Food Reviews International

ISSN: 8755-9129 (Print) 1525-6103 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20

Ice Cream: Foam Formation and StabilizationA

Review
X. E. , Z.J. Pei & K.A. Schmidt
To cite this article: X. E. , Z.J. Pei & K.A. Schmidt (2010) Ice Cream: Foam Formation
and StabilizationA Review, Food Reviews International, 26:2, 122-137, DOI:
10.1080/87559120903564472
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559120903564472

Published online: 17 Mar 2010.

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Food Reviews International, 26:122137, 2010

Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 8755-9129 print / 1525-6103 online
DOI: 10.1080/87559120903564472

Ice Cream: Foam Formation and Stabilization

A Review

1525-6103
8755-9129
LFRI
Food
Reviews International
International, Vol. 1, No. 1, Jan 2010: pp. 00

Ice Cream
Xinyi
et al.Foam: A Review

X. E.1, Z.J. PEI2 AND K.A. SCHMIDT3

1

Department of Grain Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, KS, USA
3
Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, KS, USA

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Ice cream has been studied from ingredients to process conditions, ice crystal formation to ice crystal growth, and ingredient selection to eating quality. One of the key
aspects of ice cream is air cells, as formation and acceptance of ice cream rely on
foam production and stabilization. Air cells in ice cream provide a unique structure
that governs many of this products keeping and eating qualities. The air cells are
dependent upon ice cream mix composition (fat, protein, and surface active ingredients) as well as processing conditions (freezer shear force, hardening time, and storage temperatures). Optical, low-temperature scanning electron microscopy and
transmission electron microscopy are applied to observe the morphology and size of
air cells in ice cream. Air cells are crucial in forming the product and for eating quality and enjoyment.
Keywords ice cream, foam formation, foam stabilization, ingredient interactions, air
cells

Introduction
Ice cream, a dairy foam, is defined as a mixture of air, water, milk fat, nonfat milk solids,
sweeteners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, and flavors. The foam structure is generated by aeration
and freezing, and the foam structure is subsequently stabilized by temperatures 18C,
preferably 25 to 30C. During formation and stabilization of the air bubbles, two main
phase transitions occur: some water freezes into ice crystals and some fat crystallizes,
which, in turn, may influence other ingredient interactions. For example, fat globules
adsorb onto the interface between the air phase and unfrozen serum phase.(1,2,3) Air, probably one of the last ingredients to be added to ice cream mix, as inclusions such as candies,
nuts, ripples, etc. are added to ice cream (post foam formation), is incorporated into the
mix during the process step known as freezing, and contributes to specific sensory properties
such as fluffiness and melting resistance. Many researchers have studied how to stabilize
the air cells when ice cream is manufactured, stored, transported, and consumed.(1,2,3,4)
Both the principles and manufacturing practices are complicated. Since the 1930s, scientists
have explored the relationships among ice cream ingredients, the freezing process, sensory
properties, and acceptability. The unique foam structure found in ice cream is highly related
to ingredient selection and amounts, processing equipment and conditions, and fundamental
Address correspondence to K.A. Schmidt, 224 Call Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan,
KS 66506-1600, USA. E-mail: kschmidt@ksu.edu

122

Ice Cream Foam: A Review

123

physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of the product. This article briefly introduces
the influence of various ingredients and processing techniques on the formation and stabilization of the ice cream structure, particularly the air phase, and the techniques used to
qualify and quantify the size and distribution of air cells in ice cream. Methods to stabilize
air cells and control their size in the favorable range are also discussed.

Formulation and Processing of Ice Cream

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Formulation
To transform an aqueous ice cream mix to a semi-solid foam structure, one of the first
concerns is the formulation or the composition of the ice cream mix, because it directly
relates to the quality of final product.(5,6,7,8) In the United States, the basic ice cream
formula must comply with legislation, which establishes several criteria according to the
percentage of fat, total milk solids, sweeteners and total solids contents in the product.(8)
Typical ice cream formulations are shown in Table 1. Overall total solids content ranges
from 36 to 40%. The majority solids component is sweeteners, which contribute 12 to
16% of the formula. Sweeteners provide the characteristic sweetness, contribute solids,
and influence colligative properties. Nonfat dry milk, often used as a mechanism to attain
the legal requirement of 20% total milk solids, is composed of lactose, milk proteins, and
minerals. Lactose is a disaccharide that will solubilize in the mix and contribute to the
colligative properties while providing slight sweetness. The milk proteins act as natural
emulsifiers; they have the ability to locate at the oil-water interfaces in an oil-water emulsion of the ice cream mix as well as the liquid-air interface of the foam because of their
attachment to the milk fat globule membranes (MFGM). In addition, milk proteins have
inherent water-holding capabilities that contribute to the viscosity of the unfrozen serum,
and inhibit the growth of ice crystals during hardening and storage.(9) Milk fat is crucial to
formation and stabilization of the foam structure in ice cream and a certain amount of
destabilized fat has a significant effect on the creamy mouthfeel, dry appearance, and
melting resistance during consumption of the final product.(7,10,11) Although stabilizers
and emulsifiers are added at small amounts to the formulation, stabilizers enhance water
holding capacity and mix viscosity, whereas the emulsifiers stabilize the emulsion in the
mix and aid foam formation.(12)
Processing
Ice cream manufacture involves a two step process; mix manufacture followed by ice
cream manufacture. Process conditions in both steps influence the quality of the foam

Table 1
Typical ice cream formulation (%)
Fat
Nonfat Milk Solids
Sugar
Stabilizer-emulsifier
Total Solids

10.0
11.5
15.0
0.3
36.8

Adapted from Marshall et al.(1)

12.0
11.0
15.0
0.3
38.3

14.0
10.0
15.0
0.3
39.2

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formation and foam stabilization. Once formulated, the ice cream base or mix is pasteurized by either high-temperature-short-time (HTST) or the batch method and homogenized
to form an oil-in-water emulsion. Although the main purpose of pasteurization is to inactivate pathogens, the heat treatment induces other desirable changes. For example, some
whey proteins denature and consequently increase their water-holding capacity; sucrose,
lactose, and minerals are hydrolyzed and dissolve in the aqueous serum, and milk fat
melts.(2,13) The fat content of the ice cream mix often dictates the desired homogenization
pressures: mixes containing between 1014% milk fat should be homogenized at 13.8 to
17.2 MPa for the single stage and 13.8 to 17.2 MPa, 3.4 MPa for the two stages.(2) Homogenization ruptures the native milk fat globules, resulting in more, but smaller milk fat globules. Immediately after pasteurization/homogenization, the mix is rapidly cooled and often
held for a period of time (4 to 24 h) prior to freezing, a process referred to as aging.(2,4)
Major changes occur in the thermodynamic, chemical, and rheological properties of
the ice cream mix during the freezing and hardening processes, such as incorporation and
stabilization of air bubbles, formation of ice crystals, aggregation of fat globules (destabilization), concentration of the non-frozen aqueous phase, and the development of a fat
network surrounded by the unfrozen serum.(3,4) Freezing is crucial for incorporation and
stabilization of the air cells and can be accomplished in either batch or continuous freezers,
although industrially the continuous freezer is preferred. Typically, an ice cream freezer
consists of a refrigerated metal barrel and a rotating dasher equipped with scrapers
inside.(3) Both freezers simultaneously exert shear forces and rapid cooling, but the mechanism for air incorporation differs.(3) In a batch freezer, the atmospheric air is incorporated
in the aqueous phase due to a vigorous whipping process, whereas in a continuous freezer,
the air is drawn into the mix by vacuum or injected under pressure.(14) Foam formation
occurs quickly during the freezing process (especially in the continuous freezer) because
this is a dynamic process-both physically (quick chilling and whipping the mix simultaneously) and chemically (ingredient interactions as functions of dispersion forces and
coalescence).(15) For example, the combination of shear force and reduced temperature
induces fat to agglomerate and orient at the air cell surface, which in turn stabilizes the air
cells.(15,16) Although the mix enters the freezer as a liquid, it emerges from the freezer as a
semi-solid (temperature around 5 to 6C). If particulates, such as syrups, nuts, candies,
etc. are added, it is to this semi-solid mix product. The ice cream is packaged as quickly as
possible, and then hardened (subjected to temperatures of 35 to 60C) to allow for a
product temperature of < 18C, which in turn stabilizes the air cells (optimally air bubbles
will range in size of 10 to 60 m), which desirably will remain stable during the storage
and distribution.(3) Ice cream is stored and distributed in a frozen state, to prevent melting
and foam collapse.(4)
Several ice cream quality parameters are related to the freezing conditions: overrun
(an industry term to express the added air in frozen dessert products and is expressed as
the percentage increase in volume due to the air addition(3)), outlet temperature, and fat
destabilization (or milk fat agglomeration). In the United States, the maximum overrun is
100%.(8) Ice cream formulations vary in fat content and total solids (Table 1), so it is not
unusual to find ice cream products with a range in overrun for instance a premium ice
cream may have an overrun content at 70%, whereas a standard formula may have an
overrun content closer to the maximum-100%.(4) Because of the formulation and process
conditions, ice cream is a complex food colloid(14) containing four structural elements: air
cells, ice crystals, fat droplets, and casein micelles.(17) Using scanning electron microscope
(SEM) Costa et al.(18) reported that ice cream had air bubbles that were either spherical
with diameters 10 to 50 m or were distorted by the ice crystals; discrete fat globules that

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125

had diameters of 0.2 to 1.0 m or were partially coalesced clusters; and ice crystals with a
variety of shapes and dimensions based on mix ingredients, processing conditions, and
storage conditions. Casein micelles have been identified at the air-serum interface and on
the MFGM.(19) Obviously, the mix ingredients (amounts and ratios) affect ice cream foam
formation and stabilization.

Foam Formation and Stabilization: Ingredient Functionality

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Milk Fat
Bovine milk is the most complex of all lipids.(20) Triacylglycerols are the predominant
lipid portion in bovine milk, comprising approximately 96 to 98% of the total lipid component.(20,21,22) The other milk lipids consist of free fatty acids, monoacylglycerols,
diacylglycerols, phospholipids, and cholesterol.(20) The lipid composition and content
existing in the raw bovine milk exhibit great variability due to feed selection, herd management practices, environmental conditions, and other factors. In milk, milk fat does not
randomly float in the serum phase, but instead exists as a dilute oil-in-water emulsion. The fat
is present as milk fat globules that are dispersed in the aqueous plasma phase. The globules are formed throughout the mammary epithelial cell, grow in size when they move to
the apical cell membrane, and are secreted into the alveolar lumen.(21) During the secretion
process, fat globules develop the membranes that surround the globules and provide
surface properties. Milk fat globule membranes are comprised of amphiphilic lipids, such
as phospholipids, diacylglycerols, triacylglycerols and traces of monoacylglycerols.
The lipid fractions exhibit different melting points, densities, and solubilities as well
as other physical properties that can be altered by heating, cooling, freezing, and pressing.
Pilhofer et al.(23) isolated milk fat fractions with different compositions and melting points
and evaluated their effect on foam formation and stability by using magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI). Using centrifugation, they separated the milk fat into two fractions, liquid
and solid at 25C, and used these samples to prepare emulsions containing milk fat or
vegetable oil and various amounts of emulsifiers (2.0% polysorbate 80 (polyoxyethylene
and sorbitan monooleate, a nonionic emulsifier) and 1.0% distilled monoacylglycerides),
which were subsequently generated into foams. The foaming apparatus was designed to fit
inside an MRI birdcage coil to minimize artifacts. Less drainage was obtained from the
foam containing the solid fat fraction than the foams made with whole milk fat or vegetable oils without monoacylglycerides. Although the foam made from the solid fat fraction
resulted in a more collapsed foam structure relative to foams formed from other milk fat
fractions, the foam containing the solid fraction had enhanced stability. They concluded
that the fat functionality in foams was not a simple result of the presence of a solid or a
liquid phase, but rather the ratio of these two parts and suggest that the lipid composition
might contribute to the foaming function.(23)
Immediately after pasteurization/homogenization, the mix is rapidly cooled and often
held for a period of time (4 to 24 h) prior to freezing.(2,4) Fat globules existing in the ice
cream mix emulsion undergo partial crystallization during the cooling and aging steps,
and then partial agglomeration and destabilization in the freezing step.(16) Fat destabilization provides rigidity and strength to support the formation of air cells, and prevents small
bubbles from coalescencing into larger bubbles.(16) Fat globule clusters formed by partial
coalescence contribute a semi-continuous network that immobilizes and stabilizes the new
formed air cells.(12) Ice creams with increased air contents (20 to 60%), had more incorporated air bubbles in the fat network and increased storage modulus.(24)

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Walstra and Jenness(25) differentiated between three types of milk fat globule
aggregates. Flocculated fat globules, the first to form, were described as fat globules that
do not actually touch because of the fairly weak attractive forces between the globules.
However, if the milk fat globules are damaged, surfaces of the fat globules can fuse and
hold these globules together; these fused fat globule aggregates are referred to as clusters.
The third type of milk fat aggregates, granules, occur when fat crystals exist and fat
touches fat (from different globules) at the same time. When the fat is fully liquid, a granule immediately coalesces into a larger globule. Thus, the native fat globules are destabilized. Goff et al.(10) expanded these three terms into four fat destabilization processes: fat
globule coalescence, flocculation, partial coalescence, and finally, clustering. Coalescence
is an irreversible increase in the size of fat globules and a loss of identity of the adjoined
fat globules, flocculation represents a reversible agglomeration of fat globules, partial
coalescence describes that the fat globules irreversibly agglomerate together by a combination of fat crystals and liquid fat, and a fat cluster is the agglomerate of the partially
coalesced globules. Using SEM, Goff et al.(10) reported that fat was adsorbed or resided at
the air interface and these fat globules had adsorbed casein micelles. At the air interface,
two types of fat were observed: fat crystals that protruded into the air bubble and fat globules with thin membranes attached on the air cell surface. In addition, chains and clusters
of fat globules usually extended away from the air interface into the bulk phase. Goff
et al..(10) also showed that fat globules in different crystallized forms exist not only at the
air/fat interfaces but also in the frozen and unfrozen phases as well.
Abd-El-Rahman et al.(26) compared the low-melting milk fat fraction (LMF), highmelting milk fat fraction (VHMF) and anhydrous milk fat (AMF) as milk fat sources in ice
cream mix and the subsequent ice cream products. They assessed the effects of the physical properties of fat on the behavior of the mix during freezing and formation of ice cream
structure. As expected, solidified fat contents increased during the mix aging step. Because
of enriched amounts of short-chain and unsaturated fatty acids, the ice cream mixes made
with LMF showed lower solidification rates than those made with VHMF (enriched in
long-chain saturated fatty acids) during aging. Also, Abd-El-Rahman et al.(26) reported
that adsorbed protein on the MFGM during the mix aging process step was a function of
emulsifier addition. Regarding milk fat globule agglomeration during the ice cream manufacture, ice cream mixes without emulsifiers and ice cream mixes containing LMF showed
the presence of agglomerated fat. In contrast, ice cream mixes made with AMF and
VHMF but without emulsifiers did not have agglomerated fat. They concluded that emulsifiers accelerated fat agglomeration in all three samples, but did not affect the hardness
nor the melting rate of the ice creams.
Milk Proteins
In general, raw milk contains 30 to 60 g/L (3.25%) total protein,(27) which consists of six
major gene products of the mammary gland: as1-caseins, as2-caseins, b-caseins, k-caseins,
b-lactoglobulins, and a-lactalbumins.(20,22) In raw milk, casein proteins form a colloidal
structure, referred to as a micelle.(20) Researchers have reported that 92 to 95% of the
casein is in the form of colloidal particles (micelles) that consist of nearly spherical submicelles connected via calcium phosphate.(17,20) The remaining proteins are serum proteins
or whey proteins, which are quite susceptible to heat treatment.(17,20,22) When whey proteins are exposed to temperatures that exceed 70C, denaturation occurs; this usually
results in binding of whey proteins to the casein micelles or aggregating of whey proteins
among themselves or with other whey proteins.(13,17) Using electrophoretic techniques,

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Cano-Ruiz et al.(28) reported that homogenization pressure (30, 60, or 90 MPa) did not
alter the distribution of plasma proteins (casein, b-lactoglobulins, and a-lactalbumins) on
the MFGM but that heat treatment (65 or 85C) did. For casein proteins, the two heat
treatments did not influence the protein composition on the MFGM; however, the greater
temperature increased the amount of b-lactoglobulin and a-lactalbumin proteins adsorbed
on the MFGM. Regardless of homogenization pressure or heat treatment, casein was the
predominant protein compared with whey proteins on the MFGM, representing about 70%
of the total proteins content after homogenization. In addition, Cano-Ruiz et al.(28)
reported that heat treatment and homogenization pressure affected the protein load () on
the milk fat globules. When homogenization pressure increased from 30 to 90 MPa, protein load on the milk fat globule increased from 6.12 to 11.88 mg/m2, whereas increasing
the temperature from 65 to 85C decreased the protein load from 9.69 to 8.84 mg/m2.
By themselves, milk proteins are capable of forming foams under agitation or shear,
and such is the case for ice cream.(29,30) Inherently, milk proteins are amphoteric, and the
ice cream manufacturing process can induce changes in physicochemical properties of
milk proteins that provide other functions in ice cream such as, enhanced texture, chew
resistance, increased mix viscosity, extrusion process ease, decreased melting rate, and
improved smoothness during consumption.(4,9,12) Because of the multifunctional capacity
of the dairy proteins in ice cream systems, research has focused on identifying the particular characteristics of each milk protein, as well as the most economical protein formulation
for ice cream manufacture. When considering the role of casein micelles in ice cream
structure, casein micelles or casein fragments have been observed at the air interface
between adsorbed fat globules.(10,12,18) Goff et al.(21) reported that in mix emulsions containing 11% total milk solids and no emulsifiers, greater concentrations of whey proteins
(as opposed to casein proteins) in the formula resulted in greater fat destabilization after
15 min of the freezing process. Mixes containing 11% total nonfat milk solids consisting
of whey protein concentrate (36% protein) and no nonfat dry milk (NFDM) exhibited
approximately 36% fat destabilization, whereas ice cream mixes containing 11% total
nonfat milk solids consisting of NFDM (36% protein) addition (2 to 11%) reduced fat
destabilization from 31 to 12%, respectively.
Needs and Huitson(30) isolated casein micelles from skim milk and compared the
behaviors of these isolated casein micelles with those of whey proteins and caseinate in
whipped cream. At a short whip time (30 s), whey proteins and casein micelles contribute
to a higher overrun than caseinate, but whipped creams containing either caseinate or
casein showed rapid increases in stiffness in the initial 60 s whip time as opposed to foams
generated with whey proteins alone. Euston et al.(32) reported that a competitive adsorption
existed between sodium caseinate and emulsifiers in soy oil-in-water emulsions. Model
emulsions were made consisting of caseinate, soy oil and differing emulsifiers (either a
water-soluble emulsifier (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate, PSM) or an oil-soluble
surfactant (sorbitan monostearate, SM)) and surface concentrations were compared. During
homogenization, PSM caused a reduction of protein surface concentration, whereas SM
was not as effective. In emulsions containing 2.0% sodium caseinate, the protein surface
concentration decreased from 2.8 to 1.2 mg/m2 as PSM increased from 0 to 1.0% compared
with emulsions containing the emulsifier SM, which had decreased protein surface concentrations (2.6 to 1.4 mg/m2) over the same concentration increase. Thus, the water-soluble
emulsifier replaced more surface-adsorbed proteins than the oil-soluble emulsifier when
forming the emulsions, but the authors did not provide an explanation of this phenomenon.
Whey protein, the major by-product of cheese, has been included in ice cream mix
formulations to contribute to total milk solids or as a fat replacer. The United States

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limits the addition of whey and whey protein products to 25% of the total nonfat milk
solids in the mix.(8) Davis et al.(33) compared whey protein isolate (WPI) and egg white
protein (EWP), both of which have been used as emulsifiers in ice cream, by monitoring
adsorption rates at the air/water interface of the protein dispersions. They demonstrated
that the adsorption rate for EWP was more rapid than that for WPI. Thoma-Worringer
et al.(34) reported on the synergistic effects of caseinomacropeptide (CMP), the C-terminal
part (amino acids 106 to 169) of K-casein, and whey proteins on the foaming properties
of various dispersions. In emulsions containing 2.5% CMP vs. whey protein isolate
(WPI) proteins, CMP reduced surface tension by 8 mN/m and increased air content by
1.5 times; however, the WPI foams had 30% greater rigidity and thus inhibited bubble
coalescence because of their more stable film at the interface. Goff et al.(31) also reported
that WPI depressed the overrun of ice cream. In their study, increasing WPI concentration from 0 to 2% (0%WPI + 4.8% nonfat dry milk, 2%WPI + 2.8% nonfat dry milk),
decreased the overrun by about 50%. Whey protein concentrate has been used in low-fat
ice cream formulations.(35) Low-fat ice cream formulated at 40% fat replacement with
WPC had a lower sensory score compared with an ice cream without fat replacement, but
the differences were not significant for texture (range from 7.2 to 7.5), structure (range
from 7.7 to 7.8), flavor (range from 7.5 to 7.7), and palatability (range from 7.6 to
7.7).(35) Khillari et al.(35) reported that overrun and time of first drop of melted ice cream
decreased significantly with incorporation of WPC, from 40.1 to 38.2% and 11.5 to 11.2 min,
respectively.
Not only are the milk proteins influential on foam formation, the ratio of milk proteins and fat can affect ice cream quality- particularly foam formation and stabilization.
Alvarez et al.(6) reported that when the fat:protein mass ratio (FPM) in ice cream mix was
3.17, the resultant fat globule sizes in the ice cream were D3,2 = 1.19; when FPM ratios
decreased to 3.05, fat globule sizes decreased to D3,2 = 1.08. The larger fat globules indicated a higher fat destabilization occurring during the freezing. Gelin et al.(36) reported a
similar trend.
Sweeteners, Stabilizers, and Emulsifiers
Sweeteners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers are the three major nonmilk ingredients in ice
cream mix, and together can account for 50% of the solids in ice cream mix (Table 1).
Research projects have focused on these ingredients contributions to chemical and sensory qualities of the final product.(4,12) Although sucrose, dextrose, corn syrups, fructose,
etc. are considered acceptable sweeteners in ice cream, their individual percentages may
vary considerably in the final product. Overall, however, they normally contribute about
14 to 17% in the trade brand ice cream formula.(1) Guar gum, locust bean gum, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), xanthan gum, gelatin, and carrageenan gum are common stabilizers added to ice cream formulations, whereas blends of emulsifiers usually consisting of
the monoacylglycerides, diacylglycerides and sorbitan esters are selected for ice cream
formulations. Both emulsifiers and stabilizers are minority ingredients (on the basis of
weight); for trade brand ice cream, 0.3% emulsifiers and stabilizers are added.(1)
Stabilizers contribute to the stability of foams.(12) Precht et al.(37) reported that
-carrageenan stabilized a simple foam like whipped cream. The parameter for the stability
was the lack of drainage of the whipped cream. Their hypothesis was that -carrageenan
had the ability to increase the viscosity by complexing with casein and binding water,
which, in turn, decreased drainage. The higher viscosity of serum phase also inhibited
mobility of larger air cells.(38)

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Although small amounts of emulsifiers are added to ice cream mix, emulsifiers have a
powerful role in foam formation and stabilization. One of the primary functions of the
emulsifier is controlling adsorption of the amphiphilic proteins on the MFGM to weaken
the stable emulsion and promote fat destabilization during the freezing process which in
turn allows for air incorporation and stabilization.(26,29,31,33,39) Zhang et al.(19) reported that
emulsions containing skim milk protein or whey protein isolate and 0.1% mono- and
di-acylglycerides (MDG) displaced the protein from the oil/water interface, but the resultant foams were characterized as weak and less stable. Further, Goff and Jordan(40)
reported that the addition of 0.08% Tween 80 (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate) to
ice cream mix resulted in a 66% increase in fat destabilization when compared to mixes
without an emulsifier. Using immune-gold labeling Zhang and Goff (41) showed that mix
proteins (casein micelles, b-casein and b-lactoglobulin) were displaced by glycerol
monostearate (GMS) or glycerol monooleate (GMO) from the fat globule surface and air
interface in ice cream samples.
Thakur et al.(42) compared saturated and unsaturated mono- and diacylglycerides
(SMDG and UMDG) on bubble size of dairy foams. Dairy foams composed of 9% skim
milk powder, 9% vegetable fat, and emulsifiers had greater d32 values (24 vs. 19 m) for
the SMDG-containing foams than the UMDG foams, respectively. Pelan et al.(43) studied
fat destabilization in ice cream premix emulsions containing different surfactants including
polysorbate 60, unsaturated monoacylglyceride, saturated monoacylglyceride, and
monoacylglycerol palmitate. They showed that increased concentrations of unsaturated
monoacylglyceride (0 to 0.5%) in ice cream mixes increased the extractable fat from
approximately 2 to 63% from the frozen product, whereas for the saturated monoacylglyceride (increasing from 0 to 0.5%), the extractable fat increased from approximately 2
to 13%. This indicated that the unsaturated emulsifiers induced higher extent of fat destabilization. However, from the results of protein surface coverage in the ice cream premix,
unsaturated MGP did not show obviously higher replacement of protein on the interface of
oil-water than saturated one. Both results of the extractable fat and protein surface coverage indicated that the water-soluble surfactant (Tween 60) was more effective at displacing protein from the fat droplet interface than oil-soluble surfactants. Goff et al.(10) and
Chang and Hartel(15) reported that the extent of fat destabilization in ice cream is influenced by the emulsifier type and level. Chang and Hartels(15) studies showed that polysorbate was more effective than mono- and diacylglycerides at reducing the interfacial
tension of the mixes and promoting fat destabilization in the ice creams.

Foam Formation and Stabilization-Process Effects

Air Cell Formation
In general, a foam is a dispersion of gas bubbles in a liquid or solid phase.(44) As soon as
bubbles have formed, changes occur that can lead to foam instability and eventual collapse.(44) These changes include (1) smaller bubbles disappear while bigger bubbles grow
in size, referred to as disproportionation, (2) the air bubbles rapidly segregate into a foam
layer on top of the liquid, (3) air bubbles gradually deform and lead to a polyhedral foam
because disproportionation causes the bubbles to be of similar size, they form the fairly
regular polyhedral foam, (4) liquid drains from foam to the bulk, and (5) the interfaces
within the foam starts to rupture and cause coalescence. If the gas is soluble in the liquid,
disproportionation always happens because of higher pressure in the bubbles; however,
disproportionation is stopped if the continuous phase becomes solid.(44) Meanwhile, in the

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presence of a surfactant, a surface tension gradient is established because of gravity,

which causes drainage of liquid from the foam. Increasing liquid viscosity can slow the
drainage.(44) Ice cream, the complex multiphase food foam, shows different proportions of
solid, liquid, and gas phases depending on temperature and mix composition.(45) In an ice
cream foam, the continuous phase is a colloidal system composed of sugars, proteins,
emulsifiers, stabilizers, and fats, each of which has a profound effect on the ability of air
cells to be stabilized; this stabilization may be achieved by some components becoming
part of the air cell lamella and other components contributing to increased viscosity of the
dispersed phase or inhibiting ice recrystallization.
Any foam is dependent upon the mix composition and ingredient interactions therein
as well as the process conditions used during foam formation. Whipping cream (a more
simplistic system compared to ice cream) has air cells stabilized mainly by the fat globules
adsorbed on the air surface.(46) However, during the whipping process, serum milk
proteins and b-casein initially orient at the air/water interface, but with continued whipping time fat globules are adsorbed, further stabilizing the air bubbles.(47) But if the milk
fat has insufficient fat crystals present, the free liquid fat will inhibit or delay the adsorption of the fat globules at the air/water interface, resulting in greater whipping times or less
overrun.(46) Brooker(48) reported that whipped cream quality could be differentiated by the
mean adsorbed fat globules/m2 at the bubble interface for defective and normal whipped
cream had 0.06 and 0.17 adsorbed fat globules/m, respectively.
In ice cream, the mix composition, some ingredient interactions and fat globule size
are determined prior to foam formation. For instance, pasteurization induces whey protein-casein associations resulting in casein micelles with increased size and altered surface
charge.(49) Homogenizing ice cream mix increases the number but decreases the size of the
milk fat globules, which in turn affects air incorporation.(2,4) Koxholt et al.(11) reported that
fat globule size and distribution affected the melting rate of frozen desserts but was a function of the homogenization pressure used during mix processing. Median values (D50,3) of
mix fat globules ranged from 0.44 m to 3.33 m, with the trend that mixes treated at the
greater homogenization pressures exhibited smaller median fat globule diameters. Comparisons of the fat globule size distribution in the mix and molten ice cream indicated that
fat globules are mechanically damaged during freezing by both the shear forces and ice
crystal formation. Koxholt et al.(11) also reported that ice cream melted significantly faster
when globule size was below a critical diameter of D50,30.85 m, suggesting that fat
agglomerate size influences melting properties in the final product. Obviously, ice cream
melting properties are also influenced by the air content and distribution.(4,6,11,50)
Foam formation occurs in the freezer when manufacturing ice cream. During freezing, large air bubbles are degraded into smaller ones and blended with ice cream mix by
the shear force of scrapers. Thus, shear force influences air cell formation as an underwhipped mix has insufficient fat destabilization(51) and less air incorporation(15), whereas
an over-whipped mix contains ruptured air bubbles and less overrun.(16) Freezing conditions, such as overrun, outlet temperature, and fat destabilization, are directly related to ice
cream quality and also affect air cell sizes and distributions in the final product. Sofjan and
Hartel(52) compared the mean air cell diameter of ice creams containing three different
overrun percentages (80, 100, and 120%) with an outlet temperature (draw temperature)
of 5.5 to 6C. Ice cream with 80% overrun had the largest mean air cell size (approximately 23 m), whereas ice cream at 120% overrun had the smallest mean air cell size
(approximately 18 m). After 8 days of 30C storage, all ice creams had larger air cell
sizes. The ice cream at the lowest overrun contained air cells with the largest mean size
increase (from 23.5 to 26.5 m), whereas the ice cream at 120% overrun exhibited an

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increased air cell size of only 0.5 m (from 18 to 18.5 m). The ice cream with 120%
overrun had air bubbles that increased in size more slowly, which should retard the collapse of the texture attributable to the growth of air cells and ice crystals.
Low draw temperature and increased fat destabilization also affect foam formation.(31,53)
Air cell incorporation and stabilization in the ice cream are greatly dependent upon the fat
agglomeration process. Bolliger et al.(54) compared fat agglomeration in ice cream produced in a conventional scraped-surface freezer (4.5 C) to ice cream made in a conventional freezer followed by low-temperature extrusion (outlet temperature 13C). The
results showed that fat destabilization increased from 26 to 58% in ice creams containing
0.15% mono- and diacylglycerides, and the air bubble distribution was reported to be finer
in the low-temperature extruded ice cream which was attributed to the shear. Thakur
et al.(42) studied the influence of the shear force on foam properties of unfrozen emulsions
composed of protein, fat and emulsifier by transporting the emulsion through a narrow
annular gap unit equipped with a cross-blade impeller. If the rotational speed of impeller
was between a range of 200600 rpm, the air cell size decreased about 20 to 30%, but the
actual initial and end sizes were functions of the mix emulsion composition (protein
choice, fat (based on a solid fat index) and emulsifier). Shear thinning was observed in all
emulsions when the rotational speed of the impeller was at 900 rpm. For example, emulsions consisting of whey protein, fat with a low solid fat index and saturated mono-and
diacylglycerides, the increased rotational speed (200 to 1200 rpm) resulted in air bubble
size (d32) decrease from 37 to 18 m.
Also, Eisner et al.(55) studied the effect of outlet temperature on ice cream quality. By
comparing the median and maximum sizes of fat globules of ice creams processed in the
conventional continuous freezer and the co-rotating, twin-screw, low-temperature
extruder, they reported that the median fat aggregate size was greater for the sample
extruded in the co-rotating twin screw (2.3 m) compared with the conventional freezer
(1.1 m), with maximum values of 13.3 and 1.0 m, respectively, suggesting that the
lower outlet temperatures would also produce smaller size air cells.(55) Chang and
Hartel(15) and Eisner et al.(55) studied the development of air cells during the ice cream
making process. Their presented data showed that the lower outlet temperature from the
ice cream freezer resulted in ice cream with smaller air cell sizes and a more uniform distribution of air cells. The maximum air cell diameter significantly decreased from 23 to 15 m
when the outlet temperature decreased from 10 to 15C.(55) Chang and Hartel(15)
reported that fat content (regular fat level vs. non fat) did not influence the mean air cell
size during and after freezing. However, emulsifiers (Polmo, a mixture of 80% monoacyland diacylglycerides and 20% polysorbate 80) and stabilizers (C-196, a commercial
stabilizer blend of 12% carageenan, 33% guar gum and 55% carboxymethylcellulose)
minimized air cell size during freezing and hardening (38). On the other hand, Clarke(4)
reported that air cell size distribution increased (interpreted as air cell diameter increase
and air cell size broadening) from exiting the freezer to after hardening, and to after being
abused, reinforcing the fragility of the system and the need to stabilize the air cell size and
distribution.
Air-Cell Stabilization
Air cells contribute to the aesthetic and sensory qualities of ice cream.(56) The correct
amount of air provides a smoother, lighter body. Flores and Goff (5) suggested that ice
cream with 70% overrun contains sufficient air to prevent growth of ice crystals and disperse the serum phase. If excess air is incorporated, it will contribute to a crumbly body in

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the final product and the product may be criticized as being too fluffy or light.(56) The
melt-down resistance of ice cream is partly due to air incorporation.(6,11,50,56) The significant lower thermal conductivity of air leads to an overall lower thermal conductivity of ice
cream, which is composed of air and liquid phases. In the ice cream system, the air phase
acts as the insulation because of its lower thermal conductivity (air is 0.025W/mK, and ice
is 0.57 W/mK and ice cream with 100% overrun is 0.3W/mK).(4)
Typically, ice cream remains in dairy plants about 14 days prior to shipping to the distribution center, where it can remain for up to 48 days before moving to a retail outlet for
purchase by customers within 14 days.(3) Air cell stabilization is related to ingredients in
the ice cream, manufacturing procedures, and storage conditions. Air cells are the crucial
phase contributing to ice cream structure, producing favorable mouthfeel and enhancing
shelf life.(4,12) Generally instability occurs during storage because of temperature fluctuations and other environmental changes. Chang and Hartel(38) investigated these changes by
using optical microscope and cryo-SEM and showed that after hardening for 60 min, three
destabilizing mechanisms (disproportionation, coalescence and drainage) were observed
in the ice cream sample without emulsifier and stabilizer and held at 6C. Similar phenomena were observed in the ice cream containing emulsifier or stabilizer and stored
under similar conditions, except no obvious drainage occurred in the ice cream containing
stabilizer. When evaluating long-term storage of these ice cream samples (15C for 30
days), disproportionation continued, which led to partial coalescence and interconnections
between air cells. Fat and proteins are crucial in the initial stabilization of air bubbles during freezing.(56) Factors that stabilize air cells are those attributes that maintain the initial
air bubble interface (e.g., air cells surrounded by fat globules, proteins, and emulsifiers
during freezing, hardening, and storage). Thus foam destabilization occurs almost immediately after foam formation.
Foam Destabilization
Ice cream foam can be destabilized from different forces loss of frozen temperature
being the obvious factor, for as the ice cream melts (phase change from ice to water), the
ice crystals, which serve as a mechanism to maintain the frozen foam structure, can actually participate in foam collapse, as the weight of the ice cream overcomes the air cells and
forces the collapse.(12) However, air loss can occur even at frozen temperatures. Ice cream
shrinkage has been documented since the early 1900s, and is described as the ice cream
shrinking away from the sides and top of the package, indicating a loss of air from the
product.(56) This ice cream defect has been widely reported in 1940s and 1950s, and many
researchers have investigated contributing factors, such as mix composition, temperature
control, and ice crystal sizes to determine the cause and prevention of this defect.
Based on the ideal gas law, air volume decreases linearly with decreasing absolute
temperature and increasing pressure.(57) Temperature fluctuation, often referred to as heat
shock (ice cream being exposed to temperature fluctuation, causing melting and refreezing
of some ice/water) and pressure reduction (product movement from low to high altitudes)
were believed to be the main factors inducing ice cream shrinkage.(57) Dubey et al.(58)
reviewed literature of the various identified factors that contribute to shrinkage and suggested that shrinkage was caused from pressure changes within air cells leading to air cell
rupture and escape. The main drivers of this action were temperature fluctuation, atmospheric pressure changes, and ice crystal formation. Goff et al.(57) reported that when the
extruded ice cream exits from the freezer barrel, the internal pressure increases, causing an
expansion in the ice cream volume if the air bubble membranes are not sufficiently

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133

stabilized. These authors reported that various factors, such as paper or cardboard containers,
dry ice, greater overrun (in excess of 80%), fine (small) air cells, temperature fluctuation,
heat shock, as well as mix processing and freezing conditions, can contribute to shrinkage
in ice cream. Turan et al.(59) described a pressure response technique to monitor the formation of gas channels and to measure the degree of gas channeling in a product like ice
cream. They reported that the formation of channel in ice cream indicated two processes
of shrinkage, air cell coalescence and collapse, so it is possible to monitor shrinkage
through the pressure response technique. Although hypotheses have been presented, the
exact cause of shrinkage is not known.

Air Cells in Ice Cream

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Microscopy
Ice cream has a foam structure composed of a fat globule network, ice crystals, a serum
phase, and air cells. This foam structure is formed in the freezing process which both
freezes a portion of the water and adds air to increase the volume of the product. The foam
structure can be modified during the subsequent hardening process as the unfrozen phase
is reduced and ice crystals may increase in number or size. Usual methods of studying this
air structure in ice cream are visual analyses with either low-temperature scanning electron microscopy (LT-SEM) or thin-section transmission electron microscopy (TEM).(10,60)
Viewing ice cream microstructure is challenging compared with other food items because
of the demand for a consistent, low temperature to maintain the actual structure.(10,60) It is
possible to view the microstructure in a frozen and highly hydrated state by using
LT-SEM.(60) Chang and Hartel(61) reported the distribution of air cells in dairy foams
(including whipped cream and ice cream) by using cryo- scanning electron microscopy
(cryo-SEM) and the optical light microscopy technique. Regarding ice cream microstructure, Chang and Hartel(61) concluded that air cell size distribution found under these two
microscope techniques varied only slightly.
Conventional TEM and SEM, however, are not able to detect the distributions of different milk proteins (a-lactalbumin, b-lactoglobulin, b-casein) on both the air-serum interfaces
and the surface of fat globules. In order to obtain more information regarding the behavior of
milk proteins in ice cream, Zhang and Goff(19,41) combined freeze-substitution TEM and
immuno-gold labeling to locate the specific proteins at the air-serum interface and determine
fat structures under intact microstructures. After freeze-substitution, air, ice and fat were
substituted by resin, and characterized by shape and interface. The micrograph results
showed that air-serum interface was composed mainly of proteins, including casein micelles,
b-casein, b-lactoglobulin, and a minor amount of whey proteins. The mix composition (e.g.,
the presence of emulsifiers) affected the ice cream microstructure, in particular the placement of the milk fat globules. If the mix contained emulsifiers, more fat globules were found
directly attached to the air cell surface; however, if the mix did not contain emulsifiers, the
milk proteins attached to the milk fat globule membranes, had contact with the air cells. The
displacement of proteins by MDG on the fat globule membrane was detected and proved in
the TEM micrograph. However, due to the low density of the gold particles representing the
labelled proteins, it was impossible to gain quantitative information.
Microstructures of ice cream described in several articles are fairly similar and widely
accepted by the scientific community.(12,19,48,55,59,61) The microstructure of ice cream
consists of four phases: ice crystals, air cells, emulsified fat and an unfrozen phase containing dissolved sugar. Sizes of particles existing in these four phases are listed in Table 2.

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Table 2
Sizes of the structural components of ice cream
Component
Fat globules
Fat globule clumps
Air cells
Ice crystals
Casein sub-units
Casein micelles

Range

Average

0.043 m
100 m max
5300 m
2548 m

0.5 m
60 m
34 m
0.01 m
0.1 m

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Adapted from: Wilson.(56)

Descriptions of ice cream microstructure state that air cells are spherical and
surrounded by fat globules, proteins (especially casein) and emulsifiers.(10,59) Milk fat
globules participate in formation of the air cell membrane by partial fat destabilization,
which occurred during the freezing process and orient at the air interface.(53) Air bubbles
always show the presence of fat globules at the interface, which allows easy distinction
between air spheres from ice crystals.(19,60,62) Koxholt et al.(11) established a stabilized air
bubble model in ice cream. In this model, fat globules protrude into the air bubble and at
the same time, casein micelles, which are located at the remaining surface area of the air
bubbles, intact fat globules, emulsifiers, whey proteins, and b-caseins cover a small
portion of the air bubble membrane; casein micelles are also present on the surface of fat
globules.(10,60,62)

Conclusions
Air, an important phase in ice cream, is determined by ingredients, processing, and storage
conditions. Air in ice cream imparts indispensable sensory qualities and contributes to
melting properties. However, because of the diversity of formulations, complexity of the
process and inherent limitations of the product (frozen storage and distribution), questions
still abound in several areas of study. These include morphology and size change of the air
cells, interactions of ice crystals and air cells during storage, the role of fat destabilization
in air phase stabilization, and effects of processing (especially the freezing step) on air cell
distribution. As researchers capabilities to conduct analytical work at microscopic levels
and to separate and isolate components increase, some unknowns presented in this manuscript will become known.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge contribution no. 09-130-J from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment
Station, Manhattan, KS 66506.

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