MANUFACTRURING TECHNOLOGY - II

UNIT I THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Mechanics of chip formation, single point cutting tool, forces in

machining, thermal aspects of chip formation. orthogonal metal
cutting, cutting tool materials, tool wear, tool life, surface finish,
cutting fluids and Machinability.

INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Definition of Manufacturing
The word manufacturing is derived from Latin:
manus = hand, factus = made
Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services available to
satisfy human wants.
Manufacturing implies creating value to a raw material by applying useful
mental and physical labour.
The materials are then shaped and formed into different useful components
through different manufacturing processes to fulfil the needs of day-to-day work.
Manufacturing converts the raw materials to finished products to be used for

some purpose.
2

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Manufacturing processes is a very fundamental subject since it is of interest not only to
mechanical engineers but also to engineers from other discipline of engineering.
There are various manufacturing processes by which a product can be made.
Each process however has its own limitation and restriction and due to this reason a
particular process is adopted to certain specific applications.
Thus while a product can be manufactured by two or more processes, the real problem is
to select the most economical out of them.
A detailed understanding of various manufacturing processes is thus very essential for
every engineer. This helps in designing the proper product required for him.
He would be able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from his designs.
He may find that there are more than one process is available for manufacturing a
3

particular product and he can make a proper choice of the process which would require
lowest manufacturing cost.

CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Manufacturing processes can be grouped as:

Casting, foundry or moulding processes.

Forming or metal working processes.

Machining (metal removal) processes.

Joining and assembly

Surface treatments (finishing).

Heat treating

These groups are not mutually exclusive. For example, some finishing
processes involve a small amount of metal removal or metal forming. A
laser can be used for joining/metal removal/heat treating.
4

CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Casting, foundry or moulding

processes
Sand casting
Investment casting
Die casting
Centrifugal Casting
Continuous Casting

Forming or metal working processes

Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Drawing
Sheet metal works

Joining processes
Welding (SMAW, TIG, MIG, PLASMA, LBW, EBW etc.)
Soldering
Brazing
Adhesive bonding
Riveting

Conventional Machining processes

Turning
Milling
Drilling
Shaping
Grinding
Broaching

Nonconventional Machining processes

Electro chemical Machining (ECM)

Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
Wire Electro Discharge Machining(WEDM)
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Liquid Jet Machining (LJM)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND

MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
Manufacturing system:
A collection of operations and processes used to obtain a desired
product(s) or component(s) is called a manufacturing system.

The manufacturing system is therefore the design or arrangement

of the manufacturing processes..

Production system:
A production system includes people, money, equipment, materials
and supplies, markets, management and the manufacturing system
8

PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Raw materials

Manufacturing
Process

Manufacturing
Process

Finished
product

Manufacturing System
People, Money, Equipment, Materials and Supplies, Markets,
Management

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

In any engineering industry, components are made of metals in different shapes,
sizes and dimensions. The various process from which the metals are shaped and
divided into two groups. They are

Cutting shaping process

Non cutting shaping process
Cutting Shaping Process the required shape of the metal is obtained by removing
the unwanted material from the workpiece in the form of chips. Example (Turning,
Drilling, Milling, Boring, Shaping, Broaching etc.)
Non Cutting Shaping Process the required shape of he metal is obtained by
the action of forces, heating or both. Since there is no cutting of metal , chip

formation will not be there. Example (Forging, Drawing, Spinning, Rolling,

Extruding etc.)

10

Generally the cutting edge of the tool is harder than the metal which is going to
cut. The metal cutting is done by a relative motion between the workpiece and
the cutting tool.
The following relative motion may be occurred during metal cutting.
I.

Rotation of workpiece against the tool. Example: Turning

II. Rotation of the tool against workpiece. Example : Drilling, Milling

III. Linear movement of the work against the tool. Example : Planning

IV. Linear movement of the tool against the work . Example : Shaping

The various tool are used for metal cutting depending upon the method and
machines used. The tools are classified into two types
1. Single point cutting tools.
2. Multi point cutting tools.
11

PROGRESSIVE FORMATION OF A METAL CHIP.

Fig. shows progressive formation of a chip using a wedge shaped (single point) tool.
At a tool contacts the work piece material.
At b compression of material takes place at point of contact.
At c the cutting force overcomes the resistance of penetration of tool is begins to
deform by plastic flow. As the cutting force increase, either a rupture or plastic flow
in direction generally perpendicular to face of the tool occurs & the chip is formed

as shown at d.

12

MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION

A wedge shaped tool is made to move relative to the workpiece. As the tool makes
contact with the metal , it exerts a pressure on it resulting in the compression (1st
elastically and the plastically) of the metal near the tool tip.

This induces shear type deformation within the metal and it starts moving upward
along the tool tip face of the tool.
As the tool advances, the material ahead of it is sheared continuously along a plane
called the Shear plane.
This shear plane is actually a narrow zone and extends from the cutting edge of the
tool to the surface of the workpiece.

13

The sheared material begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of small
pieces called chips.
The compressive force is applied to form the chip is called cutting force.
Due to friction when wearing heat is produced . The heat raises the temperature of the
work , cutting tool and chip.
The cutting edge of the tool is formed by two intersecting surfaces

14

15

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY

16

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

SHANK

The body of the tool which is ungrained called as shank.

FACE

The surface over the chip of the metal slides

known as face.

FLANK

The surface below and adjacent of the cutting edge is

called flank of the tool.

NOSE

The junction of sides and end cutting edges are called nose.
It is the junction of face and flank Two types

CUTTING EDGE :

of cutting edge
1.

Side cutting edge (major cutting edge)

2.

End cutting edge (minor cutting edge)

17

BACK RAKE ANGLE

Angle between face & base of tool measured in plane

perpendicular to base & parallel to axis of tool

The rake angle has the following function:
1.

It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction.

2.

It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps to increase the

tool life and reduce the power consumption. It provides keenness to the cutting edge.
3.

It improves the surface finish.

Positive rake angle

Negative rake angle

machining

Low strength ferrous and non ferrous

alloy

high strength alloy

Cutting speed

Low

High

When the set up lacks strength and

rigidity

Machine tools are more rigid

18

Cutting tool angles and their significance

SIDE CUTTING EDGE ANGLE:
The following are the advantages of increasing this angle:
It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is distributed on a wider surface.
It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and permits greater cutting speed.
It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge.
The side cutting edge angle of the tool has practically no effect on the value of the cutting force or
power consumed for a given depth of cut and feed.
Large side cutting edge angles are lightly to cause the tool to chatter.
END CUTTING EDGE ANGLE:
The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing front cutting edge of the tool from

rubbing against the work. A large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool.
It varies from 8 to 15 degrees.

19

TOOL SIGNATURE
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point cutting tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in degrees, and the size of the
nose radius.
There are several systems available like American standard system (ASA), Orthogonal rake
system (ORS), Normal rake system (NRS), and Maximum rake system (MRS).
The system most commonly used is American Standard Association (ASA), which is:
Bake rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End cutting Edge angle, Side
cutting Edge angle and Nose radius.

20

RELIEF ANGLES
Relief angles are provided to minimize physical interference or rubbing contact with machined surface and
the work piece.
Relief angles are for the purpose of helping to eliminate tool breakage and to increase tool life.
If the relief angle is too large, the cutting tool may chip or break. If the angle is too small, the tool will rub
against the workpiece and generate excessive heat and this will in turn, cause premature dulling of the
cutting tool.
Small relief angles are essential when machining hard and strong materials and they should be increased for
the weaker and softer materials.
A smaller angle should be used for interrupted cuts or heavy feeds, and a larger angle for semi-finish and
finish cuts.
SIDE RELIEF ANGLE

: The Side relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool from rubbing

against the work when longitudinal feed is given. Larger feed will require greater side relief angle.
END RELIEF ANGLE

: The End relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool from rubbing
21

against the work. A minimum relief angle is given to provide maximum support to the tool cutting edge by
increasing the lip angle. The front clearance angle should be increased for large diameter works.

NOSE RADIUS:
The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools.
The function of nose radius is as follows:
Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous shearing action and provides better
surface finish.
All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning tools.
It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the wear taking place in a sharp pointed tool
with consequent increase in tool life.
Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits higher cutting speeds.

22

For example a tool may designated in the following sequence: 8-14-6-6-6-15-1

1.

Bake rake angle is 8

2.

Side rake angle is 14

3.

End relief angle is 6

4.

Side relief angle is 6

5.

End cutting Edge angle is 6

6.

Side cutting Edge angle is 15

7.

Nose radius is 1 mm

23

TYPES OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS

The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool .
orthogonal cutting process (2 D) Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the
tool is 90 degree to the line of action of the tool

oblique cutting process (3D) If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90 degree to the
line of action of the tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.

Work
Work
Feed
Feed

Tool
Tool

Orthogonal cutting

Oblique cutting

24

Orthogonal Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains normal
to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is
normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
Here only two components of forces are
acting: Cutting Force and Thrust Force. So
the metal cutting may be considered as a two
dimensional cutting.
Tool life is less

Oblique Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at
an acute angle to the direction of tool feed or
work feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an
angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the
tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
Here three components of forces are acting:
Cutting Force, Radial force and Thrust Force or
feed force. So the metal cutting may be
considered as a three dimensional cutting.
The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force
acts on a larger area and thus tool life is
increased.

Maximum chip thickness occurs at its middle

Maximum chip thickness may not occur at the

middle.

Tool is perfectly sharp and contacts the chip

on the rake face only

Frequently , more than one cutting edge are in

action

Friction and chatter is more

Friction and chatter is less.

25

ASSUMPTION OF ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING

The tool is perfectly sharp
There is no contact along the clearance face
Work moves with uniform velocity.
Width of tool is greater than width of work
Uncut chip thickness is constant
The stress on the shear plane are uniformly distributed
A continuous chip is produced without any BUE

26

THERMAL ASPECTS OF CHIP FORMATION

Work is done during the process of chip formation, which

results in the generation of heat.
The heat balance in chip formation
The total amount of heat generated =
Amount of heat carried away in chips
+
Amount of heat remaining in the cutting tool
+
Amount of heat passing into the workpiece
+
Amount of heat radiated into the surrounding air.

27

THERMAL ASPECTS IN MACHINING

The

heat generated depends on the rate of metal cutting, cutting, speed,

specific heat and thermal conductivity of the workpiece and tool

materials.
Among

all the parameters which affect the heat generated, cutting

speed has more influence on the temperature generated.

Because,

as speed increases, the time for heat dissipation decreases and

thus, temperature increases.

This

you can experiment by rubbing your hands together faster and

faster.
The

temperature decreases with increasing specific heat and thermal

conductivity of the tool and workpiece material.

Slide
28

THERMAL ASPECTS IN MACHINING

The

total heat generated Q during a machining operation is distributed

between workpiece, tool, chips and environment as
---Eqn.-1.1
where
Ql = amount of heat taken away by the chips
Q2 = amount of heat conducted into the tool
Q3 =amount of heat conducted into the workpiece
Q4 =amount of heat dissipated to the surroundings
The amount of heat dissipated to the surroundings is very small and it
can be neglected.
The chip carries much of the heat generated.
Slide
29

THERMAL ASPECTS IN MACHINING

The

heat distribution in metal cutting- operation is roughly 80 : 10 : 10

between chip, tool and workpiece.

Heat distribution between tool, workpiece and chips

We

can see that majority of the heat generated during the process of

cutting is carried away by- the chips irrespective of the cutting speed.
Slide
30

THERMAL ASPECTS IN MACHINING

one of the reasons why machining speeds, in practice,

15 May 2013

This . is
CONTD

have been increasing over the years in spite of the fact that

increasing cutting speed reduces tool life.

The

cutting speeds can be further increased if we can bring

down the cutting zone temperature.

Since

the chips carry the maximum amount of heat generated

during the machining process, chips attain a high temperature.

Care

should be taken so that these chips should not fly and

cause burn injuries and the operator should not touch them with

bare hands, even accidentally.

Slide
31

CHIP THICKNESS RATIOS

The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after the
separation from the parent metal. That is the chip produced is thicker
than the depth of cut.

(-)

Chip thickness ratio

Chip thickness ratio

to
tc

ls sin
ls cos(

sin
cos(

1
rc

to
tc

sin
cos(

Rearranging:

tan

r cos
1 r sin

(-)

VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP

FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting.
(b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone
Source Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th edition, Kalpakjian,
Schmid, Prentice Hall 2003

Velocity Relationship

Vf

Vc

Analytically,
vc
sin(90 (
))

vc
cos(

sin

vf
)

vf

vc sin
cos(

vf

vc r

vs

vf

vc cos
cos(

sin

vs
sin(90

vs
cos
r

sin
cos( -

Volume of material per unit time Volume of material flowing up the chip
v c t0 w v f tc w

vf

vc r As, r

t0
tc

Cutting forces
The force system in general case of conventional turning process

Cutting forces
The largest magnitude is the vertical
force Fc which in turning is larger than
feed force Ff, and Ff is larger than
radial force Fr.
For orthogonal cutting system Fr is
made zero by placing the face of
cutting tool at 90 degree to the line of
action of the tool.

CUTTING FORCES IN OBLIQUE CUTTING

From DeGarmo, E. P., J. T. Black, and R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in Manufacturing, PHI.

The forces in orthogonal cutting (turning)

FORCES ACTING ON CHIP IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CUTTING

Source Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th edition, Kalpakjian,

Schmid, Prentice Hall 2003

The forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting

/

R
N F

R FS FN

Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the resistance to shear of the metal in forming
the chip.
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing up force on the chip provided by the
workpiece.
F = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the motion of the chip as it moves upward along the
tool.
N = Normal to the chip force, is provided by the tool.

It is assumed that the resultant forces R & R/ are equal and opposite in magnitude
and direction. Also they are Collinear. Therefore for the purpose of analysis the chip is
regarded as an independent body held in mechanical equilibrium by the action of two
equal and opposite forces R, which the workpiece exerts upon the chip and R/ which
the tool exerts upon the chip.

Merchants Circle Diagram

The following is a circle diagram. Known as Merchants circle diagram, which is
convenient to determine the relation between the various forces and angles. In the
diagram two force triangles have been combined and R and R/ together have been
replaced by R. the force R can be resolved into two components Fc and Ft.
Fc and Ft can be determined by forcedynamometers.

Fc

Ft

The rake angle () can be measured from the tool, and forces F and N can then be
determined. The shear angle ( ) can be obtained from its relation with chip
reduction coefficient. Now Fs & Fn can also be determined.

Chip

Tool

Fs

Clearance Angle

Fc

( - )
Work
Fn
Ft

M. Eugene Merchant

THE PROCEDURE TO CONSTRUCT A MERCHANTS CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Chip
Fs

Fc

Work
R

Tool

Clearance Angle

Fn
Ft

THE PROCEDURE TO CONSTRUCT A MERCHANTS CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the
centre of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn
horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn vertically.
(Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector
R. If done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will
lie on this circle.
Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant,
taking care to draw the correct rake angle () from the
vertical axis.
Ft
Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the
same rake angle) through the circle. This now gives the
friction vector (F).
A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction
vector, to the head of the resultant vector (R). This gives the
normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle () between
vectors R and N. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F
+ N.
Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis.
Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting
face.
Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the
intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at the circle. The
result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure the
shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs
to the head of R.
Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances
(forces) and angles.

CHIP

Fs

Fc

TOOL

WORK
Fn

R
F

MERCHANTS CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Chip

Tool

Fs

Fc

Clearance Angle

( - )
Work

Fn
Ft

Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Frictional Force System
D

(90-)

(90-)

Fc

Fc
G

Tool

( - )
Work

Fn
R

Ft

Clearance Angle

( - )

Ft

Chip
Fs

N
N
A

OA
F

CB

FC sin

CG GB

ED GB

Ft cos

AB OD CD OD GE
N FC cos
Ft sin

The coefficient of friction

F
tan
N
Where
Friction angle

Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Shear Force System
B

A
(90-)

Fs
Fc

Fc

Tool

( - )

(90-)

Work

Fn

Fn D
R

Clearance Angle

( - )

Ft

Chip
Fs

Ft

FS

OA OB
FS

FN

FC cos
AE

FN

AD

FC sin

AB

OB CD
Also:

Ft sin
DE

BC

Ft cos

DE

FN

FS tan(

Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Chip
Fs

Fc

Tool

Work

Fn
R

FC sin

Ft cos

FC cos

Ft sin

FS

FC cos

Ft sin

FN

FC sin

Ft cos

FN

FS tan(

Clearance Angle

( - )

Ft

Power required in Metal cutting

PC
The Power consumed/ work done per sec in cutting:
The Power consumed/ work done per sec in shear:Ps

FC vC
Fs vs

PF
The Power consumed/ work done per sec in friction:

F vf

The total Power required:

P Power supplied by the motor

P Work consumed in cutting per sec work spent in feeding per sec
P Fc vc Ft feed velocity
In comparison to the cutting velocity the feed velocity is very nominal. Similarly Fc
is very small compared to Fc. So the work spent in feeding can be considered
negligible.
Therefore, total power required in cutting

Pc

Ps

Pf

Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

Ernest and Merchant gave the relation

1
(
2

Assumptions of the theory:

M. Eugene Merchant
Tool edge is sharp.
The work material undergoes deformation across a thin shear plane.
There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress on the shear
plane.
The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
The shear angle adjusts itself to give minimum work.
The friction angle remains constant and is independent of .
The chip width remains constant.

CUTTING TOOLS

Cutting tool is a device, used to remove the unwanted material from given
workpiece. Performance will determine efficiency of operation

Two basic types (excluding abrasives)

Single point and multiple point

Desirable Properties of Cutting tool materials:

The three most important desirable properties of tool materials are

1)

WEAR RESISTANCE

2)

HOT HARDNESS

3)

TOUGHNESS.

This is because during machining, the tool tip is subject to relatively high
temperature, intense normal pressure, frictional stress at chip tool contact &
work tool contact, impact & vibrations.
51

Apart from these three important properties some other properties such
as thermal conductivity for removal of heat from chip tool interface,
1)

Low coefficient of thermal expansion

2)

Weldability.

3)

Hardenability

4)
5)

Dimensional stability
Distortion after heat treatment etc.

52

CUTTING TOOLS & ITS CHARACTERISTICS

To carrying out the machining process, cutting tool is fundamental and essential
requirement. A cutting tool must have the following characteristics:
Hardness:
The

tool material must be harder than the work piece material.

Higher

the hardness, easier it is for the tool to penetrate the work material.

Hot hardness:
Hot

Hardness is the ability of the cutting tool must to maintain its Hardness
and strength at elevated temperatures.

This

property is more important when the tool is used at higher cutting speeds,
for increased productivity.

53

Toughness:
Tool

should have enough toughness to withstand the impact loads that come in the start of the
cut to force fluctuations due to imperfections in the work material.
of cutting tools is needed so that tools dont chip or fracture, especially during
interrupted cutting operations like milling

Toughness

Wear Resistance:
The

tool-chip and chip-work interface are exposed to severe conditions that adhesive and
abrasion wear is very common.

Wear

resistance means the attainment of acceptable tool life before tools need to be replaced.

Low friction:
The
This

coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should be low.

would lower wear rates and allow better chip flow.

Thermal characteristics:

Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting zone, the tool material should have higher thermal
conductivity to dissipate the heat in shortest

become high, reducing its life.

54

time, otherwise the tool temperature would

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

Carbon and Medium alloy steels :

These are the oldest of the tool materials dating back hundreds of years.

In simple terms it is a high carbon steel (steel which contains about 0.9 to
1.3% carbon).

Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened.

No sufficient hardness and wear resistance.

Limited to low cutting speed operation.

APPLICATION

Low production tools files. reamers, hand & hack saws

55

High Speed Steel :

The major difference between high speed tool steel and plain high carbon steel is the addition of
alloying elements (manganese, chromium, tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt, and
niobium) to harden and strengthen the steel and make it more resistant to heat (hot hardness).
They are of two types:
Tungsten HSS (denoted by T),
Molybdenum HSS (denoted by M).
T Series
12 18 % Tungsten
Chromium, vanadium etc.
M Series
10% Molybdenum
Chromium, Vanadium, Tungsten, Cobalt
Better abrasion resistance
Less expensive
Less distortion
95% of HSS used is M series
Manufacturing

Cast
Powder metallurgy
Applications
Taps
Gear cutters
drills

56

i) Carbon (C): If combines with iron to form carbide which makes it respond to
hardening, thus increasing hardness, strength & wear resistance.
ii) Tungsten (W) & molybdenum (Mo)
These are strong carbide formers and produces fine structure adding to
both toughness & hardness. But to produce the desired effect "W" is added
in larger quantity compared to "MO". It also improves hot hardness.
iii) Chromium (Cr):
It improves Hardenability & forms various carbides of Chromium, which
are very hard. Grain refinement due to addition of chromium improves
both toughness & hardness as in case of "MO" or "W". The alloys of Cr
improve abrasive wear resistance.
iv) Vanadium (V):
It is strong carbide former & hence used in small amounts. It increases the
hot hardness & abrasive wear resistance.
v) Cobalt (Co):
57
It is usually added to increase hot hardness to permit use of higher
cutting speeds.

SINTERED OR CEMENTED CARBIDES

Sintered carbides are produced by powder metallurgy technique.

It is the mixture of two general constituents hard particle and a
binder metal.
Hard particles Tungsten carbide (WC)
Additives
1)
Titanium carbide (TiC)
2)
Tantalum carbide (TaC)
Wear resistance
3)
Niobium carbide (NbC)
Binder particles Cobalt Toughness
Properties
Very high wear resistance
High modulus of elasticity
Low thermal expansion
High thermal conductivity.
58

TYPES OF CEMENTED CARBIDE

Straight carbide
Tungsten carbide WC (Hard particle) + Cobalt (binder) ----------> Straight WC Co
Machining suitable for Cast iron , while machining steel rapid tool cracking takes
places. To improve resistance cratering adding molybdenum
This gives superior performance of machining Non metallic material.
This material is classified into C grade cemented carbide material
Mixed carbide
This material is classified into C grade cemented carbide material

Tungsten carbide WC (Hard particle) + Additives +Cobalt (binder) ------> Mixed WC

TITANIUM CARBIDE (TiC).
Good wear resistance and poor toughness
Good for machining steel
Higher speed than W-C
Bond b/n C and Ti is very strong and stable

Draw backs

Tantalum Carbide (TaC)

Niobium Carbide (NbC)

59
Increase hot hardness
Prevent plastic deformation

60

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Tungsten oxide is reduced in hydrogen about 1000 C to get tungsten metal powder.
The flow rate of hydrogen and the feeding rate of tungsten trioxide in the reduction furnace chamber , determine the
grain size of tungsten powder.
Tungsten powder is mixed with carbon and carburized in furnaces at temp 1600 C in neutral atmosphere to form
tungsten carbide powder
Tungsten carbide powder is then pulverised, sieved and granulated.
Granulated tungsten carbide is then mixed with other additives and ball milled.
Shaping process
Direct shaping

WC powder is directly pressed into final shape using special press tool

Indirect shaping

WC powder is pressed into standard size blocks and then pre- sintered. Next its machined
to required shapes useful for complicated shape.

Isostatic pressing

Due to large L/D (Length and Diameter) unidirectional pressing doesnt have uniform
density. For such cases WC mixture is carried in rubber mould and its subject to high
hydrostatic pressure in liquid medium.

Sintered is carried out a temp 1400 C in vacuum atmosphere. Cobalt melts during sintering WC is recrystallises 61
in the
cobalt matrix.

62

63

Cutting Tool Materials

Carbides are now so popular that ISO has developed an application chart.
The chart is divided into three main areas: ISO - P, M and K.

ISO P: is for the machining of long chip formation materials.

ISO M: is for the machining of difficult to machine materials such as austenitic stainless steel.
ISO K: is for the machining of short chip formation materials such as cast iron, hardened steel.

CERMETS:
Ceramics(Al2O3) + Metals(W, Mo, Boron, Ti etc) --(P/M)----> Cermets
Cermets have higher hot hardness and oxidation resistance than cemented
carbides but less toughness.
They are used for finishing operation. The main problem with cermets is that due
to thermal shock the inserts crack.
CERAMIC:
Ceramics(Al2O3) + Boron Nitride -----(P/M) ----> sintered at 1700oC ( Ceramic)
(Al2O3) 90% + (Cr203 , MgO, NiO) 10% -----> high Compressive strength and
improve cutting properties
Advantage
Higher cutting speeds leading to shorter cycle time
Better surface finish due to higher cutting speed
Suitable for hard materials.

65

Cubic Boron Nitride (1962):

Cubic boron nitride (CBN) is similar to diamond in its polycrystalline
structure and is also bonded to a carbide base.

Polycrystalline CBN blanks are manufactured from cubic boron nitride

crystals utilizing an advanced high-temperature, high-pressure process. The
cubic boron nitride crystals are sintered together with a binder phase and
integrally bonded to a tungsten carbide substrate.
The binder phase, usually either a metallic or ceramic matrix, provides
chemical stability, enabling the PCBN qualities to be utilized in high-speed
machining environments.
The tungsten carbide substrate in the PCBN blanks provides the high
impact resistance necessary for the depths of cuts and high speeds
associated with machining of hardened ferrous materials. PCBN cutting
tools offer excellent heat dissipation and wear resistance.
Cutting tool geometries can be prepared to withstand interrupted cuts with
a T-land and/or honed to stabilize the cutting edge and prolong tool life.
66

PCBN tools offer the following benefits:

(a) machine-hardened and heat-treated steels
(b) an excellent surface finish that allows eliminate
grinding
(c) high productivity rate that can be more than four times
higher than that in grinding
(d) great resistance to abrasion which is twice that of
ceramics and ten times than that of carbide. PCBN tools
are recommended for machining cast irons including
compacted graphite iron (CGI), sintered iron and super
alloys hardened steels

67

DIAMOND
Diamond because of its high modulus of elasticity, chemical inertness & exceptionally
high hardness is ideal for obtaining fine surface finish & accuracy.
Though initial cost of the tools in high, the cost per piece is less due to very high tool life.

It can be used as cutting tool material, in the form of either a single crystal or a
polycrystalline compact. The single crystal diamond may be natural or synthetic.
It has both hard & soft axes. If the diamond is used in the direction of soft axis (or

parallel to cleavage plane) it wears out quickly.

Polycrystalline diamond is produced by sintering very fine powder of diamond at high
temperature or pressure. Some times polycrystalline diamond compacts are brazed to
each corner of carbide insert.
Because of random orientation of diamond particles in diamond compact, any direction
68

can be used for cutting (as there are no hard or soft axes)

69

DIAMOND WORK MATERIAL AND APPLICATION

Work material Non

ferrous
Copper
Zinc
Brass
Aluminium and Magnesium
alloys
Ferrous mtl : Because of the
diffusion of carbon atoms
from diamond to the work
piece mtl

Application
Single point turning
Boring tool
Milling cutters
Reamers
Grinding wheel
Honing tool

70

Operating Characteristics of Cutting tool materials

9/12/2006

TOOL WEAR MECHANISM

During machining , tool wear takes place due to friction of the
chip on the rake face and of the flanks on the workpiece.
It should be noticed that friction causing wear, occurs
continuously at high temperatures, high pressures and on
relatively small area of contact between the newly formed
surfaces.
1. Abrasion wear
2. Adhesive wear
3. Diffusion wear
4. Chemical reaction
5. Plastic deformation

72

ABRASION:

This is a mechanical wearing action caused by hard particles in the work material
going and removing small portions of the tool.

This abrasive action occurs in both flank wear and crater wear; it is a significant
cause of flank wear.

ADHESION:

When two metals are forced into contact under high pressure and temperature,
adhesion or welding occur between them.

These conditions are present between the chip and the rake face of the tool. As the
chip flows across the tool, small particles of the tool are broken away from the
surface, resulting in attrition of the surface.

73

DIFFUSION.
This is a process in which an exchange of atoms takes place across
a close contact boundary between two materials.
In the case of tool wear, diffusion occurs at the toolchip
boundary, causing the tool surface to become depleted of the
atoms responsible for its hardness. As this process continues, the
tool surface becomes more susceptible to abrasion and adhesion.
Diffusion is believed to be a principal mechanism of crater wear.

74

CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
The high temperatures and clean surfaces at the toolchip interface in
machining at high speeds can result in chemical reactions, in particular,
oxidation, on the rake face of the tool.
The oxidized layer, being softer than the parent tool material, is sheared
away, exposing new material to sustain the reaction process.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION.
Another mechanism that contributes to tool wear is plastic deformation of
the cutting edge.
The cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature cause
the edge to deform plastically, making it more to abrasion of the tool
surface. Plastic deformation contributes mainly to flank wear.

75

FAILURE OF TOOL

A cutting tool is said to have failed when it ceases to function

satisfactorily.
Tool failure may be classified as:
1. Catastrophic failure
2. Gradual or progressive wear.
Catastrophic failure of tool will occur when the cutting force acting on
the tool exceeds the critical strength of the tool material, and tool fails
without giving any indication.
Under normal cutting conditions, the tool is subjected to gradual or
progressive wear.
As soon as the cutting operation is started, gradual or progressive wear
also starts and it progresses with the machining process.
The progressive wear may happen because of crater formation leadingSlide
to
76
crater wear or flank wear.

FAILURE OF TOOL (TOOL WEAR)

1. Crater wear

Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the cutting tool and it occurs at
a distance from the cutting edge.
Crater wear is a result of rubbing between the chip and the rake face of
tool.
As the crater wear progresses, the cutting edge becomes weaker and it
may lead to chipping of the cutting edge.
Crater wear can be reduced by using chip breakers.

Crater formation and wear

Slide
77

FAILURE OF TOOL (TOOL WEAR)

2. Flank wear
Flank wear occurs on the face of the tool.
Flank wear is due to continuous contact between the newly
machined work shoulder surface and the flank face of the tool
because of the depth of cut.

Flank wear

Slide
78

FAILURE OF TOOL (TOOL WEAR)

3. THE SPALLING OR CRUMBLING OF THE CUTTING EDGE
When cutting extremely hard material, the cutting tool that has improperly
ground relief angles will either rub on the material or be weak
because of excessive clearance angles.
If the cutting edges are not well supported, they will be subject to cracking
and spalling.
The proper setting of the tool is, therefore, an important consideration.

Various wear in a Tool

Slide
79

FAILURE OF TOOL (TOOL WEAR)

4. THE LOSS OF HARDNESS
Because of excessive heat but under cutting conditions when the
temperature and stresses are high plastic deformation may cause loss of
form stability.
5. FRACTURE BY A PROCESS OF MECHANICAL BREAKAGE
When the cutting force is very large or by developing fatigue cracks
under chatter conditions.
Frequently in the formation of chips, high-frequency vibration occurs
when the tool or work is not supported rigidly, because of the
sliding of the chip elements into sections.
Because of the flank wear, or because of the periodic sloughing off of the
built- up edge.
These work, or even the whole machine, which in turn may cause a
Slide
disagreeable noise called chatter.
80

TOOL LIFE

Heat is generated and high-localized stresses are created in the metal

cutting operation.
Because of sliding of the chip along the rake face, and sliding of the
tool flank along the freshly cut surface, wear of cutting edge of tool
takes place as well as microscopic chipping of the cutting edge is
possible.
These conditions induce tool wear.
This is very much similar to the situation. when knife and scissors
after use for a long period of time, loose their sharpness and need tobe re-sharpened, It should be noted that friction, causing wear, occurs
continuously at high temperatures, high pressures and on relatively
small areas of contact between the cutting edges and the newly formed
Slide
81
surfaces.
15 May 2013

82

TOOL WEAR

Tool wear is generally classified as follows

Flank wear

crater wear

Nose wear

FLANK WEAR

This also called Edge Wear .Friction , abrasion , adhesions are the main causes for this type of wear.

Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the workpiece

Shearing of the micro welds between tool and work material

Abrasion by fragments of built- up edge blowing against the face of the tool

Flank wear is a flat portion workout behind the cutting edge.

The worn out region of the flank is known as wear land. This wear takes place when machining brittle
material like cast iron. This also occurs when the feed is less than 0.15mm/rev.

When the wear land increases , the frictional heat will cause excessive temperature of the tool at cutting
edge- catastrophic failure of the tool will occur. Flank wear results in a rough machined surface.

83

TOOL WEAR
FLANK WEAR

This also called Edge Wear .Friction , abrasion , adhesions are the main causes for this
type of wear.

Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the workpiece

Shearing of the micro welds between tool and work material

Abrasion by fragments of built- up edge blowing against the face of the tool

Flank wear is a flat portion workout behind the cutting edge.

The worn out region of the flank is known as wear land. This wear takes place when machining
brittle material like cast iron. This also occurs when the feed is less than 0.15mm/rev.

When the wear land increases , the frictional heat will cause excessive temperature of the tool at

cutting edge- catastrophic failure of the tool will occur. Flank wear results in a rough machined
surface.

84

The first is the break-in period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears rapidly at
the beginning of its use. This first region occurs within the first few minutes of
cutting.

The break-in period is followed by wear that occurs at a fairly uniform rate. This is
called the steady-state wear region. In our figure, this region is pictured as a linear
function of time, although there are deviations from the straight line in actual
machining. Finally, wear reaches a level at which the wear rate begins to
accelerate.

This marks the beginning of the failure region, in which cutting temperatures are
higher, and the general efficiency of the machining process is reduced. If allowed to
continue, the tool finally fails by temperature failure

85

CRATER WEAR

The face of the tool is always contacted with the chip . The chip slides over the face of
the tool. Due to pressure of the sliding chip the tool face wear out gradually.

A cavity is formed on the tool face the cavity is called crater. This type of wear is
known as crater wear

Severe abrasion between the chip and tool face.

High temperature in the tool chip interface reaching the softening or melting
temperature of tool resulting in increased rate of wear.

Crater wear is more common in cutting ductile materials, which continuous chips.

86

NOSE WEAR

Tool material is too brittle

Excessive static or shock loading of the tool hence more cutting force acting on the
tool.

Due to this type of wear, more heat will be generated.

Weak design of the tool , such as a high positive rake angle.

87

TOOL LIFE
Tool life time elapsed between two consecutive tool resharpenings.
The tool life equation is an empirical relationship between the tool life and one or
more variables of cutting process, e.g. cutting speed (V), feed (f), and depth of cut
(d) etc.
The most famous tool life equation is due to F.W. Taylor. On the basis of
experimental work, Taylor showed the tool life 'T' and cutting speed 'V' is related to
each other as follows

Taylors tool life equation:

V Tn = C

(exponential again!)

v = cutting speed
n = cutting exponent
C = cutting constant

VARIABLES (FACTORS) AFFECTING TOOL LIFE:

The various variables, which affect the tool life, are as under 1. Tool material
2. Work material
3. Process variables - speed, feed, depth of cut
4. Tool geometry
5. Cutting fluid
6. Vibration behavior of machine tool work system

89

CUTTING SPEED
When the speed increases , the cutting temperature increases.
Due to this hardness of the tool decreases. Hence the tool flank
wears and crater wear occurs.

WORK MATERIAL

The properties of the work material that tend to increase the tool
life are as follows,
(a) Softness (or lack of hardness) to reduce cutting forces, cutting
temperature & abrasive wear,
(b) Absence of abrasive component such as slag inclusions, surface
scale & sand,
(c) Presence of desirable additives like lead to act as boundary
lubricants and sulphur to reduce cutting forces & temperatures
by acting as stress raiser,
(d) Lack of work hardening tendency that tend to reduce cutting
forces and temperatures and also abrasive wear and
(e) Occurrence of favorable microstructure, e.g. Presence of
spheroidized pearlite instead of lamellar pearlite in high carbon
steel improves tool life. Similarly in cast irons, a structure that
contains large amount of free graphite & ferrite leads to greater
91
tool life than one, which contains free iron carbide.

PROCESS VARIABLES: (SPEED, FEED, DEPTH OF CUT):

The cumulative effect of speed, feed & depth of cut can be seen
from the modified Taylors tool life equation.
Increase in any one of the above reduces the tool life, but cutting
speed has more impact on tool life followed by feed & depth of
cut. Tool life is a direct function of temperature.
At higher feed, the cutting force per unit area of chip tool contact
on rake face & work tool contact on flank face is increased there
by increasing the temperature and hence wear rate.
Similarly, at higher depth of cut, the area of chip tool contact is
increased roughly in proportion to change in depth of cut (such is
not the case with feed change where the chip tool contact area
changes by larger proportion than change in depth of cut),
increasing the temperature & consequently the wear rate.

257
0.19
0.36
0.08
T xF xt

92

TOOL GEOMETRY:

Rake angles, cutting edge angles, and relief angles & nose
radius affect the tool life by varying degree.
The cutting forces, tool temperatures & tool wear decrease with
increase in rake angle consequently tool life improves when
rake angles are increased. However larger rake angles make the
cutting edge sharper reducing the mechanical strength &
making the tool liable to chipping. Therefore there is an
optimum rake angle associated with every tool work pair.

VT

0.0927

331r

0.244

93

VIBRATION BEHAVIOR OF MACHINE TOOL WORK SYSTEM

If the machine is not properly designed, if the work piece is

long and thin or if the tool overhang is excessive, chatter may
occur during cutting.
It is known that chatter may cause fatigue failure or
catastrophic failure of tool due to mechanical shock

94

PIEZOELECTRIC (QUARTZ) DYNAMOMETERS

PRINCIPLES AND FEATURES

In 1880, the Cuire brothers discovered the piezoelectric
effect, in which an electrical charge appears on the surfaces
of certain crystals when the crystal is subjected to a
mechanical load.
Of the numerous piezoelectric materials, quartz is by far the
most suitable one for force measurement, because it is stable
material with constant properties.
In its crystalline form, quartz is anisotropic, in that its
material properties are not identical in all directions.
Depending on the position in which they are cut out of the
crystal, disks are obtained that are:
95

1.

2.

Sensitive only to pressure (longitudinal effect), as shown in

Figure 10.16a, which measure the main force component Fz
(brown).
Sensitive only to shear in one particular direction (shear effect),
as shown in Figure 10.16b, which measures components Fx
(blue) and Fy (green), perpendicular to Fz, as well as the torque
Mz (red). Figure 10.16c illustrates the generalized
multicomponents with reference to a Cartesian coordinate
system.

96

97

98

MACHINABILITY INDEX %
Machinability index % =
Cutting speed of metal investigated for 20 min tool life
Cutting speed of a standard steel for 20 min tool life X 100

Standard steel : 100 %

LCS 55 to 60%
Cu 70%
Stainless steel : 25%
Brass 180%
99

MACHINABILITY

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Material refers to the ease with which it can be worked

with a machine tool.
Higher cutting speed and lower power consumption in
metal cutting
Force acting against the cutting tool will be relatively low
Chips easily broken
Good finish will result
Tool life increases reducing its frequent re- sharpening or
replacement.
100

102

ME9251 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY II

UNIT II CENTRE LATHE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES 10

Centre lathe, constructional features, specification, cutting tools,
nomenclature various operations taper turning methods, thread cutting
methods, special attachments, machining time and power estimation.
capstan and turret lathes tool layout, - automatic lathes: semi automatics
single spindle: Swiss type, automatic screw type- multi spindle:
103

CENTRE LATHE

Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the
world. It is commonly known as the Father/ Mother of all other machine
tool. The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the
required shape and size.

The job is secure1y and rigid1y held in the chuck or in between centers on
the lathe machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which
wi1l remove meta1 from the job in the form of chips.

An engine lathe is the most basic and simplest form of the lathe. It derives
its name from the early lathes, which obtained their power from engines.

Besides the simple turning operation as described above, lathe can be used to
carry out other operations also, such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper
turning, knurling, screw thread cutting, grinding etc.

104

TYPES OF LATHE
Lathes are manufactured in a variety of types and sizes, from
very small bench lathes used for precision work to huge lathes
used for turning large steel shafts.
But the principle of operation and function of all types of lathes
is same. The different types of lathes are:
1. Speed lathe
(a) Wood working
(b) Spinning
(c) Centering
(d) Po1ishing

105

2. Centre or engine lathe

(a) Be1t drive
(b) Individual motor drive
(c) Gear head lathe

3. Bench lathe
4. Tool room Lathe
5. Capstan and Turret 1athe
6. Special purpose lathe
(a) Whee1 lathe
(b) Gap bed lathe
(c) Dup1icating lathe
(d) T-lathe

7. Automatic lathe
106

SPEED LATHE

Speed lathe is simplest of all types of lathes in construction and

operation. The important parts of speed lathe are following(1) Bed
(2) Headstock
(3) Tailstock, and
(4) Tool post mounted on an adjustable slide.
It has no feed box, 1eadscrew or conventional type of carriage. The
tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is fed into the work by
hand contro1.
The speed lathe finds applications where cutting force is least such
as in wood working, spinning, centering, polishing, winding,
buffing etc.
This lathe has been so named because of the very high speed of the
107
headstock spindle.

CENTRE LATHE OR ENGINE LATHE

The term engine is associated with this lathe due to the fact that
in the very early days of its development it was driven by steam
engine.
This lathe is the important member of the lathe family and is the
most widely used. Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has
all the basic parts, e.g., bed, headstock, and tailstock. But its
headstock is much more robust in construction and contains
additional mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at multiple
speeds.
An engine lathe is shown in Fig. Unlike the speed lathe, the engine
lathe can feed the cutting tool both in cross and longitudinal
direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a
carriage, feed rod and lead screw.
Centre lathes or engine lathes are classified according to methods
of transmitting power to the machine. The power may be
108
transmitted by means of belt, electric motor or through gears.

109

Bench Lathe
This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench.
It has practically all the parts of an engine lathe or speed lathe
and it performs almost all the operations.
This is used for small and precision work.
Tool Room Lathe
This lathe has features similar to an engine lathe but it is much
more accurately built.
It has a wide range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low
to a quite high speed up to 2500 rpm.
This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies,
gauges and in machining work where accuracy is needed.
110

Capstan and Turret Lathe

The development of these 1athes results from the technological
advancement of the engine lathe and these are vastly used for
mass production work.
The distinguishing feature of this type of lathe is that the
tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on
the face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the
work in proper sequence.
Due to this arrangement, several different types of operations
can be done on a job without re-setting of work or tools, and a
number of identical parts can be produced.

111

Special Purpose Lathes

These lathes are constructed for special purposes and for jobs,
which cannot be accommodated or conveniently machined on a
standard lathe.
The wheel lathe is made for finishing the journals and turning
the tread on railroad car and locomotive wheels. The gap bed
lathe, in which a section of the bed adjacent to the headstock is
removable, is used to swing extra-large-diameter pieces.
The T-lathe is used for machining of rotors for jet engines. The
bed of this lathe has T-shape. Duplicating lathe is one for
duplicating the shape of a flat or round template on to the job.
Automatic Lathes
These lathes are so designed that all the working and job
handling movements of the complete manufacturing process for
a job are done automatically. These are high speed, heavy duty,
112
mass production lathes with complete automatic control

CONSTRUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of grey cast iron on

which headstock, tailstock, carriage and other components of
lathe are mounted. Fig. shows the different parts of engine lathe
or central lathe. The major parts of lathe machine are given as
under:
1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism
6. Thread cutting mechanism

113

114

115

BED
The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of
lathe are mounted.
It is massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other
active parts of lathe.
On left end of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located
while on right side tailstock is located.
The carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it. On
the top of the bed there are two sets of guideways-innerways and
outerways.
The innerways provide sliding surfaces for the tailstock and the
outerways for the carriage. The guideways of the lathe bed may
be flat and inverted V shape. Generally cast iron alloyed with
nickel and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the
lathe bed.
116

117

HEAD STOCK

The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the

different parts of a lathe.
It comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts
within it including gear train arrangement.
The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to
which the work can be attached.
It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the
main spindle of the headstock. The cone pulley is also attached
with this arrangement, which is used to get various spindle speed
through electric motor.
The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of
slower speeds. Some gears called change wheels are used to
produce different velocity ratio required for thread cutting

118

TAIL STOCK

Fig. shows the tail stock of central lathe, which is commonly used
for the objective of primarily giving an outer bearing and support
the circular job being turned on centers.
Tail stock can be easily set or adjusted for alignment or nonalignment with respect to the spindle centre and carries a centre
called dead centre for supporting one end of the work.
Both live and dead centers have 60 conical points to fit centre
holes in the circular job, the other end tapering to allow for good
fitting into the spindles.
The dead centre can be mounted in ball bearing so that it rotates
with the job avoiding friction of the job with dead centre as it
important to hold heavy jobs

119

120

CARRIAGE

Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it

can move in a direction parallel to the spindle axis.
It comprises of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle,
compound rest, and tool post.
The lower part of the carriage is termed the apron in which there
are gears to constitute apron mechanism for adjusting the
direction of the feed using clutch mechanism and the split half nut
for automatic feed.
The cross-slide is basically mounted on the carriage, which
generally travels at right angles to the spindle axis.
On the cross-slide, a saddle is mounted in which the compound
rest is adjusted which can rotate and fix to any desired angle.
The compound rest slide is actuated by a screw, which rotates in a
nut fixed to the saddle.
The tool post is an important part of carriage, which fits in a teeslot in the compound rest and holds the tool holder in place by the121
tool post screw. Fig. shows the tool post of centre lathe.

122

FEED MECHANISM

Feed mechanism is the combination of different units through which

motion of headstock spindle is transmitted to the carriage of lathe
machine. Following units play role in feed mechanism of a lathe
machine
1. End of bed gearing
2. Feed gear box
3. Lead screw and feed rod
4. Apron mechanism

The gearing at the end of bed transmits the rotary motion of headstock
spindle to the feed gear box. Through the feed gear box the motion is
further transmitted either to the feed shaft or lead screw, depending on
whether the lathe machine is being used for plain turning or screw
cutting.
The feed gear box contains a number of different sizes of gears. The
feed gear box provides a means to alter the rate of feed, and the ration
between revolutions of the headstock spindle and the movement of
carriage for thread cutting by changing the speed of rotation of the feed
rod or lead screw.
The apron is fitted to the saddle. It contains gears and clutches to
transmit motion from the feed rod to the carriage, and the half nut
123
which engages with the lead screw during cutting threads.

SPECIFICATION OF LATHE
(i) Maximum swing over bed
(ii) Maximum swing over carriage
(iii) Height of centers over bed
(iv) Maximum distance between centers
(v) Length of bed
(vi) Width of bed
(vii) Morse taper of center
(viii) Diameter of hole through spindle
(ix) Face plate diameter
(x) Size of tool post
(xi) Number of spindle speeds
(xii) Lead screw diameter and number of threads per cm.
(xiii) Size of electrical motor
(xiv) Pitch range of metric and inch threads etc.

124

ACCESSORIES AND ATTACHMENTS OF LATHE

There are many lathe accessories provided by the lathe
manufacturer along with the lathe, which support the lathe
operations.
The important lathe accessories include centers, catch plates and
carriers, chucks, collets, face plates, angle plates, mandrels, and
rests.
These are used either for holding and supporting the work or for
holding the tool.
Attachments are additional equipments provided by the lathe
manufacturer along with the lathe, which can be used for specific
operations.
The lathe attachment include stops, ball turning rests, thread
chasing dials, milling attachment, grinding attachment, gear cutting
attachment, turret attachment and crank pin turning attachments
and taper turning attachment
125

LATHE CENTERS

The most common method of holding the job in a lathe is

between the two centers generally known as live centre (head
stock centre) and dead centre (tailstock centre).
They are made of very hard materials to resist deflection and
wear and they are used to hold and support the cylindrical
jobs

126

127

CARRIERS OR DRIVING DOG AND CATCH PLATES

These are used to drive a job when it is held between two centers.
Carriers or driving dogs are attached to the end of the job by a
setscrew.
A use of lathe dog for holding and supporting the job is shown in
Fig.. Catch plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of the
headstock spindle.
A projecting pin from the catch plate or carrier fits into the slot
provided in either of them. This imparts a positive drive between
the lathe spindle and job.

128

CHUCKS

Chuck is one of the most important devices for holding and rotating a
job in a lathe. It is basically attached to the headstock spindle of the
lathe. The internal threads in the chuck fit on to the external threads on
the spindle nose.
Short, cylindrical, hol1ow objects or those of irregular shapes, which
cannot be conveniently mounted between centers, are easily and rigidly
held in a chuck.
Jobs of short length and large diameter or of irregular shape, which
cannot be conveniently mounted between centers, are held quickly and
rigidly in a chuck.
There are a number of types of lathe chucks, e.g.

(1) Three jaws or universal

(2) Four jaw independent chuck
(3) Magnetic chuck
(4) Collet chuck
(5) Air or hydraulic chuck operated chuck
(6) Combination chuck
(7) Drill chuck.

129

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 3 & 4 JAW CHUCK

Setting up of work is
easy
Has less gripping
power
Depth of cut is
comparatively less
Heavier jobs cannot
be turned
Workpieces cannot
be set for eccentric
turning

Setting up of work is
difficult
More gripping power
More depth of cut
can be given
Heavier jobs can be
turned
Workpieces can be
set for eccentric
turning

THREE JAW CHUCK

- For holding cylindrical
stock centered.
- For facing/center
drilling the end of your
aluminum stock

Four-Jaw Chuck
- This is independent chuck
generally has four jaws ,
which are adjusted
individually on the chuck
face by means of adjusting
screws

Collet Chuck

Thin jobs can be held by means of

Collet chuck is used

to hold small
workpieces

magnetic chucks.

Magnetic Chuck

Thin jobs can be held

by means of magnetic
chucks.

FACE PLATES
Face plates are employed for holding jobs, which cannot be
conveniently held between centers or by chucks.
A face plate possesses the radial, plain and T slots for holding
jobs or work-pieces by bolts and clamps. Face plates consist of a
circular disc bored out and threaded to fit the nose of the lathe
spindle.
They are heavily constructed and have strong thick ribs on the
back. They have slots cut into them, therefore nuts, bolts, clamps
and angles are used to hold the jobs on the face plate. They are
accurately machined and ground.

133

FACEPLATE

134

135

ANGLE PLATES
Angle plate is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to
make them absolutely at right angles to each other.
Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be
clamped on a faceplate and can hold the job or workpiece on the
other face by bolts and clamps.
The plates are used in conjunction with a face plate when the
holding surface of the job should be kept horizontal.

136

MANDRELS

A mandrel is a device used for holding and rotating a hollow job that has
been previously drilled or bored.
The job revolves with the mandrel, which is mounted between two centers.
It is rotated by the lathe dog and the catch plate and it drives the work by
friction.
Different types of mandrels are employed according to specific
requirements.
It is hardened and tempered steel shaft or bar with 60 centers, so that it
can be mounted between centers.
It holds and locates a part from its center hole. The mandrel is always
rotated with the help of a lathe dog; it is never placed in a chuck for turning
the job.
A mandrel unlike an arbor is a job holding device rather than a cutting tool
holder.
A bush can be faced and turned by holding the same on a mandrel between
137
centers. It is generally used in order to machine the entire length of a
hollow job

138

RESTS
A rest is a lathe device, which supports a long slender job, when
it is turned between centers or by a chuck, at some intermediate
point to prevent bending of the job due to its own weight and
vibration set up due to the cutting force that acts on it.
The two types of rests commonly used for supporting a long job
in an engine lathe are the steady or centre rest and the follower
rest.

139

Follow Rest

Steady Rest

140

OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON LATHE MACHINE

The most common operations which can be performed on the lathe
are
1. Facing,
2. Turning,
3.Taper turning,
4. Eccentric turning,
5. Boring, drilling,
6. Reaming,
7. Threading,
8. Knurling, and
9. Scroll cutting etc.
In addition to it, with the help of special attachments, operations like
1. Keyway cutting,
2. Cam and gear cutting,
3. Shaping,
4. Milling,
5. Fluting, and
6. Grinding can also be performed on this
machine
These operations are discussed as follows:

141

142

143

144

TAPERS AND TAPER TURNING

Uniform change in diameter of work piece measured along its
axis
Inch system expressed in taper per foot, taper per inch, or
degrees
Metric system expressed as ratio of 1 mm per unit of length
Provides rapid and accurate method of aligning machine parts
and easy method of holding tools
Taper per inch = (D d) /l
Where,

D = is the diameter of the large end of cylindrical job,

d = is the diameter of the small end of cylindrical job, and
l = is the length of the taper of cylindrical job

145

TAPER TURNING METHODS

1. By swiveling the compound rest,
2. By setting over the tailstock centre,
3. By a broad nose form tool,
4. By a taper turning attachment,
5. By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe and
6. By using numerical control lathe

146

TAPER TURNING BY SWIVELLING THE COMPOUND REST

This method uses the principle of turning taper by rotating the
work piece and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation
of the work piece.
The compound rest is rotated by an angle equal to half the angle
of taper.Then the tool is fed by rotating the hand wheel in the
compound rest, to obtain tapered surface.
The movement of the single point cutting tool in this method is
being purely controlled by hand.
Thus it provides a low production capacity and poor surface
finish. The positioning or setting of the compound rest is
accomplished by swiveling the rest at the half taper angle, if this
is already known.
If the diameter of the small and large end and length of taper are
known, the half taper angle can be calculated. The complete
setup for producing a taper by swelling the compound rest
147

148

TAPER TURNING ATTACHMENT METHOD

This method is commonly employed for generating external tapers
only. In this method, the taper turning attachment is bolted back of
the lathe machine.
The principle of turning taper by an attachments is to guide the
tool in a path, inclined the axis of rotation of the work piece.
Taper turning attachments consists of a frame attached to the rear
end of the lathe bed.
While turning taper using this attachment, cross slide of the lathe
is disengaged from the lathe feed screw and fastened to the guide
bar set an angle to the lathe axis.

149

150

TAPER TURNING WITH TAILSTOCK SET OVER METHOD

This method is basically employed for turning small tapers on
longer jobs and is confined to external tapers only.
The principle of turning taper by this method is shifting the
axis of rotation of the workpiece from the axis of the lathe.

The

centre of the tail stock is displaced from the lathe axis.

The angle by which the axis of rotation of the work piece is
shifted is equal to half the angle of taper.
The tool is fed to the lathe axis against the rotating work
piece to generate long tapered surface.

151

152

TAPER TURNING BY A FORM TOOL

This method is used for jobs or small length.
The cutting edge of the tool is already ground with
required taper angle.
The tool is led perpendicular to the lathe axis.

153

TAPER TURNING WITH DOUBLE FEEDS

In certain lathes both longitudinal and cross feeds may be
engaged simultaneously causing the tool to follow a diagonal
point which is the resultant of the magnitude of the two feeds.
The direction of resultant feed may be changed by varying the
rate of feeds by change gears provided inside the apron of the
lathe

154

THREAD CUTTING
Thread cutting is one of the important operations, that is
performed on the lathe.
It is possible to cut both internal and external threads with help of
the threading tools.
The carriage is connected to the lead screw through the split nut.
The lead screw gets its motion with the help of change gears.
The job is held in between centers or in a chuck and the cutting
tool is held on tool post.
The cutting tool must travel a distance equal to the pitch (in mm)
as the work piece completes a revolution.
The definite relative rotary and linear motion between job and
cutting tool is achieved by locking or engaging a carriage motion
with lead screw and nut mechanism and fixing a gear ratio
155
between head stock spindle and lead screw

156

THE BACK GEAR

The

back gear is an additional feature of a belt driven

lathe and this is used to obtain wider range of spindle
speeds, for the number of speeds obtained from direct
speeds is limited to the number of steps only.
When the back gear is engaged, the spindle speed
reduces considerably.
So it is also used when it is necessary to have a slow
speed of the spindle that cannot otherwise be obtained
by direct speed.

THE BACK GEAR

CONT.

Back geared headstock

THE BACK GEAR

CONT.

A slow speed is necessary in the following cases:

In turning jobs of large diameter within the available
cutting speed of the material.
In turning jobs of tough or hard material.
When the material is hard it becomes necessary to apply
greater cutting force by the tool to shear out the metal.
This increase in cutting force will require greater
turning torque necessitating slower spindle speed.

In

operations like thread cutting, reaming, etc. 4. In

taking deep cut as in rough turning.

MACHINING TIME
The

CONT.

time required to machine a component is called

machining time.
Machining time depends upon size of the workpiece,
amount of material to be removed and the operating
conditions employed such as speed, feed and depth of
cut.
Consider the speed of the job as N rpm, length of the
job as L, mm and f as feed in mm/rev.
The product of feed and speed (f x N) is the feed rate in
mm/min.

MACHINING TIME

CONT.

It

gives the distance that the tool moves (f x N) in mm

in one minute.
Hence, for a distance Lj, the time required for one
complete cut, t in minutes is given by

Note

that the above equation of time doesn't include

set-up time and the time required for tool approach and
retraction.

MANUFACTURING TIME
The

term manufacturing time includes machining time

(or processing time) set-up time, material movement
time and waiting time.
For producing a component on any machine tool, it
requires job and tool to be set properly before
machining can start.
For example, on a lathe, the tool has to be aligned with
the axis of the lathe before turning or facing operation
is carried out, job has to be clamped in the appropriate
work holding device and machine rpm should be
adjusted.

MANUFACTURING TIME
Similarly,

CONT.

for eccentric turning, the job has to be set in

a four-jaw chuck in such a way that offset of the jaws
should produce eccentricity required on the Job.
The time required for setting the tool, workpiece and
machine is known as set-up time.
During the set-up time, machine remains idle, that is,
no machining is done.
The set-up time depends upon type of machine tool,
type of work/tool holding device and operator skills.

MANUFACTURING TIME
For

CONT.

the same operator the set-up time may not be a

constant and it may vary from workpiece to workpiece.
Also, the component has to move from machine to
machine, this is known as movement time, and it may
have to wait before the machine(s) for getting
processed, and this is called waiting time.
During and after machining, components are inspected
and time required for this is called inspection time.

MANUFACTURING TIME
Hence,

CONT.

manufacturing time for producing a component

is the sum of machining (or processing) time, set-up
time, moving and waiting time. That is,
Total manufacturing time = Machining time + Set-up
time + Moving and waiting time + Inspection time

CAPSTAN & TURRET LATHE: INTRODUCTION

A capstan

lathe or a turret lathe is a production lathe used to

manufacture any number of identical pieces in the
minimum time.
These lathes are development of engine lathes. The capstan
lathe was first developed in the United States of America by
Pratt and Whitney sometimes in 1860.
Special characteristics of a capstan or turret lathe enable
it to perform a series of operations such as drilling,
turning, boring, thread cutting, reaming, chamfering,
cutting-off and many other operations in a regular
sequence to produce a large number of identical pieces
in a minimum time.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A CAPSTAN/ TURRET LATHE

TURRET AND AN ENGINE LATHE:
The

headstock of a turret lathe is similar to that of an

engine lathe in construction but possesses wider range
of speeds, and is of heavier in construction.
Similar sizes of capstan and turret lathe and engine
lathe, when an engine lathe will require a motor of
3h.p. to drive its spindle and other parts, a capstan and
turret lathe will demand power as high as 15h.p. for
high rate of production.

(a)

Semiautomatic :

capstan lathe (ram type turret lathe)

turret lathe
multiple spindle turret lathe
copying (hydraulic) lathe
(b) Automatic :
Automatic cutting off lathe
Single spindle automatic lathe
Swiss type automatic lathe
multiple spindle automatic lathes
The other categories of semiautomatic and automatic lathes are :
Vertical turret lathe
Special purpose lathes
Non conventional type, i.e., flexibly automatic CNC lathes, turning centre etc
168

(A) SEMIAUTOMATIC LATHES

The characteristic features of such lathes are ;
some major auxiliary motions and handling operations like bar
feeding, speed change, tool change etc. are done quickly and
consistently with lesser human involvement
the operators need lesser skill and putting lesser effort and
attention
suitable for batch or small lot production
costlier than centre lathes of same capacity.

169

In semi-automatic lathes all the machining operations are

performed automatically. But loading and unloading of job,
bringing the tool in correct positions, coolant on or off and
varying the spindle speeds are performed manually.
Capstan and turret lathes are the two types of semi-automatic
lathes.
The construction and working principle of both the lathe are one
and the same. But they differ in application
Turret lathe heavy jobs
Capstan lathe light and small jobs

170

TURRET AND CAPSTAN LATHES

Turret and capstan lathes are the natural development of the engine
lathe, where the tailstock is replaced by an indexable multistation tool
head, called the capstan or the turret.
This head carries a selection of standard tool holders and special
attachments. A square turret is mounted on the cross slide in place of the
usual compound rest in engine lathe. Sometimes a fixed tool holder is
also mounted on the back end of the cross slide.
Dimensional control is effected by means of longitudinal (for lengths)
and traversal (for diameters) adjustable stops. Therefore, capstan and
turret lathes bridge the gap between manual engine lathes and automated
lathes and are most practical for batch and short-run production.
In comparison with manual lathes, the chief distinguishing feature of
capstan and turret lathes is the multiple tool holders that enable the
setting up of all the tools necessary to produce a certain job.
171

172

HEAD STOCK
The head stock is similar to that of an ordinary centre lathe. But
here, it is larger and heavier in construction . A more powerful
motor is provided.
The spindle speed ranges from 30 t0 2000 rpm
The different types of head stock generally used are
1. Step-cone pulley head stock
2. Electric motor driven head stock
3. All geared head stock
4. Pre- optive or pre- selective head stock

173

STEP CONE PULLEY HEAD STOCK

This is the simplest type of head stock.
It is used for small capstan lathe.
Only three or four speeds are available in this type.
three or four steps of pulleys are fitted to the head stock.
Drive is given to these pulleys through a belt from a counter
shaft.
Stopping, starting and reversing of the spindle is done by
pressing a foot pedal.
The capstan lathe with Step cone pulley head stock is used for
machining small and almost constant diameter workpiece.

174

ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVEN HEAD STOCK

This type of head stock has a variable speed electric motor.
Usually 3 or 4 speed are available.
The spindle of the machine and the shaft of the motor are one
and the same.
The speed of the spindle can be changed or reversed by
controlling the motor regulator.
This type of head stock is suitable for small diameter workpiece
rotated at high speeds
The spindle is hallow and the bar stock can be fed through it.

175

ALL GEARED HEAD STOCK

This type of head stock is driven by a constant speed motor.
The motor is connected to the gear box by V belts.
The spindle gets the driven through the gear box.
Different spindle speed are obtained by means of sliding gear
mechanism in the gear box
This head stock is meant for heavy duty and smooth operation

176

PRE SELECTIVE HEAD STOCK

It has arrangement for rapid stopping, starting and speed
changing .
The different speeds for different operation are obtained by just
pulling a lever.
This takes place without stopping the machine. For this a friction
clutch is used.

177

178

SIZE OF TURRET OR CAPSTAN LATHE

Maximum size of workpiece diameter
Swing over cross slide
Swing over bed
Number of spindle speed
Number of feeds for the turret or saddle
Net weight of the machine
Floor space
Power of the motor

75mm
150mm
200mm

179

CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES

The semiautomatic lathes, capstan lathe and turret lathe are

very similar in construction, operation and application. Fig.
schematically shows the basic configuration of capstan lathe
and Fig. shows that of turret lathe.

180

181

182

In contrast to centre lathes, capstan and turret lathes

semiautomatic
possess an axially movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place
of tailstock
holds large number of cutting tools; upto four in indexable tool post on
the front slide, one in the rear slide and upto six in the turret (if
hexagonal) as indicated in the schematic diagrams.
more productive for quick engagement and overlapped functioning of the
tools in addition to faster mounting and feeding of the job and rapid
speed change.
enable repetitive production of same job requiring less involvement,
effort and attention of the operator for pre-setting of workspeed and
feed rate and length of travel of the cutting tools
relatively costlier
suitable and economically viable for batch production or small lot
production.

183

Sl. TURRET LATHE

N
o
1 Heavy duty semi- automatic
lathe
2 The turret head is mounted on a
saddle. The saddle slides
directly on the bed while
machining

CAPSTAN LATHE

This has a non-rigid construction .

Hence only light cuts can be taken

4
5

The construction provides

rigidity to the tool while cutting.
Hence heavier cuts can be taken
The longer workpiece can be
machined
This suitable for heavy works
which are held in chucks

Light duty semi-automatic lathe

The turret head is mounted on a ram
the ram slides on a saddle. The
saddle is clamped at the required
position on the bed ways

Only shorter workpiece can be

machined
This suitable for machining small
components from a bar stock .
184
Collects are generally used for
holding

Sl. TURRET LATHE

N
o

CAPSTAN LATHE

It is difficult to move the The turret head fitted to a ram can be

turret head with saddle easily moved manually over the saddle
manually on the bed

It is used for machining large It is used for machining of small jobs

and heavier workpiece upto upto 60mm dia.
200 mm dia.

The saddle with the turret

head can be moved over the
entire length of the bed while
machining

The ram with turret head can be moved

only to a small distance. This is limited
by the length of travel of the ram over
the saddle.
185

Sl. ENGINE LATHE

N
o
1 Usually low power motor is
used say 3 HP
2 Number of speed is less
3 Only single tool post is available

4
5
6
7
8

CAPSTAN/ TURRENT LATHE

powerful motor is used say 15 HP

Wide range of speed is available

Front and rear tool post are
available
Tailstock is available for holding No tailstock, instead , a turret head
drill, reamer , tap . etc
is available
Only one tool can be held in the The turret can hold 6 tools
tail stock
Only one cut is taken at a time
Combination cuts are applied
Lathe is stopped when the tool is Lathe is not stopped when the tools
changed
are indexed
After changing the tool its has to No such centering is necessary
186
be centered with work piece

Sl. TURRET LATHE

N
o

CAPSTAN LATHE

It is difficult to move the The turret head fitted to a ram can be

turret head with saddle easily moved manually over the saddle
manually on the bed

It is used for machining large It is used for machining of small jobs

and heavier workpiece upto upto 60mm dia.
200 mm dia.

The saddle with the turret

head can be moved over the
entire length of the bed while
machining

The ram with turret head can be moved

only to a small distance. This is limited
by the length of travel of the ram over
the saddle.
187

TURRET TOOLING SETUPS

1. Type of tooling. In general, standard tools and holders should be
used as much as possible, especially for small batches of work.
Simple tool layout should be employed for small batches. Roller
rest turning holders are used to support the bar work, whereas
extended tooling is used for machining chucked parts such as
castings and forgings.
2. Machining operations. Maximum productivity is achieved by a
judicious combination of internal and external machining operations
on both the square and the hexagonal turrets. As far as possible, cuts
performed on square and hexagonal turrets should be combined in
the tooling setup.
3. Tool geometry and proper clamping. Suitable cutting angles and
edges should be ground on tools. Moreover, the tools should be set
with minimum overhang and gripped firmly in their holders.
4. Stops. These should be set as accurately as part tolerances require.188
Hexagonal turret stops are usually set prior to cross-slide stops.

Automatically Controlled Headstock Turret Lathes

Automatic control of the headstock through the movement of the
hexagonal turret results in considerable time savings on jobs
where handling time constitutes a large part of the total floor-tofloor time (FFT). Starting, stopping, speed changing, and spindle
reversing are all controlled by a unit actuated by the indexing of
the turret head.
The operator has to handle only the hexagonal turret, resulting in
considerable time savings. This control is best used on small
machines where a high number of spindle changes take place in
a short machining cycle.
Plumbing fittings, aircraft fittings, small valve bodies, and other
chucking work with short machining strokes are jobs ideally
suited for the automatic controls.
189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMATED LATHES

1. Spindle location (horizontal or vertical). Vertical machines are
heavier, more rigid, more powerful, and occupy less floor space.
They are especially designed for machining large diameter work
of comparatively short length.
2. Degree of automation (fully or semiautomatic). As mentioned
earlier, the decision to choose between fully and semiautomatic
depends mainly on the lot size.
3. Number of spindles (single- or multispindle).
A. Single-spindle automated lathe are classified as Fully
automatic
(Swiss-type
and
turret-screw
automatics)
Semiautomatic

197

B. Multispindle automated lathes. These machines have 28

horizontal or vertical spindles. Their production capacity is
higher than that of single-spindle machines, but their machining
accuracy is somewhat lower. They are further classified as
follows:
Fully automatic. These machines are suitable for both bar and
magazine work. They are widely used for mass production and
need a lot of setup work. Large multispindle automatics are
equipped with an auxiliary small power motor, which serves to
drive the camshaft when the machine is being set up. The
production capacity of a four-spindle automatic, for example, is
only 2.53 times (not 4 times) as large as that of a single-spindle
automatic, assuming the same product size, shape, and material.
Semiautomatic. Semiautomatic multispindle machines are mostly
of vertical type.
198

4. Nature of workpiece stock (bar or magazine).

Automated lathes use either coiled wire stock (upto 6 mm in
diameter), bar, pipe, or separate blanks.
Bar stock is available in great variety of shapes and sizes; however, it
is considered poor practice to use bar stock over 50 mm in diameter,
as the waste metal in the form of chips will be excessive. Separate
blanks are frequently used in semiautomatics.
The blanks should approach the shape and size of the finished product;
otherwise, the cycle time increases, thus increasing the production
cost.
Automated lathes are broadly classified according to the stock nature
into the following main categories:
A. Automatic bar machine. These are used for machining WPs
from bar or pipe stock.
B. Magazine loaded machine. These are used to machine WPs in
the form of blanks, which have been properly machined to appropriate
199
dimensions, prior to feeding them into the machine.

5. WP size and geometry. The size and geometry of the WP

determine the suitable machine to be used. In this regard, long
accurate parts of small diameters are produced on the Swiss type
automatics, whereas parts of complex external and internal
surfaces are machined using turret-type automatic screw
machines.
6. Machining accuracy. Generally, bar automatics are employed
for machining high-quality fastenings (screws, nuts) bushings,
shafts, rings, etc. The design configuration of the Swiss-type
automatics makes them superior with respect to the production
accuracy, especially when producing long slender parts. The
machining accuracy of multispindle automatics is generally
lower than single spindle automatics due to the errors in
indexing of spindles and large number of spindle head fittings.
200

201

SINGLE SPINDLE AUTOMATIC LATHE

The general purpose single spindle automatic lathes are widely used
for quantity or mass production (by machining) of high quality
fasteners; bolts, screws, studs etc., bushings, pins, shafts, rollers,
handles and similar small metallic parts from long bars or tubes of
regular section and also often from separate small blanks.
Unlike the semiautomatic lathes, single spindle automats are :
Preferably and essentially used for larger volume of production i.e.,
large lot production and mass production
Used always for producing jobs of rod, tubular or ring type and of
relatively smaller size.
Run fully automatically, including bar feeding and tool indexing,
and continuously over a long duration repeating the same
machining cycle for each product
Provided with upto five radial tool slides which are moved by cams
mounted on a cam shaft
It relatively smaller size and power but have higher spindle speed202

The three main types of single-spindle semiautomatic lathes are

as follows:
Multiple-tool semiautomatic lathes
Turret semiautomatic lathes
Hydraulic tracercontrolled semiautomatic lathes

All of these are equipped either by centers or chucks. WPs

several times longer than their diameters are normally
machined between centers, while short WPs with large
diameters should be chucked

203

1. Multiple-tool semiautomatic lathes. These machines operate on a

semiautomatic cycle.
The operator only sets up the work, starts the lathe, and removes the
finished work. This feature allows one operator to handle several
machine tools simultaneously (multiple machine tool handling).
Figure shows the multiple-tool machining of a stepped shaft, mounted
between centers, using several tools mounted on the main and cross
slides (cross and longitudinal feeds are designated by arrows).
Tailstock centers are most often ball- or roller bearingtype to
withstand heavy static and dynamic forces. These machines have
found extensive applications in large-lot and mass production

204

205

2.Turret semiautomatic lathes. Turret semiautomatics, commonly

referred to as single-spindle chucking machines, are used
basically for the same type of work carried out by the turret lathe.
They generally require hand loading and unloading and complete
the machining cycle automatically. These machines are used when
production requirements are too high for hand turret lathes and too
low for multispindle automatics to produce economically. The
setup time is much lower than that of multispindle automatics.
It is important to realize that during the automatic machining
operation, the operator is free to operate another machine or to
inspect the finished part without loss of time.
The turrets normally consist of four or six tooling stations. Crossslide tooling stations are also available in the front and the rear
slides.
The machine has a control unit that automatically selects speeds,
feeds, length of cuts, and machine functions such as dwell, cycle
stop, index, reverse, cross-slide actuation, and many others.
206

KINEMATICS AND WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDRAULIC COPYING LATHE

Hydraulic drive is often preferably used in some machine tools

for smooth motions without jerk and noise, self lubrication,
flexible transmission system and stepless variation in speed and
feed despite the limitations like larger space requirement, oil
leakage, difficult maintenance etc.

207

The circuitry of a hydraulically driven (tool travel) drilling

machine. The direction and length of travel of the drilling head
fitted on the moving piston are controlled by movement of the
spool of the direction control valve which is actuated by the pilot
valve and governed by the electromechanical stop as indicated in
the figure.
The rate of travel of the drill head i.e., the feed rate is governed by
the throttle or metre controlling valve which is again controlled by
a template like cam and a follower coupled with the spool of the
throttle valve as shown in Fig. 4.7.11. To keep feed rate constant
irrespective of the working force on the piston, a pressure
reducing valve is provided prior to the throttle valve.
The pressure reducing valve helps keep its exit pressure i.e., input
pressure of the throttle valve fixed to a preset value irrespective of
the input pressure of the pressure reducing valve which varies
with the working load on the drill piston..
208

Constant pressure difference keeps constant fluid flow rate

through the throttle valve resulting constant feed rate irrespective
of the cutting force
The cross feed is controlled, under fixed longitudinal feed,
hydraulically. When the stylus moves in the transverse direction
slightly (by say x) due to slope or profile in the fixed template,
the ports open enabling the high pressure fluid enter in the lower
chamber.
Since the piston is fixed, the sliding cylinder holding the cutting
tool will start moving down. When the tool also retracts by x the
ports get closed.
This way the incremental or discrete motion of the stylus is
replicated by the tool tip resulting true copying of the profile
from the template to the job

209

Multiple spindle Vertical Turret lathe

Turret lathes are mostly horizontal axis single spindle type. The
multiple spindle vertical turret lathes are characterised by :
Suitably used for large lot or mass production of jobs of
generally ;

chucking type
relatively large size
requiring limited number of machining operations

Machine axis vertical for

lesser floor space occupied

easy loading and unloading of blanks and finished jobs
relieving the spindles of bending loads due to job weight.

Number of spindle four to eight.

The basic configuration of multiple spindle vertical turret lathes
which are comprised mainly of a large disc type spindle carrier
and a tool holding vertical ram as shown.
210

SWISS TYPE AUTOMATIC LATHE

The characteristics and applications of these single spindle automatic lathes are :
In respect of application :
Used for lot or mass production of thin slender rod or tubular jobs, like components
of small clocks and wrist watches, by precision machining;
Job size (approximately)
Diameter range 2 to 12 mm
Length range 3 to 30 mm

Dimensional accuracy and surface finish almost as good as provided by grinding

In respect of configuration and operation
The headstock travels enabling axial feed of the bar stock against the cutting tools
as indicated in
There is no tailstock or turret
High spindle speed (2000 10,000 rpm) for small job diameter
The cutting tools (upto five in number including two on the rocker arm) are fed
radially
Drilling and threading tools, if required, are moved axially using swivelling
device(s)
The cylindrical blanks are prefinished by grinding and are moved through a carbide
guide bush as shown.
211

212

SINGLE SPINDLE AUTOMATIC LATHES

CONT.

SWISS TYPE AUTOMATIC LATHES

Advantages of Swiss type screw machine:
I. Used to manufacture precision turning of small parts.

2. It has five tool slides.

3. Wide range of speeds.
4. Rigid construction.
5. Micrometer tool setting.
6. Inter changeability of cams.
7. Simple design of cams.
8. Tolerance of 0.005 to 0.0l is obtained.
9. Numerous working stations.

AUTOMATIC SCREW CUTTING MACHINE

These

machines are essentially automatic bar type

turret lathes.
They are widely used for production of all sorts of
small turned parts.
It consists of a cross slide and a turret, two cross slides,
one front Cross slide and another rear cross slide are
provided for cross feeding tools.
An additional vertical slide is also employed in this
machine. This third slide is installed above the work
spindle.
The turret slide is placed at the right end of the bed. It
carries turret having six tool holes.

AUTOMATIC SCREW CUTTING MACHINE CONT.

AUTOMATIC SCREW CUTTING MACHINE CONT.

AUTOMATIC SCREW CUTTING MACHINE CONT.

The

various tools used in the machine are mounted

around the turret in a vertical plane in line with the
spindle: this machine, the headstock is stationary.
It houses the spindle which rotates in either direction.
The bar stock is held in a chuck. It is advanced by a
feed finger after each piece is finished and cut off.
A camshaft is mounted at the front of the machine. It
carries three plate cams.

AUTOMATIC SCREW CUTTING MACHINE CONT.

These

plate cams control the travel of cross slides.

The turret head rotates about a horizontal axis.
The turret slide travel is controlled by a lead cam.
The lead cam gives a slow forward and fast return
movement to the turret slide.
The discs cams are used to control the cross slide.
All operations such as turning, drilling, boring,
threading, reaming, spot facing, knurling can be done
on the machine.

AUTOMATIC SCREW CUTTING MACHINE CONT.

Special

attachments are also available to perform

slotting work, milling flats, cross-drilling etc. In this
machine, any type of bar stock round, square,
hexagonal can be machined.
These machines are made in several sizes for bar work
from 12mm to 60mm diameter.
It is used for producing small jobs, screws, stepped
pins, taper pins, bolts etc.

MULTISPINDLE AUTOMATIC LATHES CONT.

Classification
According

to the type of workpiece used.

Bar type machine
Chucking type machine
According to the arrangemnt of spindle
Horizontal spindle type
Vertical spidle type
According to the principle of operation
Parallel action type
Progressive action type

MULTISPINDLE AUTOMATIC LATHES CONT.

Parallel action multi spindle automatic lathe

223

224

225

226

Sl. PARALLEL ACTION MACHINE

No

PROGRESSIVE ACTION MACHINE

Same operation is done all jobs Different operations are done on

in all the spindle
jobs at each station one after another

In one cycle in number of It is not so, one cycle in number of

components
produced components
produced
simultaneously is equally to simultaneously is not equally to
number of spindles
number of spindles

Rate of production is very high

If anything goes wrong in one

If anything goes wrong in one
station the production in that
direction, the production is
particular station only is affected completely affected in all station

Small parts of simple shapes are Parts of complicated shapes can be

produced
produced

Rate of production is moderate

227

228

229

TURRET INDEXING MECHANISM

1. Hexagonal turret, 2. Index plate, 3. Bevel gear,

4. Indexing ratchet, 5. Turret spindle, 6. Bevel pinion,
7. Indexing pawl, 8. Screw stop rods, 9. Lathe bed,
10. Plunger actuating cam, 11. Pinion shaft, 12. Stop,
13. Plunger pin, 14. Plunger, 15. Plunger spring

TURRET INDEXING MECHANISM CONT.

The turret 1 is mounted on the spindle 5, which rests on a bearing

on the turret saddle.
The index plate 2, the bevel gear 3 and an indexing ratchet 4 are
keyed to the spindle 5.
The plunger 14 fitted with in the housing and mounted on the
saddle locks the index plate by spring 15 pressure and prevents any
rotary movement of the turret as the tool feeds in to the work.
A pin 13 is fitted on the plunger 14 projects out of the housing. An
actuating cam 10 and the indexing pawl 7 are attached to the lathe
bed 9 at the desired position.

TURRET INDEXING MECHANISM CONT.

Both the cam and the pawl are spring loaded. As the turret reaches
the backward position, the actuating cam10 lifts the plunger 14 out
of the groove in the index plate due to the riding of the pin 13 on
the beveled surface of the cam 10 and thus unlocks the index plate
2.
The spring loaded pawl 7 which by this time engages with a groove
of the ratchet plate 4, causes the ratchet to rotate as the turret head
moves backward.
When the index plate or the turret rotates through one sixth of
revolution, the pin 13 and the plunger 14 drops out of the cam 10
and the plunger locks the index plate at the next groove. The turret
is thus indexed by one sixth of revolution and again locked in to the
new position automatically.

BAR FEEDING MECHANISM

The bar stock is held and tightly clamped in the push type spring collet which is pushed
by a push tube with the help of a pair of bell-crank levers actuated by a taper ring.
Bar feeding is accomplished by four elementary operations;

unclamping of the job by opening the collet

bar feed by pushing it forward

clamping of the bar by closing the collet

free return of the bar-pushing element

After a job is complete and part off, the collet is opened by moving the lever manually
rightward to withdraw the push force on the collet. Further moving of the lever in the
same direction causes forward push of the bar with the help of the ratchet paul
system shown. After the projection of the bar from the collet face to the desired length
controlled by a pre-set stop stock generally held in one face of the turret or in a
separate swing stop, the lever is moved leftward resulting closing of the collet by
clamping of the barstock. Just before clamping of the collet, the leftward movement of
the lever pushes the bar feeder (ratchet) back freely against the paul.

BAR FEEDING MECHANISM

CONT.

BAR FEEDING MECHANISM

After

CONT.

a job is complete and part off, the collet is opened

by moving the lever manually rightward to withdraw
the push force on the collet.
Further moving of the lever in the same direction
causes forward push of the bar with the help of the
ratchet paul system shown.
After the projection of the bar from the collet face to
the desired length controlled by a pre-set stop stock
generally held in one face of the turret or in a separate
swing stop.

BAR FEEDING MECHANISM

The

CONT.

lever is moved leftward resulting closing of the

collet by clamping of the barstock.
Just before clamping of the collet, the leftward
movement of the lever pushes the bar feeder (ratchet)
back freely against the paul.

UNIT III RECIPROCATING MACHINES,

MILLING MACHINES AND GEAR CUTTING

237

12

Reciprocating machine tools: shaper, planer, slotter:

milling: types, milling cutter attachments, change gear
calculations, machining time calculation, operations.
hole making: drilling, reaming, boring, tapping,
machining time calculations. gear cutting: forming,
generations, shaping, planning and hobbing-tool and
cutter grinders.

SHAPER

The shaper (also called shaping machine) is a reciprocating type

of machine tool used for producing small flat surfaces with the

help of a single point tool reciprocating over the stationary work

piece.

The flat surface may be horizontal, inclined or vertical. The

reciprocating motion of the tool is obtained either by the crank

and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism or Whitworth
quick return motion mechanism.

238

239

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A SHAPER

1. Base: It is a heavy structure of cast iron which supports other

parts of a shaper.

2. Column: It is a box-like structure made up of cast iron and

mounted upon the base. It contains the driving mechanism and is

provided with two machined guide ways on the top of it on which

the ram reciprocates.

3. Ram: It is a reciprocating member which reciprocates on the

guide ways provided above the column. It carries a tool-slide on its

head and a mechanism for adjusting the stroke length.
240

241

4. Tool head: It is attached to the front portion of the ram with the help
of a nut and a bolt. It is used to hold the tool rigidly, it also provides
the vertical and angular movements to the tool for cutting.
5. Cross-rail: It is attached to the front vertical portion of the column. It
is used for the following two purposes:
(a) It helps in elevating the table over the column in the upward
direction, and
(b) The table can be moved in a direction perpendicular to the axis of
the ram over this cross rail.
6. Table: It is used for holding the work piece. It can be adjusted
horizontally and vertically with the help of spindles.

242

WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF A SHAPER

We have already discussed that in a shaper, a single point cutting tool
reciprocates over the stationary work piece. The tool is held in the tool post of
the reciprocating ram and performs the cutting operation during its forward
stroke. It may be noted that during the backward stroke of the ram, the tool
does not remove material from the work piece. Both these strokes (i.e.,
forward and backward strokes) form one working cycle of the shaper.

For shaping in horizontal direction, as shown in Fig, the clamped work piece
is fed against the reciprocating tool after every cutting cycle. The depth of cut
is adjusted by moving the tool downward towards the work piece. For shaping
in vertical direction, as shown in Fig. The tool is fed vertically towards the
work piece after every cutting cycle. The depth of cut is adjusted by moving
243
the work piece sideways.

244

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SHAPERS
Shapers are classified under the following headings:
(1) According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating
motion to the ram
(a) Crank type
(b) Geared type
(c) Hydraulic type

(2) According to the type of design of the table:

(a) Standard shaper
(b) Universal shaper

(3) According to the position and travel of ram:

(a) Horizontal type
(b) Vertical type
(c) Traveling head type

(4) According to the type of cutting stroke:

(a) Push type
(b) Draw type.

A brief description these shapers is given below-

245

1. According to the ram driving mechanism

According to the ram driving mechanism, the shapers are classified as follows:
(a) Crank shaper: In a crank shaper, a crank and a slotted lever quick return
motion mechanism is used to give reciprocating motion to the ram. The crank
arm is adjustable and is arranged inside the body of a bull gear (also called
crank gear).
(b) Geared shaper: In a geared shaper, the ram carries a rack below it, which is
driven by a spur gear. This type of shaper is not widely used.
(c) Hydraulic shaper: In a hydraulic shaper, a hydraulic system is used to drive
the ram. This type of shaper is more efficient than the crank and geared
shaper.
2. According to position and travel of ram
According to the position and travel of ram, the shapers are classified as follows:
(a) Horizontal shaper: In a horizontal shaper, the ram moves or reciprocates in
a horizontal direction. This type of shaper is mainly used for producing flat
surfaces.
(b) Vertical shaper: In a vertical shaper, the ram reciprocates vertically in the
downward as well as in upward direction. This type of shaper is very
convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves.
246

3. According to the direction of cutting stroke

According to the direction of cutting stroke, the shapers are
classified as follows:
(a) Push-Cut shaper: In a push-cut shaper, the ram pushes the tool
across the work during cutting operation. In other words, forward
stroke is the cutting stroke and the backward stroke is an idle
stroke. This is the most general type of shaper used in common
practice.
(b) Draw-cut shaper: In a draw-cut shaper, the ram draws or pulls
the tool across the work during cutting operation. In other words,
the backward stroke is the cutting stroke and forward stroke is an
idle stroke.

247

4. According to the design of the table

According to the design of the table, the shapers are classified as:
(a) Standard or plain shaper: In a standard or plain shaper, the
table has only two movements i.e., horizontal and vertical, to
give the feed. It can not be swiveled or tilted.
(b) Universal shaper: In a universal shaper, in addition to the
above two movements, the table can be swiveled about a
horizontal axis parallel to the ram and the upper portion of the
table can be tilted about the other horizontal axis perpendicular to
the first axis. This type of shaper is mostly used in tool room
work.
248

249

250

HYDRAULIC SHAPER

In hydraulic shaper the ram is moved forward and backward by a piston

moving in a cylinder placed under the ram. The machine mainly consists of
a constant discharge oil pump 2, a valve chamber, a cylinder and a piston 7.
The piston rod 6 is bolted to the ram body; the oil under high pressure is
pumped from the reservoir 1 and is made to pass through the value chamber
to the right side of the oil cylinder 5 exerting pressure on the piston 7.
This cause the ram 4 connected to the piston 7 to perform forward stroke,
and any oil present on the left side of the cylinder is discharge to the
reservoir through the throttle valve 3.
At the end of extreme forward stroke, the shaper dog 8 hits against the
reversing lever 9 causing the valve 12 to alter their positions within the
valve chamber. oil under high pressure is now pumped to the left side of the
piston causing the ram to perform return stroke.
Oil present on the right side of the piston is now discharge to the reservoir.
At the end of the return stroke another shaper dog hits against reservoir
lever altering the direction of stroke of the piston and the cycle is thus
251
repeated

The quick return motion is affected due to the difference in stroke volume
of the cylinder at both ends, the left hand end being smaller due to the
presence of the piston rod.
As the pump is constant discharge one, within a fix period, the same
amount oil will be pumped into the right or to the left hand side of the
cylinder.
This will mean that the same amount of oil will be packed within a smaller
stroke volume causing the oil pressure to rise automatically and increasing
the speed during the return stroke.
The length and position of stroke is adjusted by shifting the position of
reversing dogs.
The cutting speed may be changed by controlling the throttle valve 3 which
regulates the flow of oil. When the throttle valve is partially closed the
excess oil flows out through the relief valve 11 to the reservoir maintain
uniform pressure during cutting stroke.
A hydraulic shaper is now widely used for having many advantages
252

253

Specifications of a Shaper
The shaper is specified as follows :
1. Maximum length of stroke is millimeters,
2. Size of the table, i.e., length, width and depth of the
table,
3. Maximum vertical and horizontal travel of the
table,
4. Maximum number of strokes per minute,
5. Power of the drive motor,
6. Type of quick return mechanism.
7. Floor space required, and
8. Weight.
254

SHAPER MECHANISM
In a shaper, rotary motion of the drive is converted into reciprocating
motion of the ram by the mechanism housed within the column or the
machine. In a standard shaper metal is removed in the forward cutting
stroke, while the return stroke goes idle and no metal is removed
during this period as shown in Fig.
The shaper mechanism is so designed that it moves the ram holding
the tool at a comparatively slower speed during forward cutting
stroke, whereas during the return stroke it allow the ram to move at a
faster speed to reduce the idle return time. This mechanism is known
as quick return mechanism. The reciprocating movement of the ram
and the quick return mechanism of the machine are generally obtained
by anyone of the following methods:
(1) Crank and slotted link mechanism
(2) Whitworth quick return mechanism, and
(2) Hydraulic shaper mechanism
The crank and slotted link mechanism is discussed as

255

Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism

In crank and slotted link mechanism Fig., the pinion receives its motion
from an individual motor or overhead line shaft and transmits the motion
or power to the bull gear. Bull gear is a large gear mounted within the
column. Speed of the bull gear may be changed by different combination
of gearing or by simply shifting the belt on the step cone pulley.
A radial slide is bolted to the centre of the bull gear. This radial slide
carries a sliding block into which the crank pin is fitted. Rotation of the
bull gear will cause the bush pin to revolve at a uniform speed. Sliding
block, which is mounted upon the crank pin is fitted within the slotted
link.
This slotted link is also known as the rocker arm. It is pivoted at its
bottom end attached to the frame of the column. The upper end of the
rocker arm is forked and connected to the ram block by a pin.
With the rotation of bull gear, crank pin will rotate on the crank pin
circle, and simultaneously move up and down the slot in the slotted link
giving it a rocking movement, which is communicated to the ram.
Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear is converted to reciprocating
motion of the ram.
256

257

258

SURFACES PRODUCED ON SHAPER

1. Horizontal plain surface
2. Vertical plain surface
3. Inclined surface
4. Grooved surface

5. Slotted surface
6. Stepped surface
SHAPER OPERATIONS

A shaper is a machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat surface by a single point cutting tool. Besides this, it may
also be used to perform many other operations. The different operations, which a shaper can perform, are as follows:

1. Machining horizontal surface

2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining angular surface
4. Slot cutting
5. Key ways cutting
6. Machining irregular surface
7. Machining splines and cutting gears

259

260

261

PLANER
The planer (also called planing machine) is a machine tool used to
produce plane and flat surface by a single point cutting tool. It is
similar to a shaper but its size is very large and is adopted for
producing flat surfaces of much larger work than a shaper.
The fundamental difference between a planer and shaper is that in a
planer, the tool remains stationary and the work reciprocates
whereas in the shaper, the work remains stationary and the tool
reciprocates.

262

263

Types of Planers
The various types of planers commonly used are
1. Standard or double housing planer,
2. Open side planer,
3. Pit planer,
4. Edge or plate planer, and
5. Divided table planer.

Of all the above types of planers, the standard or double housing

planer is most widely used in workshops. In this type of planer, as
shown in Fig., there are two housings (or columns), one on each
side of the table.
The housings are connected at the top by a cast iron support. The
table reciprocates on accurate guide ways provided on a long heavy
bed. The two tool heads which carry the tool are mounted on the
cross rails. These tools may be fed either by hand or by power in
264
crosswise or vertical direction.

WORKING PRINCIPAL OF PLANER

Fig. depicts the working principle of a planer. In a planer, the
work which is supported on the table reciprocates past the
stationary cutting tool and the feed is imparted by the lateral
movement of the tool. The tool is clamped in the tool holder and
work on the table. Like shaper, the planner is equipped with
clapper box to raise the tool in idle stroke. The different
mechanisms used to give reciprocating motion to the table are
following-

1. Reversible motor drive

2. Open and cross belt drive
3. Hydraulic drive

265

266

Principal Parts of a Planer

The principal parts of a double housing planer, as shown in Fig. 6.16, are
as follows:
1. Bed: The bed of a planer is a box like casting having cross ribs. It
provides the foundation for the machine and supports the housing and all
other moving parts. The upper part of the bed is provided with precision
Vee type guide ways on which the table slides.
2. Table: The planer table is a heavy rectangular precision machined
casting. It reciprocates along the ways of the bed and supports the work.
The top face of the table is provided with T-slots and holes uniformly
spaced for fixing the work and work holding devices over the table with
the help of T-bolts, clamps etc. The table may be driven by rack and
gear, by rack and double helical gear or by hydraulic system.
3. Housing: The housings are rigid column-like castings placed on each
side of the bed. The front face of the housings is accurately machined to
provide precision ways. The housings enclose the cross-rail elevating
267
screws, vertical and cross-feed screws for the tool heads, counter
balancing weights for the cross-rail etc.

268

4. Cross-rail: The cross-rail is mounted on the precision machined

ways of the two housings. It may be raised or lowered on the
housings to accommodate work of different heights on the table and
to allow for the adjustment of the tools.
5. Tool heads: The tool heads are mounted on the cross-rail or
housings by means of a saddle which slides along the rail or
housing ways. The saddle may be made to move transversely on the
cross-rail to give cross feed.
Two tool heads are provided on the cross-rail so that the two tools
may remove the material from the work simultaneously. In addition
to these two-tool heads, there are other two-tool heads which are
mounted on each housing.

269

OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON A SLOTTING MACHINE

A slotter is a very economical machine tool when used for certain
classes of work given as under.
(i) It is used for machining vertical surfaces
(ii) It is used angular or inclined surfaces
(iii) It is used It is used to cut slots, splines keyways for both internal and
external jobs

such as machining internal and external gears,

(iv) It is used for works as machining concave, circular, semi-circular and
convex surfaces
(v) It is used for shaping internal and external forms or profiles
(vi) It is used for machining of shapes which are difficult to produce on
shaper
(vii) It is used for internal machining of blind holes
(viii) It is used for machining dies and punches, and

Since a slotter works slowly. It has less use in mass production

270
work. It can be substituted by the broaching machine.

271

Work-holding Devices
Since the cutting forces in planing a work are quite heavy,
therefore, it is essential that the work is connected rigidly to the
table so that it does not shift its position during planing. The various
work holding devices are vices, step blocks, stops, stop pins, jacks,
V-blocks, T-bolts and clamps etc. Some of these devices are shown
in Fig.

272

Planer Tools
The planer tools are mostly made of high speed steel. The cemented
carbide tipped tools are also used on planers for production work.
The planer tools are similar to those used on shaper, but, as the
depth of cut are heavier and cutting strokes are large, the planer
tools are large in size. A planer tool many be classified as roughing
or finishing and right hand or left hand type, Fig. 6.16 shows the
various types of tools used on planers.

273

274

MILLING
Milling is the machine operation in which the removal of metal
from the work piece takes place due to a rotating cutting tool(cutter)
when the work is fed past it. The cutter has multiple cutting edges
and rotates at a very fast rate.
The rotating cutting tool known as the Milling Cutter is a multiple
point tool having the shape of a solid revolution with cutting teeth
arranged either on the periphery or on end or on both. The revolving
cutter is held on a spindle or arbor and the work piece is clamped or
bolted on the machine table or may be in a vise or a three jaw chuck
or an index head held or a rotary table etc.
The milling process is employed for producing flat contoured or
helical surfaces, for making helical grooves, to cut teeth and toothed
gears.
275

PRINCIPLE OF MILLING
In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter
having multiple cutting edges. For cutting operation, the workpiece
is fed against the rotary cutter. As the workpiece moves against the
cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips of
trochoid shape.
Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The
work to be machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw
chuck, an index head, between centers, in a special fixture or bolted
to machine table. The rotatory speed of the cutting tool and the feed
rate of the workpiece depend upon the type of material being
machined.
MILLING METHODS
There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:
1. Up-milling or conventional milling, and
2. Down milling or climb milling.

276

UP-Milling or Conventional Milling Procedure

In the up-milling or conventional milling, as shown in Fig., the metal is
removed in form of small chips by a cutter rotating against the direction
of travel of the workpiece.
In this type of milling, the chip thickness is minimum at the start of the
cut and maximum at the end of cut. As a result the cutting force also
varies from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement of the
milling cutter. The major disadvantages of up-milling process are the
tendency of cutting force to lift the work from the fixtures and poor
surface finish obtained. But being a safer process, it is commonly used
method of milling.

277

Down-Milling or Climb Milling

Down milling is shown in Fig. It is also known as climb milling. In this method,
the metal is removed by a cutter rotating in the same direction of feed of the
workpiece.
The effect of this is that the teeth cut downward instead of upwards. Chip thickness
is maximum at the start of the cut and minimum in the end. In this method, it is
claimed that there is less friction involved and consequently less heat is generated
on the contact surface of the cutter and workpiece.
Climb milling can be used advantageously on many kinds of work to increase the
number of pieces per sharpening and to produce a better finish. With climb milling,
saws cut long thin slots more satisfactorily than with standard milling. Another
advantage is that slightly lower power consumption is obtainable by climb milling,
since there is no need to drive the table against the cutter.

278

TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS

Fig. illustrates some types of milling cutters along with workpieces.
Milling cutters are made in various forms to perform certain classes
of work, and they may be classified as:
(1) Plain milling cutters,
(2) Side milling cutters,
(3) Face milling cutter,
(4) Angle milling cutters,
(5) End milling cutter,
(6) Fly cutter,
(7) T-slot milling cutter,
(8) Formed cutters,
(9) Metal slitting saw,

Milling cutters may have teeth on the periphery or ends only, or on

both the periphery and ends. Peripheral teeth may be straight or
parallel to the cutter axis, or they may be helical, sometimes
279
referred as spiral teeth.

280

Types of Milling Machines

machines
The milling machines are available(3) Planer type milling machines
in different shapes and sizes.(4) Special purpose milling
These
machines
may
be machines
classified as follows:
(a) Rotary table milling machines
(1) Column and knee type milling
(b) Drum type milling machines
machines
(c) Tracer controlled milling
(a) Horizontal milling machines
machines
(b) Vertical milling machines
(d) Thread milling machine
(c) Ram type milling machines
(e) Key-way milling machine
(2) Bed type milling machines
(f) Skin and spar milling machine
(a) Manufacturing or fixed bed type
(g) Planetary milling machine
milling machines
(b) Horizontal bed type milling
machines
281
(c) Vertical bed type milling

(1) Column and Knee Type Milling Machines

These general purpose machines have two main structural elements
1.
2.

A vertical column, and

A knee like casting.

The knee which is attached to a vertical column can slide in a vertical

direction on the column so that the various heights of work pieces can be
accommodated in the work table.
The traversal movement of the work table is provided by mounting the
table on the saddle which in turn is mounted on the knee. The table
which is mounted on the saddle moves at right angles to the saddle. The
work piece is positioned and clamped on the table. The horizontal,
vertical column and knee type milling machines are illustrated in Figs.
(a) Horizontal Milling Machines: These machines can be further
classified as plain or universal milling machines.
In a plain milling machine, the table cannot be swiveled in a horizontal
plane. The table may be fed in a longitudinal, cross or vertical directions
on a plain milling, machine. In case of universal milling machine, the
table can be swiveled up to 45 in a horizontal plane to the right or left.
282
This arrangement makes the angular and helical milling operations by
using the universal milling machine.

283

Vertical Milling Machines: In vertical knee type milling machines,

the position of the cutter spindle is vertical. Though it has the same
table movements as in plain milling cutter, the spindle head swivel
or it may be a combination of the sliding and swivel head type.
These machines are suitable for end milling and face milling
operations.

284

(c) Ram Type Milling Machines: In the ram type milling machines,
the milling head is mounted at the front end of the ram through a
single or double swivel joint which in turn is mounted on the top of
the column. The ram can move forward and backward in a direction
parallel to the saddle movement. These additional features enable
the spindle axis to move in a horizontal, vertical and an angular
direction. These ram type milling machines can be further classified
as,
(i) Turret ram type milling machine
(ii) Ram head milling machine

285

(2) Bed Type Milling Machines

Bed type milling machines are comparatively heavier and rigid than
column and knee type milling machines. In these machines, the
table is mounted over a fixed bed in the place of a knee. The spindle
head imparts the cross or vertical motion instead of a table.
Depending on the number of spindle heads provided in these
machines, they can be named as simplex, duplex and triplex
milling machines. Their types may be classified as horizontal or
vertical, based on the orientation of the spindle axis.
(a) Manufacturing or Fixed Bed Type Milling Machine:
In addition to the manual adjustment of all slides in these
machines, the automatic cycle of operation for feeding the table
feature is incorporated to give an advantage in repetitive type of
work. This automatic feeding cycle of the table includes the start,
rapid approach, cutting feed, rapid traverse to the next job, quick
return and stop. These machines are particularly suitable for large
286
production work.

(b) Horizontal Bed Type Milling Machines: These machines are

usually provided with the above said features. As the name implies,
the spindle is mounted horizontally and it can be adjusted up or
down a column fitted to the side of the bed. The available types of
horizontal bed type milling machines are the simplex and duplex
milling machine.
(c) Vertical Bed Type Milling Machine: The spindle is mounted
vertically in these machines. All the other features in horizontal bed
type milling machines are incorporated in this machine. The
transverse movement can be obtained by mounting the head unit
over a cross-arm.

287

(3) Planer Type Milling Machines

As the name implies, the machines structure resembles a planer.
The table which carries the workpiece moves longitudinally and it
is fed against a revolving cutter. This machine is distinguished from
a planer machine by the variable table feeding movement and the
rotating cutter features. These machines are used for heavy stock
removal in large work pieces and for duplication of profiles and
contours. These milling machines are illustrated in fig.

288

(4) Special Purpose Milling Machines

Special purpose milling machines have been developed to suit for specific
kinds of work more easier than the conventional machines.
Some of the common features incorporated from conventional machines
are the provision for moving the work piece or tool in different directions
and the spindle for rotating the cutter.

(a) Rotating Table Milling Machine:

These high-production machines have a circular table which rotates about
a vertical axis. Their construction is a modification to a vertical milling
machine. The rotary table milling machines are adapted for machining fiat
surfaces by using face milling cutters.
The cutters are mounted on two vertical spindles, one for roughing and the
other for finishing the work. These machines can have two or more cutter
spindles. The spindle head can be set at different heights along the vertical
ways of the column and while the milling is in progress the operator can
continuously load or unload the work pieces in the machine.

289

(b) Drum Type Milling Machine:

The drum milling machines are adopted for the machining of two
end faces of a work piece simultaneously in a continuous machining
cycle. The drum which rotates in a horizontal axis is used for
clamping the work pieces.
The face milling cutters are mounted on a number of horizontal
spindles and removes metal from the two end faces of the work
piece. The parts are finished in one complete turn of the central
drum.
(c) Tracer Controlled Milling Machine:
It reproduces the complex shapes like mold cavities and core, cams,
dies, etc., by tracing the shape of the master model or template.
The shapes are reproduced in the work pieces by synchronized
movements of the cutter and tracing element. This provides an
automatic control to the feeding motion of the machine. The stylus
traces the master or template to produce the coordinates of the
cutter path which is used to produce the work piece shapes.
290

(d) Thread Milling Machines:

This machine is used for cutting threads and worms. Threads
produced by this thread milling operation give better finish and
greater accuracy than the conventional thread cutting methods. The
milling tools having single row of teeth or a number of such rows
used for these thread milling operations.
(e) Key-Way Milling Machine:
The key-way milling machines are used for parts requiring the keyways in a high degree of accuracy. These machines are used in large
batch production .It uses an automatic cycle to machine the keyway which includes the horizontal movement of the work table, to
feed of cutter, transverse movement of cutter, etc.

291

(f) Skin and Spar Milling Machines:

The structure of both these machines resembles a planer machine in
appearance. In spar milling machine, the work remains stationary and
the rotating cutters are moved to and fro to perform the operations. In
addition to the above said principle, the skin milling machine uses
another design for the machining purposes in which the work piece is
mounted on a table which is moved past the revolving milling cutters.
The machines may have horizontal or vertical spindle axis. These
machines are mostly used in aircraft industries.
(g) Planetary Milling Machine:
These machines are so called because of their planetary (circular) path
of the cutters during the operation. The work is held stationary while all
the movements which are essential for the cutting are made by the
revolving cutters and are the principal features that distinguish this
machine from the normal method. The spindle types of both horizontal
and vertical designs are available. The planetary milling machines are
used for milling both internal and external threads and surfaces.
292

Milling Machine Operations

The operations that can be performed on a milling machine are
broadly classified as follows:
(1) Plain Milling (2) Face Milling (3) Angular Milling
(4) Staggered Milling (5) Form Milling (6) End Milling

293

Plain Milling
It is also known by slab milling. A plain milling cutter is used to
produce a plain, flat, horizontal surface parallel to the axis of
rotation. The work is mounted on a table and the tool is secured
properly on the spindle. The speed and feed of the machine is set up
before starting the operation and the depth of cut is adjusted by
rotating the vertical feed screw of the table.

294

Face Milling
The face milling operation is used for machining flat surfaces by a
face milling cutter which is rotating in an axis perpendicular to the
work surface. The depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the tables
cross feed screw.

295

Angular Milling
The angular milling is the operation used for machining flat
surfaces at an angle. Depending upon whether the machining has to
be carried out in a single or two mutually inclined surfaces, a single
or double angle cutter may be used. The V-blocks of any size can be
machined by this operation.

296

297

Staggered Milling
These types of cutters are narrow and cylindrical having staggered
teeth and with alternate teeth having opposite helix angles. These
cutters are used for milling deep slots.

298

Form Milling
These types of milling cutters are used to cut some profile or
contour on the work piece. These can be used to cut convex,
concave, corner rounding and gear tooth in the work piece.

299

End Milling
These types of cutters have teeth on the circumferential surface at
one end. They are used for facing, profiling and end milling
operations.

300

301

302

INDEXING AND DIVIDING HEADS

Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a piece of
work into any number of equal parts. In cutting spur gear equal
spacing of teeth on the gear blank is performed by indexing.
Indexing is accomplished by using a special attachment known as
dividing head or index head as shown in Fig. The dividing heads are
of three types:
(1) Plain or simple dividing head,
(2) Universal dividing head and
(3) Optical dividing head.

303

304

Plain or Simple Dividing Head

The plain dividing head comprises a cylindrical spindle housed on a
frame, and a base bolted to the machine table. The index crank is
connected to the tail end of the spindle directly, and the crank and
the spindle rotate as one unit.
The index plate is mounted on the spindle and rotates with it. The
spindle may be rotated through the desired angle and then clamped
by inserting the clamping lever pin into anyone of the equally
spaced holes or slots cut on the periphery of the index plate.
This type of dividing head is used for handling large number of
workpieces, which require a very small number of divisions on the
periphery.
1. Swiveling block 2. Live centre
3. Index crank 4. Index plate.
305

Universal Dividing Heads

The most widely used type of dividing head is the universal
dividing head. Figure 3.58 illustrates an isometric view of the
gearing diagram of a universal dividing head in a simple indexing
mode.
Periodical turning of the spindle (3) is achieved by rotating the
index crank (2), which transmits the motion through a worm
gearing 6/4 to the WP (gear ratio 1:40; that is, one complete
revolution of the crank corresponds to 1/40 revolution of the WP).
The index plate (1), having several concentric circular rows of
accurately and equally spaced holes, serves for indexing the index
crank (2) through the required angle.
The WP is clamped in a chuck screwed on the spindle (3). It can
also be clamped between two centers.
The dividing head is provided with three index plates (Brown and
Sharpe) or two index plates (Parkinson). The plates have the
following number of holes:
306

Brown and Sharpe

Plate 1: 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20
Plate 2: 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, and 33
Plate 3: 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, and 49
Parkinson
Plate 1: 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, and 43
Plate 2: 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, and 66

307

HOLE MAKING OPERATIONS

Drilling
Reaming
Boring
Tapping

308

DRILLING
This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a
volume of metal from the job by a rotating cutting tool called
drill.
Drilling removes solid metal from the job to produce a circular
hole. Before drilling, the hole is located by drawing two lines at
right angle and a center punch is used to make an indentation
for the drill point at the center to help the drill in getting started

309

310

311

CONSTRUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE

In drilling machine the drill is rotated and fed along its axis of rotation in the
stationary workpiece. Different parts of a drilling machine are shown in Fig.
22.1 and are discussed below:
(i) The head containing electric motor, V-pulleys and V-belt which transmit
rotary motion to the drill spindle at a number of speeds.
(ii) Spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as well as moves up and down
in a sleeve. A pinion engages a rack fixed onto the sleeve to provide vertical
up and down motion of the spindle and hence the drill so that the same can be
fed into the workpiece or withdrawn from it while drilling. Spindle speed or
the drill speed is changed with the help of V-belt and V-step-pulleys. Larger
drilling machines are having gear boxes for the said purpose.
(iii) Drill chuck is held at the end of the drill spindle and in turn it holds the
drill bit.
(iv) Adjustable work piece table is supported on the column of the drilling
machine. It can be moved both vertically and horizontally.
312

CONSTRUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE

(v) Base table is a heavy casting and it supports the drill press structure. The
base supports the column, which in turn, supports the table, head etc.
(vi) Column is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and
supports the head and the table. The round column may have rack teeth cut
on it so that the table can be raised or lowered depending upon the workpiece
requirements. This machine consists of following parts
1. Base
2. Pillar
3. Main drive
4. Drill spindle
5. Feed handle
6. Work table

313

314

315

Specification of a Drilling Machine

A heavy duty drilling machine is specified by following parameters.
1. Drilling capacity
2. Taper in spindle (Morse no.)
3. Distance between spindle and column (maximum and minimum), in case
of radial drilling machine
4. Transverse of spindle
5. Minimum distance between spindle and table
6. Minimum distance between spindle and base plate
7. Working surface of table (i.e., diameter)
8. Range of spindle speeds
9. Range of power feed per revolution
10. Motor speed, and
11. Motor power
316

317

318

319

320

321

322

Boring: It is an operation of enlarging a hole that has

already been drilled by a single point tool, so as to make it
we to the required size.
Reaming: It is an operation of slightly enlarging a
machined hole to proper size with a smooth finish. The
reamer is an accurate tool and is not designed to remove
much metal. The reaming allowance is usually 0.2 mm
only.

Tapping: It is an operation of producing internal threads in

a hole by means of a tool called tap.

323

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF BROACHING

324

325

326

ME9251 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY II

UNIT IV

ABRASIVE PROCESSES AND GEAR CUTTING

Abrasive processes Grinding wheel Specifications and selection Types of

grinding process
Cylindrical grinding Surface grinding Centre less grinding Honing,
lapping, super finishing, polishing and buffing Abrasive jet machining
Gear cutting Forming Generation Shaping Hobbing.

327

GRINDING
Grinding is the process of removing a very small amount of
metal (< less than 1mm ) brings to very close dimension
0.002mm
The grinding process provides high accuracy and good surface
finish so they are used for finishing operations.
The material removal rate in this process is quite less, normally
from 0.25 mm to 0.55 mm.
Tolerances, as small as 0.002 can be maintained.
Types of Grinding
1. Rough grinding used to grind castings & weldments.
(example portable grinder or pedestale grinder)
2. Fine grinding or Precision Grinding used for maintaining
high dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.

328

329

330

The process of grinding is dependent upon the following:.

a. Type of abrasive used in the wheel
b. Size and distribution of grit in the wheel
c. Amount and type of bonding material
d. Volume of porosity: relative to abrasive and bonding material
Type of Abrasive Material
1.
2.

NATURAL ABRASIVES
ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES

331

ABOUT GRINDING WHEEL

(a) Abrasive Material
Two types of material is used for wheel:
1. NATURAL ABRASIVES:
These are produced by uncontrolled forces of nature. These
are obtained from mines.
Sandstone or solid quartz
B. Emery (50 to 60% Crystalline Al2O3+ Iron oxide)
C. Corundum (75 to 90% Crystalline Al2O3+ Iron oxide)
D. Diamond - Sharpening carbide and ceramic cutting tools
Dis advantages
A.

1.
2.

Lack of uniformity
More impurities
332

ABOUT GRINDING WHEEL

2. Artificial abrasives:
These

are manufactured under controlled conditions in

closed electric furnace in order to avoid of impurities and
achieve necessary temperature for the chemical reaction to
takes place.

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Aluminium oxide
Silicon carbide
Artificial Diamond
Boron carbide
Cubic boron nitride

333

a. ALUMINIUM OXIDE Al2O3

This

is a natural abrasive , also known as corundum and

emery.
It is manufactured by flushing mineral bauxite in a electric
furnace mixed with coke and iron scrap. Here iron scrap act
as flux. After fusing it crushed and treated with alkalis.
Again washed and finally ground.
Al2O3 tough and less brittle.
It is also called Borolon, Aloxide, Alundum
It is represented by the letter A
Application

Grinding materials of high tensile strength like high speed steel,

malleable iron , wrought iron etc.
334

b. SILICON CARBIDE SiC

It

is made from silicon dioxide, coke , saw dust and salt.

This ingredients are thoroughly mixed and heated in an
electric furnace about 2000O C for 34 hrs.
The silicon carbide mass is crushed , washed and treated
with alkalis. Again washed and finally ground.

SiC- hard and brittle

is also called Caborundum, Crystolon, Electron

It is represented by the letter C
Application
It

Grinding materials of low tensile strength like grey cast iron,

brass, copper, aluminium etc.

335

c. ARTIFICIAL DIAMOND
It

is a pure form of carbon which are mainly used for turing

and dressing other grinding wheels, for sharpening carbide
tools, and for processing glass, ceramics and stone

d. BORON CARBIDE (B4C)

It

is produced from coke and boric acid at tremendously high

temperatures an electric furnace.
App- very hard metals, hard alloys, glass and jewels.
e. CUBIC BORON CARBIDE (CBN)
It

is next in hardness only to diamond.

It is produced from boron and nitrogen at tremendously high
temperatures an electric furnace.
Application

Grinding materials like hardened steel , nickel base and cobalt

based super alloys
336

(B) ABRASIVE GRAIN SIZE

Abrasive materials are crushed in ball mills and segregated as per size.
The selection of size of the abrasive grain required depends upon the
following factors:
1. Amount of material to be removed
2. Finish desired
3. Hardness of material being ground
The coarse grit is used for more material removal where as the fine grit is
used for small material removal rate. Sizes from 240 to 600 are used for
lapping and honing applications.
It refers to actual size of the abrasive particles. The grain size is denoted
by the number.
GRINDING
OPERATION

GRIT OR GRAIN SIZE

COARSE

10

12

14

16

20

MEDIUM

30

36

46

54

60

FINE

80

100

120

150

180

VERY FINE

220

240

280

320

400

24

337
500

(C) BONDING
Bonding materials are used to hold the abrasive particles in place.
The bonds must be sufficiently strong to withstand the stress of
the high speed rotating grinding wheel
There are six types of bonding material used. They are:
Bonds
Symbol
Vitrified Bonds
V
Resinoid Bonds
B
Shellac Bonds
E
Rubber Bonds
R
Silicate Bonds
S
Oxy-chloride Bonds
O

338

VITRIFIED BONDS or Ceramic bond (Clay + water)

This is most commonly used bond. The bond is actually clay
mixed with fluxes such as feldspar, which hardness to a glass like
substance on firing to a temperature of about 1250 C and develops
the strength.
Adv
Strong
Rigidity
Not affected by fluids
Precision grinding process

Dis adv
Brittle
Sensitive to impacts
velocities up to 2000 m/min.

RESINOID BONDS
It is produced by mixing abrasive grains and synthetic resins.
Adv
Strong
High peripheral speed

Dis adv
destroyed in alkaline cooling fluids339

SHELLAC BOND
This is a relatively less used bond. It is generally used for getting a
very high finish. Application rolls and cam shaft finishing.
RUBBER BOND (liquid rubber + Sulphur)
It is produced by mixing abrasive grains and synthetic resins.
Strength is developed by vulcanisation.
SILICATE BOND
It is produced by mixing abrasive grains and sodium silicate.
Silicate bonded wheels are light grey in colour.
Dis adv- high wear rate
OXY CHLORINE BOND
It is produced by mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chlorine of
magnesium
340
It used for disc grinding operation

(D) GRADE
This indicates the strength with which the bonding material holds
the abrasive grains in the grinding wheel. Different grades in
grinding wheels are shown below:
Material
Grade
Soft
A to H
Medium
I to P
Hard
Q to Z
The selection of a grinding wheel depends upon the nature of
work, its composition, size and hardness. Hard wheels are used for
softer material and vice versa.

341

(E) STRUCTURE

It is the spacing between the abrasive gains or the density of the

wheel. The structure of the grinding wheel is designated by a
number. The higher the number, the wider is the spacing.
Structure
Dense
Open

Symbol
12345678
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 or more

342

343

344

(F ) SPECIFICATIONS OF A GRINDING WHEEL

The grinding wheel is specified as under 300 30 35W A36 M 55
17
Each element is to be indicated in a fixed order.
First element 300 is wheel diameter.
Second element is thickness.
Third element is diameter.
Forth element is manufacturers symbol.
Fifth element is abrasive used.
Sixth element is grain size.
Seventh element is Grade.
Eighth element is structure.
Ninth element is type of bond.
345
Tenth element is optional for manufacturer.

346

DRESSING AND TRUING

In the grinding process, the sharp grains of the GW become rounded and
hence lose their cutting ability. This condition is termed GW-glazing.
Along with grain wear (glazing), another factor that reduces the cutting
ability is the loading of voids between the grains with the chips and waste
of the grinding process, resulting in a condition known as wheel loading.
Loading especially occurs when grinding ductile and soft materials.
A worn and loaded wheel ceases to cut. Its cutting ability can be restored
by dressing or truing
Dressing is a sharpening operation, which removes the worn and dull grits
and embedded swarf to improve the cutting action.
Truing is an allied operation with the same tools done to restore the
correct geometrical shape of the wheel that has been lost due to nonuniform
wear.
347

348

ROUGH GRINDING
The common forms of rough grinding are snagging and off-hand
grinding where the work is held in the operator s hand.
The work is pressed hard against the wheel, or vice -versa.
The accuracy and surface finish obtained are of secondary
importance.
This is concerned with producing good surface finish and high
degree of accuracy. The wheel or work both are guided in precise
paths.

349

PRECISION
RINDING
Grinding, in accordance
with G
the
type of surface to be ground, is
classified as
External

cylindrical grinding.
Internal cylindrical grinding.
Surface grinding.
Form grinding.

350

EXTERNAL
YLINDRICAL
RINDING
It produces
a straightCor
tapered surfaceGon
a
work
piece.
The work piece must be rotated about its own axis between
centers as it passes lengthwise across the face of a revolving
grinding wheel.
It produces internal cylindrical holes and tapers.
The work pieces are chucked and precisely rotated about their
own axis.
The grinding wheel, in the case of small bore holes, the cylinder
wheel rotates against the sense of rotation of the work piece.

351

SURFACE
ANDflat
FORM
GRINDING
Surface grinding
produces
surface.
The work may be ground by either the periphery or by the end
face of the grinding wheel.
The work piece is reciprocated at a constant speed below or on the
end face of the grinding wheel.
Form Grinding
it is done with specially shaped grinding wheels that grind the
formed surfaces as in grinding gear teeth, threads, splined shafts,
holes, and spheres, etc.

352

TYPES OF GRINDERS
According to the quality of surface finish, grinding machines may be

classified as:

1)Rough grinders.
2)Precision grinders.

Rough grinders are those grinding machines whose chief work is the
removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy of the results.

353

TYPES OF ROUGH GRINDERS

They are mainly of the following types:

Floor stand and bench grinders.

Portable and flexible shaft grinders.

Swing frame grinders.

Abrasive belt grinders

354

TYPES OF PRECISION GRINDERS

According to the type of surface generated or work done they may be
classified as follows

1. Cylindrical grinders
Centre-type (Plain)
Centre-type (Universal)
Centre less
2. Internal grinders
(a)Chucking
Plain
Universal
(b) Planetary
(c) Centre less
355

TYPESgrinders
OF PRECISION GRINDERS
3. Surface
(a)Reciprocating table
(I) Horizontal spindle
(ii) Vertical spindle
(b) Rotating table
(I) Horizontal spindle
(ii) Vertical spindle
4. Tool and cutter grinders
(a)Universal
(b)Special
5. Special grinding machines

CONTD

356

FLOOR-STAND AND BENCH GRINDERS

The simplest type of grinder is the floor-stand grinder.

A floor-stand grinder has a horizontal spindle with wheels usually

at both ends and is mounted on a base or pedestal.

There is provision for driving the wheel spindle by belt from

motor at the rear, at floor level.

357

FLOOR STAND GRINDER PORTABLE GRINDER

358

BENCH GRINDER

Mounted on bench.

Two wheels & guards.

A work rest for supporting workpiece

Used for grinding of hand tools.

359

ABRASIVE BELT GRINDER

The abrasive grinder is used for rough grinding the work
piece.
The accuracy of the work piece is very less in this grinder.
The grinder has an endless abrasive belt running over two
drums.
The abrasive belt has small abrasive grains pasted to one of its
side . The bottom drum is connected to a driving motor. Work
pieces may feed against the abrasive cloth by hand.
There is a platen supporting the belt at its backside. Small and
irregular work piece can be ground safely on this grinder

360

ABRASIVE BELT GRINDER

361

GRINDING MACHINE
(a) Cylindrical Grinders
These machines are used to produce external cylindrical surfaces.
This machine has a head stock and a tail stock. The work piece is
mounted between centers. The grinding wheel and work piece move
in the opposite direction. The depth of the cut is given by the moving
the wheel towards the work piece.
In cylindrical grinding, two types of grinding are carried out:

362

363

364

(1) TRAVERSE GRINDING:

In traverse grinding, the work reciprocates as the wheel rotates.
Here, work pieces of a large size can be ground with grinding wheels
that are less thick.
(2) PLUNGE GRINDING:
In plunge grinding, the wheel is fed into the rotating work piece but
there is no reciprocating motion. This method is used for relatively
short work pieces and especially in form grinding where some
profile on the work piece is to be ground.

365

S.No Traverse cylindrical grinding

Plunge-cut cylindrical grinding,

Wheel has two movements: Wheel no traversal motion of either the

rotation about its axis and infeed wheel or the work.
into the work to remove the
grinding allowance

The work rotates about its axis and The GW extends over the entire length of
also traverses longitudinally past the surface being ground on the work
the wheel so as to extend the which rotates about its axis
grinding action over the full length
of the work

366

CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
1.Rotation of cylindrical work piece about its axis.
2.Rotation of grinding wheel about its axis.
3.Longitudinal feed movement of the work past the wheel face.
4.Movement of the wheel into the work perpendicular to the
axis of the work piece to give depth of cut.

367

CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
Types of operations in cylindrical grinding
i.Transverse grinding
ii.Plunge grinding
Transverse grinding
This method is used when the job length is more than the
width of the grinding wheel.
The job is held between two centres.
The grinding wheel is made to rotate in a fixed position.
The rotating work is made to traverse.
The rotating work moves longitudinally in both directions.This
is longitudinal feed.
368

TRAVERSE GRINDING

369

CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
Plunge grinding:
This method is used when the job length is lesser than the width
of the grinding wheel.
Here the work piece need not be fed longitudinally.
The grinding is done by giving only the cross feed to the
grinding wheel.

370

TYPES OF CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

1.Plain centre type cylindrical grinding
These grinding machines are used fro grinding many
cylindrical parts.
They
are also used for grinding parts such as
tapers,fillets,contoured cylinders etc.
The main parts of this machine are
i.Base
ii.Table
iii.Headstock
iv.Tailstock
v.Wheel head
371

PLAIN CENTRE TYPE CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

372

PLAIN CENTRE TYPE CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

Working Principle
The work piece is held between centres.
It is rotated by a dog or faceplate.
The grinding wheel also rotates about its own axis in the
opposite direction of the work.
The grinding wheel is fed by hand or automatically towards
the work piece for successive cuts.
In most cases the work speed is selected between 20 and 30
surface speed meters per minute (s.m.p.m).
Wheel speed is usually selected between 1500 and 2000
s.m.p.m.
373

CENTRE TYPE UNIVERSAL GRINDER

2.Centre type universal grinder
Widely used in tool rooms for grinding tools . The features of
this machine are
1.The centre of the head stock spindle can be used as alive or
dead . The work can be held and revolved by a chuck . It can
also be held between centres and revolved.
2.The wheel head can be swiveled in a horizontal plane in any
angle . The wheel head can be fed in the inclined direction also.
3.The head stock can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal
plane.
4.The wheel head can also be arranged for internal grinding.
374

CENTRE TYPE UNIVERSAL GRINDER

375

SURFACE GRINDERS
Surface grinding machines are employed to finish plane or flat
surfaces.
By using special fixtures and form dressing devices, angular and
formed surfaces can also be ground.
The various machine parts such as machine guide ways, piston
rings , valves , dies, surface plates are finished by surface
grinding.
Heavy work pieces are clamped on the table by means of pads ,
strap clamps and other devices
or they are held in fixtures.

376

SURFACE GRINDERS
Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

It consists of a horizontal spindle carrying the grinding wheel

and rectangular worktable.

The table is mounted on a base .

Horizontal guide ways of base is a rectangular box like

casting.

The driving mechanisms are housed inside the base.

The table reciprocates along the guide ways for giving

longitudinal feed.

377

SURFACE GRINDERS

The table top has T-Slots for mounting the magnetic chuck or
fixtures .

The cross feed to the grinding wheel is given by moving

column perpendicular to the table .

The wheel head is mounted on the column .

It has an independent motor for driving the wheel .

The wheel head can move up and down along the vertical guide
ways of the column.
378

HORIZONTAL SPINDLE RECIPROCATING TABLE SURFACE GRINDER

379

SURFACE GRINDERS
Horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder
The work pieces are mounted on magnetic chucks or on fixtures
rotating slowly under the rotating
Grinding wheel in its horizontal axis . The circular table rotates at
specific speed and the wheel can feed axially.
The wheel head is lowered to give the required depth of cut . The
periphery of the grinding wheel takes the cut . The machine is
used for small and medium sized works.

380

HORIZONTAL SPINDLE ROTARY TABLE SURFACE GRINDER

381

VERTICAL SPINDLE ROTARY TABLE SURFACE GRINDER

The grinding spindle is mounted vertically on the face of a
column and rotates in fixed position.
Vertical spindle carries a cup type grinding wheel.
The grinding wheel is lowered for giving depth of cut.
The rotary table rotates the work piece .
The work piece is clamped on the table using a magnetic
chuck .
This grinding machine is used for grinding large quantity of
small work piece.

382

VERTICAL SPINDLE ROTARY TABLE SURFACE GRINDER

383

TOOL AND CUTTER GRINDERS

Tool and cutter grinders are used mainly to sharpen and
recondition multiple tooth cutters like reamers, milling cutters,
drills, taps, hobs and other types of tools used in the shop.
There are two types of tool and cutter grinders.

Universal tool and cutter grinders.

Single purpose tool and cutter grinders

384

UNIVERSAL TOOL AND CUTTER GRINDERS

The universal tool and cutter grinders are used for sharpening
various other cutters such as reamer, milling cutters , special
drills, counter bores and special cutters.

385

(B) SURFACE GRINDERS

Surface grinders are used to produce flat surfaces. The basic
machine has a grinding wheel above the work area which can be
fed downward in very small increments into a work piece which
is being moved to the left and the right and in and out.
This allows the wheel to contact all areas of the surface of the
work piece. The grinder is usually equipped with a magnetic
plate used to hold the work piece.

386

There are two types of surface grinders

1. Reciprocating surface grinders
2. Rotary surface grinders
1. Reciprocating Surface Grinders
Reciprocating surface grinders are of two types:
(1) Horizontal wheel spindle and reciprocating table
(2) Vertical wheel spindle and rotary table
Horizontal Wheel Spindle and Reciprocating Table:
These types of grinders have one reciprocating table and a horizontal
spindle. The table can be given a reciprocating motion either manually
by hand wheel or by hydraulic power. Depth of cut is achieved by
lowering the grinding wheel with the help of a hand wheel. Feed to the
grinding wheel is given by rotating the hand wheel.
Vertical Wheel Spindle and Rotary Table:
These types of grinders are used in production type of work. In these
machines, the wheel diameter should be more than the width of
surface to be machined.
387

2. ROTARY SURFACE GRINDERS

These are also of two typeshorizontal spindle and vertical
spindle. In a horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder, the
work pieces are arranged in concentric circles on the table.
The table is made to rotate under the revolving wheel. Both the
wheel and the table rotate in opposite directions.
A vertical spindle rotary table surface grinder makes use of a cup
shape wheel for finishing operation.

388

(C) CENTRELESS GRINDING

This type of machine is used for grinding both external and

internal cylindrical surfaces without mounting the work piece
between centers in a chuck.
This machine makes use of two grinding wheels.
The larger grinding wheel does the actual grinding and the small
grinding wheel is mounted at an angle to the plane of the
grinding wheel. The small wheel is responsible for the feed of
the work piece.
The work piece with its both ends freely supported on a V
rotates between large and small wheels.
The small wheel also called the regulating wheel does not
perform grinding operations but only controls the speed of
rotation and longitudinal motion of the work piece.

389

390

(C) CENTRELESS GRINDING

Advantages of Centreless Grinding:

The advantages of centreless grinding are as follows:
1. Chuck and centers are not required.
2. The work piece is rigidly supported during grinding, so there is
no change of direction of work piece.
3. This process is fast.
4. Less skilled operator can carry out operation.
5. Wide range of components can be ground.
6. Large grinding wheels can be used so as to minimize wheel
wear.

391

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

PRINCIPLE OF AJM
In abrasive jet machining process, a high speed stream of
abrasive particles mixed with high pressure air or gas are
injected through a nozzle on the workpiece to be machined

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

In the machining system shown in Fig. a gas (nitrogen, CO2, or air) is

supplied under a pressure of 2 to 8 kg/cm2.

Oxygen should never be used because it causes a violent chemical

reaction with workpiece chips or abrasives.

After filtration and regulation, the gas is passed through a mixing

chamber that contains abrasive particles and vibrates at 50 Hz.

From the mixing chamber, the gas, along with the entrained abrasive
particles (1040 m), passes through a 0.45-mm-diameter

Nozzle is subjected to a great degree of wear , it is made up of hard

materials such as tungsten carbide nozzle at a speed of 150 to 300 m/s.

NOZZLE MATERIAL

AVERAGE LIFE
in (Hours)

Tungsten carbide

12 to 20 hours

Synthetic sapphire

300 hours

JET VELOCITY
(m/s)

150 to 300 m/s

Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and Silicon Carbide powders are used for
heavy cleaning, cutting, and deburring.

Magnesium carbonate is recommended for use in light cleaning and

etching, while sodium bicarbonate is used for fine cleaning and the
cutting of soft materials.

Commercial-grade powders are not suitable because their sizes are not
well classified. They may contain silica dust, which can be a health
hazard.

It is not practical to reuse the abrasive powder because contaminations

and worn grit will cause a decline of the machining rate.

The abrasive powder feed rate is controlled by the amplitude of vibrations

in the mixing chamber.

The nozzle standoff distance is 0.81 mm.

The relative motion between the workpiece and the nozzle is manually or
automatically

controlled

using

cam

drives,

pantographs,

tracer

mechanisms, or using computer control according to the cut geometry

required.

Masks of copper, glass, or rubber may be used to concentrate the jet stream

of abrasive particles to a confined location on the workpiece. Intricate and

precise shapes can be produced by using masks with corresponding
contours.

Dust removal equipment is incorporated to protect the environment.

ADVANTAGES OF AJM
o

The process is used for machining super alloys and refractory

materials.

It is not reactive with any workpiece material.

No tool changes are required.

Intricate parts of sharp corners can be machined.

The machined materials do not experience hardening.

No initial hole is required for starting the operation as required by wire

EDM.

Material utilization is high.

It can machine thin materials

LIMITATIONS OF AJM

The removal rate is slow.

Stray cutting cant be avoided (low accuracy of 0.1mm)
The tapering effect may occur especially when drilling in metals.

The abrasive may get impeded in the work surface.

Suitable dust-collecting systems should be provided.

Soft materials cant be machined by the process.

Silica dust may be a health hazard.

Ordinary shop air should be filtered to remove moisture and oil.

APPLICATIONS OF ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

o

Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring, polishing, and
radiusing.

Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision parts that
require a burr-free finish, such as hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel systems, and
medical appliances.

Machining intricate shapes or holes in sensitive, brittle, thin, or difficult-tomachine materials.

Insulation stripping and wire cleaning without affecting the conductor.

Micro-deburring of hypodermic needles.

Frosting glass and trimming of circuit boards, hybrid circuit resistors,

capacitors, silicon, and gallium

Removal of films and delicate cleaning of irregular surfaces because the

OPERATION

PERFORMED

ON

GRINDING

MACHINE

(A) POLISHING:
This process is used for removing scratch marks and tool marks on
the work piece to give a good look. For this process, polishing
wheels made of canvas, leather or paper are used.
The work piece is brought in contact with the revolving wheel to
remove the marks on the work piece.
(B) BUFFING:
This is also a surface finishing process and is used to produce
lustrous surface of attractive appearance. In this process, a very small
amount of material is removed.
The buffing wheel is made of felt, cotton and powered abrasives are
applied on the surface of the wheel.
401

HONING
Principle
Honing is an abrasing process used for finishing internal
cylindrical surfaces like drilled or bored holes for metallic and
non metallic surfaces.
However, numerous outside surfaces also can be honed. Gear
teeth, valve components, and races for antifriction
bearings are typical applications of external honing.
Honing is a controlled, low-speed sizing and surface-finishing
process in which stock is abraded by the shearing action of a
bonded abrasive honing stick.
Geometrical accuracy
1.
2.
3.
4.

Out of roundness
Taper
Axial distortion
Dimensional accuracy

402

403

Honing stones are manufactured by bonding abrasives like aluminum

oxide or silicon carbide. Materials like sulphur, resin or wax are added to
improve the cutting action.
Honing can be done manually or by machines.
The preferred method is by using machines. The stones are held in a
honing head. This head is directed to move in and out of the hole for
carrying out operation.
Honing is both a sizing and finishing operation and is generally used for
removing the scratch marks produced by grinding.
The material removal is less than 0.125 mm.
Honing tool- head provides a floating action between the work and the
tool and any pressure exerted (mechanical or hydraulically) on tool is
transmitted equally to all sides.
Honing tool is given slow reciprocating motion as it rotates which results
in rapid removal of stock and at the same time generation of straight and
round surface.
Coolant sulperized based oil or lard oil with kerosene
Bore size 1.5 to 1500 mm
404

405

406

407

408

409

The most common honing applications relate to :

Removing stock from internal and external cylindrical surfaces.

Examples of internal honing are, finishing of engine cylinders, gun barrels, long tubular parts.

In brief, bores of any size can be honed whether long, short, blind, or with keyways.

It is effective on almost any ferrous or nonferrous material in a hardened or soft condition.

Providing required dimensional accuracy and surface finish.

ADVANTAGES

Honing is a relatively expensive manufacturing process, it can only be economically

justified for applications that require very good form accuracy.

The improved shape after honing may result in a quieter running or higher precision
component.

Surface finishes as fine as 0.1 m and even finer are possible.

Honing can remove as little as 0'0025 mm of stock or as much as 3'18 mm of stock.

Honing can be done on most materials from aluminium or brass to hardened steel. Carbides,
ceramics, and glass can be honed by using diamond stones.

DISADVANTAGES

Honing is a high precision process, it is also relatively expensive.

Horizontal honing may create oval holes unless the work is rotated or supported.

LAPPING

Lapping is generally the final operation done with loose abrasive

grains.
Extreme accuracy of dimension
2. Correction of minor imperfection of shape.
3. Refinement of the surface finish
4. Close fit between mating surfaces.
1.

412

The Laps are made up of soft cast iron, copper, lead and brass. Fine
abrasive particles are charged into the lap. Silicon carbide,
aluminum oxide and diamond dust are the commonly used lapping
powders.
Oil and greases are used to spread the abrasive powders. The
charged lap is rubbed against the work piece surface and the
abrasive particles in the surface of the lap remove small amounts of
material from the work piece surface.
The material removed by lapping is usually less than 0.025 mm.
Lapping can be done either by hand or special machines. The lap
has a series of grooves in it. These are provided for collecting the
excess abrasive and chips. The surface of the lap is charged with a
fine abrasive.
The work piece is moved across the surface of the lap using
reciprocating or rotary motion. In machine lapping, two flat laps are
used that are called upper and lower laps.
The work pieces to be lapped are inserted between these two laps
413
rotating in opposite direction. The work piece holder can
accommodate a number of work pieces which are not clamped.

414

Machining Parameters

1. Abrasives type:
Diamond is used for lapping tungsten carbide (WC) and precious stones.
B4C is used for lapping dies and gauges. It is more expensive than SiC and Al2O3 (1025
times)
2.Grit size and abrasive grading.
Grit size (mesh number) generally ranges from 50 to 3800;however, more frequently, grit
size from 100 to 1000 is used depending on the degree of surface finish required.
3.Vehicle.
This prevents scoring of the lapped surfaces and varies from clean water to heavy grease. It
is selected to suit the work, method, and type of surface finish required. For machine
lapping, an oil-base type is recommended; however, a commercial mixture of kerosene and
machine oil can be used. Grease-based vehicles are recommended for lapping soft metals.
4.Speed.
Speeds of 100-200m/min are commonly used for machine lapping.
5. Pressure.
A pressure of 0.01 to .03 MPa is used for soft materials, while 0.7 kg/cm2 is
recommended for lapping hard materials. If the preceding values are exceeded, rapid breakdown
and scoring of the WP results.
415

Applications.
1. plug gages
2. piston pins
3. hypodermic plungers
4. ceramic pins
5. small valve pistons
6. cylindrical valves
7. small engine pistons
8. roller and needle bearings
9. diesel injector valves

416

(E) SUPER FINISHING:

It is an abrasive process for removing scratches produced by
machining and other surface irregularities. It is used for producing
extremely high quality surface finish.
The amount of material removal is 0.005 to 0.0025 mm. In super
finishing, an abrasive stick is retained in a suitable holder and applied
to the surface of the work piece with a light pressure. This process is
normally carried out for finishing outer surfaces.
The abrasive block reciprocates across the rotating work piece. These
two motions produce a high degree of accuracy.
The abrasive used are aluminum oxide for materials like alloy and
high speed steels. Silicon carbide abrasives are used for materials like
cast iron, aluminium, brass.
Bonded diamond dust is used for finishing carbide tools.

417

418

MACHINING PARAMETERS

419

420

GEAR HOBBING
Hobbing is a gear generation method most widely used for cutting
teeth in spur gears, helical gears, worms, worm wheels, and many
special forms Hobbing machines are not applicable to cutting
bevel and internal gears.
The tooling cost for hobbing is lower than for broaching and
multiple-tool shaping heads. For this reason, hobbing is used in
low-quantity production or even for a few pieces.
Compared with milling, hobbing is fast, accurate, and therefore
suitable for medium and high quantity productions.
The hob is a fluted worm of helix angle with form-relieved
teeth that cut into the gear blank in succession

421

422

Gear hobbing is characterized by the following:

1. High accuracy.
2. Flexibility for any production volume.
3. Low cost.
4. Adaptability to cut metals with higher than average hardness.
5. Any external tooth that is uniformly spaced about the center can be hobbed using a
suitable hob.
6. One hob of a particular module can be used to cut teeth of all involute spur and
helical gears of any number of teeth of the same module and pressure angle. It is thus
a versatile process.
7. The accuracy of hobbed gears depends upon Accuracy of the machine, blank, and
tool Care and accuracy of mounting work and hob Feed method used Machine
rigidity A typical hobbing machine can produce gears of accumulated errors of tooth
spacing not more than 20 m.
8. The indexing is continuous, without an intermittent nature that can cause indexing
errors.

9. Finish is dependent on the hob feed.

423

GEAR SHAPING WITH PINION CUTTER

This process is the most versatile of all gear cutting processes. Although shaping is
most commonly used for cutting teeth in spur and helical gears, this process is also
applicable to cutting herringbone teeth, internal gears (or splines), chain sprockets,
elliptical gears, face gears, worm gears, and racks.

Shaping cannot be used to cut bevel gears. The principle of gear shaping with a
pinion cutter. In this process, the cutter is mounted on a spindle that reciprocates
axially as it rotates.

The WP spindle is synchronized with the cutter spindle and rotates slowly as the
tool meshes and cuts while it is being fed into the work at the end of each return
(upward) stroke.

The downward movement of the tool represents the principal cutting motion. To
prevent the flanks of the cutter teeth from scoring the blank as the cutter is returned
upward, the blank (or the cutter) is withdrawn radially in the direction of arrow X.

Because tooling cost is relatively low, gear shaping is practical for any production
volume. WP design often prevents the use of milling cutters or hobs (e.g., cluster
gears), and shaping is the most practical method for such cases
424

425

426

427

BROACHING
Broaching is a method of removing metal by pushing or pulling a
cutting tool called a broach which cuts in fixed path.
The tool may be pulled or pushed through the surfaces to be
finished. Surfaces finished by broaching may be flat or contoured
and may be either internal or external.
Broaching is generally limited to the removal of about 6 mm of
stock or less.
The term broaching may have derived from an ancient Roman
word braces, which meant an object having projecting teeth.

428

BROACHING
The operation itself dates only to the 1850 s when broaching
tools, then called drifts were hammered in blacksmith shops
through the work or pushed through with an arbor press.
BROACHES
A broach is a multiple-edge cutting tool that has successively
higher cutting edges along the length of the tool.

429

BROACHING
Broaches may be classified in various ways, according to:
Type of operation: internal or external.
Method of operation: push or pull.
Type of construction: solid, built-up, inserted tooth, progressive
cut, rotor cut, double jump, overlapping tooth.
Function: surface, keyway, round hole, splint, spiral, burnishing,
etc.

430

BROACHING
Broaching of inside surfaces is called internal or hole broaching
and of outside surfaces, external or surface broaching.
Internal broaching tools are designed to enlarge and cut various
contours in holes already made by drilling, punching, casting,
forging, etc.
External surface broaching competes with milling, planning,
shaping, shaping, and similar operations. It offers a combination
of a high degree of accuracy and excellent surface finish,
combined with high output rate and low downtime.

431

BROACHING
A push broach is one that is designed to be pushed through the
work piece by special press or a push broaching matching.
Because of the tendency to bend under compressive loads, the
push broach must be short and stocky, which means fewer teeth
are in the broach and, less material can be removed for each pass
of the tool.
Holes are machined by push broaches only for sizing.

432

BROACHING
In a pull broach the tool is entirely in tension and long slender
broaches are possible, having a large number of teeth,
consequently more stock can be removed for each pass.
When a broach is made in one piece, it is called a solid broach.
Internal broaches are usually of the solid type.
Broaches are sometimes built up of several sections, and
sometimes made up of a series of teeth inserted in a block of
steel.
Surface broach are usually of the built up or inserted tooth type.

433

BROACHING
In progressive cut broaching metal is removed in thick layers by
each tooth only part of the work-surface.
The last teeth of progressive cut broach remove a thin layer over
the entire profile of the work surface as in ordinary broaching.
BROACH MATERIAL:
Most broaches are made from 18-4-1 tungsten chromium
vanadium steel ground after hardening.

434

BROACHING
Carbide broaches are used extensively in the broaching of cast
iron in the automotive field.
They are also used for surface broaches, for high production and
for finishing broaches
Broaching, according to the method of operation, may be
classified as follows
Pull broaching:
The work is held stationary and the broach is pulled through the
work. Broaches are usually long and are held in a special head.

435

BROACHING
Pull broaching is used mostly for internal broaching but it can do
some surface broaching.
Push broaching:
The work is held stationary and the broach is pushed through the
work.
Hand and hydraulic arbor presses are popular for push
broaching.
This method is used mostly for sizing holes and cutting
keyways.

436

BROACH TOOL NOMENCLATURE

437

BROACH TOOL

438

BROACH TOOL NOMENCLATURE

Length
The length of a broach tool or string of tools is determined by
the amount of stock to be removed, and limited by the
machine stroke, bending moments (in a push broach),
stiffness, accuracy, and other factors. A pull broach is usually
limited to 75 times the diameter of the finishing teeth.
Broaching tools can be as small as 0.050 in. or as large as 15
to 20 in. in diameter .
The Rear Pilot
The rear pilot maintains tool alignment as the final finish teeth
pass through the workpiece hole. On round tools the diameter
of the rear pilot is slightly less than the diameter of the finish
teeth.
439

BROACH TOOL NOMENCLATURE

Often a notched tail or retriever end is added to the tool to

engage a handling mechanism that supports the rear of the
broach tool .
Cutting Tooth Sections
Broach teeth usually are divided into three separate sections
along the length of the tool: the roughing teeth, semi-finishing
teeth, and finishing teeth. The first roughing tooth is
proportionately the smallest tooth on the tool. The subsequent
teeth progressively increase in size up to and including the
first finishing tooth. The difference in height between each
tooth, or tooth rise, usually is greater along the roughing
section and less along the semi-finishing section. All finishing
teeth are the same size.
440

BROACH TOOL NOMENCLATURE

The Land
The land supports the cutting edge against stresses. A slight
clearance or backoff angle is ground onto the lands to reduce
friction. On roughing and semi-finishing teeth, the entire land
is relieved with a backoff angle. On finishing teeth, part of the
land immediately behind the cutting edge is often left straight
so that repeated sharpening (by grinding the face of the tooth)
will not alter the tooth size.
Shear Angle
Broach designers may place broach teeth at a shear angle to
improve surface finish and reduce tool chatter. When two
adjacent surfaces are cut simultaneously, the shear angle is an
important factor in moving chips away from the intersection
of the cutting teeth. This may vary from 120 to 150
441

BROACH TOOL NOMENCLATURE

Side Relief
When broaching slots, the tool becomes enclosed by the slot
during cutting and must carry chips produced through the
entire length of the work piece. Sides of the broach teeth will
rub the sides of the slot and cause rapid tool wear unless
clearance is provided. This is done by grinding a side relief
angle on both sides of each tooth with only a small portion of
the tooth near the cutting edge, called the slot. The same
approach is used for one-sided corner cuts and spline
broaches.
Back off/Clearance angle
It is the relief angle on land .this may vary 10 to 40 for
roughing teeth & 00 to 1.50 for semi finishing teeth. No
clearance angle for finishing teeth.

442

443

BROACHING
Either the work or the broaching tool moves across the other.
This method has rapidly become as important means of surface
finishing.
Fixtures are most important in broaching operations.
They are used particularly for two reasons first, because of the
high pressures used and because of the manner in which the
cutting is done; second, broaching being essential a massproduction operation, fixtures speed up the operation and help to
keep it accurate.

444

BROACHING
Broaching fixtures perform one or more of the following
functions:
Move the work into and out of cutting position.
Hold the work rigidly so that it will not deflect.
Guide the broach in relation to the work.
Locate the work in correct position.
Index or feed the work between cuts

445

BROACHING
Broaching is applied for machining various internal and external
surfaces, for round or irregular shaped holes from 6 to 100 mm in
diameter, for external flat and contoured surfaces.
Certain types of surfaces, for example, splint holes, are
machined at the present time only by broaching due to the
exceptional difficulties in machining such surfaces by other
methods.
Most broaching operations are completed in one pass, but some
are arranged for repeated cuts to simplify the design of the
broach.

446

BROACHING
The teeth of a gear or splint may be broached altogether or one
or a few at a time.
A comparatively simple broach can be made to cut one or a few
tooth spaces, After one pass, the
gear blank is indexed, and more of its teeth are cut.
Successive passes are made until all the teeth are finished.

447

BROACHING
Broaching has been adopted for mass production work because
of the following outstanding features and advantages:
Rate of production is very high. With properly applied broaches,
fixtures, and machines, more pieces can be turned per hour by
broaching than by any other means,
Little skill is required to perform a broaching operation.
In most cases the operator merely loads and unloads the
workpiece.

448

BROACHING
High accuracy and a high class of surface finish is possible. A
tolerance of 0.0075 mm and a surface finish of about 0.8
microns (1 micron = 0.001mm) can be easily obtained in
broaching.
Both roughing and finishing cuts are completed in one pass of the
tool.
The process can be used for either internal or external surface
finishing.
Any form that can be reproduced on a broaching can be
machined.

449

BROACHING
Cutting fluid may be readily applied where it is most effective
because a broach tends to draw the fluid into the cut.
Certain reasons, however, limit the application of the broaching
process. They are:
High tool cost. A broach usually does only one job and is
expensive to make and sharpen.
Very large workpieces cannot be broached.
The surfaces to be broached cannot have an obstruction.

450

BROACHING
Broaching cannot be used for the removal of a large amount of
stock.
Parts to be broached must be capable of being rigidly supported
and must be able to withstand the forces that set up during V
Cutting.

451

PUSH DOWN TYPE BROACHING

452

PULL DOWN TYPE BROACHING

453

PULL UP VERTICAL MACHINE

454

CONTINUOUS BROACHING MACHINE

455

ROTARY TYPE BROACHING MACHINE

456

457

UNIT V CNC MACHINE TOOLS AND PART

PROGRAMMING
7

Numerical control (NC) machine tools CNC types, constructional details,

special features.
machining centre, training centre. part programming fundamentals manual
programming.

History of CNC
1949
US Air Force asks MIT to develop a "numerically controlled"
machine.

1952
Prototype NC machine demonstrated (punched tape input)
1980CNC machines (computer used to link directly to controller)
1990DNC: external computer drip feeds control
programmer to machine tool controller

NUMERICAL CONTROL
Numerical control is a method of automatically operating a
manufacturing machine based on a code of letters, numbers, and
special characters.

2.

Numerical control (NC) is a system that uses pre-recorded

information prepared from numerical data to control a machine
tool or the machining process.

3.

The program is translated into the appropriate electrical signals

for input to motors that run the machine.

4.

The numerical data required to produce a part is provided to a

machine in the form of a program, called part program or CNC
program.

460

1.

Overview
1. A numerical control, or NC, system controls many machine
functions and movements which were traditionally performed by
skilled machinists.

2. Numerical control developed out of the need to meet the

requirements of high production rates, uniformity and consistent
part quality.
3. Programmed instructions are converted into output signals which
in turn control machine operations such as spindle speeds, tool
selection, tool movement, and cutting fluid flow.

Overview
4. NC machines cost approximately five to ten times as much as the
cost of conventional machines of the same size depending on the
capacity of the control system and accessories (NC includes tape
preparation and setup in addition to the costs related to the design
and fabrication of holding fixtures etc.)

CNC Machines
What is a CNC Machine?

CNC : Computer and Numeric Control

Conventionally, an operator decides and adjusts various

machines parameters like feed , depth of cut etc depending on
type of job , and controls the slide movements by hand. In a

CNC Machine functions and slide movements are controlled

by motors using computer programs.

Overview
By integrating a computer processor, computer numerical
control, or CNC as it is now known, allows part machining
programs to be edited and stored in the computer memory as well
as permitting diagnostics and quality control functions during the
actual machining.
All CNC machining begins with a part program, which is a
sequential instructions or coded commands that direct the specific
machine functions.
The part program may be manually generated or, more
commonly, generated by computer aided part programming
systems.

TYPES OF CNC

NC

TYPES OF
CNC

DNC

CNC

CNC MACHINES- ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts
Volume of production is very high
Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. E.g. Turbines
Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap
More safe, higher productivity, better quality
Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times
Disadvantages:
Costly setup, skilled operators
Computers, programming knowledge required
Maintenance is difficult

FUNDAMENTALS OF
CNC MACHINES

A Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine consists of the

machine tool and a machine control unit (MCU) or a CNC
system as shown in fig. The machine control unit
reads the part program and executes it

CNC Machines

Machine tool

CNC system

The computer numerical code (CNC) machine consists of a

machine tool and a CNC system. The machine tool performs the.
machining of the component. The CNC system controls the
machining operations. The control micro- computer is an integral
part of the machine.
The successful implementation of CNC on production
floors has been largely attributable to :

(1) Availability of computers

(2) Availability of low cost programmable controllers

The following are the controllable components of a CNC

machine:
(1) Spindle
(2) Feed axes
(3) Feed drive
(4) Clamping devices
(5) Tool changers
(6) Measuring Devices
(7) Rotation and additional feed axes.

COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC)

A CNC machine is an NC machine with the added feature of an on-board
computer.

472

HARDWARE CONFIGURATION OF CNC

MACHINE
Machine Control Unit (MCU)
the brain of the NC machine.

The Control Loop Unit (CLU)

controls the machine tool operation.

473

The Data Processing Unit (DPU)

reads the part program.

FUNCTIONS OF CNC CONTROL IN CNC

MACHINES
Control system features:
1. Single processor or multi processor system (16, 32 or 64-bit
microprocessor)
2. Higher processor faster calculation of tool path
3. RAM and hard disk

(1) CNC system features:

(a) Processor specification (eg: 32-bit processor with 32-bit data bus)
(b) Cathod ray tube (CRT) display (eg: color display with I024x768
resolutions)
(c) Hard and floppy disc drives.
(d) Ethernet interface card and software.
(e) High speed serial interface.
(f) System resolution.
(g) Spindle speeds.
(h) Modes of operation: Manual keyboard, single block, auto etc.
(i) Operating controls: Jog return and tool path retrace, (Jog) feed rate and
spindle speed override, dry run, feed hold (machine decelerates to a stop),
Reset (all axes decelerate to a stop)
(j) Axis calibration.
(k) Backlash compensation
(l) Machine setup data (MSD)

(2) Memory features:

(a) The part program is stored in Dynamic RAM, CMOS
RAM or Bubble memory.
(b) The machine constant memory is stored in EPROM or
CMOS RAM
(c) For the intermediate working MOS RAM is used.
(d) The executive program is stored in EPROM

(3) Programming features:

1. Inch or metric programming of dimensions.
2. Feed rate' coding.
3. Absolute or incremental programming models.
4. Decimal point programming.
5. Diameter/Radius programming.
6. Active block cancel.
7. Dwell .programming.
8. Automatic code format selection (EIA or ASCII)
9. Tool length and diameter compensation.
10. Linear, circular, helical and parabolic interpolations.
11. Multiple part program storage.
12. Sequence number search.
13. Subordinate and macro programming.
14. Parametric programming.
15. Canned cycles (eg: rectangular pockets).

(4) PLC features:

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a microcomputer based
electronic apparatus that uses instructions in memory to implement
logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic
functions, through digital or analog input/output modules, for
controlling machines and processes.

The PLC is an interface between the CNC system and the machine
tool functions such as coolant on/off, palIet operation and spindle
speed. The modern PLCs are microprocessor based units and are
integrated into the CNC systems.
The
following are the components and features of
modern PLCs:
(a) Processor: PLCs use from 8-bit to 32-bit processors with clock
speeds from 4 MHZ to 33 MHZ or more.
(b) Memory unit: It contains the program and holds the data. The
capacities of memory units are from 1 K to more than 64 K.

(c) Power supply: The input supply is 120 V or 240- V AC. The
output supplies are both AC and DC. The PLC accepts the sensor
data in the form of both AC and DC. Likewise, it controls different
devices using both AC and DC.
(d) Input/Output module: It provides a connection to the CNC system,
through which the PLC sends on/off signals to operate motors, valves
and other devices to machine a component. The PLC also receives
signals from the limit switches, push buttons, sensors and other
devices and acts on these signals. The PLC can receive analog
continuous
signals
and
generate
analog signals to control analog actuators.
(e) Programming device: The programming device is used to program
the PLC. A single device is used to program many PLCs. For this
purpose, they are detached from a PLC after programming it and are
attached to another one for program input.

Types of diagnostic methods for CNC systems

(a) Real time diagnostics: This routine continuously monitors
the DC power supply voltages and contains a real time clock.
If any of the supply voltages fail, the system shuts down the
drives. Some machines also have the provision to withdraw the
tool from the job being machined.
(b) On-line diagnostics: This routine is active during
machining operation and the messages are indicated on the
monitor or indicated on LED. Programming errors like syntax,
parity etc. are diagnosed by program diagnostics.
(c) Off-line diagnostics: They are provided by the
manufacturer in a magnetic tape or ROM board. These
programs are loaded when specific problems are encountered.
(d) Remote diagnostics: The manufacturer, located at a
different geographic location can connect through the Internet
on to a machine located at any other place and run diagnostic
programs.

Types of CNC machines

Based on Motion Type:
Point-to-Point

or

Continuous path

or

Closed loop

or

Hydraulic

Based on Control Loops:

Open loop

Based on Power Supply:

Electric

Based on Positioning System

Incremental

or

Absolute

or

Pneumatic

POINT-TO-POINT TOOL MOVEMENTS

Point-to-point control systems cause the tool to move to a point on the part and
execute an operation at that point only. The tool is not in continuous contact with the
part while it is moving.

Drilling, reaming, punching, boring and tapping are examples of point-to-point

operations.
483

POINT TO POINT AND TOOL PATHS

CONTINUOUS-PATH TOOL MOVEMENTS

Continuous-path controllers cause the tool to maintain continuous contact with the
part as the tool cuts a contour shape. These operations include milling along any lines
at any angle, milling arcs and lathe turning.

485

Mech
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LOOP SYSTEMS FOR CONTROLLING TOOL

MOVEMENT
Open Loop System
486

Uses stepping motor to create movement. Motors rotate a fixed

amount for each pulse received from the MCU. The motor sends a
signal back indicating that the movement is completed. No feedback
to check how close the actual machine movement comes to the exact
movement programmed.

LOOP SYSTEMS FOR CONTROLLING TOOL

MOVEMENT
Closed Loop System

487

AC, DC, and hydraulic servo-motors are used. The speed of these
motors are variable and controlled by the amount of current or fluid.
The motors are connect to the spindle and the table. A position sensor
continuously monitors the movement and sends back a single to
Comparator to make adjustments.

NC machines
Motion control is done by: servo-controlled motors

Table
Leadscrew
A/C Motor

Encoder

Servo Controller
Counter

Comparator

Input (converted from analog to digital value)

Open Loop vs. Closed Loop controls

Components of Servo-motor controlled CNC

Motor

lead screw rotation

Motor speed control

feedback

table moves

position sensed by encoder

Two types of encoder configurations

CNC DRIVING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The servo, the word originates from servue in Latin, is the
device that carries out faithfully the given command.
PMSMs (Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors) have been
used as servo motors in machine tools

DRIVING MOTOR AND SENSOR

The spindle is the device that generates adequate cutting speed and torque by
rotating the tool or workpiece.
Consequently, high torque and high speed are very important for spindle motors
and an induction motor is generally used due to the characteristics of the spindle
motor
Features of servo motor

1. To be able to get adequate output of power according to work load.

2. To be able to respond quickly to an instruction.
3. To have good acceleration and deceleration properties.
4. To have a broad velocity range.
5. To be able to control velocity safely in all velocity ranges.
6. To be able to be continuously operated for a long time
7. To be able to provide frequent acceleration and deceleration.
8. To have high resolution in order to generate adequate torque in the case of a
small block.

LINEAR MOVEMENT GUIDE

A ball screw is used to move the tool post or table and plays the role of
changing the rotation of a servo motor into linear movement.
A Linear Movement (LM) guide is used to increase the accuracy and
smoothness of the linear movement of servo motor.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

Various mounting arrangements of Linear Motion Guides

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

Antifriction guide ways used in CNC Machine Tools

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

Ball Bush used for Linear Movement in

CNC Machine Tools

BALL SCREWS
Low co-efficient of friction: It is of the order of
0.004 as compared to 0.1 to 0.5 which is typical of
sliding friction power screws.
Wear is therefore less and there is very little need
for frequent adjustment.
In a ball screw, the load between the threads of the
screw and the nut is not transmitted by direct
method contact but through intermediate rolling
members (spherical balls).

BALL SCREWS
The

ball rotates between the helical grooves of the

screw and nut in a manner akin to their function in

ball bearings.
An

essential feature of almost all ball screws is the

provision of recirculation of balls.

BALL SCREWS
By

preloading the assembly, clearance and

consequent backlash can be eliminated and the

axial stiffness of the ball screw can be increased.
The

axial stiffness of an ordinary power screw and

accuracy of ball screws also high.

BALL SCREWS
Friction

force is virtually independent of the travel

velocity and the friction at rest is very small

consequently.
The

stick slip phenomenon is absent ensuring

uniformity of motion.

BALL SCREWS
High

transmission efficiency (2-9 times) which is

particularly marked at low values of helix angle of

screw (2 - 5 ) that are typical for power screws.
This

high efficiency allows larger thrust loads to be

carried with less torque.

PRELOADING OF A RECIRCULATING BALL SCREW

A high preload makes it possible to obtain better positioning

accuracy and higher system stiffness.

It will require a higher torque to drive the screw, If the preload is

too high.

The increase of the driving torque will exceed that of system

stiffness, resulting in a decrease of life.

15 May 2013

PRELOADING OF A RECIRCULATING BALL SCREW

Too high of preload may result in less positioning accuracy.

It depends on the characteristic of the servo loop.

The low preload gives low drag torque but also low system
stiffness and reduced positioning accuracy.

506

15 May 2013

ELECTRONICS CONTROL

507

508

15 May 2013

ELECTRIC DRIVES ON A CNC LATHE

15 May 2013

SPINDLE DRIVES
Function:

Centering the work piece.

Clamping the work piece or cutting tool as the case may be such
that the work piece or Cutting tool is reliably held in position
during the machining operation.

Imparting rotary motion

509

SPEED POWER REQUIREMENT OF SPINDLE DRIVE

INTERPRETER

The code interpreter is a software module, which translates the part

program into internal commands for moving tools and executing auxiliary
functions in a CNC system.
Man-Machine Control (MMC)
Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
Drives (DRV).

Linear Interpolation
Linear Interpolation consists of any programmed points linked
together by straight lines, whether the points are close together
or far apart (Fig.). Curves can be produced with linear
interpolation by breaking them into short, straight-line
segments. This method has limitations, because a very large
number of points would have to be programmed to describe the
curve in order to produce a contour shape.
A contour programmed in linear interpolation requires the
coordinate positions (XY positions in two-axis work) for the
start and finish of each line segment. Therefore, the end point
of one line or segment becomes the start point for the next
segment, and so on, throughout the entire program.

Circular Interpolation
The development of MCUs capable of circular interpolation
has greatly simplified the process of programming arcs and
circles.
To program an arc (Fig.), the MCU requires only the
coordinate positions (the XY axes) of the circle center, the
radius of the circle, the start point and end point of the arc
being cut, and the direction in which the arc is to be cut
(clockwise or counter clockwise). The information required
may vary with different MCUs.

Programming Systems
Two types of programming modes, the incremental system and
the absolute system, are used for CNC.
Both systems have applications in CNC programming, and no
system is either right or wrong all the time.
Most controls on machine tools today are capable of handling
either incremental or absolute programming.

BASIC CNC PRINCIPLES

COORDINATES SYSTEM

Absolute Coordinate System

Incremental Coordinate System

CNC MACHINE AXES OF MOTION

The coordinate system used for the tool path must be identical to the
coordinate system used by the CNC machine. The standards for machine axes
are established according to the industry standard report EIA RS-267A.

518

Right hand rule

Vertical
milling
machine
Horizontal
milling
machine

CNC machines milling machines can perform

simultaneous linear motion along the three
axis and are called three-axes machines.

CNC MACHINE AXES OF MOTION

More complex CNC machines have the capability of executing additional rotary
motions (4th and 5th axes).

519

CNC MACHINE AXES OF MOTION

Ken Youssefi
520

Five-axis machine
configurations
Mech
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CNC MACHINE TOOL POSITIONING MODES

Within a given machine axes coordinate system, CNC can be programmed to
locate tool positions in the following modes; incremental, absolute, or mixed.

521

INCREMENTAL SYSTEM

Incremental program locations are always given as the distance and direction
from the immediately preceding point (Fig.).Command codes which tell the
machine to move the table, spindle, and knee are explained here using a
vertical milling machine as an example:
A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right
of the last point.
A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the left
of the last point.
A Y plus (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located toward the
column.
A Y minus (Y-) will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the
column.
A Z plus (Z+) command will cause the cutting tool or spindle to move up or
away from the workpiece.
A Z minus (Z-) moves the cutting tool down or into the workpiece.
In incremental programming, the G91 command indicates to the computer and
MCU (Machine Control Unit) that programming is in the incremental mode.

Absolute program locations are always given from a single

fixed zero or origin point (Fig.).
The zero or origin point may be a position on the machine
table, such as the corner of the worktable or at any specific
point on the work piece.
In absolute dimensioning and programming, each point or
location on the work piece is given as a certain distance from
the zero or reference point.

A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be

located to the right of the zero or origin point.
A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be
located to the left of the zero or origin point.
A Y plus (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be
located toward the column.
A Y minus (Y-) command will cause the cutting tool to be
located away from the column.
In absolute programming, the G90 command indicates to the
computer and MCU that the programming is in the absolute
mode.

ABSOLUTE SYSTEM

MACHINING CENTRE

A machining centre or work centre consists of a single, but

sometimes two machine tools with the specific feature of an
automatic tool changer and capable of performing a number of
operations. (drilling, tapping, milling, boring and turning etc.) on
a work piece.

MACHINING CENTRE

MACHINING CENTRE

Most machines are numerically controlled, but other types of

controls will work as well.

The major advantage is that the job needs clamping on the work
holding surface only once the machine then performs a variety of
machining operations on all the job's faces except the base.

MACHINING CENTRE

Work handling time is thus decreased because there is no

movement of the work piece from one machine to another.

Some machines are equipped with two work-tables that can be

moved into or out of the machine.

MACHINING CENTRE

While the work is going on one works table, the next component
can be set up on the other work-table.

When the job is complete on the first work-table, it is moved out

of the way and the second work-table is moved into position.

For storing the preset tools, various magazine systems are used.

MACHINING CENTRE
These

preset tools are removed from their slots by a

hand-arm mechanism.
When

particular

machining

operation

is

completed, the tool is removed from the spindle and

returned to its storage slot, then another tool is
picked up and mounted in the tool spindle.
A

machining centre is mainly used for batch

production of main components of a product.

MACHINING CENTRE
The

main components of a product are usually

small (about 10%) but are expensive (they

represent about 50% of the product value) because

they have, considerable material value and usually

require a large amount of machining.
For

such components, the machining centre is

generally most economical.

MACHINING CENTRE
Machining

centers have high metal removal rate

capabilities.
The

high degree of accuracy and multi-operation in

the same set up, make the machining centers

highly versatile and increase productivity.
Some

models are made with manual tool change-

facility.

HAAS CNC MACHINES

537

TYPES OF MACHINE

Lathes for metal and plastics

Used to produce 3D product shapes and moulds for plastic

products.

Milling machine for mould making and surface milling.

Used to produce dies for

die cutting printed products.

CNC MACHINES
Machining Centers, equipped with automatic tool changers, are capable of
changing 90 or more tools. Can perform milling, drilling, tapping, boring on
many faces.

539

CNC MILLING MACHINE

Has 3 to 5 axes.
Used for wood, metal and plastic.
Used to make 3D prototypes, moulds, cutting dies, printing
plates and signs.

CNC MACHINES
Turning Centers are capable of executing many different types of lathe cutting
operations simultaneously on a rotating part.

542

CNC LATHE
Automated version of a manual lathe.
Programmed to change tools automatically.
Used for turning and boring wood, metal and plastic.

 The

15 May 2013

PROGRAMMING FOR NC MACHINES

information punched on the paper tape

includes:

1. The co-ordinate values of the entire tool path.

2. The co-ordinate values are prefixed with certain

codes indicating the type of movement of the tool

(point-to-point, straight-line, contour) one coordinate to the next.
Slide 545

15 May 2013

PROGRAMMING FOR NC MACHINES

3. The co-ordinate values are also suffixed with

certain codes indicating the various machine
functions, such as, start/stop, spindle coolant etc.
The-co-ordinate values are also supplemented with
other functions such as feed rates; spindle speeds,

etc..

Slide 546

PROGRAMMING FOR NC MACHINES

Programming

to obtain the punched paper tape can

either be done manually or with the help of a

computer.
Simple

point-to-point programs can be easily

developed manually, but more complex ones; as

well as almost all contouring programs are

developed with the help of computers.

PROGRAMMING FOR NC MACHINES

Before

making

the

part

programme,

the

programmer first studies the part drawing and

decides upon: the proper sequence of operations,
the cutting tools, the path of the cutter/tool, speeds
and feeds at various points and the other related

information, such as starting and stopping of the

machine etc.

MANUAL PROGRAMMING

MANUAL PROGRAMMING

The firsts step is to establish the zero reference axes on the part
drawing and determine the co-ordinate dimensions for each
operation.

The set up instruments to establish the workpiece properly on the

machine table with respect to the tool are established.

MANUAL PROGRAMMING
Then, all the data and the instructions are entered
in a 'program sheet' in a particular format
acceptable to the machine tool-control unit
combination.
This sheet includes the following information: the
co-ordinate dimensions-for each operation, the
spindle traverse that determines the depth of cut,
the spindle speed and feed, tool change.

MANUAL PROGRAMMING

After preparing the 'programme sheet', the programmer uses it to

prepare the punched paper tape on a typewriter-like tape punching
machine.

CNC PROGRAMMING BASICS

CNC instructions are called part program commands.

When running, a part program is interpreted one command line

at a time until all lines are completed.

Commands, which are also referred to as blocks, are made up

of words which each begin with a letter address and end with a
numerical value.

CNC PROGRAMMING BASICS

Each letter address relates to a specific machine function. G

and M letter addresses are two of the most common. A G
letter specifies certain machine preparations such as inch or
metric modes, or absolutes versus incremental modes.

A M letter specifies miscellaneous machine functions and

work like on/off switches for coolant flow, tool changing, or
spindle rotation. Other letter addresses are used to direct a wide
variety of other machine commands.

CNC PROGRAMMING
Important things to know:

Coordinate System
Units, incremental or absolute positioning
Coordinates: X,Y,Z, RX,RY,RZ
Feed rate and spindle speed
Coolant Control: On/Off, Flood, Mist

Tool Control: Tool and tool parameters

CNC PROGRAMMING

Programming consists of a series of instructions in form of letter codes

Preparatory Codes:
G codes- Initial machining setup and establishing operating conditions

N codes- specify program line number to executed by the MCU

Axis Codes: X,Y,Z - Used to specify motion of the slide along X, Y, Z

direction

Feed and Speed Codes: F and S- Specify feed and spindle speed

Tool codes: T specify tool number

PROGRAMMING KEY LETTERS

O - Program number (Used for program identification)

N - Sequence number (Used for line identification)
G - Preparatory function
X - X axis designation
Y - Y axis designation
Z - Z axis designation
R - Radius designation
F Feed rate designation
S - Spindle speed designation
H - Tool length offset designation
D - Tool radius offset designation
T - Tool Designation
M - Miscellaneous function

EXPLANATION OF COMMONLY USED G CODES

G00 Preparatory code to control final position of the tool
and not concerned with the path that is followed in arriving at
the final destination.

G01 Tool is required to move in a straight line connecting

current position and final position. Used for tool movement
without any machining- point to point control. (linear
interpolation)

G02 Tool path followed is along an arc specified by I, J and

K codes.( circular interpolation)

TABLE OF IMPORTANT G CODES

G00 Rapid Transverse
G01 Linear Interpolation
G02 Circular Interpolation, CW
G03 Circular Interpolation, CCW
G17 XY Plane,G18 XZ Plane,G19 YZ Plane
G20/G70 Inch units
G21/G71 Metric Units
G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G41 Cutter compensation left
G42 Cutter compensation right
G43 Tool length compensation (plus)
G43 Tool length compensation (plus)
G44 Tool length compensation (minus)
G49 Tool length compensation cancel
G80 Cancel canned cycles
G81 Drilling cycle
G82 Counter boring cycle
G83 Deep hole drilling cycle
G90 Absolute positioning
G91 Incremental positioning

TABLE OF IMPORTANT M CODES

M00 Program stop

M01 Optional program stop
M02 Program end
M03 Spindle on clockwise
M04 Spindle on counterclockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Clamps on
M11 Clamps off
M30 Program stop, reset to start

History of CNC
The RS274-D is a word address format

Each line of program == 1 block

Each block is composed of several instructions, or (words)

Sequence and format of words:

N3

G2

sequence no

X+1.4

Y+1.4

Z+1.4

destination coordinates

preparatory function

I1.4

J1.4

K1.4

F3.2

dist to center of circle

S4

T4

M2

tool

feed rate

spindle speed

miscellaneous function

Automatic Part Programming

Software programs can automatic generation of CNC data

Define Tool

CNC data

Make 3D model
Simulate
cutting