MISS AFIFAH HANIM BINTI MD PAZIL

hanim.mp@umk.edu.my

Learning Objectives
At the of this chapter, students will be able to:
distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics.
explain how samples and populations, as well as a
sample statistic and population parameter, differ.
state the four scales of measurement and provide an
example for each.
distinguish between qualitative variable and quantitative
variable data.
determine whether a value is discrete or continuous.

Definition of Statistics
A branch of mathematics used to
summarize, analyse, and interpret a group
of numbers or observations.
The practice or science of collecting and
analysing numerical data in large
quantities, especially for the purpose of
inferring proportions in a whole from those
in a representative sample.
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Importance of Statistics
Statistics is used in many situation in our daily life.
Statistics are part of your everyday life, and they are subject to
interpretation.
Examples:
A family counsellor may use statistics to describe patient
behaviour and the effectiveness of a treatment program.
A social psychologist may use statistics to summarize peer
pressure among teenagers and interpret the causes.
A college professor may give students a survey to summarize
and interpret how much they like (or dislike) the course.
In each case, the counsellor, psychologist, and professor make
use of statistics to do their job.

Branches of Statistics
The study of statistics has two major branches: descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.
Statistics

Descriptive
statistics
Involves the
organization,
summarization,
and display of data.

Inferential
statistics
Involves using a
sample to draw
conclusions about a
population.

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are procedures used to
summarize, organize, and make sense of a set of scores
or observations.
Descriptive statistics are typically presented graphically,
in tabular form (in tables), or as summary statistics
(single values).
NOTE: Descriptive statistics summarize data to make
sense or meaning of a list of numeric values.

Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics are procedures used that allow
researchers to infer or generalize observations made
with samples to the larger population from which they
were selected.
NOTE: Inferential statistics are used to help the researcher
infer how well statistics in a sample reflect parameters in a
population.

Basic Statistical Terms

Population

Sample

A population is defined
as the set of all
individuals, items, or data
of interest.
Is the collection of all
possible observations of
a specified characteristic
of interest
Example:
Number of students that
enrol for AFT2103.

A sample is defined as a
set of selected individuals,
items, or data taken from a
population of interest.
A sample is generally
selected for study because
the population is too large to
study in its entirety.
Example:
Malay students that enrol
AFT2103.

Figure 1.2

The relationship between a population

and a sample.
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Variable
A particular characteristic
of the object being
studied. This
characteristics can take
on different values as we
measure or gather it from
one objects to another.
Example :
weight, height, time, etc.

Parameter
A characteristic or
measure obtained by
using all the data values
for a specific population.
Example:
Mean (), population
variance ( 2 ) and
population proportion ().

Census

Survey

A census is the
procedure of
systematically acquiring
and recording information
about the members of a
given population.

A survey is an
investigation about the
characteristics of a given
population by means of
collecting data from a
sample of that population
and estimating their
characteristics through
the systematics use of
statistical methodology.

Random
Randomness means
unpredictability. One of
the requirements in
sampling process is to
conform to randomness.

Data
Data is basically numbers
derived from measuring a
variable.
Raw data are collected
data that have not been
arranged or organized
numerically.

Variables
A variable is a characteristic or condition that can
change or take on different values.
Most research begins with a general question about the
relationship between two variables for a specific group of
individuals.
There are two kinds of variables:
Qualitative Variable
Quantitative Variable

Types of Variables
Qualitative Variable Vs Quantitative Variable
Non numeric variables and
cannot be measured by
numbers.
With measurements of
qualitative/categorical
variables you cannot do things
like add and subtract, and
multiply and divide, and get a
meaningful result. Gender was
categorized as either male or
female.
Example:
Gender, religious affiliation, state
of birth, eye colour, etc.

Numerical variables and can

be measured.
With measurements of
quantitative variables you can
do things like add and subtract,
and multiply and divide, and
get a meaningful result. In the
previous example, "Age" was a
quantitative variable.
Example:
Number of children in your family

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Two types of Quantitative Variables

Discrete Vs Continuous
When the variable takes
on a countable number
of values.
Most often these
variables indeed
represent some kind of
count such as the
number of prescriptions
an individual takes daily.

When the variable can

take on any value in
some range of values.
Our precision in
measuring these
variables is often limited
by our instruments.

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Types of
Variables

Qualitative
(categorical)
Example:
Marital status,
Hair colour,
Brand of shirt

Quantitative
(numeric)

Discrete

Continuous

Example:
number of children in family,
number of students in class

Example:
Weight of students,
height of children,
yearly rainfall in Malaysia

Figure 1.3

Chart on types of variables

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Sources of Data
Data

Primary
data

Secondary
data

Primary Data
The data which are collected from the field
under the control and supervision of an
investigator.
Primary data means original data that has been
collected specially for the purpose in mind.
This data generally a fresh and collected for the
first time.
Example:
Questionnaire
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Secondary Data
Data gathered and recorded by someone else
prior to and for a purpose other than the current
project.
Data that has been collected for another
purpose.
This data is the data that being reused. Usually
in a different context.
Example:
Data from a book
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Scales of Measurement
Scales of measurement refer to how the
properties of numbers can change with
different uses.
Nominal

Scales
of
Measurement

Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

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Nominal
Data at the nominal measurement is qualitative variable
Nominal
Scales
of
Measurement

Colors in
the US
flag

Names, labels, or qualities. No

mathematical computations can
be made at this level.

Names of
students in your
class

Textbooks you
are using this
semester

Ordinal
Data at the ordinal measurement are qualitative or
quantitative.
Scales
of
Measurement

Class standings:
freshman,
sophomore,
junior, senior

Ordinal
Arranged in order, but
differences between data
entries are not meaningful.
Numbers on the
back of each
players shirt

Top 50 songs
played on the
radio

Interval
Data at the interval measurement are quantitative. A zero
entry simply represents a position on a scale; the entry is not
an inherent zero.
Scales
of
Measurement

Temperatures

Interval
Arranged in order, the differences
between data entries can be calculated.
Years on a
timeline

Atlanta Braves
World Series
victories

Ratio
Data at the ratio measurement are similar to the interval
level, but a zero entry is meaningful.
Scales
of
Measurement

A ratio of two data values can be

formed so one data value can be
expressed as a ratio.

Ratio
Ages

Grade point
averages

Weights

Summary of Levels of
Measurement
Determine if
Put data Arrange
Level of
Subtract
one data value
in
data in
measurement
data values is a multiple of
categories order
another
Nominal
Yes
No
No
No
Ordinal
Yes
Yes
No
No
Interval
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Ratio
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Role of Statistical Software

Statistical software plays an important role across many
real world and academic applications. The many types of
statistical software allow users to quickly compute and
display calculations that researchers previously
computed by hand.
Even a modest sample size of 1,500 data points involves
a large amount of math and presents a real probability
that a researcher will make an error.
Statistical software allows researchers to avoid routine
mathematical mistakes and produce accurate figures if
they input all data correctly.

 There are several statistical software that

usually being used.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
Can predict with confidence what will happen next so that you can
make smarter decisions, solve problems and improve outcomes.

state-of-the-art statistical analysis software

(SAS/STAT)
Apply the latest statistical techniques to any size of data.

AMOS
Enables you to specify, estimate, assess and present models to
show hypothesized relationships among variables.
Amos allows you to build attitudinal and behavioral models that
reflect complex relationships.

SmartPLS
The intuitive graphical user interface allows you to create a model
from scratch in minutes.
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