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Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak.

Those in liquid water have a bond dissociation energy (the


energy required to break a bond) of about 23 kJ/mol, compared with 470 kJ/mol for the covalent
OH bond in water or 348 kJ/mol for a covalent CC bond. The hydrogen bond is about 10%
covalent, due to overlaps in the bonding or-bitals, and about 90% electrostatic. At room temperature, the thermal energy of an aqueous solution (the kinetic energy of motion of the individual
atoms and molecules) is of the same order of magnitude as that re-quired to break hydrogen
bonds. When water is heated,the increase in temperature reflects the faster motion of individual
water molecules. At any given time, most of the molecules in liquid water are hydrogen bonded,
but the lifetime of each hydrogen bond is just 1 to 20 picoseconds (1 ps = 10 -12s); when one
hydrogen bond breaks, another hydrogen bond forms, with the same partner or a new one, within
0.1 ps. The apt phrase flickering clusters has been applied to the short-lived groups of water
molecules interlinked by hydrogen bonds in liquid water. The sum of all the hydrogen bonds
between H2O molecules confers great internal cohesion on liquid water. Extended networks of
hydrogen-bonded water molecules also form bridges between solutes (proteins and nucleic acids,
for example) that allow the larger molecules to interact with each other over distances of several
nanometers without physically touching.
The nearly tetrahedral arrangement of the orbitals about the oxygen atom (Fig. 21a) allows each
water molecule to form hydrogen bonds with as many as four neighboring water molecules. In
liquid water at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, however, water molecules are
disorganized and in continuous motion, so that each molecule forms hydrogen bonds with an
average of only 3.4 other molecules. In ice, on the other hand, each water molecule is fixed in
space and forms hydrogen bonds with a full complement of four other water molecules to yield a
regular lattice structure (Fig. 22). Breaking a sufficient proportion of hydrogen bonds to
destabilize the crystal lattice of ice requires much thermal energy, which accounts for the
relatively high melting point of water (Table 21). When ice melts or water evaporates, heat is
taken up by the system:

During melting or evaporation, the entropy of the aqueous system increases as more highly
ordered arrays of water molecules relax into the less orderly hydrogen-bonded arrays in liquid
water or into the wholly disor-dered gaseous state. At room temperature, both the melting of ice
and the evaporation of water occur spon-taneously; the tendency of the water molecules to associate through hydrogen bonds is outweighed by the energetic push toward randomness. Recall
that the free-energy change (G) must have a negative value for a process to occur spontaneously:
G H T S, where G represents the driving force, H the enthalpychange from making and breaking
bonds, and S the change in randomness. Because H is positive for melt-ing and evaporation, it is
clearly the increase in entropy (S) that makes G negative and drives these changes.
Nonpolar Compounds Force Energetically Unfavorable Changes in the Structure of Water

When water is mixed with benzene or hexane, two phases form; neither liquid is soluble in the
other. Non-polar compounds such as benzene and hexane are hydrophobicthey are unable to
undergo energetically favorable interactions with water molecules, and they interfere with the
hydrogen bonding among water molecules. All molecules or ions in aqueous solution in-terfere
with the hydrogen bonding of some water mole-cules in their immediate vicinity, but polar or
charged solutes (such as NaCl) compensate for lost water-water hydrogen bonds by forming new
solute-water interac-tions. The net change in enthalpy (H) for dissolving these solutes is
generally small. Hydrophobic solutes, however, offer no such compensation, and their addition to
water may therefore result in a small gain of enthalpy; the breaking of hydrogen bonds between
water mole-cules takes up energy from the system, requiring the input of energy from the
surroundings. In addition to requiring this input of energy, dissolving hydrophobic compounds in
water produces a measurable decrease in entropy. Water molecules in the immediate vicinity of a
nonpolar solute are constrained in their possible orien-tations as they form a highly ordered
cagelike shell around each solute molecule. These water molecules are not as highly oriented as
those in clathrates, crys-talline compounds of nonpolar solutes and water, but the effect is the
same in both cases: the ordering of water molecules reduces entropy. The number of ordered
water molecules, and therefore the magnitude of the en-tropy decrease, is proportional to the
surface area of the hydrophobic solute enclosed within the cage of water molecules. The freeenergy change for dissolving a non-polar solute in water is thus unfavorable: G H T S, where H
has a positive value, S has a negative value, and G is positive.

Konformasi protein distabilkan sebagian besar oleh interaksi lemah.


Dalam konteks struktur protein, istilah stabilitas dapat didefinisikan sebagai tendensi untuk
menjaga konformasi native. Protein native stabil hanya secara marginal; karena G yang
memisahkan keadaan folded dan unfolded dalam protein protein tipikal di bawah kondisi
fisiologis hanya berapa pada rentang 20-65 kJ/mol. Suatu rantai polipeptida yang diberikan dapat
secara teori menduduki konformasi tak terhitung, dan sebagai hasilnya kondisi unfolded protein
dikarakterisasi oleh entropi konformasional tingkat tinggi. Entropi ini, dan interaksi ikatanhidrogen dari banyak gugus dalam rantai polipeptida dengan pelarut (air), cenderung untuk
mempertahankan keadaan unfolded. Interaksi kimiawi yang melawan efek ini dan menstabilkan
konformasi native mencakup ikatan disulfide (kovalen) dan interaksi lemah (nonkovalen) yang
dijelaskan di chapter : ikatan hydrogen dan interaksi hidrofobik dan ionic.
Banyak protein tidak memiliki ikatan disulfide. Lingkungan dalam kebanyakan sel highly
reducing dan karenanya menghalangi pembentukan ikatan S-S-. dalam eukariotik, ikatan
disulfide ditemukan utamanya pada protein ekstraseluler yang disekresikan (misalnya, hormone
insulin). Ikatan disulfide juga tidak biasa pada protein bakteri. Bagaimanapun, bakteri termofilik,
sebagaimana pada archae, biasanya memiliki banyak protein dengan ikatan disulfide, yang
menstabilkan protein: ini diguga sebagai suatu adaptasi untuk hidup pada temperature tinggi.

Untuk protein intraseluler pada kebanyakan organisme, interaksi lemah secara khusus penting
dalam pelipatan rantai polipeptida menjadi struktur sekunder dan tersiernya. Asosiasi banyak
polipeptida untuk membentuk struktur kuartener juga bergantung pada interaksi lemah mereka.
Sekitar 200 hingga 560kJ/mol dibutuhkan untuk memutuskan ikatan kovalen tunggal, dimana
interaksi lemah dapat diputuskan hanya dengan 4 hingga 30kJ/mol. Ikatan kovalen individual,
seperti ikatan disulfida yang menghubungkan bagian yang terpisah dari rantai polipeptida
tunggal, secara jelas jauh lebih kuat daripada interaksi lemah individual. Namun, karena interaksi
ini sangatlah banyak, interaksi lemah inilah yang mendominasi sebagai gaya penstabil dalam
struktur protein. Umumnya, konformasi protein dengan energi bebas terendah (yaitu, konformasi
yang paling stabil) adalah yang memiliki jumlah interaksi lemah paling banyak.
Stabilitas protein tidaklah secara sederhana jumlah energi bebas pembentukan dari banyak
interaksi lemah di dalamnya. Untuk setiap ikatan hidrogen yang terbentuk dalam protein saat
pelipatan protein, suatu ikatan hidrogen (dengan kekuatan yang sama) antara gugus yang sama
dengan air diputuskan. Stabilitas bersih (net) yang dikontribusikan oleh ikatan hidrogen yang
diberikan, atau perbedaan energi bebas keadaan folded dan unfolded, dapat mendekati nol.
Interaksi ionik bisa jadi menstabilkan atau mendestabilkan. Oleh karena itu kita harus mencari
tempat lain untuk memahami mengapa konformasi native tertentu disukai.
Dalam menentukan secara hati-hati kontribusi interaksi lemah terhadap stabilitas protein, kita
menemukan bahwa interaksi hidrofobik yang mendominasi. Air murni memiliki suatu jaringan
ikatan hidrogen molekul H2O. Tidak ada molekul lain yang memiliki potensial ikatan-hidrogen
air, dan adanya molekul lain dalam larutan berair mengganggu ikatan hidrogen air. Saat air
mengelilingi molekul hidrofobik, penataan optimal ikatan hidrogen menghasilkan suatu kulit
yang terstuktur baik, atau lapisan solvasi, dari molekul ait di sekeliling molekul. Peningkatan
order molekul air pada lapisan solvasi berkorelasi dengan penurunan entropi air (unfavorable).
Bagaimanapun, saat gugus nonpolar bergerombol/berhimpun/berkumpul bersama, tingkat lapisan
solvasi berkurang karena gugus/group tidak lagi terdapat pada keseluruhan permukaan terhadap
larutan. Hasilnya adalah peningkatan entropi (favorable). Sebagaimana dijelaskan di chapter 2,
peningkatan entropi ini adalah gaya pendorong untuk asosiasi gugus hidrofobik dalam larutan
berair. Asam amino hidrofobik karenanya cenderung berkumpul pada interior protein, jauh dari
air. Dalam kondisi fisiologis, pembentukan ikatan hidrogen dalam protein didorong sebagian
besar oleh efek entropi yang sama ini. Gugus polar dapat secara umum membentuk ikatan
hidrogen dengan air dan karenanya larut dalam air. Bagaimanapun, jumlah ikatan hidrogen per
unit massa umumnya lebih besar untuk air murni dibandingkan likuid atau larutan lain, dan ada
batas untuk solubilitas bahkan untuk molekul paling polar karena kehadiran mereka
menyebabkan pengurangan net dalam ikatan hidrogen per unit massa. Oleh karena itu, suatu
lapisan solvasi juga terbentuk pada batasan tertentu disekeliling molekul polar. Meskipun energi
pembentukan ikatan hidrogen intramolekuler antara dua gugus polar dalam suatu makromolekul
sebagian besar dicancel dengan eliminasi interaksi seperti pada gugus polar dan air, pelepasan air
terstruktur (structured water) karena interaksi intermolekuler menyediakan gaya pendorong

entropik untuk pelipatan. Kebanyakan perubahan bersih (net) dalam energi bebas karena
interaksi lemah yang terbentuk dalam protein oleh karenanya diturunkan dari peningkatan
entropi di sekeliling larutan berair yang dihasilkan dari pemendaman permukaan hidrofobik. Ini
lebih dari imbangan kehilangan yang besar entropi yang disebabkan karena polipeptida yang
dipaksa ke bentuk folded.
Hydrophobic interactions are clearly important in stabilizing conformation; the interior of a
protein is gen-erally a densely packed core of hydrophobic amino acid side chains. It is also
important that any polar or charged groups in the protein interior have suitable partners for
hydrogen bonding or ionic interactions. One hydrogen bond seems to contribute little to the stability of a native structure, but the presence of hydrogen-bonding groups without partners in the
hydrophobiccore of a protein can be so destabilizing that confor-mations containing these groups
are often thermody-namically untenable. The favorable free-energy change resulting from the
combination of several such groups with partners in the surrounding solution can be greater than
the free-energy difference between the folded and unfolded states. In addition, hydrogen bonds
between groups in a protein form cooperatively (formation of one makes the next one more
likely) in repeating secondary structures that optimize hydrogen bonding, as described below. In
this way, hydrogen bonds often have an important role in guiding the protein-folding process.

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