot forging:
7

It is process in which the parts are shaped by heating them in an open fire and shaping them
through applying compressive forces using hammers. Thus forging is defined as the plastic
deformation of metals at elevated temperatures into a predetermined size or shape using
compressive forces exerted by means of hand hammers, small power hammers, die, press or
upsetting machine. In forging process, material is heated to a temperature at which its elastic
properties completely disappear. This temperature known as forging temperature and it varies
from material to material. At forging temperature, material becomes soft. When the
compressive force is applied on the material at forging temperature, it plastically deform in
the direction of the least resistance without fracture.
ii. Hot Rolling
Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by plastic deformation
through compressive stresses using two or more than two rolls. It is one of the most widely
used of all the metal working processes. The main objective of rolling is to convert larger
sections into smaller sections which can be used either directly in as rolled state or as stock
for working through other processes. Rolling is done as shown in fig 1.9

Fig.1.9. Hot

rolling. [11]

iii.Hot

piercing:

Hot piercing
is also known as
seamless
tubing or roll
piercing
process. It is
used
for
making
thinwalled
round
objects.
Seamless
tube forming is
popular and economical process in comparison to machining because it saves material wasted
in boring of parts.

Fig. 1.10.Piercing. [12]

iv. Hot extrusion:
It is the process of enclosing the heated billet or slug of metal in a closed cavity and then
pushing it to flow from only one die opening so that the metal will take the shape of the
opening. The pressure is applied either hydraulically or mechanically. Tubes, rods, hose,
8

casing, structural shapes, aircraft parts, gear profiles, cable sheathing etc. are some typical
products of extrusion.

Fig.1.11.
process. [13]

Extrusion

v.Hot drawing
Drawing
is
pulling
of
metal through a
die or a set
of
dies
for
reducing the
diameter.
Another
method used in
hot drawing
or shaping of materials where the heated blank is placed over the die opening the punch
forces the blank through the die opening to form a cup or shell. Kitchen utensils and
components of food processing industries are manufactured by this process.
vi.Hot spinning:
Hot spinning is a process in which pressure and plastic flow is used to shape material.
Spinning may be either hot or cold and is generally carried over a spinning lathe. In both
cases, the metal is forced to flow over a rotating shape by pressure of a blunt tool. The
amount of pressure of the blunt tool against the disc controls the generated heat, which helps
in forming processes. Spinning operation is shown in fig1.12

Fig.1.12. Spinning Process. [14]

1.2.2.Cold forming:
Cold working of a metal is carried out below itsrecrystallisation temperature. Normal room
temperatures are ordinarily used for cold working. In cold working, recovery processes are
not effective.Commonly employed cold working processes are:
i. Cold Rolling

Cold rolling process setup is similar to hot rolling. Bars of all shapes such as rods, sheets and
strips are commonly finished by rolling. Cold rolling metals has smooth bright surface finish
and they are good in physical and mechanical properties. If the objective is only to give a
clean, smooth finishing metal, only a superficial amount of rolling will be needed. Rolling is
shown in fig 1.13.
Fig.1.13. Cold

Rolling. [15]

ii.Bending:
Bendingis
the material into
The
various
are sheets, rods,
tubes. Formed
bending
the
the operation is
in many stages.
is shown in fig

employed to bend
desired
shapes.
stock
materials
wires, bars, pipes,
dies are used for
component
and
usually performed
Bending operation
1.14.

Fig.1.14. Bending process. [16]

iii.Cold drawing
It involves forcing of metal through small opening of die by means of a tensile force applied
to the exit side of the drawing die. It is the operation inwhich the metal is made to flow
plastically by applying tensile stresses to the metal. Drawing operation is shown in fig1.15.[4]

10

Fig.1.15. Drawing. [17]

1.3. Special Forming Process:

In special forming process, the source deformation is different than conventional forming
process. By using special forming process high accuracy and high speed of operation is
obtained. There are two types of special forming process:
11

I. High Velocity Forming (HVF)

II. High Energy Rate Forming (HERF)

Fig.1.16. Types of special forming processes.

I. High Velocity Forming:
In this process, the metal is deformed by using high velocity (movement ram or die), since
kinetic energy is directly proportional to velocity square, high energy (mechanical) can be
delivered to the metal with high velocity and less weight of ram. Also due to very high
acceleration, high velocities can be obtained by using short stroke of the ram, which makes it
possible to increase the production rate. In this method the energy stored in air or gas (at high
pressure) or the stored chemical energy of a hydrocarbon (petrol or diesel) can be used to
move the ram or die. HVF processes are as follows:

Petro-Forge Forming
Pneumatic Mechanical Forming
Blanking

II. High Energy Rate Forming:

This process is generally used for making sheet component. There are three types of HERF :
12

Chemical (Explosive) Forming

Electrical (Electro Hydraulic) Forming
Magnetic (Electromagnetic) Forming

1.4.High Energy Rate Forming Processes:

1.4.1.Introduction:
In these forming processes large amount of energy is applied for a very short interval of time.
Many metals tend to deform more readily under extra fast application of load. Due this,
processes are useful to form large size parts out of most metals, which are otherwise difficult
to form. The parts are formed at a rapid rate, so these processes are called High Energy Rate
Forming processes.
There are three main high energy rate forming processes:
I. Explosive forming (Chemical).
II. Electro hydraulic forming (Mechanical).
III. Electromagnetic Forming (Electrical).

Fig.1.17.Methods of High Energy Rate Forming. [18]

1.4.2. Important features of HERF processes:

13

 The energy of deformation is delivered at a much higher rate than in conventional practice.
Larger energy is applied for a very short interval of time.
High particle velocities are produced in comparison with conventional forming process.
Many metals are deforming easily under extra fast application of force.
Large parts can be easily formed by this technique.
The strain rate dependence of strength increases with increasing temperature.
I. Explosive Forming:
Explosive forming, is different from conventional forming by means of the punch is replaced
by an explosive charge. The explosives used are generally high explosive chemicals, gaseous
mixtures, or propellants. There are two techniques of high explosive forming: standoff
technique and the contact technique.

Fig.1.18. Standoff and Contact techniques. [19]

II. Electro Hydraulic Forming:

Electro hydraulic forming also known as electro spark forming. It is a process in which
electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy for the forming of metallic parts. A
bank of capacitors is first charged to a high voltage and then discharged across a gap between
two electrodes, causing explosions inside the hollow workpiece. The workpiece is filled with
some suitable medium, generally it is water. These explosions produce shock waves that
travel radially in all directions at high velocity until they meet some obstruction. If the
discharge energy is sufficiently high, the hollow work piece is deformed.[4]

14

Fig.1.19.Electro hydraulic forming. [20]

15

1.5.Electromagnetic Forming:
1.5.1. Introduction:
The electromagnetic forming (EMF) process is one of the most common high rate techniques.
Electromagnetic forming is also called Magnetic Pulse Forming (M.P.F). It was developed in
1960s, for shaping, forming, and assembling metallic parts. It is currently the most widely
used HERF process in industry. The source ofenergy used to deform the metal is an electrical
discharge. In this process, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by means of
magnetic field. It is the process of electrically forming using conducting metals of moderate
thickness by the use of a precisely controlled electromagnetic force. This process is primarily
used for three formingoperations, namely, sheet metal forming, tube expansion, and tube
compression.
During the EMF process, intense transient magnetic field produced around coil when the
discharge current runs through it. According to electromagnetic induction law of Faraday,
when the metallic object placed in magnetic field, eddy current will be produced. Two
opposite direction of flowing current created a large magnitude magnetic repulsion force
between the coil and the metal object (work piece). This force is used to form work piece at
very high speed. To deform solid conductors sufficient magnetic field strengths is required.
By using electromagnetic forming tubular components or hollow profiles can compressed,
expand, initially flat or three-dimensional sheet metals can be formed. On the basis of these
three different processes, there are three types of coils that are: expansion, compression and
flat. In the expansion, tubular work piece around the coil while in compression the coil
encloses the work piece. Electromagnetic forming with direct electrode contact is a variant
apart from these three major process variants. Current flow in the work piece is induced by
magnet.
The electromagnetic forming system has many advantages that make it an attractive
alternative to conventional forming systems (hydraulic, mechanic, etc.) or even to other
impulsive methods (mechanical, chemical or electrical forming). There is no mechanical
contact with the work piece; so lubricants are not needed and the process is cleaner and it is
possible to stamp the parts with the previous finish of the blank. The electromagnetic forming
process can be carried out even in a vacuum.
The formability limit is increased during electromagnetic forming due to high deformation
velocity, and the principal advantage of electromagnetic forming is its controllability and
repeatability, as most of the high velocity processes, while the required equipment is
relatively simple. Besides many advantages, electromagnetic forming has a few
disadvantages also: it needs special safety precautions (high voltage of operation) and the
required equipment is still expensive. There are size limitations for work pieces to be formed.

16

1.5.2. Principle:
When a current flow through a conductor, a magnetic field is established around the
conductor, and the strength of the field being proportional to the magnitude of the current. If
the current, due to which the magnetic field, changes a current is induced in any other
conductor placed in the magnetic field associated with it opposes the changing magnetic
field producing it. Interaction of the two magnetic fields causes the two conductors to be
repelled.[6]

Fig.1.20. Working of different coils of EMF. [26]

1.5.3. Working:
In this process, one conductor is a coil through which current is suddenly discharge. It gives
rise to a rapidly changing magnetic field.The work piece forms the second conductor, in
which eddy currents are induced. These give rise to second magnetic field, which interacting
with the first one, causes the workpiece to be repelled from the coil in a controlled manner at
high speed. Forming is achieved by virtue of the kinetic energy of the workpiece impinging
on a die. The repelling force between the two depends on the current induced in the
workpiece, and hence basically on the rate of change of current in the coil. Energy source is a
bank of capacitors charged to a predetermined voltage. Current is discharged very rapidly
through the coil by closing a switch. The link between the coil and the workpiece is purely
inductive there is no spark gap or shock wave transmission through water at there is in
electro-hydraulic forming.Working of different coils used in electromagnetic process.

17

This is process is primarily applied in the forming of good conductor materials such as:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Copper
Aluminum
Silver
Low carbon steel

The efficiency of the magnetic pulse forming depends upon the resistivity of the metal being
formed. For good results the resistivity of the material should be less than 15 micro-ohmcentimetres.In addition to being an electrical conductor, the workpiece must provide a
continuous electrical path the current in a cylindrical workpiece flows around the
circumference.
This process is used for expanding and shaping, tubing, coining and swaging. In this process
efficiency is the best when the gap between the coil or field shaper and the workpiece is a
minimum. A gap of about 0.6 mm is commonly used.
1.5.4. Type of Coils:
There are three types of coil most commonly used in electromagnetic forming that are:
Compression
Expansion
Flat Coil.
I. Compression Coil:
Compression coil enclose a portion of the workpiece as shown in fig. and are used to collapse
the workpiece inwards in a radial direction. They may have either a helical type construction
and can be designed as a specific shape or as general purpose coils for use with field
shapers.Compression coils, with or without field shapers, are used to produce structural joints
and seals, metal to ceramics seals, and swaged connections and to uniformly reduce the cross
sections oftubularshapes. The most common applications range in size from less than 3mm
to 610mm diameter.
II. Expansion Coil:
Expansion coil are inserted within tubular workpiece as shown in fig. and are used to expand
the workpiece outwards in a radial direction. Like compression coils, they may be built either
with single or multi turn, helical windings, as per the applications.Expansion coil are used
primarily to bulge, shape and flange tubular parts. Double coils have been built in sizes
suitable for forming tubing ranging in diameter from 38 outer diameter and having length up
to 610mm.

18

Fig.1.21.Three basic electromagnetic forming coils: (a) Compression coil, (b) Expansion
coil, (c)Flat coil. [27]
III. Flat Coil:
Flat coils have a spiral shaped winding and can be placed either above or below a flat
workpiece. In larger sizes, they have been made with two parallel spiral winding to provide
greater strength. As with compression and expansion coils, the winding is usually made of
beryllium copper. Typically, flat coils have a "dead" area in their centre in which no magnetic
pressure is developed. The size of this area depends on the individual coils design.
Flat coil are generally used in conjunction with a die to form, coin, blank, or dimple the
workpiece. Flat coils have also been used to correct unwanted local deformations in very
large parts.Flat coils are usually built in sizes to about 200mm diameter.[7]

Die Materials:
19

The die used in electro-magnetic process should be made of low electrical conductivity to
minimize the magnetic cushion effect. Dies are generally made of the following materials:
1. Steel
2. Epoxy resin
Steel dies have longer life. But the disadvantage of steel dies is that magnetic cushion effect
is not entirely prevented.
1.5.5. Process Variables in EMF:
i. Capacitor bank:
The energy storage capacity, E of a capacitor bank is given by Eq.(1.1)
E=

cv 2
2 ..(1.1)

Where, C is the capacitance and V is the maximum charging voltage. This usually lies
between 6 kJ and 20 kJ for units used for forming small components. The largest magnetic
forming unit known to exist has a storage capacity of 240 kJ. The large capacity banks have a
number of capacitors connected in parallel. The maximum charging voltage for the bank is
generally about 10 kV.
ii. Discharge current waveform:
In most applications, the primary circuit current waveform is a damped harmonic function.
The peak values of the current are typically between 10 kA and 200 kA and the frequency
varies between 10 kHz and 75 kHz. The peakvalue of the current generally becomes
unimportant to metal forming after 1.5 to 4 cycles.
iii. Forming Time:
The number of operations possible per hour is limited by the time required to charge up the
capacitor bank. This varies widely depending on the capacity of the bank and the charging
circuit. The cooling of the forming coils may also be a consideration in some cases. Typically,
a machine can be operated up to 600 - 1200 operations per hour. However, fully automated
equipment can reach up to 12,000 operations per hour.
iv. Work Piece Velocity and Strain rate:
The work piece velocity in a typical electromagnetic forming operation ranges from 50 m/s to
250 m/s. The strain rates are of the order of 103 or 104 /s.

v. Skin Depth:
20

It represents the depth (or thickness) to which an oscillating magnetic field can penetrate a
conductor. This, in turn, limits the depth up to which current is carried by the conductor. For a
non-magnetic material, the skin depth, m is given by Eq.(1.2),
m=

o s f ............................................... (1.2)

where s is the electrical conductivity of the material, f is the frequency of the oscillating field,
o
and
is the magnetic permeability of free space. As the skin depth increases, the
magnetic field losses increase. Hence, a small value for the skin depth is preferred. The skin
depth is usually controlled by varying the frequency.[7]
There are other parameters on which electromagnetic forming process is depending that are:
1. Work piece size.
2. The strength of the current, which decides the strength of the magnetic field and the
force applied.
3. Insulation on the coil.
4. Rigidity of the coil.
1.5.6. Energy interaction during electromagnetic forming:

Fig.1.22. Energy transfer during electromagnetic forming. [27]

21

In electromagnetic forming process initially the energy stored in the pulsed power generator
as capacitive energy. This energy is used to deform the work piece at the end.
A complex energy transfer is there in between these two stages. Only parts of stored energy
transfer to the coil and used to deform work piece. There are losses in between energy storage
and deformation of work piece (as in fig.1.21.). Figure mentioned the range of efficiency of
Ec
electromagnetic forming 10% to 40%. The Capacitor charging energy
first is
transferred into a magnetic pressure pulse p. This magnetic pressure pulse is transferred into
Ekin
kinetic energy
and then transferred into forming energy E . During deformation
process there is a moment when pressure has decreased to zero, the kinetic energy stored in
the work piece is used to finish the forming process.
Table.1.2.Comparison between Traditional Forming and Electromagnetic Forming
Process: [4][5]

Traditional Forming

Electromagnetic Forming

Tool

Must have Die and Punch

Single sided die

Alignment

Must be carefully alignment for Simple alignment

punch and die

Formability

Good material formability is Often

better
formability
required for dimensional accuracy
because of high velocity and
strain rate
Difficult because of tolerance Easy because of one sided die
requirements between die and
punch
High force required to produce fine Very fine detail easily produced
surface detail

Last Stage Change

Surface Detail

1.5.7. Advantages:

Improved formability.
Wrinkling can be greatly eliminated.
Close dimensional tolerances are possible as spring back can be significantly reduced.
Use of single sided dies reduces the tooling costs.
Applications of lubricants are greatly reduced or even unnecessary, so forming can be
used in clean room conditions.
The process provides better reproducibility, as the current passing through the forming
coils is the only variable need to be controlled for a given forming set-up. This is
controlled by the amount of energy discharged.
Since there is no physical contact between the work piece and die as compared to the
use of a punch in conventional forming process, the surface finish can be improved.
High production rates are possible.
Suitable for small tubes.
22

 Operations like collapsing, bending and crimping can be easily done.

The process is safer compared to explosive forming.
1.5.8. Limitations:

Applicable only for electrically conducting materials.

Not suitable for large work pieces.
Rigid clamping of primary coil is critical.
Shorter life of the coil due to large forces acting on it.

1.5.9. Applications:

Crimping of coils, tubes, wires.

Bending of tubes into complex shapes.
Bulging of thin tubes.

23

2. LITERATURE REVIEW:
In this literature review, different researches which are going on the electromagnetic forming
process are given. Some researches going on different parameters of electromagnetic forming
process.
D.Gayakwad et al., done a article on "A Review on Electromagnetic Forming Process"In this,
electromagnetic forming is reviewed by doing research work on parameters related to acting
load, work piece deformation, interaction between load parameters and work piece
deformation, behaviour of materials, energy interaction during the process and research
regarding the principle and application of electromagnetic forming.It is observed that
products with small to large lot size can be formed using EMF. High production rate can be
easily achieved. [26]
P. Arumugamet al., conducted experiment on "Experimental Study of Electromagnetic Sheet
Metal Forming Process" in which an experimental setup to test the high speed forming of a
clamped circular work piece in anelectromagnetic forming system is made. The free bulging
of the IS 19000 EIC annealed aluminium sheets is studied.Experiments are conducted on
various thicknesses of aluminium sheets by varying the energy.Metallurgical studies are
carried out on aluminium sheets. This includes measuring the hardness of the work piece
before andafter deformation. [28]
N. Senthilnathan et al., performed experiment on "A two stage finite element analysis of
electromagnetic forming of perforated aluminium sheet metals". The Electromagnetic force
on the sheet is calculated by changing the parameters in current density, gap between coil and
sheet, the coil thickness. Theforce is calculated for nine combinations of the three parameters.
Taguchi orthogonal array is used to find the best combination ofparameters. Theobtained
force is applied on the sheet and the corresponding deformation of the sheet is obtained using
Ansys Structural. [29]
F. Baya et al., present paper on "Electromagnetic forming processes:material behaviour and
computational modelling" in which the main features of the numerical model which
researchers are currently developing to model this process. Accurateknowledge of
constitutive law parameters for material at high strain rates remains quite difficult to access.
Thus they introducehere a procedure which has been developed in order to deal with
identification of material behaviour and computational modellingparameters. [30]
J. Fanget al., give a new approach named "electromagnetic pulse assisted progressive deep
drawing" is proposed in this paper for cracks, which are frequently occur in conventional
cylindrical deep drawing process due to the lower formability of aluminium alloy sheetat
room temperature.They concluded,the largest radial thrust force at sheet metal end can be
obtained if the sheet metals end closes to the inner sideof the coil. Also they got the result
24

that, comparison with conventional stamping, electromagnetic pulse assisted progressive

deep drawing cansignificantly increase the value of material flow inward from sheet end,
decrease the tensile stress, and obtainuniform stress distribution. [31]
M. Geieret al., has presented the paper "Proposal for a Test Bench for Electromagnetic
Forming of Thin Metal Sheets". This paper presents a proposal to build a test bench for
electromagnetic formingprocesses. The project considers the analysis of the electrical circuit
and forces involvedin the system for selection of low voltage capacitors, resistors, main
dischargeswitch and material choice for actuators insulation and rigidity. They get the result
that, presented design solutions are simple, functionaland feasible. Aluminium sheet plates of
up to 3 mm thick were successfullydeformed by the presented EMF machine confirming that
this concept serves as testbench and also as a reference for the construction of more powerful
and robust machinesand with higher degree of automation. Acquired data for discharge
current and voltagehelped to identify process parameters and its influences, assisting in the
development ofother areas such as numerical modelling, die design and materials. [32]

25

3. DESIGN OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING

3.1.Electromagnetic Forming Circuit:
The electromagnetic forming circuit consist of the following components:

Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) module

Step-up transformer
Bridge rectifier
Capacitor bank
Thyristor
Forming setup
1. Die, Clamp and Align screw
2. Bakelite
3. Coil
4. Work piece
5. Assembly

I. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR):

Fig.3.1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier. [21]

Silicon Controlled Rectifiercircuit is a common part of the electronic power supplies. Many
electronic circuitsrequire rectified DC power supply for powering the various electro basic
componentsfrom available AC mains supply. We can find this rectifier in a wide variety of
electronic AC power devices like home appliances motor controllers, modulation process,
welding applications, etc.
II. Transformer:
Transformers are devices that change (transform) the voltage of power supplied to meet the
individuals needs of power consumers. It uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to
change the voltage from one value to another whether smaller or greater.
26

A transformer is made of a soft iron coil with two other coils wound around it, but not
connected with one another. The iron coils can either be arranged on top of another or be
wound on separate limps of the iron core.The coil to which the alternating voltage is supplied
is known as primary windingor primary coil while. The alternating current in the primary
windingproduces a changing magnetic field around it whenever an alternating potential is
supplied. An alternating current is in turn produced by the changing field in the secondary
coil and the amount of current produced depends on the number of windings in the secondary
coil.
There are two types of transformers, namely: Step down and Step up transformers. Generally,
the difference between them is the amount of voltage produced, depending on the number of
secondary coils.
Step-up transformer:

Fig.3.2.Step-up transformer. [22]

A step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down transformer. There are many turns
on the secondary winding than in the primary winding in the step-up transformers. Thus, the
voltage supplied in the secondary transformer is greater than the one supplied across the
primary winding. Because of the principle of conservation of energy, the transformer converts
low voltage, high-current to high voltage-low current. In other words, the voltage has been
stepped up.
III. Bridge rectifier:
A Bridge rectifier is an Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC) converter that
rectifies mains AC input to DC output. Bridge Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies
that provide necessary DC voltage for the electronic components or devices. They can be
constructed with four or more diodes or any other controlled solid state switches.
Depending on the load current requirements, a proper bridge rectifier is selected. Components
ratings and specifications, breakdown voltage, temperature ranges, transient current rating,
forward current rating, mounting requirements and other considerations are taken into
account while selecting a rectifier power supply for an appropriate electronic circuit
application.

27

Fig.3.3. Bridge rectifier. [23]

IV. Capacitor bank:

Capacitor is electronic components which store electrical energy. Capacitors consist of two
conductors that are separated by an insulating material or dielectric. When an electrical
current is passed through the conductor pair, a static electric field develops in the dielectric
which represents the stored energy. Unlike batteries, this stored energy is not maintained
indefinitely, as the dielectric allows for a certain amount of current leakage which results in
the gradual dissipation of the stored energy. A capacitor bank is a grouping of several
identical capacitors inter-connected in parallel or in series with one another as required. The
demand for power is expressed in units of Kilo watt (Kw) or Mega watt (Mw). This power is
supplied by an electrical generating station.

Fig.3.4. Capacitor.[24]
V. Thyristor:
The thyristor is four layered three terminal semiconductor devices. Each layer of thyristor is
consisting of alternately N-type or p-type material, for example P-N-P-N. The main
terminals, labelled as anode and cathode. They are across all four layers.The controlled
terminal is called the gate and is attached to P-type material near the cathode.The operation of
28

thyristor can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled by polar junction transistors.
Thyristors have three states:

Reverse blocking mode

Forward blocking mode
Forward conducting mode

Fig.3.5.Thyristor. [25]
3.2.Forming Setup:
The forming set up consists of die, clamp, coil, Bakelite and the work piece to be formed. We
decided to select free forming and fixed dimensions of die, accordingly to all the components
of forming setup.
3.2.1. Die, Clamp and Align screw:

Fig.3.6. Align screw.[28]

29

Fig.3.7. Die.[28]

Fig.3.8. Clamp.[28]

30

We used the material EN8 for the die and clamp, because EN8 is easily available in market at
low cost. The material is taken from the market and machined as per our required dimensions
using milling, facing, turning and drilling operations. The die houses Bakelite over which the
coil is placed. The two leads of the coil are taken out from the die, one through the hole with
the slot which is on the bottom side of the die and the other through the hole is on the
circumference of the die. The align screw,dieand clamp are shown in figures 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8
respectively. The clamp is used to clamp the complete set up with coil and work piece. The
4mm hexagonal head align screw (2 Nos.) are used to clamp the setup.
3.2.2. Bakelite:

Fig.3.9. Bakelite.[28]
1
2
3
4

5
6
7

Bakelite is a perfect electrical insulating material. Bakelite is used for housing the coil
inside the die. As shows in fig.3.9.
Bakelite is the trade name for phenol formaldehyde resin.
Its chemical name is polyoxybenzyl methylene glycol anhydride.
It is a thermosetting plastic. A thermosetting plastic is a plastic that liquefies and is
malleable when heated. Then it becomes permanently hard and rigid when cooled.
Thus, it can be used to make a variety of items.
It does not conduct electricity.
It is resistant to heat, and is non-flammable.
It is also resistant to chemical action.

3.2.3. Coil:
31

Fig.3.10.Coil (2 mm diameter).[28]
The material used for coil is copper because it highly conductive. We use the coil which have
cross-section of 2 mm diameter. Which has fiber glass insulation and it is wound in spiral flat
coil consisting of 9 & 6 turns respectively. Coil is shown in fig.3.10.
3.2.4. Work piece:

Fig.3.11.Work Piece (0.5mm thick). [24]

We can use only conducing materials, so it is decided to use commercially pure aluminium IS
19000 EIC. We choose this material due to its purity and easy availability in the market. Its
composition is pure 98.3%Al, 0.1%Cu, 0.2%Mg, 0.5%Si, 0.7%Fe, 0.1%Mn, 0.1%Zn. Total
32

impurities are Cu+Mg+Si+Fe+Mn+Zn=1.7%. It is very ductile in annealed or extruded

condition. It excellent in resistance to corrosion. It is available in the form of sheets, plates,
tubes, wires, and forgings. It is used in moulding, refrigeration tubing equipment for
chemical, food and brewing industries; packaging; and cooking utensils. We take thickness of
0.5 sheet, tried to form this into the work piece is shown in fig.3.11.
3.2.5. Assembly:

Fig.3.12. Assembled View of Forming Setup. [24]

The forming set up is assembled as shown in fig.3.11. First we placed the die on a flat
surface, and then, the Bakelite material is placed inside the cavity of the die. Next the coil is
placed properly over the Bakelite surface. The work piece is placed over the top surface of
flat coil. There is a small air gap between the centre of the coil and work piece. The air gap
for 2mm coil is 6mm. Then the clamp is placed over the work piece and clamped by the align
screws with help of the align key. The exploded view of forming setup is shown in fig.3.13.

33

Fig.3.13.Exploded View of Forming Setup.[24]

3.3. Working:
Once the AC supply of 230V is switched on, the power supply is conducted by the SCR
module, and passed on to the step up transformer. The step-up transformer steps up the
voltage to 460 V AC. Then the AC voltage is converted into DC voltage with the help of the
bridge rectifier. The DC voltage is passed on to the capacitor bank. The capacitor bank stores
the energy for 5-10 seconds. The energy is discharged to the forming setup (coil) from the
capacitor through the thyristor. The coil excites and eddy current is produced. This eddy
current induces the eddy current in the work piece, which is in the vicinity of the coil. These
two eddy currents repulse each other, and produce a high repulsive which deforms the work
piece. [28].

4.MANUFACTURING OF EMF MODEL

34

The total manufacturing process for model and all the specification of all the components are
mentioned.

4.1.Operational Sheets:
Operational sheet are required for detailed information of manufacturing of parts. All the
detailed information about the operation, sequence required, tooling required and which
machine are required are mentioned in the operational sheet.
4.1.1.Operational Sheets for Die:
Operational sheets contents routing sheet, process flow chart, operation sheet and tooling
details. All the required information are mentioned in routing sheet, process flow chart,
operation sheet and tooling details which are shown in table 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4
respectively.
Table.4.1. Routing sheet for Die:
ROUTING SHEET
Part Name: Die

Material: Mild Steel

Part No.: 01

Qty.: 01

Operation No.:

Description :

Work Centre

Machine Tool:

Hacksaw cutting
Inspection (Raw
material)
Marking
Facing
Centre drilling
Turning (as par part
dimensions)
Drilling 10mm
Drilling 19mm
Drilling 25mm
Boring 75mm
Inspection
Drilling05mm
Tapping 6mm
Slot of 10mm
Finishing
Inspection

Machine shop
Machine shop

Hacksawmachine
Work Table

Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop

Feet Rule
Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Lathe machine

Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop

Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Work Table
Drilling machine
Manual Tapping
Milling machine
Lathe machine
Work Table

100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250

Date:

Table.4.2. Process Flow Chart for Die:

35

PROCESS FLOW CHART

Part number : 01
Part Name : Die
Rev No. :
Op.
No.

Transportatio
n
Opern. &
Inspection
together
Operation

Inspectio
n
Incoming
parts
D
Distance
(meter)

130

Inspection of Raw
material
Marking the required
dimension
Lathe machine Facing

140

Lathe machine Centre drilling

150

Lathe machine Turning

160

Lathe machine Drilling operation

10mm

170

Lathe machine drilling operation

19 and 25mm
Lathe machine Boring operation
upto 75mm
Inspection
Work table

10

Drilling
machine
Manual
tapping
Milling
Machine
Lathe
Machine
Inspection

Drilling operation
5mm
Tapping operation
6mm
Slot of 10mm

15

15

Finishing

Worktable

120

180
190
200
210
220
230
240

Raw Material

Metal Flow
Index
Marking

Symbol

Delay
Time
(minutes)

110

Process Description

Storage

Qty

100

Machine/
Facility
type
Crate rack

Symbols

Table.4.3. Operation sheet for Die:

36

Part Name: Die

Op.
Process
No. Description

100
110

120

130

140

Inspection of
Raw material
Cutting of
Raw material
Marking the
required
dimension
Facing

OPERATION SHEET
Part No.: 01
Machine
Tooling Spee Feed
Tool
d
(mm
(rev/ /
min) min)

Power
hack saw
machine
Work
Table
Lathe
machine

0.5

Single pt.
cutting
tool
Drill bit

250

0.5

200

0.5

Lathe
machine

Drill bit

200

0.5

Lathe
machine

Boring
Tool

200

0.5

10

Worktable

Vernier
Calliper
Drill bit

220
230

Finishing

210

300

Drilling
machine

200

Drilling
operation
5mm
Tapping
operation
6mm
Slot of 10mm

190

0.5

Drilling
machine

180

Feet Rule
and
Vernier
Single pt.
cutting
tool
Drill

100

0.5

Drilling
operation
10mm
drilling
operation
19 and
25mm
Boring
operation
upto 75mm
Inspection

170

Haw saw
cutter

300

Lathe
machine
Lathe
machine

160

Remark

Visual
Inspection

Centre
drilling
Turning

150

Qty.: 01
Setup Op.
time
time
(min) (min)

Manual
tap

Tapping
bit

Milling
machine
Lathe
machine

Milling
cutter
File and
Polishing
paper

3
200

150
400

0.5

0.5

Visual
Inspection

37

240

Inspection

Worktable

Vernier
Calliper

Visual
Inspection

Table.4.4. Tooling Details for Die:

TOOLING DETAILS
Page No. :
Drawing No. :
Operation
Tool No.
No.:
110
H100
120
I100
130
S100

Planner :
Part: Die
Offset No.

Comp No.

NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA

140
150

D100
S100

NA
NA

NA
NA

160
170
180
190
200

D200
D300
D400
B100
I100

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

210
220
230
240

D500
T100
M100
F100

NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA

250

I100

NA

NA

Part No.: 01
Material : Mild Steel
Tool Description
Hack saw blade
Feet rule and Vernier
Single point cutting
tool
Centre drill
Single point cutting
tool
Drill 10mm
Drill 19mm
Drill 25mm
Boring tool
Feet rule and Vernier
Calliper
Drill 5mm
Tap 6mm
Milling Cutter
File and Polishing
paper
Feet rule and Vernier
Calliper

Tool
Material
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.

38

Fig.4.1. Die
4.1.2. Operational Sheets for Clamp:
It contents routing sheet, process flow chart, operation sheet and tooling details. All the
required information are mentioned in routing sheet, process flow chart, operation sheet and
tooling details which are shown in table 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8 respectively.
Table.4.5. Routing sheet for Clamp:
ROUTING SHEET
Part Name: Clamp
Material: Mild Steel
Op. No.
Description
100
Hacksaw cutting
110
Inspection (Raw material)

Part No.: 02
Date:
Work Centre
Machine shop
Machine shop

Qty.:01
Machine Tool
Hacksawmachine
Work Table

120
130
140
150

Marking
Facing
Centre drilling
Turning (as par part
dimensions)

Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop

Feet Rule
Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Lathe machine

160
170
180
190
200

Drilling10mm
Drilling19mm
Drilling25mm
Boring 75mm
Inspection

Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop

Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Lathe machine
Work Table

210

Drilling5mm

Machineshop

Drilling machine
39

220
230
240
250

Reamer 6mm
Counter Boring 8mm
Finishing
Inspection

Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop
Machineshop

Drilling machine
Drilling machine
Lathe machine
Work Table

Table.4.6.Process Flow Chart for Clamp:

PROCESS FLOW CHART

Part number : 02
Part Name : Clamp
Rev No. :
Op.
No
100

Machine/
Facility type
Crate rack

Process Description
Raw Material

110
120

Metal Flow
Index
Marking

130

Symbols

Storage

Transportatio
n
Opern. &
Inspection
together
Operation

Inspectio
n
Incoming
parts

Symbol

Delay
Qty

Time
(minutes)
0

Distance
(meter)
5

Lathe machine

Inspection of Raw
material
Marking the required
dimension
Facing

140

Lathe machine

Centre drilling

150

Lathe machine

Turning

160

Lathe machine

Drilling operation
10mm

40

170

Lathe machine

Inspection

drilling
operation19 and
25mm
Boring operation
upto 75mm
Work table

180

Lathe machine

190

200

Drilling operation
5mm
Reaming operation
6mm
Counter Boring
operation 8mm
Finishing operation

15

230

Drilling
machine
Drilling
machine
Drilling
machine
Lathe machine

15

240

Inspection

Worktable

210
220

Table.4.7. Operation sheet for Clamp:

Part Name: Clamp
Op.
Process
No. Description
100
110

120

130
140
150
160

Inspection of
Raw material
Cutting of
Material
Marking the
required
dimension
Facing
Centre
drilling
Turning
Drilling
operation
10mm

OPERATION SHEET
Part No.: 02
Machine
Tooling
Speed Feed
Tool
(rev/
(mm/
min)
min)

Qty.: 01
Setup Op.
time
time
(min) (min)

Remark

Visual
Inspection
Power
hack saw
machine
Work
Table
Lathe
machine
Lathe
machine
Lathe
machine
Drilling
machine

Haw saw
cutter
Feet Rule
and Vernier
Calliper
Single pt.
cutting tool
Drill
Single point
cutting tool
Drill bit

100

0.5

300

0.5

300

0.5

250

0.5

200

0.5

41

170

180

190

200

210

220

230

drilling
operation
19 and
25mm
Boring
operation
upto 75mm
Inspection

Lathe
machine

Drill bit

200

0.5

Lathe
machine

Boring Tool

200

0.5

10

Worktabl
e

Drilling
operation
5mm
Reaming
operation
6mm
Counter
Boring
8mm
Finishing
Operation
Inspection

Drilling
machine

Vernier
Calliper and
Feet rule
Drill bit

200

0.5

Drilling
machine

Reamer

200

0.5

Drilling
machine

Drill Bit

200

0.5

Lathe
machine
Worktabl
e

Polishing
Paper
240
Vernier
Calliper and
Feet rule
Table.4.8. Tooling Details for Clamp:

400

Visual
Inspection

Visual
Inspection

TOOLING DETAILS
Operation
No.:
100
110

Tool No.

Offset No.

Comp No.

Tool Description

H100
I100

NA
NA

NA
NA

120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190

S100
D100
S100
D200
D300
D400
B100
I100

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

200
210
220
230
240

D500
R100
C100
F100
I100

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA
NA

Hack saw blade

Feet rule and Vernier
Calliper
Single point cutting tool
Centre drill
Single point cutting tool
Drill 10mm
Drill 19mm
Drill 25mm
Boring tool
Feet rule and Vernier
Calliper
Drill 5mm
Reamer 6mm
Drill 8mm
File and Polishing paper
Feet rule and Vernier

Tool
Material
H.S.S.

H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.
H.S.S.

42

Calliper

Fig.4.2. Clamp

4.1.3.Operational Sheet for Workpiece:

It contents routing sheet, process flow chart, operation sheet and tooling details. All the
required information are mentioned in routing sheet, process flow chart, operation sheet and
tooling details which are shown in table 4.9, 4.10, 4.11, and 4.12 respectively.
Table.4.9. Routing sheet for Workpiece:
ROUTING SHEET
Part Name:
Workpiece

Material: Aluminium

Part No.: 03

Qty.:01

Op. No.:

Description :

Work Centre

Machine Tool:

01

Inspection (Raw
material)

Machine shop

Work Table

02

Marking

Machineshop

Feet Rule and

Rounder

03

Cutting

Machineshop

Bend Snip

04

Drilling

Machineshop

Drilling machine
43

05

Inspection

Machineshop

Work Table

Table.4.10.Process Flow Chart for Workpiece:

PROCESS FLOW CHART

Part number : 03
Part Name : Workpiece

Rev No. :
Sr. No

01
02

Machine/
Process
Facility Description
type
Crate rack Raw
Material
Metal Flow Inspection
Index
of Raw
material

Symbols

Storage

Transportati
on
Opern. &
Inspection
together
Operation

Inspection

Symbol

Incoming
parts
Delay
Qty

Time
(minutes)

D
Distance
(meter)

44

03

Marking

04

Bend Snip

04

Drilling
machine
Inspection

05

Marking the
required
dimension
Cutting as
per required
dimensions
Drilling

worktable

Table.4.11. Operation Sheet for Workpiece:

OPERATION SHEET
Part Name : Workpiece
Sr.
No.

Process
Description

01

Inspection of
Raw material
Marking the
required
dimension
Cutting

02
03

Machine
Tool

Diagram No.:
Tooling

Speed Feed
(rev/
(mm/
min)
min)

Part
No.
Setup
time
(min)

03
Op.
time
(min)
1

Work
Table
Work
Table

Rounder
and Vernier
Calliper
Bend Snip

Remark

Visual
Inspection

3
3

45

04

Drilling

05

Inspection

Drilling
machine
Worktable

Drill bit

200

0.5

Vernier
Calliper and
Feet rule

1
3

Visual
Inspection

Table.4.12. Tooling Details for Workpiece:

TOOLING DETAILS
Page No. :

Planner :

Part No.: 03

Drawing No. :

Part:

Material : Aluminium

Operation
No.:

Tool No.

Offset No.

Comp No.

Tool Description

Tool
Material

110

H100

NA

NA

Hack saw blade

H.S.S.

120

I100

NA

NA

Feet rule and Rounder

130

100

NA

NA

Bend Snip

H.S.S.

140

D100

NA

NA

Drilling

H.S.S.

150

I100

NA

NA

Feet rule and Rounder

46

Fig.4.3. Workpiece

4.2.Components:
Components required for EMF operation are given below:

Power Source
Step Up Transformer
Bridge Rectifier
High Voltage Switch
Capacitor Bank
Connecting Wires
Forward Diodes
Wire Connectors
Wooden Protective Box

4.2.1. Power Source:

For the charging of capacitor bank we required initial power source. Initially we give the
supply of 230v to the step up transformer of 50Hz frequency.
47

4.2.2. Step Up Transformer:

Fig.4.4. Variable Step Up Transformer

The transformer is not energy conversion device, but is a device that changes the AC
electrical power at one voltage level into AC electrical power at another voltage level through
the action of the magnetic field, without change in frequency.A transformer consists of two
coils of wires known as primary and secondary windings. The two coils can be interwoven or
linked by a laminated soft iron core to reduce eddy current losses.The transformer equation
does not work for DC current since there is no change of magnetic flux. If N S>NP, the output
voltage is greater than the input, so it is called a step-up transformer.

Transformer equation:
Vp Is
=
Vs Ip

Np
Ns

Transformer Ratio:
This is the most important relationship by which most of the transformer variables are
governed and it is denoted (a),
=

Np
Ns

Where,
Np = Number of Turns in the Primary Coil,
Ns = Number of Turns in the Secondary Coil.

48

Transformer rating:
For Primary Winding = Primary Voltage x Primary current,
For Secondary Winding = Secondary Voltage x Secondary Current.
4.2.3. Bridge Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which is in only one direction, a process known
as rectification.
The Bridge Rectifier uses the four diodes which are connected in famous bridge pattern:
(Diagram)

Fig.4.5. Circuit diagram of Bridge Rectifier

These diodes can be purchased as a single, four terminal devices. Current always flows in one
direction through the load resistance R, regardless of whether Vs is positive or negative. In
the positive half cycle, D1& D2 are forward biased and D3& D4 are reverse biased. In the
negative half cycle, D3& D4 are forward biased, and D1 & D2 are reverse biased. Here we are
using the 1000v and 50A bridge rectifier.

Fig.4.6. Bridge Rectifier

Advantages:

The need for the centre tapped transformer is eliminated.

49

PIV is about half the value for full wave rectifier with a centre tapped transformer so
diodes with lower breakdown voltage can be used hence cheaper
The output is twice that of the centre tap circuit for the same secondary voltage.

Disadvantage:

The main disadvantage is that it requires four diodes.

When low dc voltage is required then secondary voltage is low and diodes drop
(1.4V) becomes significant.

4.2.4. High Voltage Switch:

Double Pole (DP) switch:
DP switch of 32 amp and 230 volts is used.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is another alternative switch. MCB switch of 63 amps
which is capable of sustaining upto 10000amp current. It will trip after 10000 amp current. It
is usable upto 240/415 volts.
4.2.5. Capacitor Bank:
A basic capacitor has two parallel plates separated by an insulating material
A capacitor stores an electrical charge between the two plates
The unit of capacitance is Farads (F)
Capacitance values are normally smaller, such as F, nF or pF.

Storing a charge between the plates:

Electrons on the left plate are attracted toward the positive terminal of the voltage
source
This leaves an excess of positively charged holes
The electrons are pushed toward the right plate
Excess electrons leave a negative charge.

50

Fig.4.7. Capacitors
Charging and Discharging of Capacitor:

Fig.4.8. Relationship between time and capacitor charging/discharging [33]

Applications:

Electronic flash lamps for cameras

Line conditioners
Timing circuits
Electronic power supplies

4.2.6.Connecting Wires:
We used 4 sq.mm of diameter of polycap insulation wire to sustain the initial high voltage
and the high discharging current. The wire used is made of copper.
4.2.7. Forward Diode:
The forward diodes are used to prevent the reverse direction discharge of capacitor bank. So
the all energy stored in capacitor bank is discharge into the copper coil. The diodes are
capable to sustain 1000 volts voltage.
51

4.2.8. Wire Connectors:

The wire connectors are used for proper connections between the wires and also avoid the
spark between two wires. The connectors also give the safety of operation.

Fig.4.9. Wire Connectors

4.2.9.Wooden Protective Box:
The wooden box is made for protective work. The Box also gives the support to all the
electrical components.

Fig.4.10. Wooden Protective Box

4.3. Testing of Machine:

We conducted testing of the electromagnetic forming setup to determine the workpiece
deformation level. The tests are performer by varying the different parameters like initial
input to the variable step up transformer, the capacitor discharging voltage, and the workpiece
material.
4.3.1. Trial and Error:
The tests are conducted and the obtained deformation of different workpiece is mentioned.
52

I.First Test:

Fig.4.11. Before Deformation

Fig.4.12.After Deformation

The testing was conducted on 270 volt DC. Firstly, the input of 160 volts AC is given through
variac to the variable step up transformer. The bridge rectifier which is connected between
step of transformer and capacitor bank it gives DC supply. The capacitor bank is charge upto
6 seconds. Capacitor charged upto 400 volt. Then main supply of variac was cut off and
afterward DP switch push to ON position due to which high current was discharge instantly
in the copper coil. Due to electromagnetism the repulsive force was generated between
copper coil and workpiece. Because of repulsive force the deformation of workpiece was
occurred. The deformation level of workpiece was 2mm as shown in the above fig.4.12.

53

II. Second Test:

Fig.4.13. Before Deformation

Fig.4.14.After Deformation (Upside)

54

Fig.4.15. After
Deformation (Downside)
The next testing was conducted on 460 volt DC. This time input of 200 volts AC are given
through variac to the variable step up transformer. Capacitor bank are charged upto 460 volt
DC. The discharging process was done on 460 volts by pushing DP switch to ON position.
The deformation of workpiece occurred in this test was greater than the previous test.
Deformation of workpiece was 6 mm shown in fig.4.14.

III. Third Test:

55

Fig.4.16.Before Deformation

Fig.4.17. After Deformation

The material and also switch was change in this test. Galvanized steel of 0.5 mm thickness
was used for the test and instead of DP switch we use MCB switch. The testing was
conducted on 470 volts. The input used was of 200 volts AC which given through variac to
the variable step up transformer. Capacitor bank are charged upto 470 volt DC. The
discharging process was done on 470 volts by pushing MCB switch to ON position. The
deformation of workpiece doesnt occur in this test. It remains same as it is because of
tripping of MCB switch.
Table.4.13. Observation Table of Various Parameters:
Sr.
No.

Workpiece
Material

Input Voltage
(AC)

Discharge Voltage
(DC)

Deformation Level
(mm)

01

Aluminium

160

270

2
56

02

Aluminium

200

460

03

Galvanized Steel

200

470

4.3.2. Problems in Testing:

The main problem occurred during the testing tripping of switch. Miniature Circuit
Breaker (MCB) switch tripping was occurred due to high current which was
unsustainable to MCB switch.
Another problem of using the Double Pole (DP) switch, it does not sustain with the
high instantaneous current. The burning of DP switch occurred after the test. So it has
to change every time after one test
The bridge rectifier also burn which of low rating. It does not carry the high voltage
and get burn.
Also the precaution of wire connections has to check to avoid the short circuit.

4.3.3. Solutions:

High rating industrial switch can be used for the testing purpose which is capable of
sustaining the high instantaneous current.
Bridge rectifier can be made manual by connecting the high rating diodes.
Proper wire connectors are used to avoid the sparking between two wires.

57

5. ANALYSIS OF EMF BY USING ANSYS:

5.1. Specifications of Workpiece:

Young's Modulus = 69 x 109 N/m2

Ultimate Tensile Strength = 110 x 106N/m2

Yield Strength = 95 x 106N/m2

Poisson's Ratio = 0.32

Material of Workpiece = Aluminium Sheet

Diameter of workpiece = 98 mm

Thickness of Workpiece sheet = 0.5 mm

Geometry of Aluminium Workpiece: (0.5 mm thickness)

58

Fig.5.1. Actual Geometry of Workpiece

The Geometry of Aluminium workpiece is created in ANSYS is determining in above figure.
The geometry is used for determination of deformation level of workpiece.

5.2. Mesh Details:

Type of Mesh: Tetra

Number of Nodes: 102398

Number of Elements: 51156

Fig.5.2. Tetra Mesh

59

Mesh of workpiece is done by using 3 D element type which is tetra element. There are four
nodes in one tetra element. The numbers of elements for this workpiece are 51156 and the
numbers of nodes are 102398. The nodes and elements are considered according to the area
of workpiece

5.3. Boundary Conditions:

Fig.5.3. Fixed Support Condition

Fig.5.4. Load Condition

There are two Boundary conditions are used for the analysis of aluminium workpiece. The
Boundary conditions used are:

Fixed support Condition

Load Condition

Fixed Support Condition:

In this condition, workpiece is fixed supported. This condition is taken into account for fixed
support which given between die and clamp. This condition is important because to avoid the
movement of workpiece and for stability of workpiece when force is going to apply for
deformation.
Load Condition:
60

In this condition, force is applied on the workpiece.

5.4. Loading Parameter:
The loads are varying to determine the effect of increasing load on the deformation of
workpiece. The loads are applied at static structure of workpiece under the load boundary
conditions. From 1KN to 5KN load are taken into account.

Fig.5.5. For 1 KN load

Fig.5.7. For 3 KN load

Fig.5.6. For 2 KN load

Fig.5.8. For 4 KN load

61

Fig.5.9. For 5 KN load

6.COST ANALYSIS OF FORMING MODEL:

All the cost associated for the components are calculated as per the quantity required. The
total analyses of cost of components are evaluated and it mentioned below:
6.1.Die and Clamp:
It contents the raw material required for manufacturing of die and clamp. The cost associated
raw material and manufacturing cost for both are given:
Actual size of component: 104mm x 60 mm
Table.6.1.Cost of Raw material pieces:
Sr.
No.
1
2

Description of used Length

Material
(Inches
)
M.S. Solid Bar 140
1
M.S. Solid Bar 110
1

Weight (Kg)

Rate per Individual Material

Kgs
Amount (Rs)

7.5
3

60.00
60.00

450
180

Total individual material cost: 450 + 180 = 630 Rs.

10
Mics. + Scrap 10% of total individual material cost: 630 x 100

Total Material Cost: 630 + 63 = 693 Rs.

= 63 Rs.

30
Labour charges 30% of total material cost: 693 x 100

10
Depreciation of machines 10% on of total material cost: 693 x 100

= 207.90 Rs.
= 69.30 Rs.

62

10
Overhead charges 10% on of total material cost: 693 x 100

Total manufacturing cost of Die and Clamp = 693 + 207.90 + 69.30 + 69.30

= 69.30 Rs.

= 1039.50 Rs.
6.2. Workpiece:
The cost required for the aluminium sheet is given below:

Total cost of Aluminium sheet = 100 Rs.

6.3. Bakelite Material:

The total purchasing and manufacturing cost of Bakelite material are given:

Raw material Bakelite = 200 x 100 x 20mm

Required size of Bakelite = 75 x 20mm
Purchasing cost of raw material Bakelite = 360 Rs.
Cutting cost = 75 Rs.
Manufacturing cost of Bakelite material: 360 + 75 = 435 Rs.

6.4. Copper Coil:

The required dimension of copper coil for which required cost isdetermined:

Length of copper wire = 205 mm

Diameter of copper wire = 2 Sq. mm
Outer diameter of coil = 65 mm
Inner diameter of coil = 10 mm
Manufacturing cost of Copper Coil = 800 Rs.

6.5. Variable Step UpTransformer:

The total manufacturing cost of 2KW Variable Step Up Transformer are given:

Manufacturing cost of Transformer = 6200 Rs.

6.6. Bridge Rectifier:

Purchasing Cost of Bridge Rectifiers is given:

Specification of Bridge Rectifier = 1000 volts and 50 amp

Cost of rectifier = 150
Total cost of rectifiers = Cost of rectifier x no. of rectifiers

= 150 x 3 = 450 Rs.

6.7. Capacitors:
63

The required capacitor bank costs are calculated:

Specification of capacitor: 4700 F and 450 volts

Cost of capacitor = 3000 Rs
Total cost of Capacitors = Cost of capacitor x no. of capacitor

= 3000 x 2 = 6000 Rs.

6.8. Connecting Wires:
Costs of wires are given below:

Specification of wires: 4 sq.mm diameter of polycap insulation wire.

Length of wire: 12 meter
Cost of wire: 25 Rs/meter
Total cost of wire = 25 x 12

= 300 Rs.

6.9. Forward Diodes:

Forward Diodes cost is given below:

Cost of forward diode = 150 Rs/unit

Total cost = 2 x 150 = 300 Rs.

6.10. Switches:
The switches required for performing the discharging operation and cost of each switch is
given:

Cost of Double Pole (DP) switch = 120 Rs.

Cost of MCB = 300 Rs.

6.11. Wire Connecters:

The wire connectors cost is mentioned:

Total cost of connecters = 30 Rs.

6.12. Wooden Protective Box:

The cost for Wooden Protective Box is calculated as per material required:
Specification:

Material of box: Plywood

64

Total No. of Sq. feet used = 4

433 x 240 x 240 mm
Thickness = 20 mm

Cost of box:

Material cost = 243Rs.

10
Mics + Scrap 10% of material cost = 243 x 100 = 24.3Rs.

Total material cost = 243 + 24.3 = 267.3 Rs.

Labour Charges 30% of material cost = 267.3 x

30
100

= 80.19Rs.

Depreciation of machine 10% of material cost = 267.3 x

Overhead cost 10% of material cost = 267.3 x

Total cost of box = 267.3 + 24.3 + 80.19 + 26.73 + 26.73

10
100 = 26.73Rs.

10
100 = 26.73 Rs.

= 425.25 Rs.

Table.6.2. Summary of the Components Cost:

Sr. No.

Components

Quantity

Price (Rs.)

Die and clamp

1040

Workpiece

100

Bakelite

435

Copper Coil

800

Variable step up transformer

6200

Bridge Rectifier

450

Capacitors

6000

Connecting Wires

300

Forward Diode

300

10

Switches

420

11

Connectors

30

12

Wooden Protective Box

425.25
65

13

Total Cost

16500.25

7.RESULTS
The results obtained in actual testing and analysis done on the workpiece in ANSYS is given
below:
7.1. Experimental Result:

Deformation
8
6
Deformation Level (mm)

Y-Values

2
0
250

300

350

400

450

500

Discharge Voltage (Volts)

It
gives the relation between deformation of workpiece and discharging voltage. The figure
66

shows that, as the discharging voltage increases the deformation level increases. The graph of
Discharge Voltage vs Deformation Level is plotted and shown in fig. 7.1.
Fig.7.1. Deformation Level vs Discharge Voltage
7.2.ANSYS Result:
The Analysis done on the aluminium workpiece gives the different results for the different
loads. The results obtained in ANSYS are shown below:
7.2.1. Results at 1 KN Load:

Fig.7.2. Deformation Level

Fig.7.3.Von Mises Stress

Firstly 1 KN force is applied on workpiece to determine the deformation level and stress are
on workpiece. For 1KN deformation level of workpiece 5 mm and stresses occur may be upto
657.87 N/mm2approximately.

7.2.1. Results at 2 KN Load:

67

Fig.7.4. Deformation Level

Fig.7.5.Von Mises Stress

The force is increase upto 2 KN which gives deformation level of workpiece 10 mm and
stresses occur may be upto 1315.7 N/mm2approximately.
7.2.3. Results at 3 KN Load

Fig.7.6. Deformation Level

Fig.7.7.Von Mises Stress

The force is increase upto 3KN which give deformation level of workpiece 16 mm and
stresses are generated are1973.6 N/mm2 approximately.
7.2.4.Results at 4 KN Load:

Fig.7.8. Deformation Level

Fig.7.9.Von Mises Stress

For 4KN force deformation level of workpiece 20 mm and stresses occur may be upto 2631.5
N/mm2approximately.
68

7.2.5. Results at 5 KN Load

Fig.7.10. Deformation Level

Fig.7.11.Von Mises Stress

The last analysis was done on 5 KN. For 5KN force the deformation level of workpiece 26
mm and stresses occur may be upto 3289.4 N/mm2approximately.

7.2.6. Highly Stress Area:

Fig.7.12. Highly Stress Area

69

Maximum load at centre of workpiece due to which stresses generated are maximum at the
centre of workpiece. The figure determines the minimum and maximum stress area on the
workpiece. In ANSYS, the deformation level increases as the force applied increases but in
actual working condition after 10 mm deformation workpiece doesnt deformed. After 10 mm
deformation workpiece get crack/breaks.
Table.7.2. Observation Table of ANSYS:
Sr.
No

Workpiece
Material

Forced Applied
(KN)

Von Mises Stress

(N/mm2)

01

Aluminium

657.87

Deformation
Level (mm)
Approx.
5

02

Aluminium

1315.7

10

03

Aluminium

1973.6

16

04

Aluminium

2631.5

20

05

Aluminium

3289.4

26

7.2.7. Relation between Force and Deformation Level:

It gives the relation between force and deformation of workpiece. The figure shows that, as
the force applied increases the deformation level increases. The deformation of workpiece is
directly proportional to force applied. The graph of Forcevs Deformation Level is plotted and
shown in fig. 7.13.

70

Deformation
30
25
20
15

Y-Values
Deformation Level (mm)

Linear (Y-Values)

10
5
0
0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Force (KN)

Fig.7.13. Force (KN) vsDeformation of workpiece (mm)

7.2.8. Relationshipbetween Force and Stresses:

It gives the relation between ForcevsStresses developed in workpiece. The figure shows that,
as the force applied increases the stresses developed increases. The stresses are directly
proportional to force applied. The graph of Forcevs stresses is plotted and shown in fig. 7.14.
71

Stresses
3500
3000
2500
2000

Stresses (N/mm2)

Y-Values

1500
1000
500
0
0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Force (KN)

Fig.7.14. Force (KN)vsStresses developed in workpiece (N/mm2)

7.2.9. Relation between Deformation Level and Stresses:

72

It gives the relation between Deformation levelvsStresses developed in workpiece. The

stresses are directly proportional to force applied. The graph of deformation levelvs stresses
is plotted and shown in fig. 7.15.

Deformation vs Stresses
3500
3000
2500
2000

Stresses (N/mm2)

Y-Values

1500
1000
500
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

Deformation Level (mm)

Fig.7.15. Deformation level (mm) vs Stresses developed in workpiece (N/mm 2)

8.CONCLUSION
73

In this project, various parameters such as, charging and discharging voltage, deformation
level, workpiece material, interaction between load parameter and workpiece deformation are
studied. This setup was considered for free forming only. It is also observed that when the
discharging voltage level is increased, the value of deformation level also increased but upto
certain level. The setup can be used for die forming also by manufacturing the die of required
shape. It can also be used for different materials like aluminium, copper, etc. with varying
thicknesses.

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