Exam 1 Review Sheet

Chapter 42: The Animal Body and Principles of Regulation

Levels of Organization
o Cell
Cardiac muscle cell
o Tissue
Cardiac muscle
o Organ
Heart
o Organ System
Circulatory system

Germ Cells
o Endoderm- innermost
o Mesoderm middle
o Ectoderm outer layer
Tissues
o 4 kinds
o Epithelial
o Connective
o Muscle
o Nerve tissue
Vertebrates
o Dorsal Cavity
Forms within the skull, the bones and the vertebrae
Skull surrounds the brain
Within the vertebrae is the spinal cord
o Ventral Cavity
Larger cavity
Area bounded by the rib cage
Abdominal muscles
Thoracic Cavity
o Heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic cavity
o Stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and urinary bladder
o Ceolomic space peritoneal cavity
Pericardial Cavity
o Heart only
Pleural Cavity
o Lungs
Epithelial tissue
o Come from any of the germ cells
o Forms a protective barrier
o Cells are tightly bound together
o Nutrients and oxygen can diffuse to the epithelial layer from the blood
vessels supplying the connective tissue
o Regeneration powers

Important if there is an injury

o Renews very quickly about every two weeks
o Attach to the connective tissue by fibrous membrane
o Secured side basal surface
o Free side apical surface
o The basal surface and apical surface gives the tissue a polarity
Some ions or nutrients can go through the basal and some cannot and
same for the apical surface
o Simple Epithelium
One cell thick
Squamous
o Lining of lungs, capillary walls, blood vessels
o Diffusion can easily occur
Cuboidal
o Lining of some glands, kidney tubules and covers ovaries
o Rich in specific transport and function as secretion and
absorption
Columnar
o Surface lining of the stomach, intestines, parts of
respiratory tract (not lungs bc that is squamous)
o Thicker layer and provides protection and functions as
secretion and absorption
Pseudostratified columnar
o Lining of parts of respiratory tract
o Secretes mucus because respiratory secretes mucus,
o Cilia aids with movement of mucus
o Provides protection
o Stratified Epithelium
Several layers thick
Outer layer of skin
Lining of mouth
The tough layers provide protection
Connective Tissue
o Derives from mesoderm
o Connective tissue proper
Loose
Dense
o Special connective tissues
Cartilage
Bone
Blood
o Has extracellular material called matrix
o Bones matrix are crystals that hardens the bone
o Bloods matrix is plasma
o Matrix has protein fibers and ground substance ( fluid material btwn cells and
fibers that have many proteins and polysaccharides)
Loose
Scattered

Supports tissue by forming a meshwork elastic which helps

support collagen
Insulation, food storage and nourishment for epithelium
Beneath skin and between organs
Adipose is an example
o Fat cells and are important to store nutrients
o Adipose cannot divide
Dense
Doesnt have much ground substance
Tight packed collagen fibers making it very strong
Provides flexible, strong connections
Tendons, sheath around muscles, kidney, liver and dermis of skin
Regular connective tissue
o Line up parallel
o Structure of tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone
to bone)
Irregular connective tissue
o Many different orientations not necessarily parallel
o Produce tough coverings that package organs
o Covers muscles, nerves and bones
Special
o Cartilage
Spinal disks, knees, joints, ear, nose and tracheal
rings
Flexible support, shock absorption, reduce friction
Chondrocytes- cells of cartilage that live within
spaces called lacunae no blood vessels within this
matrix
o Bone
Skeleton
Protects internal organs, provide support for muscle
attachment
Osteocytes - bone cells, communicate with blood
vessels via canals
o Blood
Circulatory system
Carries nutrients and waste, immune system support,
communicating with other organs
Muscle
Movement
o Smooth
Most organs
Involuntary
Walls of blood vessels, stomach and intestines
Rhythmic contractions commanded by the CNS
Also known as visceral muscle because smooth
muscle occurs in the organs of the internal
environment (viscera)

Single nucleus
o Skeletal
Attached to bones by tendons
Made of up of numerous cells called muscle fibers
Multiple nuclei
The muscle fibers contract by the myofibrils- these
give a striated appearance
Voluntary movement
o Cardiac Muscle
Heart only
Intercalated disks where gap junctions are- which
allow movement of ions
These specialized cardiac muscle cells help generate
electrical impulses
Nerve Tissue
Extend long distances
Axons- sends signal away
Cell body- nucleus
Dendrites receive signal
Neuroglia
o DO NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICAL IMPUSLES
o Insulate and eliminate foreign materials around neurons
o They associate with myelin sheath
o CNS
Brain and spinal cord
o PNS
Nerves and ganglia (collection of neuron cell bodies)
Negative Feedback
Stimulus: body temperature
deviates from set point

Negative
feedback

Sensor: neurons in
hypothalamus detect
the change in
temperature

Response:
Body
Temperature
Integrating Center: set point
= 37 C
Neurons in hypothalamus
compare input from sensory
neurons with set point

Effector : if below set

point: blood vessels to
skin contract and
muscles contract and

Negative feedback

Response: Body
Temperature
Drops

Effector: if above set

point: blood vessels
to skin dilate
Glands release sweat

Positive Feedback

Stimulus: fetus is
pushed against
the uterine
opening

Sensor:
receptors in the
inferior detect
increased
stretch

Integrating Center: the

brain receives stretch
information from the
uterus and compares
with the set point

Positive feedback
completed results
in increased force
against the uterus
promoting birth of

Response:
Oxytocin causes
increased uterine
contractions

Effector: if above set

point the pituitary
gland is stimulated to
increase secretion of
the hormone

Temperature is determined by internal and external factors

o Radiation
o Conduction
o Convection
o Evaporation
o Know the diagram 42.10
Chapter 43 The Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Sensory neurons afferent carry impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
Motor neurons- efferent neurons carry impulses from the CNS to effectors
muscles and glands
Interneurons association neurons locate din brain and spinal cord, help with
reflexes, higher associative functions, including learning and memory
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic nervous system
o Skeletal muscles to contract
Autonomic Nervous system
o Regulate the activity of the smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and gland
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic
Structure of neurons

Cell body
o Nucleus
Dendrites
o Motor and association neurons have branched dendrites
o Some have dendritic spines that increase surface area to receive a stimuli
Axon
o Triggers the conduction of impulses away from the cell body
o Single axon

Neuroglia
Supporting cells
Bigger than neurons
Way more numerous
Help with supplying neurons with nutrients
Removes waste
Guide axon migration
Provide immune functions
o Schwann
Produce myelin sheath in the PNS
Myelinated axons form nerves
o Oligodendrocytes
Myelinated axons form white matter
Unmyelinated axons, Dendrites and cell bodes form grey matter
Plasma Membrane
Membrane proteins ion channels
o Specific for sodium and potassium
o Can be either leakage channels (open all the time)
o Gated channels (open in response to a stimulus)
Interior of the membrane is negative
Exterior of the membrane is positive
Resting potential is around 70 mv and the negative sign shows that inside is
negative
Membrane Potential
o Sodium potassium pump
2 K in/ 3 Na out
Pump establishes the concentration that there is high K inside the cell
and high Na outside the cell
1. The membrane binds to intracellular sodium
2. ATP phosphorylates protein with bound sodium
3. Phosphorylation (adding a phosphate to ADP to make ATP)
causes the protein pump to change shape which reduces the
affinity of Na so Na diffuses out
4. The change in shape now increases its affinity for K so
extracellular K binds to the sites
5. Now the binding of K dephosphorylates the protein
6. Dephosphorylation changes the pump back to its original
shape causing a low affinity for K and K diffuses into the cell

 7. Cycle repeats.
o Ion channels
More K channels
Form pores allowing diffusion for specific ions
More permeable to K
Resting potential
o The pump creates an imbalance in cations outside the cell because 3 Na
moves outside
o Since the concentration of K is higher inside this leads to K diffusion out by
leakage channels that are always open
o Membrane is not permeable to negative ions: positive charge builds up
outside and negative charge builds up inside causing the electrical potential
to act as an attractive force that pulls K back inside the cell to counter the
diffusional force (leaky channels)
o Balancing the diffusional force and electric force produces an equilibrium
potential
Graded Potential
Small changes to the membrane
Ligand gated induces a graded potential which will determine whether an axon will
fire
Ligand gated also known as chemical gated
Ligand is anything that binds to a receptor such as a neurotransmitter or a
hormone
Action Potential
Threshold potential is the level of depolarization needed, which is -55 mv, to
produce an action potential
Action potentials are caused by voltage gated ion channels
They do not add together or interfere with one another like graded potential
All or none events
Results from passive diffusion of ions NOT sodium potassium pump
It generates at the base of the axon
A Myelinated axons action potential will spread through salutatory conduction on
the nodes of Ranvier
A Unmyelinated axons action potential will spread throughout the axon
Conducted by increasing frequencies not amplitude
Sodium Voltage Gated Channels
o More complex than K
o Has two gates- activation gate and inactivation gate
o During the resting phase - the activation gate is closed and the inactivation
gate is open
o When the threshold potential is reached the activation gate opens quickly
and there is an influx of Na
o The inactivation gate closes for a while which prevents the Na from leaving
Potassium Voltage Gated Channels
o Has a single activation gate that is closed during resting phase
o When threshold potential is reached the gate opens slowly
Action Potential Flow Chart

Action potential arises in presynaptic neuron -> travels to the end of presynaptic neuron
-> causing Ca gates to open -> which leads to the release of neurotransmitters ->
neurotransmitters bind to the receptors -> located on the postsynaptic neuron
If IPSP -> Cl- gates open -> causing hyperpolarization (making the membrane
potential more negative)
If EPSP -> the membrane potential reaches -55 mv -> known as threshold potential
-> Na gates open fast -> Causing depolarization -> after depolarization Na gates
close and K open slowly and longer -> causing repolarization

Steps of Action Potential

1. Resting potential
a. Is at about -70 mV
b. Established by Na/K pump and ion channels
c. At around -50 it reaches threshold potentials
2. Rising phase
a. Depolarization
b. Fast Na gates open and Na rushes in making the membrane potential +50
c. This is not due to the Na/K pump but by Voltage Gated Na Channels
d. Action potential is not interrupted
3. Falling phase
a. Repolarization
b. Going back to the resting potential
c. K+ channels open very slowly and for a long time making the membrane
potential more negative
d. Na closes fast

e. Leaky channels also repolarize the cell along with Voltage gated Potassium
channels
4. Undershoot
a. Hyperpolarization is an excess amount of K+ diffusing into the cell
b. Very permeable to K
Refractory Period
A second action potential cannot be initiated
Na+ channel must be inactivated to maintain this
Ways to increase the velocity of nerve impulses
Increasing the diameter decreases the resistance allowing more current to flow
Myelinated axons travel more rapidly
Synapses
Electric
o Direct connection formed by gap junctions
o More common in invertebrates
Chemical
o More common in vertebrate
o Synaptic cleft which is a space that separates the presynaptic cell and post
synaptic cell
o The end of the presynaptic axon have synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters
o When the action potential reaches the end of the axon it opens voltage gated
calcium
o The rush of calcium leads to the synaptic vesicles fusing with the plasma
membrane and the neurotransmitter is released by exocytosis
o Since neurotransmitters are chemical signals, increasing vesicles with the
neurotransmitters will only effect the graded potential
Neurotransmitters
Know the different type of neurotransmitters and their basic functions
Know the bolded words
Go over diagram 43.16
AcH and neuromuscular junction and how it creates EPSP
Glutamate is excitatory in the CNS
GABA and glycine are inhibitory that cause Cl to open
Know which hormones are biogenic amines and their function
o Epinephrine is NOT a neurotransmitter it is a hormone
o Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is responsible in the sympathetic
nervous system
o Dopamine movements/ excessive dopamine schizophrenia
o Serotonin sleep and emotions/ antidepressant drugs block elimination
serotonin from synaptic cleft so they will remain in the system SSRIs
Neuropeptides
Neuromodulators
Substance P is an important neuropeptide released at the synapse of CNS
Enkephalins- deals with pain in the brain to the spinal cord

Endorphins released in the brain stem (is not the spinal cord, it includes
midbrain, pons and medulla)
Know that enkephalins and endorphins are endogenous opiates
Know about NO and that it has many different functions
o Gas
o Doesnt store in vesicles
o Produced as needed from amino acid arginine
o In PNS
Innervate gastrointestinal tract, penis, respiratory passage way and
cerebral blood vessels
Learning and memory (this is when it acts as a neurotransmitter)
Spatial summation
o Part of synaptic integration
o Graded potential
o Different dendrites from different presynaptic neurons occur at the same
time to produce a voltage that can sum up to form IPSP or EPSP
Temporal summation
o Single dendrite produces sufficient depolarization to produce an action
potential
Difference btwn cocaine and nicotine and how they work
Know table 43.3
Know that the two hemispheres of the brain are connected by the corpus callosum
Cerebral cortex
Primary motor cortex
Primary somatosensory cortex
Gyrus bumps/convolutions of the brain
Sulci folds/ crease of the brain
Association cortex
Damage to one hemisphere such as a stroke can cause problems on the
contralateral side of the body (opposite side of the body)
Reticular activating system sleep and waking
Alpha waves slow
Beta rapid
Theta and delta very slow
REM rapid eye movements
Left hemisphere is dominant there fore 90& people are right-handed ( the idea that
hemispheres control contralateral of the body)
Aphasia damage to the brain that causes language disorder
Synaptic plasticity
o LTP and LTD
o NMDA
Meninges which cover the brain and the vertebral column for protection
Spinal cord has two zones
o Grey
o White
Reflexes
Know table 43.4 and table 43.5

Chapter 44 Sensory Systems this chapter is mainly memorization!

Practice Questions ( Some may not pertain to the book and lecture, but they
seem like a good review!)

1. Why are we able to distinguish taste and smells?

The action potential for the taste receptors and receptors for smell are in different
regions of the brain
2. When the nervous system senses a stimulus what happens first?
Reception
3. How does a person hear sound?
Reception -> amplification -> transmission -> transduction -> integration
4. When you feel itchy and then gradually you become unaware of the itchwhy?
Sensory adaption occurred
5. Why does your arm feel cold when you reach inside a fridge?
Thermoreceptors send signals to the posterior hypothalamus
6. What do smelling, touch, and a full stomach have in common?
Electrical energy is transduced to form an action potential
7. The magnitude of the action potential controls what?
The rate of production of the an action potential
8. What is a muscle spindle
Muscle cells that make up muscle groups
9. What is the attachment site between sensory hairs that open ion channels when
hair cells bend?
Tip links
10.
What contains mechanoreceptors that react to low frequency waves?
Lateral line systems
10. Chemoreceptors in the nose reach the brain through what?
Olfactory nerve
11.
Can rods detect color?
No only cones can
12.
Axons of rods and cones synapse with?
Bipolar cells
13.
The last structure that sensory information encounters during visual
processing?
Primary visual cortex
14.
Transduction of sound waves into action potentials take place when?
Hair cells bend against tectorial membrane causing depolarization

15.
Most neurons in the brain are what?
Interneurons
16.
Organelles in the neuron are located where?
Cell body
17.
Nervous system can alter activities in its target cells because why?
Target cells have receptor proteins for the signals released by the nervous system
18.
The communication between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle which one
is the presynaptic cell and which one is the postsynaptic cell?
Motor neuron is the presynaptic cell and the skeletal muscle is the postsynaptic cell
19.
An increase movement of the potassium out of the cytoplasm would?
Hyperpolarize ( out of the cytoplasm means moving into the cell )
20.
A resting motor neuron is expected to have a higher concentration of sodium
inside or outside the cell?
Outside the cell
21.
What is threshold potential?
The peak amount of depolarization seen in an action potential
22.
Actions potentials move along axons slower in myelinated or unmyelinated?
Unmyelinated
23.
If a toxin binds to a voltage gated sodium channel what would happen?
Block depolarization of the action potential
24.
Neurotransmitters are released from axon terminals via?
Exocytosis
25.
Neural transmission across a synaptic gap is accomplished by?
Impulses cause the release of a chemical signal and diffuse through the gap
26.
IPSP occurs in a membrane more permeable to what ion?
Potassium
27.
The activity of acetylcholine in a synapse is terminated by?
Degradation of hydrolytic enzyme on the postsynaptic membrane
28.
A huge influx of Cl ions would do what to an action potential?
Decrease membrane depolarization
29.
When several EPSP comes from different dendritic locations depolarizing the
postsynaptic cell this is an example of what?
Spatial summation
30.
When several IPSP comes from a single dendritic location, hyperpolarizing
the cell this is an example of what?
Temporal Summation

31.
In a neuron the site whether or not an action potential will be initiated is
what?
Axon hillock
32.
Neurotransmitters affect the postsynaptic cell by?
Initiating signal transduction pathways in cells, causing molecular changes in cells,
altering ion channel proteins and altering the permeability of cells
33.
Ach

The neurotransmitter from the parasympathetic system is?

34.
GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter is?

35.
An example of a neuropeptide is?
Endorphin
36.
Temporal summation always involves
Myelinated axons