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L-10
Microprocessors
Memory
Semiconductor Memory
Memory Controller
Magnetic Memory
Optical Disks
PCMCIA cards and slots
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Microprocessors
Intel 8085
8 bit microprocessor, implemented in NMOS Technology.
40 Pin LSI chip. 3, 5 and 6 MHZ are employed.
80 basic instructions and 246 opcode.
8 bit data bus and 16 bit address bus.
Intel 8086
16 bit microprocessor, implemented in HMOS Technology.
40 Pin LSI chip. 5, 8 and 10 MHZ are employed.
16 bit data bus and 20 bit address bus lines corresponds to 1MB
memory.
16 low order address lines are multiplexed with data line and 4
high order address linesNotes
arebymultiplexed
with status signal. 2
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Microprocessors
Intel 80386
32 bit microprocessor.
386Sl version developed for laptop computers.
Designed to consume low power.
32 bit data bus and 32 bit address bus.
Intel 80486
32 bit microprocessor, implemented in CHMOS Technology.
It contains 32 bit CPU, a floating point processor, 8 Kb or 16 KB
cache. 168 pin grade array or 196-lead plastic quad flat package.
Different versions of 486 works between 25 100 MHz clock.
Can directly address 4 GB memory.
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Microprocessors
Pentium with Multimedia extension (MMX)
Operating frequency 200 MHz.
Two cache 16 KB each.
The MMX pipeline uses intensive parallel processing of data.
The Celeron, Pentium II and Pentium III also uses MMX.
Pentium IV
32 bit microprocessor and 64 bit on Pentium 4 HT
microprocessor.
Operating frequency up to2.8 GHz.
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Memory
Static
Memory
Dynamic
Memory
Masked ROM
PROM
EROM
EEROM
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Memory
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Memory
C
P
U
C
P
U
Primary
Memory
Cache
MEM
Primary
Memory
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Secondary
Memory
Secondary
Memory
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Semiconductor Memory
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Semiconductor Memory
Static RAM uses Flip flops whereas Dynamic RAM uses gates
with capacitor so it requires less transistors per memory.
Extended Data Output RAM (EDO-RAM): any memory access
stores bytes of data into latches. Latches holds next 256 bytes of
information.
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM): these RAM chips uses the same
clock rate as the CPU, so it remains ready to transfer data when
needed by the CPU.
DRAM (Dual-Ported RAM: allows to access two memory
locations simultaneously, also called video RAM (VRAM or
WRAM windows RAM)
SIMM & DIMM: single inline & double inline modules are small
printed ckt cards on which
several DRAM chips are placed. 9
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Semiconductor Memory
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ROMs
ROM is non-volatile memory, the information exist in the
memory even if the the power goes off. Used fro permanent
storage of data. They are cheaper as compared to RAM.
PROM: programmable ROM. Its content can be decided by the
user. The user can store permanent programs using PROM
programmer.
EPROM: in erasable PROM stored data can be erased by
exposing it it to high intensive SW ultraviolet light.
EEPROM: electrically erasable PROM can be erased and
reprogrammed on board easily on a byte by byte basis.
Flash memory: it is EEPROM but uses one transistor per cell.
Nonvolatile RAM: high speed RAM & EEPROM are packed in
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one chip to form non volatile
RAM.
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Memory Controller
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Magnetic Memory
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Magnetic Memory
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Magnetic Memory
Hard Disk:
On line storage device connected permanently to computer.
Made up of Aluminum. With thin coating of magnetic material over
it.
Read write head and disks are kept in sealed, air filtered enclosure
To increase capacity several hard disks are mounted on common
drive to constitute disk pack.
RAID Systems:
Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) system disks
operate in parallel and stores the same information.
Improves the storage reliability by eliminating the risk of data lost.
Large files is stored in many disks by breaking the file into groups.
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Optical Memory
Information is written in the disks using the laser beam.
Provides the larger capacity. And has longer life.
Slow access time of the drive.
No chance of head crash, since head does not touch disk.
Three types CD ROM (prerecorded data can be read out)
WROM ( write once and read many times)
Erasable optical Disk (write many and read many times)
Now DVD (Digital Versatile Disks) are also coming which has
more capacity to store data than a CD.
It contains more layers.
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Keyboard
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Mouse
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Monitor
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Monitor
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Raster Scan and Vector display methods are used in the CRT to
produce the out put.
In raster scan method the electron beam is first directed at the top
left hand corner and then it is moved along the first horizontal
scan line.
When it reaches right hand side the beam is turned of and retrace
rapidly left side to the starting point of second line and traces the
second line in same manner.
In the last line scan when beam reaches in the right hand side
bottom corner then it goes back to starting point (top left hand).
In vector scan (random scan) method deflecting plates are used to
deflect the beam left or right and up or down.
The beam can be directed to any point on the screen.
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Monitor
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Printers
Printers are commonly used out put device. These are classified
as: Character Printer, Line Printer and Page Printer.
The other classification based on the technology on
manufacturing are: Impact printer (uses electromechanical
mechanism that causes hammers or pins to strike against against
a ribbon to print) and Non-impact printer (uses thermal,
chemical, electrostatic, laser beam, inkjet technology for printing)
A character Printer prints one character of text at time. They are
low speed printers. Character to be printed are sent serially to the
printer.
In a dot matrix impact type character printers a character is
printed by printing selected number of dots from a matrix of dots.
The line printer prints one
line at time.
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Printers
An ink jet printers uses dot matrix approach to print text and
graphics. Most printers use multiple jets vertically aligned on a
cartridge.
A solid colour printer use inks which are solid ar room
temperature. At the time of printing inks are melted and flow to
the reservoirs in the print head.
Laser jet printers are page printers in which entire page is
processed at a time.
They use laser beam to produce an image of the page containing
text graphics on a photo sensitive drums.
The drum is coated with negatively charged photoconductive
material.
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Software
A program is sequence of instruction.
A set of programs written for a computer is called software.
Software are of two types
System software: the software needed to execute the users program
is system S/W. It consist of operating system, assembler, complier,
interpreter, debugging programs text editors etc.
Application software: the programs written for specific operations
makes the application software. Programs like sales order,
inventory, pay bills are examples of application S/W.
A program which is prepared by programmer to solve certain
problem is known as Users program.
The operating system is collection of programs that controls the
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overall operation of a computer.
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Software
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Software
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Software
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Software
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Software
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Software
Programming language generations
First Generation, 1GL: machine languages is known as first
generation Language.
Second Generation, 2GL: an assembly language is second
generation Language. Assembly language is machine oriented. It
is very close to the hardware of the CPU.
Third Generation, 3GL: High Level Languages are the third
generation Language. These are procedure-oriented languages.
The programmer must tell what to do as well how to do.Fortran,
Pascal, Cobol and C are examples of these languages.
Fourth Generation, 4GL: Non-procedural or object oriented
languages are the fourth generation Language. In this language
programmer has to tell only what to do.Java, C++, ORACLE and
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SYBASE are example ofNotes
these
languages.
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Operating Systems
MS-DOS
UNIX
WINDOWS
Utility Programs
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Operating System
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Operating System
Operating System
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Multi Programming:
It allows more than one job (program) to utilize the CPU time at
any moment.
When OS picks one program and start executing, during
execution the program may need some I/O operation to complete.
In that time OS will simply switch to some other program instead
of sitting idle.
This offers a more efficient approach to increase system
performance.
Multi Tasking:
In multi tasking a program is divided onto different independent
tasks and this tasks runs on computer as independent programs
running on the computer.
This improves the computation
timeK.V'
asforwell as the resource 38
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utilization.
Operating System
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Operating System
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Operating System
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Operating System
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Memory manager
Layer 1
CPU scheduling
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Kernel approach
Kernel is part of OS which directly makes interface with
hardware
It provides mechanism for creation and deletion of processes.
It provides processor scheduling
It provides mechanism for synchronization of processes.
It provides mechanism for interprocess communication.
Virtual Machine
It is a concept which creates an illusion of real machine.
It is created by a virtual machine system that makes real machine
appear to be several real machine.
Client Server Model
In this model a user process
(client process) sends an request 44to a
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server process, which then
does the work and send the answer.
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MS-DOS
The operating system for PCs are designed as a single user single
task operating system.
This has two parts BIOS(Basic Input Output System) and DOS
(Disk Operating System).
The BIOS is stored in ROM and DOS in floppy disks.
Booting Process
When power is turned on BIOS takes control, it checks for
available H/w, then it reads from disk a small portion of OS and
loads it into memory.
This Boot program the pulls the rest of OS from the disk stored in
main memory and completes the booting process.
BIOS is responsible for low level services.
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MS-DOS
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UNIX
Unix is multi user OS which facilitates time sharing and was written
in C language in 1973.
The interface provided to user is simple but yet powerful.
The file system used by UNIX is hierarchical which allows efficient
implementation and easy use.
UNIX considers all files to be a continuous sequence of characters.
UNIX treats peripherals devices as if they are files.
UNIX supports a scripting language called shell which allows
complex jobs to be performed using several built in programs.
UNIX assumes on Knowledge of machine architecture from the user.
UNIX can support any programming language that has a compiler or
an interpreter provided it has an interface that maps user request for
OS services to the standard
set of requests used by UNIX.
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UNIX
Utilities
Test
Processing
Shell
's
er
m h
m
a enc
r
og k b
r
P or
W
Kernel
Pipes
settling
Hardware
Type
Terminal
Drivers
Device Driver
Memory manager
Foreground
Background
USER
Editors
Unix to Unix
copy UCP
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Compiler
USER
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WINDOWS
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WINDOWS
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Utility Programs
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Programming Languages
Types of languages
Components of programming languages
Input and output statement
Assignment statement and Print statement
Subroutine and functions
Algorithm and flow-chart
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Programming Languages
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Types of Languages
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Constant: it has fixed value in the sense that its value cannot be
equal to any other value other than already assigned in the program.
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Some of relational operators are = equal to, <> not equal to, < les
than, > greater than, <= les than equal to, >= greater than equal to.
The logical operators are NOT, AND, OR, XOR, these four logical
operators are sufficient to express any logical condition.
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Function is rule or set of rules that assign one and only one value
of X to give value Y. For Y = f(X) here Y is a function of X.
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Algorithm must always halt after a finite time for the input values
supplied to it.
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1. Let a variable T.
2. T = X
3. X = Y
4. Y=T
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All nodes in a flow chart are not identical in shape. The shape of a
node is determined by the type of operation it represent.
A = A+1
Process Box
Is A>B
Decision Box
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Stop
Start/ Stop
Box
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The C Languages
Data types
Input and output statement
Assignment statement
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The C Languages
1 comment line
5 Main ()
6{
8 executable statement
9}
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The C Languages
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Data Types
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Data Types
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Data Types
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> is greater than, >= is greater than equal to, < is less than, <= is less
than equal to, = = equal to, != not equal to.
Exp1 ? Exp2 : Exp3, here Exp1is evaluated first if its found true then
Exp2 is evaluated otherwise Exp3 is evaluated.
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Val = (l>k) ? L : k here if L>k
then
Val
will
be
=
to
l
else
Val
=
K.
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Data Types
If the header files are not included the functions can not be used.
Some of the common header files are stdio.h, math.h, conio.h etc.
The library functions are not the part of the language but these are
supplied with the compiler.
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Assignment statement
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Data management
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Management
Strategic
TPS
Office
system
Semistructured
MIS
DSS
KWS
Unstructured
ESS
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Decision
maker
Interactive
decision
support
Database
Management
database
Dialogue generation
and management
DSS generator
Model Management
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Model
base 82
Data management
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Data management
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Data management
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Data management
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Transmission mode:
Simplex is way of communication in which direction of data flow is
in one way only in a single channel.
Duplex is way of communication in which direction of data flow is
in both direction in a single channel.
Half Duplex permits transmission in both direction but in a one
direction at time.
Network topology Design:
The topology means the form. Network may have any one of the
following forms.
Star topology each device is connected to a central device called
hub the communication between to DTE is by using Hub only not
directly.
In tree topology the equipment
are K.V'
connected
in a hierarchical92
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manner.
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C language
Control Structure
Array
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Control Structure
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If (condition expression)
{ Statement set1; }
Else
{ statement set2; }
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Control Structure
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Control Structure
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
char X;
clrscr();
printf (" please enter all the three numbers A B and C\n");
scanf("%d %d %d",&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b)
{
if(a>c)
{
printf("largest number is %d\n",a);
}
else
{
printf("largest number is %d\n",c);
}
}
else
{
if (c>b)
{
printf("largest number is %d\n",c);
}
else
{
printf("largest number is %d\n",b);
}
}
Notes by 'santhosh K.V' for
getch();
}
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Control Structure
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Control Structure
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/*body of program*/
printf("This program gives the M to power
N\n");
printf("Please give value of M and N\n");
scanf("%d %d",&m,&n);
count=1;
pow = m;
while(count<n)
{
pow=pow*m;
count++;
}
printf("\n The %3d to the power
%3dis=%4d\n",m,n,pow);
getch();
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return 0;}
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Control Structure
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Control Structure
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Control Structure
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Control Structure
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Control Structure
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Use of go to
Goto LABLE;
Statement set1;
.
.
LABLE: statement set 3;
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Arrays
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int salary[10]
char name[25]
float amount[12]
float Matrix[3][4]
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Arrays
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Arrays
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Arrays
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Arrays
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Arrays
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Arrays
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THANK YOU
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