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THE
LI.
THE
COMMON SENSE
OF THE
EXACT SCIENCES
For information commences with the senses; but the whole business
The chief cause of failure in work (especially
terminates in works. .
after natures have been diligently investigated) is the ill determination
.
and measurement of the forces and actions of bodies. Now the forces
and actions of bodies are circumscribed and measured, either by distances
by moments of time, or by concentration of quantity, or by
predominance of virtue and unless these four things have been well
and carefully weighed, we shall have sciences, fair perhaps in theory,
but in practice inefficient. The four instances which are useful in this
point of view I class under one head as Mathematical Instances and
Instances of Measurement
A ovum Organum, Lib. ii, Aph. xliv
of space, or
SECOND EDITION
LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, &
CO.,
1886
PATERNOSTER SQUARE
L.O
rights
PBEFACE.
IN March 1879 Clifford died at Madeira;
afterwards a posthumous work
placed before the public.
is
six
Some explanation
The
original
work as planned by
to have
Clifford
to the
the
of this
1
was to
Mathe
Non-Mathematical, and
years
and Mass
Space,
respectively.
Of
completely, the
on Motion.
The
in proof,
first
but
PHEFACE.
VI
and that
the
Exact
should be
Sciences.
Clifford s
Upon
its title
London.
and
difficulty
fully appreciated
the
at the
is
Had he
work
lived
as a whole
Messrs.
it
Eowe,
Kegan
On
at present stands.
in October 1884, 1
&
Paul, Trench,
was requested by
Tt
was with no
men
for
whom
and personal
ciate
my
state
of the
Chapters
III.,
respect.
The reader
difficulties better
I.
work when
and
II.,
when
it
will
perhaps appre
came
into
my
hands.
half of Chapter
and Chapter
proofs
corresponding manuscript,
all
the
With
pages
rest
of
these
the
having un-
PREFACE.
fortunately
How
accordingly destroyed.
far the
contents of the
later proofs
I
Vll
Clifford dictated
pages of manuscript in
proofs of the first
had
seen, I
my
In revising the
possession.
have made as
little
Clifford himself
alteration as possible,
it
seemed
am,
was placed
it
As
only after
came too
late to
my
the
had been
manner
to the
had no
my work
to
III. to
whatever
came
chapter on Quantity
in
which
definite information
for the
be of use, but
in
it
book discovered.
It
For the
latter half of
Chapter
is
is
in
and
III.
am
my
whole
alone responsible.
them of value
feeble or obscure is
for the
owe to
own.
Clifford
PREFACE.
Vlll
With Chapter V. my
It
light.
much
it
I felt
it
its
make
it
considerable changes.
many will be
first
Hence
it is
much more
two.
With
be more conscious of
s,
fear
to
else
the
press.
it
mind on anything
its deficiencies
that
my
extensive
the result I
however, hardly
than I am.
I can
as to this chapter.
it
Without
felt
must be added.
of motion.
on mass.
How to
express
on the
subject.
my own
was
Clifford
parts of
as
means
IX
PREFACE.
these
may
and
terminology
matic.
to kine
dynamic
Therein
it
is
stated that
in Nature,
June
0,
no mathematician
and force
as clear
only, alas
all
subjects
been preserved.
Without
Leipzig,
1883.
2
Mr. R. Tucker, -who has kindly searched Clifford s note-books for
the following
anything on the subject, sends me a slip of paper with
Force is not a fact at all, but an idea
words in Clifford s handwriting
:
embodying what
is
approximately the
fact.
PREFACE.
My
sole desire
be revered by
work
of one
who have
whose
the
MI
work
I:
whom
but a
memory
will
all
wished,
it
Clifford
had intended
we can
it.
it will
fulfilled
this
for
perform some,
have
Had
felt
it
if
would undoubtedly
K. P.
UNITEBSITT COLLEGE, LONDON
February 26.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Xll
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
HI.
QUANTITY.
SECTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
pAC(B
95
.99
....
......
...
105
113
.116
.......
On
On
On
120
123
130
131
135
138
Fractional Powers
CHAPTER
100
102
141
144.
IV.
POSITION.
...
1.
2.
be Determined by Directed
Steps
The Addition of Directed Steps or Vectors
The Addition of Vectors obeys the Commutative
3.
Position
may
4.
5.
On Methods
6.
Polar Co-ordinates
7.
8.
Spirals
9.
.153
Law
147
149
....
158
159
.164
.166
jg-
...
171
10.
On
11.
Determining Position
.181
Of Complex Numbers
Igg
On the Operation which turns a Step
192
through a given Angle
Relation of the Spin to the
Logarithmic Growth of Unit Step 195
12.
13.
176
....
14.
...
15.
On the
16.
17.
Multiplication of Vectors
18.
19.
On
On
....
.
.198
.
204
.207
t
210
.214
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XU1
V.
MOTION.
PAGE
BICTIOS
1.
On
2.
3.
Uniform Motion
Variable Motion
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
On
On
On
....
227
230
235
237
243
.
250
253
255
260
267
.
269
THE
COMMON SEXSE
OF THE
EXACT SCIENCES.
CHAPTER
I.
NUMBER.
1.
Number
is
if
.<-/
If
we
accordingly
we
.six.
:
in
dingly
we
be
six.
coi
A Sum
is
letters in the
we
th<
th<
group which
is
one by one.
The process
of counting, if it
is
performed
NUMBER.
ever order
we
we count them,
it
number
process of adding 6 to 7.
The process of adding 7 to 6
first
A little
Maltese cross
is
denoted by a short
first
Our
6.
The
number
of individuals,
and
of things
;
or, if
we
number
of individuals,
the
group of
individuals.
so on, whatever
This we
Vieta,
viz.,
is
due to
alphabet.
in either of these two cases, or in any other case, and b
in place of the second number, then our formula will
stand thus
By means
1)
but about
so used are
a.
of this representation
statement which
lar,
all
we have made
is
something
like the
many
legs as
an
ass,
particular horse or
If
we
said
a horse has as
NUMBER.
is
counted.
We
result in the
n<lt:nt
in<L
/</
/<
we
if
have,
we put them
all
together, the
number
of
left,
ways.
We
may
must
all
be the same.
TPIE
3.
Product
Now
is
SCIEXCES.
We
to
5.
Or
we
like
all these
things are dots which
that
paper,
every group of five things is
five dots arranged in a horizontal
line, and that the
six groups are placed
vertically under one another as in
are
made upon
the figure.
We
containing
columns containing six dots each.
each,
five
set
NUMBER.
We
same number
As
is
in the
will be a pile of
six.
cubes,
piles.
when we
when we
five
(five
Now
times six
it
is quite
seven).
of these cubes it may
is full
be set upon any side or upon any end ; and in all cases
there will be a number of layers of cubes, either 5 or 6
or
7.
And whatever
is
Whether
five
it
thing.
may
But now
and
7 first,
NUMBER.
the resulting
We may
number of sevens.
now state two facts
about multiplication.
First, that the brackets
that
we have learned
make no
difference in the
is
plied together.
The
first
of these statements
is
tive
law.
tive
Xow
[result
of
numbers,
the
6,
and
7,
We
tain
box
and
will
it
will be got at
10
now
be stated symbolically.
it is
l>ca,
&c.,
viz.,
that the re
numbers.
In the
NUMBER.
11
rZ.
brings.
acbd.
It will be quite clear that this reasoning will hold
letters come after d.
Suppose,
for example, that we have a product of six numbers
e,
the
Now
place
same
after multiplying
by
a.
It follows
are multi
them which
product.
In the next place let us prove that we may change
the places of any two which are not close together.
12
with d and
successively
places
and
b,
when
the
product
changed into aebcdf; and then making
march forwards so as to change places successively with
is
and
d,
with
b,
with
third
b,
by interchanging
fourth by interchanging it
This is the form required. By five such interchanges
at most, I can alter the order of six letters in any
way
I please.
It has
as
we have
before shown, do
;
consequently the product of six
numbers in any order is equal to the product of the
same six numbers in any other order ; and it is easy to
see
how
number
o:
numbers.
ing of
NUMBER.
all
is
true.
mode
And
this is not
of proof or of in
Let us apply
this to counting.
taking certain
them to our fingers one by one the result depends on
the last finger, and its name is called the number of the
;
We
things so counted.
any
14
4.
There
possible,
is
still
3.
We can make
thi
Here we have four rows of five dots each, and each row i
divided into two parts, containing respectively two dot
and three dots. It is clear that the whole number
dots may be counted in either of two ways; as fou
rows of five dots, or as four rows of two dots togethe
with four rows of three dots.
the result
By our
general principl
is
therefore
4 x 5
or, if
we put
(4 x 2)
in evidence that 5
(2
3)
(4
(4
3)
= 2-4-3,
2)
(4
3).
We
+c
and
dots
this
NUMBER.
counted in another way,
always have
a (b +
This
is
it is
ab
ab
c)
+ ac.
-f
Hence we must
ac.
Now
(b
This
is
ab
=
=
6a,
ac
ca
c)
c)
c)
a,
may
(b
ba
ca.
form of the
distributive law.
The
rule
is
i).
Or generally
16
a
(b
-f
(b
d)
d)
ab
ba
+
+
ac
ca
+
+
ad,
da
When
a number
Powers.
multiplied by itself
of this is that if
is
The reason
be squared.
number
number
On
it is
said to
we arrange a
each
line,
we can
fill
said to be cubed
by the
because if
which
is
together.
Here
is
Powers of 2
3
...
...
1234567
:
1C
32
64
128
2.36
27
81
243
729
2187
6561
whose power
is
thus expressed.
To
write in shorthand
NUMBER.
17
it is
down
2187.
6.
may
Square o/a +
1.
numbers
....
......
...
Think of a number
Square
Add
it
1 to
say 3
9
the original
number
.
Square that
Take the difference of the two squares
.
This last
is
Ib
7,
We
36
25
10
1.
18
That
the corner.
is,
therefore, this
number
it
given to us,
is
and divide by
2,
we have only
to have the
num
We
that
is
2a +
1.
This theorem
+
is
1)
2a
is
1.
NUMBER.
19
The square
of twenty-five dots
is
>
>
of 2 in the corner.
7.
And
in fact, 25
= 9 + 2x6 + 4.
On Powers of a + b.
the square of
each row contains a dots.
b in
is
the corner.
b 2,
a2
(a
6)
or in shorthand
2ab
arrived at
to
add
b*.
may be
got from
c 2
20
Now
proved
another way.
;
The reason
the proposition
is
further
still
we want to extend
we want to find an ex
that
pression not only for the square of (a + fy, but for any
other power of it, in terms of the powers and products
of powers of a and b.
And for this purpose the
of proof we have hitherto adopted is unsuitable.
mode
We
it is
6)
It will
(a
6)
(a
b]
fact,
=
=
=
we have
a (a + 1} + I (a
aa + ab + ba +
a?
2ab
b)
lib
l>\
The square
how
very
much
NUMBER.
in clearness
from
its
21
Secondly, that
brevity.
it is
only
into
is
bad
algebra.
them by a and
also
by
I,
and
add
to
x\
aa
the results.
all
x\
ab
la
bb
to
The process
is
lower line by
thus
and
a,
also by
b,
and add
all
the results,
x\
aba
bba
aab
bab
(a
+ b)
a3
3a 2 b
3ab*
3
.
22
1331.
We
1.
and
any power of 1
is 1.
Here a
10, 6
one
step further, before making remarks
which will enable us to dispense
with it.
In this case there are sixteen
4
terms, the first and last being a and
shall carry this process
& 4 respectively.
have three a
second kind.
Thus we
find that,
(a
we
liked,
and we should
Let us
NUMBER.
23
abaa
is
a that
drawn.
First, the terms at the end are all different; for any
divergence in the path by which we descend the tree
makes a
difference in
some
which are
and
left
and
it
will indicate
We
may put
that
evert/
once
onli/.
Xow
number
the
problem before
is
produced once
ns was to
"/"/
count the
number of //s in
them. By the remark just made we have shown that
this is the same thing as to count the number of
possible arrangements having that number of b s.
of terms which have a certain
When
And generally
naha, aaab.
number
of
the
letters in each
whatever be
third, or fourth;
it is
clear that
term, that
can stand.
is
b<nn^
also the
Or, to
tilma,
24
n be the number of
if
n terms con
And these
The meaning
of this shorthand
is
nab
that
n
.
we have n
+ b)
6".
8.
On
the
Number
tions can be
is
made
to
advantage
One
of these questions
the
number
is
an
of arrangements
first.
ab and ba.
NUMBER.
f
25
down
all
letters abed.
With two
letters,
number of arrangements
is
two
three
four
=
=
=
2
6
21-
We will
\ deal
with
/ Any one
then
five
it
ways
of these ways
may be placed
first
there are
For each
of disposing of the first place.
there are four ways of disposing of the
26
This makes
be put third.
five
We may
state
arrangements of
it
in shorthand thus
letters is
so that
the number of
X 2 x 3 x
...
or
wanted
ment.
The product
...
n, or,
as
we may
say, the
it,
just as
Of
this it
We
111
= 1,
112
= 2,
113
= 6,
114
= 24, 05 = 120,
IIG
= 720,
NUMBER.
(n
1)
(n
27
1) IIw,
On a Theorem
9.
We
now apply
will
(a
&)";
and
b.
problem of
for clearness
sake,
We
four a
s by one
a and four 6 s.
b,
all
s,
It
many
different
arrangements can
and two b s ?
Here the three a
To
alike.
them
solve the
as different
present by
different
are
lie
all alike,
problem we
let
made with
and the two
shall
three a s
b s
are
have to think of
us therefore replace
and small ones.
capital letters
them
for the
How many
ABC
letters as equivalent to
is
for
arranged in
112,
2.
ways.
Now
it
is
clear that
by
28
among themselves, we
of
arrangements of the
get
But since
five letters A B C d e ; namely IT5 or 1 20.
in
of
and
smalls is
each arrangement
respect
capitals
12
here repeated twelve times, and since
goes into 120 ten
themselves and the small letters
number
the whole
shall
two
& s is 115
The arrangements
aaabb
The
first line
b,
rived at the
We
and so on.
number of arrangements
in this particular
case by the far simpler process of direct counting,
which we have used as a verification *; but the advantage
D
of our longer process is that it will give us a general
6)
a5
5a 4 &
Z>
5a& 4
5
.
Observe that
that is, we
have accounted for the whole of the 32 terms which
would be in the last line of the tree appropriate to this
case.
We
may now go on
problem.
Suppose that p
is
the
number
of a
and
j is
29
NUMBER.
ihe
3ertain
making p
rangements.
and smalls
Uq
ar
in respect of
capitals
is
and smalls
is
This
is
written in the
(p
Up
g)
113
We
n
This
is
(p
Up
p+q
places
number
g]
ilq
of dividing
the
into
number of ways
30
another
is
selectin"
&)",
\v(
of the form
Up.Uq
where p + q = n; and that we shall get them
10
all
by|
The
1.2.3.4;
Thus we have
the result
be further divided by
15.
calculation of the
shortened.
is
to divide
1.2.3.4.5.6 by
of course 5
2, so that
we
6.
This has to
finally get 5
3 or
Similarly, to calculate
IT6
113.
Q3
we have
We
it
form
Tin
aP
a
Hp.Uq
but which
differ
q different pairs of
NUMBER.
as
letter II for a
of
all
product so we use
S (Sigma)
such terms will be written
for a sum.
sum
31
J.-LTZ
Namely, the
down thus
pi q
TT
\-f
-I
-I
Tin
lln
Ho
and
this will
numbers
but
if
we
(n
1)
(n
1) Tin,
ni = no,
and we have already seen reason to make 111 mean 1.
Next if we say that V means the result of multiplying
1 by b q times, then 6 must mean the result of multi
plying 1 by b no times, that is, of not multiplying it at
and this result is 1.
all
1
it
down
to 0,
and q
This result
is
all
is
interpretations,
values from
up
to n.
Newton.
An
and was
expression
32
10.
On
We have
to
"be
without Meaning.
by which,!
are given, two others can be deterj
7-3;= 4.
But
if
I ask,
make 3,
when ex
7 will
and
if
write down
and subtracting,
If I write
for
as
I write
down
the expression 3
7,
it
is
if
it
NUMBER.
33
be talking nonsense,
because I shall have put together symbols the realities
corresponding to which will not go together. To the
question, what is the result when one number is taken
as
meaning something,
another, there
From
shall
only an
is
is
numbers
Because
know
denoted by
may
say,
it.
that there
Cut
What number
is
may now
is
it
is
ask a question
I
which, being multiplied
;
20-T-4
5.
will occur
according to circumstances.
If we write down the symbols for the answer
to
the
34
only i is to be recognised as
nonsense, and by
of that
recognition made into sense.
turn the nonsense into
sense
mean
We
by
givino- a nev
to the words or
symbols which shall enable th,
ion to have an answer
that
previously had nc
meaning
answer.
present nonsensical
expression,
3-7.
11. Steps.
The operation of
adding
3 to 5
is written 5
+3
here
may
the +3 as
regard
L
way of stepping from 5 to 8, and the
symbol +3
may be read in words, step forward three.
In the same
way, if we subtract 3 from 5 and get 2
write the process
symbolically 5-3 = 2, and the
-3 may be
regarded as a step from 5 to 2
the former
step was forward this
and the
wemay
result
is 8.
We
accordingly read
step
is
number which
is
backward, and
3 in words,
step
large enough
make sense of the
This restriction does not
affect steps
forward,
because from any number we
can step forward as far
a
we like ; but backward a
step can only be taken from
umbers which are
larger than the step itself
The next
thing we have to observe about
steps is
hat when two
steps are taken in succession from
any
number, it does not matter which of them
comes
to
It.
first
35
NUMBER.
If
the
steps
xample, +3
then backward
7,
in
are
opposite
we have
to
directions,
for
as,
forward 3 and
step
7,
when two
and
is
inde
We
is,
is
4, or, as
3-7 = -4.
From
this it follows
we may
by a mode of
write
it.
pi Oof precisely
nnulogousto that which we used in the case of multi)lication, that any number of steps taken in succession
lave a resultant which is independent of the order in
which they are taken, and we may regard this rule .is
an extension of the rule already proved for the addition
of numbers.
36
We
call reversal.
reversed,
when
it is
step backwards
forwards.
If
is
reversed
when
we
it is
made
reversal
into a stej
by the
letter
with a multiplication
can, by combining
r,
a
3
into
backwards
3 into a ste]
+6,
step
change
viz.
should
6
we
have
the expression
forwards
this
r2 (
3)
+6.
had, or
we
it
reverses
insert the
If to
it.
letter
Of course
is
37
NUMBER.
+ 4,
tep
treble
it,
and reverse
and keep
Louble this
it,
+ 4) =
I get
it,
I get
24.
24,
and
12.
If I
this
may
written,
&2(r3)(
rG.
-I-
this
down
is, if
we
write
number
of successive operations
performed upon a step, there will always be a correspond
or
we may
say,
replaced by ;m
which
convert s
any operation
is
38
We now proceed to
Meaning of Symbols.
We
2)
.3)
= +6
But the
3 and the +6 may also
but
steps
operations, and in this case the
and
is
reverse and then double and
triple
meaning
reverse any step whatever, and you get the same result
step forward
6.
mean not
for
if
finding
operations.
NUMBER.
First,
result
the
must
number which
is
39
the multiplier in the
all the numbers
must be an operation of
This then
numbers
is
the
retaining.
rule
Multiply
:
together
the
them
there
is
many
successive
is
lie
find.
Now
vere a step
let
us
backwards
signs,
odd
tions,
we have
40
result of
any number of
13. Addition
We
may now go on
to find a rule
which connects
4.
It is very important not to
get the operation
assume anything without proof, and still more import
ant not to use words without attaching a definite
meaning to them.
The meaning
is this.
If I take any step whatever,
without altering its character, and combine
the result with the result of multiplying the original
step by 7 and reversing it, then I shall get the same
treble it
result as if I
NUMBER.
lave arrived at
that this
it
sum
is
independent of the
We
(b
(a
b
c)
=
=
+ l)c
ab
ab
ac
+
+
+
a
ac
be
ba,
upon
steps.
of a power of the
take too
again,
42
tells
us
and
3.
2
( +
3) is equal to
This means that if AVC
that
-f
5 and
that
3,
to say, if
is
keep
we
at
which might
also
and twice
direction.
and reversing
We have
now
seen
what
is
Let.
consider whal
3( + 5) =
We
is it
triple
What
and
reverse.
Or we may ask
this question
and reversed,
The answer is, Step
forwards 5. But we have only one word to describe
the process by which we get the answer in these two
step is that, which, being tripled
backward 15?
NUMBER.
43
In the
jases.
But
it is
inswer
is
interpretation to be given to
it is different.
15
(-3)
+ 5) = (+5)
(-3)
-15.
3 may moan
15 by
Hence the problem, Divide
ither of these- two questions What step is that which,
15? Or,
jeing tripled and reversed, gives the step
is
on
"What
that
the step
which,
performed
operation
The
15?
answer
to
the
the
first
3, gives
step
5
answer
to
the
the
second
is
the
-f
question is,
step
jhe operation of quintupling and retaining direction,
So that although the word
that is, the operation +5.
two
as
we
distinct meanings, yet
have
said, gets
divide,
the two different results of division are expressed by
the same symbol.
:
We
of b, and
if
prefix to
it
if
We
may
(-3) x
+ 5) = -15
44
+5
are ope
is
equivalent
In this case
by the operation
3, will
Or
15.
when a and
6 are
b, or,
as
we may write
6 into a.
This we
it,
is
may
write in shorthand,
a
-
7
.
But when a
division
is
a.
The
same in the
and in
this
tative law.
NUMBER.
oy-and-by, there
45
is
of steps
loes
>een
w hich makes
r
:he operation
into
but
means
-
repre-
So
a,
but
a.
}>
[t is
however convenient to
is
settle
it is
to
have
the
!>
first
meaning
into a,
15. General Results of our Extension of Terms.
the
consideration
of
them
in succession.
To
46
We
and of operations.
And
similarity of properties
words in a new sense.
good
its
importancet
47
CHAPTER
II.
SPACE.
1.
GEOMETRY
is a physical science.
It deals with the
and shapes and distances of things. Just as we
have studied the number of things by making a simple
and obvious observation, and then using this over and
over again to see where it would bring us so we shall
study the science of the shapes and distances of things
by making one or two very simple and obvious obser
vations, and then using these over and over again, to
see what we can get out of them.
sizes
Before
we can use
table, for
example, takes
We
may suppose
all
48
filled
is
with
air.
The
surface
of the table
thei
is
table
is
We
no room whatever.
Part of the surface of the table may be of one colou
and part may be of another.
to the air,
On
and takes up
itself
We
FIG.
1.
two
parts, one
where it
is
an<
kth surface
***
T*
i
We
ar
space
in which solid bodies are, and in which the
1 01
room,
move about an9.i^Afte-room, which may be regarde
5
It is certain that
however smooth a
na.t.i,ral
surface
may appear to
be,
and
table
see
and
feel
We
the writer
describing.
Strongly as I feel the ideal nature of geometrical
conceptions in the exact sciences, I have thought it unadvisable to alter
the text. The distinction is made by Clifford himself
(Essays, I. pp. 306321).- K.P.
is
49
SPACE.
it is
ehieh
may
srhite
ircmnference of the
oom
ater
that part of
so
the
black
it
it
line takes
up room on
it.
[t
and surface-room.
The line takes up
absolutely no room on the surface; it is merely the
boundary between two adjacent portions of it. Still
space-room
less
does
it
a certain
into parts,
50
point
is
to notice
is
that
we
are no1
of every-day experience.
The surface of a thing
is
We
mon
51
SPACE.
tot
draughtsman
is
FIG.
sense.
a black streak of
up a certain
3.
)lack surface
millions more.
is
to represent a line.
When
the
streak is vertical, or
this
|
dary.
the
In
line
all
52
make
higher than
all
flat
piece
shall
be
thej
We
is
and streaks
2.
"lay
and
is
meant by the
first of
its size
We
measure the
size
part of
it
Two
if"
SPACE.
53
.f
rape,
We
were equal.
we should
;ape
the
How
riece of tape is
54
its
length.
is
this property
of
the
well
paths
contrary.
and a
piece of tape
fit
stick
which
fit
one another in
one
New
These remarks
K.
the
to all the
55
SPACE.
iere carrying
Haich
fit
Upon
of length as measured,
jngths which are equal to the
one another.
Lotion
Is
it
possible,
liot
3.
We have
rus
same thing
as if
we spoke
Fio.
4.
face of things.
56
The surface of the cube has six flat sides, with edgea
and corners. The cylinder has two flat ends and a
round surface between them ; the flat ends being
divided from the round part by two circular edges.
The sphere has a round smooth surface all over.
We
edges and
together, and
corners
call
them rough-
points.
Now
Fio.
that
is
5.
same
point.
If
we
roll it
a very
little
way on the
57
SPACE.
And
line, a
And
FIG.
7.
If we
points of their surfaces which are in contact.
of
face
the
roll the cylinder a very little way on the
cube, we shall find that a different line of the cylinder
is in
All the
Let us
fix
58
We
posed the
the
flat face
flat face
We
have
all
along sup
of the cube.
smooth-points
and rough-
may
59
SPACE.
tact, let
square.
We
have already
into the position of fig. 9.
observed that in this case no smooth-points which were
But there are
in contact.
previously in contact remain
two points which remain in contact ; for in the tilted
the circular edge of the cylinder
position a point on
face of the cube ; and these two
the
on
a
rests on
point
before.
in
contact
may tilt the cylinder
points were
get
it
We
much
We
or as little as
we
like
with a smooth-point,
two bodies relatively
it
may
is
in contact
be possible to
to the other
two points.
if
we put the
so as to keep the
order to do this,
in
points in contact ; but
same
direction.
in
the
tilt
always
same two
we must
Fio. 10.
we can keep
60
may
tilt
way we
like,
and
still
keep
its
When we
direction
tion.
much more
if
a corner
The upshot
is
of all this
is,
same shape at
all
smooth-points
for
so
the points.
It
move
FIG. 11.
we can
are
of the
this way.
:
K. P.
61
SPACE.
FIG. 12.
FIG. 13.
.b
iG.
14.
sphere has been cut off the re-entrant edge will be wide
open, and the cube will rock in it (fig. 13). There is
jlearly
will just
wood
is
at the
in the air.
In
vice versa
but
it is
purely arbitrary
62
let
us
now
fit
just explained.
FIG. 15.
Now
we
If
we
shall
form
we now go a
solids
63
SPACE.
tij epression
tigj/e
all over.
But
(vi)
(vii)
FIG. 16.
is
that the
single sphere at
is
to notice
(iv) is
4.
same shape.
Remarks
64
We
flat faces,
curved portion.
This being so, the characteristics which we have to
remark
sufficiently studied
by means of
figures
may
be
drawn on paper.
We
FIG. 17.
65
SPACE.
contact
Namely,
we cannot
if
roll
made by
If the re-entrant
is
an intermediate
we say
this case
We
about the
size of
a body.
It
is,
is
to be
known
66
5.
make such
cally used to
a surface.
The method
is
to
take three surfaces and grind them down until any two
will tit one another all over.
Suppose the three surfaces
to be A, B, c then, since A will fit B, it follows that the
;
67
SPACE.
inside A
is
of the
same shape
is
of the
that
is
to say, if
It
straight line may be defined in a similar way.
is a division between two parts of a plane, which two
parts are, so far as the dividing line is concerned, of the
same shape
effect,
or
is
same
to the
all
is
We may
then,
if
we
it is
like,
is
take as our
the intersection of
two planes.
It must be understood that when a part of the sur
face of a body is plane, this plane may be conceived as
F 2
68
For
extending beyond the body in all directions.
instance, the upper surface of a table is plane and
horizontal.
Now
it is
we may
in every case
unmoved when
it is
turned
69
SPACE.
And
along.
in
this will
But
From
lines
the
same place
after
therefore of the
same
and
it is
sides.
definition
first
we
two straight
see that
over and
it will fit
If
less,
or less to
fit
6.
can
more.
Properties of Triangles.
now reduce
to a
more
precise
form our
first
that
is
We
into any
new
position that
its sides
and
its
we
like,
or
we may
70
put the statement into the form that when any triangl
once drawn, another triangle of the same size an
shape can be drawn in any part of space.
is
it
put
that
is,
we take
siz
triangle and so fa
into the position of the second that the two equa
and shape.
For
if
the
first
will
the second.
It tells us that
From
this statement
we
two ver
One
same plane
so as not to intersect at
make
any third
Avith
all,
the angles
the,
which meet
71
SPACE.
triangle.
AB
it
we now make a
must, in virtue of
make a
triangle at
all.
It follows
7
FIG. 19.
never to meet at
parallel),
make a point p
straight line,
72
moving
with.
line
it.
For
if
must be equal
in all particulars.
it
down
Two straight lines which cut one another form at the point where they
cross four angles which are equal in pairs.
It is often necessarj7 to dis
tinguish between the two different angles which the lines make with one
1
another.
This
is
0)
(ii)
drawn from A to B, and B A the line drawn from B to A, so that the angle
between AB and CD (i) is the angle BOD, but the angle between BA and
C D (ii) is the angle D o A.
So the angle spoken of above as made by A c with B A is not the angle
CAB (which is clearly, in general, unequal to the angle DBA), but the
angle c A E, where E is a point in B A produced through A.
73
SPACE.
In
The one
that
is
and as no alteration
is
thereby
made
in
the
will be
it
shape.
If
we apply
different triangles
if a
triangle has two of its sides equal it will have
the two angles opposite to them also equal j and that,
that
74
right angles.
If
ABC
we draw through
(fig. 20), a line
A,
IE
AD
FIG. 20.
as
it.
It will consequently make with A B the
same angle as B c makes with it, so that the three
angles ABO, BAG, and BOA are respectively equal to
the angles E A B, BAG, and CAD, and these three make
up two right angles.
Another statement of this theorem is sometimes of
parallel to
use.
opposite to this
1
exterior angle.
It is clear that as
must be remembered.
75
SPACE.
CD
B
FIG. 21.
is
opposite to
it.
Ac
it
7.
We may
B.
and Triangles.
now apply
them
we
(fig.
22) to c
AcB
the
is
always one-half of A o B
circle.
AO D
76
SCIENCES.
sum
figure
(ii)
in the
case
of the second
difference of
two angles
FIG. 22.
each of which
is
ever c
we
OD
(in
is,
77
SPACE.
in
double of A c
this
whole angle
is
B.
By our
right angles.
in
other words,
is
B,
four
AGE,
by the straight
line A B.
But these
easy to include
If AVO produce AC in the last
it is
78
of A
c.
But
words
If A
ence of a
circle,
We shall
now make
teresting proposition.
A.
FIG. 24.
and
79
SPACE.
ingles each.
ingles
DOE
and D
c E,
make up two
viz.
the
right angles.
It
D E D will
meet in this point.
There is no restriction imposed on the positions of
the points D, E, p, they may be taken either on the sides
1
FIG. 25.
of the triangle or on those sides produced, and in pnrticular we may take them to lie on any fourth straight
DEF
If
and the theorem may be stated thus
any four straight lines be taken (fig. 25), one of which
meets the triangle ABC formed by the other three in
the points D, E, F, then the circles through the points
line
THE
80
COMMON"
there
is
ncjj
the triangle!
formed by three lines, and the fourth line D c B as tha
line which cuts the sides of this triangle.
The propo-l
sition is equally true in this case, and it follows
thai]
the circles through ABC, BCD, FED will meet in onel
This must be the same point as before, sincel
point.
two of the
point,
them
circles
all
a|
:
a point.
This proposition is the third of a series.
If we take any two straight lines they determine a
point, viz. their point of intersection.
If we take three straight lines we get three such
points of intersection ; and these three determine a
circle, viz.
endless.
By
Prof.
Clifford
Messenger of Mathematics,
pp. 51-54.
81
SPACE.
same number
we take one
line
mines as many
sets
of circles.
It
belongs a point
8.
these 2n
+1
points
lie
on a
circle.
The shadow
of these curves
and we may
The former
when
the disc
which
it lies passes
the
luminous
form which,
The
oval
through
point.
vith these two
the
shadow
exceptions,
presents is called
tn ellipse
The
the
(i)
paths pursued by
planets round
ihe sun are of this form.
.
oint
is
hadow
now
held so that
its
highest
82
shadow
called
a,
orbit of
FIG. 26.
as
is
iij
i|
We
may suppose
83
SPACE.
is
We
It is
eometrical purposes these two branches must be conidered as forming only one curve, which is called an
yperbola.
lines to
which the
in this
way that
the
shadow of the
In
circle is
fact, it
formed
we consider the
or if
-nd
whose base
is
the circle.
u 2
84
is
called one
sheet
(if
all.
We
that this must also be the case with any shadow of the
circle.
Again, from a point outside the circle it is pos
sible to draw two lines which touch the circle ; so frorr
I
85
SPACE.
can be drawn to
drawn
to
The
use
is
it
the shadow,
is
is
method of projection.
it which is of the greatest
we suppose the luminous point
particular case of
that in which
is
is
shadow of a
circle held
The
lines joining the star to all the points of the circle will
then be vertical
lines,
and they
no longer form a
will
this
are horizontal.
it,
horizontal lines in
whose
let uy take a
It will be clear
all
circle
it
vertical diameter, or
we may
s;iy
chords parallel
When the shadow
all
86
we
ellipse.
all
vertical chords,
circle just
con
and thus we
The method
way by an
we cannot
is
cast in this
all lines
87
SPACE.
ihe
ihe
not.
all
9.
On
We
dnd
of
ihe
This surface
is
the
centre.
ibout a surface
anes in which
jn.
the case
it
when
ihe plane.
88
circle.
are
Just as we
as to
as to
forms
all.
may
is
it
in a circle, so every
It
ellipsoid cuts it in an ellipse.
is indeed possible to cut an ellipsoid by a plane so that
the section shall be a circle, but this must be regarded
SPACE.
89
drawn which has the external point for its vertex and
touches the ellipsoid all round this ellipse. The ellip
soid resembles a sphere in this respect also, that when
it is
touched by a plane
it lies
:hat plane.
with
We
many
will
now
singular properties.
be a figure of card-board having four
jqual sides, and let it be half cut through all along B D,
Let A
BCD
90
parallel to
parallel to
downwards,
two straight
below
will also
If
SPACE.
10.
How
to
form Curves of
The method
the
may
new
mode
be ex-
curves by
of expres
K)int
ellipse, parabola,
92
third order.
An
ellipse
round
snake.
Now just as
cuts a sphere away from
the centre, the curve of intersection shrinks up into a
called a
H
.
(i.)
(ii.)
28.
(iii.)
(iv.)
Snake
to a point,
only.
(fig. 29) ;
this loop to shrink up, and
the curve will then be found to have a sharp point or
itself,
cusp.
93
SPACE.
It
all
(ivr)
ellipses.
If
we suppose
FIG. 30.
them
off all
94
it,
it
30).
is
so great that
it
still
95
CHAPTER
III.
QUANTITY.
1.
WE
first
chapter,
We
but
in one piece.
For example, we may say that a
And in order to count the
is sixteen feet broad.
all
room
number
room we should
Now when
like
will always
But
be sixteen.
this is
not
all
counting which is
a stick whose length
is
room.
please,
And
if
we
tlu-n
JO
we
when we
which
all
these cases
that
97
QT AXTITY.
breadth
is
is left
in eighths
number
of eighths of
an inch.
Still
it
may
be said
learly,
And
grains.
here, as before,
we
are repeating
\]\
ame
jvants to
is
know
iv
to a grain.
And
nay,
)f
if
it is
we
an eclipse to a second
To sum
up.
There
is
in
common
is
accurate
use a rouirh or
standard quantity
}ut
it is
If then
is
in general
is
the pro.
we want
98
another length
but
it
is
When
of
beam
of the scale,
this rider
there
is
from
over.
if
And,
and that no
to be perfectly true,
friction or other source of error has to be
it
accuracy.
tell
than
made by
jerks.
And we
notice
it
that here
99
QUANTITY.
2.
of
>oints
more clearly, by
Suppose we Lave a
agreed on as a start
seen, perhaps
steps.
number
numbered 1, 2,
4.
Then any
shown by making an index point to
.
:>,
is
ndex move forwards or backwards over the con-espomlng number of divisions. But in the case of lengths we
ire not restricted to the places which are marked on the
scale.
Any length
is
to a
TOO
is
3.
We
tity is
number
We
And
101
QUANTITY.
foot,
Now
if
compound operation
thus:
:";
-j
and
so, to
change a
Now
is
number
of letters or
":
J02
is
make
squeezing which
4.
are
will
the
first,
law
The
first
method
is
Thus
So, if
we chose
1 2-tenths,
we
it
5 exactly.
is
125 hundredths, or
1 25, accurately.
We
piece over
we
it
contains
103
QUANTITY.
in
of the ratio.
And
this process
its side is
tlu>
We
many
We
over be called a.
then go on to try how many
times this remainder, a, is contained in the side of the
square. It is contained twice, and there is a remainder,
left
many
say
6.
a.
process
is
repeated as often as
times
b is
over, say
we
contained in
c.
And
this
please, or until
no
104
find
remainder
b.
is,
to the
to three-halves
of the side.
Next
that
;
neglect
half of a.
that
us include
let
Then the
b in
is, let us
is
and half of
or a
is
two-
the side.
Again,
let
suppose
contains
that
b will
is
us include
c in
it
twice with
be two-fifths of
so that a
is
a,
which
Then
6.
a,
Hence the
that
is,
side will
twelve-fifths
And
the
nuition
is
closer
is
now
less
By continuing
this process
we may
find
an approxi
mation
of
method
tions.
105
QUANTITY.
5.
One of the
numbers
is
number
of equal parts.
may
And,
division
is
always
a to
b ?
We
to d shall be the
assume that
same
as the ratio of
this quantity
tlae fourth
does
always exist; and
proportional,
this assumption, as it really lies at the base of all
subsequent mathematics, is of so great importance as
as
it
is
called
We
106
let
stretching of
all its
sides
that
is
well that
we
we mean by
the
is
We
is
the same?
We
might,
if
we
107
QUANTITY.
liked, give a geometrical definition of
it,
founded upon
when
c,
is better, if
distinct
is
called
If
to the
we apply two
Now we
will
make our
j>y
12),
it.
less
The
than
108
the result of the latter, because A c is more than sevenLet us now apply these two
will produce seventeento
AD.
The
former
processes
teen-twelfths of AB.
is
less
will
take,
form
D.
exists)
But we
itself
FIG. 32.
same time.
of
QUANTITY.
the sum of them can be made greater
Suppose for example that 500 of them
ust fell short of the length A D, and that 501 exceeded
t; then, if we divide AD into 501 equal parts, each of
hese parts will be less than E E
Secondly, if we go
from
D
towards
off
E, each equal
lengths
marking
o one of these small parts of A D, one of the points of
since E E is
.ivision must fall between E and E
Let
reater than the distance between two of them.
his point of division be at F.
Then A F is got from
&.V by multiplying by some number or other and then
qua! to E E
han A
D.
:>n
we
ess
A B
is
made
into
c.
Consequently
which gets A
A E from A
is
E,
a less
and
the
operation
amount of stretching
also less
Therefore A F must be
less than A E,
d also less than A E
But this is impossible, because
lies between E and E
And the argument would be
imilar if we had supposed A G greater than A c.
Thus we have proved that there is only one length
jets
D.
hat
satisfies
>rocess.
defi-
lition.
First of all
aken, and
if it
110
it
it
will also
be
less
than the
other.
This
it
is
But
if
there
is
a fourth proportional
it
must
satisf
We
can
this rule in regard to all fractions whatever.
not directly test this ; but we may be able to give
proof that the quantity which is supposed to be a fourt
proportional obeys the rule for one particular fraction
which proof shall be applicable without change to an
in fact, just
sides of siinila
number
If
of equal parts.
now we
distance
AC
that
lines
BD
c,
anc
angl<
als<
on<
QUANTITY.
A, it will
be triangle
less
than A
hau A E
c,
and
if
greater, greater.
is less
It follows, therefore,
Consequently,
if
made
,bout space be true, there always is a fourth proporional, and this process will enable us to find it.
any numer-
We
)e
it is
assumed
we can divide
Now
;i
to assume as
112
little as
of d.
by
Now
Then
five.
b, c
let
that
is
greater thai
and d.
Now every fraction involves two numbers. It is
compound process made up of multiplying by on
number and dividing by another, and it is clear there
three times
and similarly
fore that
for c
m
c
b, so is m times
m and n are ani
times a
we can
number
into
like.
These fundamental
US
QUANTITY.
r;itis,
now
ire
6.
We
shall
Of Areas ;
Stretch
now proceed
and Squeeze.
!?
in
many
cases the
lication.
becomes equal to o
P,
and thereby
to stretch the
.ole
and
114
is
in
if
we
FIG. 34.
like, first
Q,
whereby the
P, b;
is
immaterial.
For
let
th<
th<
ii
it,
And
a times o c
in the
and a times
is
E. 1
same way
times o c
is
b times o c is equal to
a times o E, which is o E.
o>|
Thus a
first
b times
multiply x
115
QUANTITY.
on a by
first
turns
into
it
We
c.
b:
b
a,
6-f-a,
>/a,
Or
ms
we have
just stated
may
be written
= Va X
V.
us assume that the four
><
"/,
"/>
Now
let
d, are
that
quantities, a,
b,
and
proportionals
are equal to one another.
It follows then that the
c
d
and
are
to
one
another.
b
equal
/
Ratios /
This proposition may be otherwise stated in this
;
is,
/a
/,,
lorm
that
nil also
itter
lat it
116
we understand what
of time, then
and the
of 6 to
ratio of
d to
thing- as a ratio of c to a, or of
d to
same kind.
6,
because the
When,
that
is
to say,
are
interchanged.
7.
We
have seen in
Of
3,
Fractions.
may
be
where p,
q, r, s
115
be written
may
Then the
are numbers.
p_ x r
s
q
Let us examine a
little
X p
more
on page
mean
we
were
Suppose
result
QUANTITY.
Now
let
fV\
If
-.
s
we
stretch the
we
and then
We
OP
which one
of
os,
side,
Now
s units.
let
os
We
denotes a squeeze).
must divide o
drawn
is
into
equal
the
stretch
converts
oR
which the
of
OR
and
q
vert
r square units.
into a rectangle
O
p and
or into
containing
"P-
o p
rectangle
CJ
side o P contains
the side
a rectangle
stretches
oR
Now
this
may be
*-
rectangle o T
= rectangle
oR
= p r unit-rectangles.
Now
unit-rectangle
may
it first
in the ratio
S.
Now this
is
in
in the dis
118
q s unit-rectangles.
q
to unit-rectangle
must produce
applied
qs
That
x q
or, in
unit-rectangle
is
p r unit-rectangle,
qs
our notation,
=^
unit-rectangle.
qs
A
arises
special
when
equals
r.
P.
We then have
x - = T.
r
qr
r of
them
in other
we perform
words,
pr
~^r
This result
ties.
From
operation
we can
119
QUANTITY.
ps
=f__, and s
qs
p-
-,
qr
*-.
qs
Hence
P.
= PJ* +
1*.
qs
qs
add to
*-
to unity
and then
is
to
the same
once p
Thus we may
q r of those parts.
write
ps + qr
qs
We
What
is
Now,
I
_r x ip
Suppose we take r
we put the
*-
=p
i-
= q, s = p.
its effect?
-= ^-pr
q s
120
Then
or, to multiply unity
V X
= M.
qp
by ^, and then by
5, is to
perform
Hence the
P
it
in
is,
fact,
Or, to divide
-.
This result
q
is
;\
2|
the
preceding stretch.
by ^
"
8.
Of Areas ; Shear.
We
changes
its
shall
now
describe
an operation which
FIG. 36.
side,
E p (equal to A
B,
and
121
QUANTITY.
p,
we should have
is
termed
its
height.
The area
of the parallelogram is
the product of its base into
height.
would, how
ever, always remain a parallelogram with a constant
base and height; hence its area would be unchanged,
the
its
shape.
It
tot
change
has moved
ie
>r.
its
is
length.
c E,
ratio of c E to G
c D
is
converted
n G
into the
122
parallelogram A B E
we may
it
may be
FIQ. 37.
ABC,
The area of a
by
finally
123
QUANTITY.
triangle.
For example,
boundary
of the
let
figure.
A B c D E be a portion of the
Suppose A c joined then
;
>ounded
by straight
lines to a triangle,
and
so find its
rea.
9.
One
of the
suggests
Of
first
Circles
and
their Areas.
itself is that
FIG. 38.
>ortion
,rc
[Before
we can
necessary to deduce
complete
circle.
it will
circle
of
of unit
and suppose straight lines drawn at the extrelities of two diameters AB and c D at right angles
then
circle will appear as if drawn inside a square (see
The sides of this square will be each 2 and
39).
lius
area
Now
juare
4.
first
124
1,
parallel to c D is again
Then
it
is
square of the
sides will
we
first
now he
1.
obvious that
shall
equal to 2 a.
FIG. 39.
It remains to be
first circle
as a result of
During
altered.
we
and O N
..
first
so that
p and o N, which
stretch, are con-
-~ = ?LZ =
ON
M p
?.
Thus
as the total
triangle o P N
the
Now
angles, and
we
QUANTITY.
N P
N P
Thus
it
1
"
M
M
_ O
O
of unit length, o P
a.
uantity
must be equal
Further, since
JO
the
must be
or, since
to
oP
to the constant
angles
P o x, P o
re equal, o P is parallel to O P.
Hence the circle of
nit radius has been stretched into a circle of radius
<i.
econd
if
le
o P
then
o Q are respectively parallel to o P, o Q
radii
of
is to the arc P Q in the ratio of the
arc P Q
he two circles.
P Q are equal to
ny other arcs which subtend the same angles at the
mtres of their respective circles, we state generally
lat
keir respective
wnding
Q,
centres are
in
radii.
in the second.
bw
area.
Hence every element of area in the first
ure has been magnified in the second in the ratio of
to 1.
Thus the area of the circle in the first figure
126
must be
as 1
is
to a 2
of their radii.
It is usual to represent the area of a circle of unit
radius by the quantity TT ; thus the area of a circle of
radius a will be represented by the quantity IT a 2 .
If, after stretching A B to A B in the ratio of a to 1,
we had
6 to 1,
whence
ellipse is represented
it
b are
its
We
number
TT,
with the
Let
us
127
QUANTITY.
o,
circle,
figures,
one of which
said
is
figure.
Thus
FIG. 41.
;he
sum
of all the
symmetry
all
>r
;he
)f
sum
of their areas
is
lever greater
is
If
re take, therefore,
128
be brought as close as
may
we
please,
\ve
sum
figures, together
make
| p x OB.
Since the triangles o a B, o B n are of the same shape,
area
same as that of o n
to o B.
But p
is
obviously to
hence p
is
to
in
as o
to
B.
By taking
make
can make p
them
of
circle
(which
lies
Hence
will
number of
their sides,
we
in
become ultimately
In the case of the circle the reader will recognise this intuitively.
129
QUANTITY.
equals
TT
(i)
ways
The
diameter
(ii)
We may
2 a.
different
express this
in
result
two
(2 a) is
cumference
a constant quantity
The number
number
a.
it
fol
lowing equality
one half its circumference x
whence
circle.
The area
of a
TT.
of linear
of
circle
of units of area
(TT)
ference.
The value
circle to its
TT,
diagonal of a square to
We
have now no
its
side (f,v
by numbers
if
its
area of
follows
by
5,
shortly, if
that two
sectors
are to
it,
it
each other
radius a units,
we may
cally
R
Tra 2
TT
130
Thus we deduce
The area of a
x a
or,
10.
The knowledge of
arcs P A, A B,
We
c,
c D, D Q.
number of smaller
continuously
if
P be
made
OA
QUANTITY
please by
Tin*
sufficiently small.
sum
of
whose areas
by as
differs
CT
to the
purely
number
>rder
ABCD
Let
it.
Then
132
FIG. 43.
made
to differ as little
ai
loop.
suppose the point o to be taken outside
loop ABCD, and let us endeavour to find the area then
Now
th<1
FIG. 44.
OP
ABCD;
then as P moves
alonj
133
QUANTITY.
wise
from right
to left
But
loop in
it
counter-clockwise
in the order
of
points
is
<in
ABCD,
or
In the former
greater area
Hence
negative.
area men/ have a
This extended
134
its
many
practical applications.
we have
as
we agree that ON
it
shall
We
When
the
areas do not
all
lie
be parallel.
In this
We
want
when we wish
directed
magnitudes.
As
diagram, &c.
135
QUANTITY.
directed
magnitudes will be
fully
The conception
due to Hayward.
following chapter.
magnitudes
is
12.
On
the
discussed in the
of areas as directed
they be equal.
When
where
it
termed a
Thus a
figure of
Doint to a point
may
We
complex tangle
its whole area
and
be
into
lay
split up
simple loops
of the simple loops.
from
areas
the
ijetermined
lhall suppose arrow-heads to denote the direction in
|
We
136
first
FIG. 45.
We
all
FIG. 46.
137
QUANTITY.
We
append an example
FIG. 47.
FIG. 48.
tains a fifth
entire
ispace
e.
marked
all.
138
13.
On
the
Volumes of Space-Figures.
that
right six-face is
lengthened or shortened in any ratio, the other nonparallel edges being kept of a fixed length, the volume
139
QUANTITY.
increased in the same ratio
the figure
is
now
a right
so that o C
and
all lines
parallel to
are increased in
it
the ratio of o c
we may show
as
ratios
is
indifferent.
If
we term
Fio. 50.
height.
OADCEBFG
its sides
moved
in its
remain parallel
face
B E G
F, it
sponding faces.
140
figure
must be equal
to the
Now
G"
B"
E"
F",
E"
F"
and E
F D c will again be equal,
volume of the six-face B
ADco
F Ao
and the
E"
G"
E"
G"
F"
E"
G"
F",
be sheared
volume.
face
number
141
QUANTITY.
completely
all
the area
fill
equal to P P
heights are
We
and
base,
14.
On
the
Measurement of Angles.
We
anMe.
But there
is
an absolute unit
142
FIG. 52.
we should
shortly, if
we were
to take
We
TT a.
We
have thus
=
four right angles
Now
it
is
TT
143
QUANTITY.
equal to the radius of the circle or
1 7T
if
we took
a.
7T
approximately.
Thus we
of any
fraction of a right angle.
If this angle be chosen as the unit, we deduce from
the proportion 6 is to 6 as s is to s , that 6 must be to
unity as
to the radius a
s is
or
Q.
Thus,
in
125)
(p.
radii
that the
arcs subtended
by equal angles are
in different circles
of the
respective circles.
of angle is independent
upon vjhich we base our
of the
This
circle
^measurement.
is
illed circular
the arc
it
is
"
len
The
be
ijjles
circular
TT,
that
is,
equals
of one
and so on.
right angle
of
three
will
right
144
15.
On
Fractional Powers.
We
n
there used a as a symbol signifying the result
From this defini
of multiplying a by itself n times.
tion
we
easily
n
For the
hand
left
x a
x a
we
are
first to
we may
hand
(ax ax ax
x
x
x
a,
(axaxaxa
(axaxaxa
(axaxaxa
side
to
factors)
to
factors)
to q factors)
to r factors) .
root of a,
and
= \/ a.
3
Thus, since 8 = 2 , 2 is a 3rd, or cube root of 8. Or,
= 3 5, 3 is termed a 5th root of 243.
again, since 243
Now we have seen at the conclusion of our first
we cannot extend
a".
Does
cease to have a
145
QUANTITY.
so a negative
ing of
number
where n
a",
of times.
nonsense when
is
Is then
we
a n in this latter
upon
Now
results.
nteger powers
It
Cl
CL
fl
Cl
where
G.~
pret
We
a fraction.
is
begin by as-
ra
uming
arrive
it
at
satisfies
its
= ?=...=
Then
n+p+q+r = mx
i
and we find a
x am x a 7
to
factors
-(*)
Thus a m must be such a quantity that, multiplied by
.tself
But we have defined above
times, it equals a
p.
nultiplied
times by
itself,
it
equals a
Hence we
i_
that a~
">ay
is
equal to an
?/ith
root of a
or, as it is
146
We
theorem an
intelligible
negative quantity.
have a n x
for
meaning
= an +
We
= n in order to interpret
~
an n = a = 1 (by p. 31).
a"
Now
a ~n
an when n
let
We
is
us assume
find a
Or dividing by
a~ n
a",
.--I.,
a"
that
is
plied
by
to say, a
a",
is
the
The former
gives a product equal to unity.
termed the inverse of the latter, or we may
quantity is
~
say that a
is
the inverse of an
the inverse of 4 ?
by
~
4
that 2
is
the inverse of
4, or 2
2
.
may
which
147
CHAPTEE
IV.
POSITION.
1.
All Position
is Relative.
THE
How
lies?
Where
the street.
This
If the
obviously the real meaning of the query.
lies
three
hundred
told
that
the
were
George
stranger
is
Town Hall
or at least of the
High
Street.
Equally
i.
idle
14S
The
Road.
there, if
We
Town Hall
ask,
Where
is
the
George
without meaning,
Where is it with regard to some
other place ? is a question which no more admits of an
answer than this one
How shall I get from the
:
George
to
meaning
anywhere?
to
nowhere
in
particular.
first
we
149
POSITION.
sameness of space.
By this we only
in space itself there is nothing perceptible to
the senses which can determine position.
Space is, as
described as the
mean that
it
is
2.
Position
may
be
to keep straight
on means to keep
a certain direction.
How
far?
answered by the
turning on the right.
This
is
first
turning to the
At B the questioner
asked.
We
is
150
B,
is
first
direction
If the stranger
first
FIG. 53.
symbol
you
fi
Turn the
direction
counter-clockwise.
151
POSITION
7T/2
TT
{3?r/2
Thus
=
=
Keep
Turn
Turn
Turn
=
=
for a turning
straight on.
at right angles to the left.
from A B to the
the angle of
left
from
tor of turning,
read 150
{/3|
Go
150 yards
new
direction.
instructions
symbolic expression
finding the
for
:
The
George.
at D to the
Take a turning
left
termined.
George.
by
Our
7.
final
G.
Then G
may be
written symboli
cally
150
{/3}180
(7/200,
152
in
street
at A let
AN
be the direction of
its
needle.
Then we
might
fix
we might determine
it
method of reckoning
by the angle a which
We
through west.
Our answer expressed symbolically is now entirely
cleared of any conception of streets.
For,
150
+
+
{/3}180
(a)
{7} 200
is
a definite instruction as to
quite independent of
any
how
to get from A to G
It ex
local characteristics.
Expanded
into
described above.
153
POSITION.
3.
If
instruction
{a}
150
{/8J180
is
{a} 150 represents the step A B, when that step
considered to have not merely magnitude but also
direction.
Similarly B D and D G represent more than
We
{a}
150
{/3J1SO
4-
{7}
200
AB + BD +
G,
FIG. 54.
We
former conceptions.
give a new and extended
to
our
and
to our addition.
meaning
quantity
AB +
BD+DG
154
directed step, D G.
The entire operation brings ua
from A to G. Now it is obvious that we should also
have got to G had we taken the directed step AG.
Hence, if we give an extended meaning to the word
equal and to its sign =, using them to mark the
equivalence of the results of two operations, we may
write
AG = AB + BD +
and read this expression
B D and D G.
DG,
B,
2 of Chapter III.)
directions indicated
by the arrow-heads.
This
may
be
POSITION.
b
from B draw B c equal and
from c draw c D equal and parallel to ef,
and finally from D draw D E equal and parallel to g h.
We have drawn our zigzag so that the arrow-heads all
have a continuous sense.
Hence the directed step
;
parallel to cd,
AE
sum
the
<
Fio. 55.
c.
156
in a plane
namely, if the position of G relative to A
be denoted by the directed step or vector A G, it may
also be expressed by the sum of any number of directed
;
fig. 56).
We
may write
AG = AB + EC + CD +
DE
+ EP +
FG.
example as to
FIG. 56.
goal.
In
fact,
157
POSITION.
as equivalent instructions
AB + EC + CD + DE + EF + FG
E F
AB + B C + cV + D E
-(-
or,
we
= AG =
+
F G.
Now
let
We may read
this in words
The sum of vector steps
which form the successive sides of a closed zigzag is
zero.
Now we have found above that
:
may
AG + G A = 0.
This
is
really
taken from A to
G,
be a zero step.
Yet the
result
is
158
vectors to
addition.
For
if
subtraction of
denoted by A B
D c a subtraction of the vectors A TS
and DC, since D c + c D = 0, the operation indicated
amounts to adding the vectors A B and c D, or to
A B + c D. Hence, to subtract two vectors, we reverse
the sense of one of them and add.
TJ
JS
TV
FIG. 57.
pQESTUvbea
set of
such points
the
Commutative
Law.
We
for
rosmox.
159
and c D
to c D.
EC +
C D
B D
= BH + HD
= CD f BC
FIG. 58.
The importance
order
in
We
5.
It
On Methods
has
quantities
been
may
remarked
(see
p.
99)
that
scalar
160
straight line.
When we
what
FIG. 59.
In order to deter
are vector steps to plane space.
direction of a step A p we must know at
least one other point B in the plane.
Space which
mine the
We may
p.
101
POSITION.
magnitude r and
scalar
be
jircles
ft
coincide;
if
point.
If p
its
positions with re
in
if
FIG. 60.
:hen
move a
pencil about
will trace
called
an
ellipse.
In this case r + r
= AP + PB =
I,
+ = I is an equation
3etween the scalar quantities r,r and /, which holds
for every point on the ellipse, and
expresses a metric-
of the string.
This relation
and B p
is
1G2
We
moved round
B,
Fio. 61.
namely that
FIG. 62.
The
ellipse
all
1G3
POSITION.
fell
f ocussed
ellipse
(B
of course
excepted).
The name
focus
is
it
and when
tliev
the lemniscate of
lemniscus, a ribbon).
moves
and B
(r./
by a point p which
c ).
is
1G4
is
termed a
family of
constantly
occur in the consideration of physical problems.
6.
Polar Co-ordinates.
The
direction
is
FIG. 64.
counter-clockwise
till
below
from
AB would
AB to AP
On
Further we
POSITION.
65
We
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Counter-clockwise from A B to A
Clockwise from A B to A
The
first of
P.
p.
number
The second
(iv)
of these
(
beginning line; the length AP is
;ermed the null us vector (from two Latin words signify ng the carrying rod or spoke, because it carries the
ooint
to
ermed the
lie
position A P
)f
rectorial angle,
is
termed the
pole,
because
it is
the end
Finally A p
ermed the polar co-ordinates of the point p, because
hey regulate the position of P relative to the pole A and
he initial line AB.
;urn.
166
7.
If p
M be a
B,
the
PAM
A Jr
names
thenuse,
,
is
BAP.
termed the
PM
termed the
is
BAP.
is
PM
is
BAP
these
and
which
B A P or
6.
AP; they
are
the
trigonometrical
triangle-measurement)
The discussion of trigonometrical
ratios, or Trigonometry, forms an important element of
meaning
]G7
POSITION.
8.
A,
Spirals.
magnitude r of A p is always de
some chosen manner to the magnitude
P.
Then if p be taken as the point of a
mark out a curved line on the plane of the
6 of B A
it will
pencil
paper.
FIG. 65.
Such a curved
the latter
line
is
termed,
a.
as of a snake, to
coil,
One
than a right
In our figure the angle BAP has been taken
niairnitude whatever. It has been found u.-et ul to establish
/>.-
it
a convention with ivaranl to the signs of the perpendicular M and thAM. psiis considered positive when it falls above, but in-native when
falls below the initial line AB; AM is considered pc>iiive wh^n M falls
i
it
to
the right, but negative when it falls to the left of A. The reader will under
stand the value of this convention better after examining
11, 12.
168
line A B,
and
let
A P we have
Thus
c p
6,
b 6.
but c P
is
a;
will
this
To the
is
is
169
POSITION.
spiral.
is
FIG. 66.
to the
is
this angle, or it
170
FIG. 67.
spiral
171
POSITION.
1-educe the division of
like division of
line.
Now
to
tively.
0,
to
and T C P are
shape (see p. 10(5). For, since R c r, s c
such triangles, they have their corresponding sides pro
portional, and the truth of the proposition is obvious.
.s
ivory plate
is
ments.
9.
land
172
V
FIG. 69.
DOE,
&c., of the
as closely as
POSITION.
1"3
all
0);
Since
our triangles A o
all
B,
&c., are of
BOG, COD,
OB
OA
OE
OD
00
or,
OD
OC
OB
OP
OE
let
= O A O C = /i O B O D =
Or, OB = /A.OA;oo=/i .OA;OD =
OB
/i
/i
Hence
3
.
C
A,
&C.
and so on.
if
let
n
/j,
where we
o A.
equal to
we must have
o,
ON =
Now
/4
(l
We
may
simplicity.
or A, = /A
With the notation explained on
power of
144
we
then
a 6 th root of X, and write
term
p.
fj.,
/a,
174
is
certain quantity
Now
magnitude of the
which
let
is
we may
POSITION.
175
as follows
R, o
)
.>
spiral o P, o Q,
6>
>
first
pair,
</>
the angle
Then
on
OP
whence
it
follows
that
OP
--
OK
X 9 x X*
is
$+(/>.
we have
Hence
of ratios
only to
sum
will be equal
176
divided by
J
OP
two
of
=V
much
divided by
easier
\*= V~
we may
obvious that
division
on
it is
ratios
angles.
tion
is
termed a
table of logarithms.
10.
On
the
Nature of Logarithms.
o,
oP
is
equally mul
the
11
a length o B
equal
to
oc
POSITION.
iqual to oc,
and so
177
Then A
on.
B,
C, C D, &c., will
AA
B B
cc
Now
&c.
the same
AoA
sosceles triangles
triangles A o B, BOG,
shape ; so too are the
the
B oB
c o c
&c.
Hence the
It follows
are in the
B,
A, B B, c c, &c., or
C, C D, &c.,
same
Whence we deduce
AB
oA
that
the growth A B
B C
- -
OB
C D
-
oc
=&c.
is
A.
Hence
(see p. 143)
ingle.
all
Angles
all
spiral its
name.
of them, be equal
a.
By
178
Hence
cota
A B
AA
AB
or
OA
Now
AB
o A x angle A o A
,
angle A o A x cota.
result of
Now
initial length.
Since
e is
unity
rate 7
now
let us
then
it
179
POSITIOX.
7,
that
is,
as if
we caused
unity to
or
ey .
grow
7 unit
loga
rithmic rate 7 while it describes a unit of angle.
Let us inquire what is the meaning of e y when 7 is
integers.
it,
equal to
fraction,
is
e"
eY .
Thus
e y , if
7 be a commensurable
&f.
\e ;
or,
N 2
ISO
OP = OA.X
= OA. ey
fl
This
is
ey9 .
spiral expressed in
If
we take a
which a
spiral in
The symbol
is
is
also unity,
is
we
find
e
.
symbolically thus
=
The quantity
e is
loge r.
9
.
e"*
we
find r
= e =10
Yfl
e
.
is
in this case
is
Iog 10
r.
The
practical calculation.
first
devised
by
4to.
John
Loga-
Edinburgh, 1614.
181
POSITION.
ritlims to the
base 10 are
now used
in
all
but the
in space of
B-
Now a step
fight angles to this equal to M P,.
A M may be taken either forwards along A B or back
lik->
wards along AB
w?
1S2
Till-:
COMMON
SENSJS OF
+AM
to
Thus applied
by
(?r/2)
on
p. 151.
rotate
unit
this
interpreted
direction A B a distance equal to the length
M p,, and
symbolically
A P 15 by the relation
AP,
= AM
4-
i.M P r
If
we had
Next
let
us see
how we
in the quadrant c A B ,
distance P 2 M from A B
where P 2
.
AM ; secondly,
by
M P 2 ; since
a
distance
M
from
we must step forwards
A
towards
be
thirdly, by
this step is forwards, it will
AM
backwards
this is denoted
to this step,
we
rotate
it
about
183
POSITION.
reach P 2
Hence
A P2
AM
P2
B Ac
step counter-clockwise
will be expressed
This
by
A P3
Now
A M
M P
M be
positions of the p
AP,
A P3
x,
relative to A as follows
iy
i
A P2
A P4
iy
i y.
y-numbers are
to be taken
The
to y
184
t,
Thus
is
determined by x,
CAB
B AC
C AB
y.
-y.
The
FIG. 72.
we
shall
185
POSITION.
shall
a;,
LL
MM
FIG. 73.
the quadrant
by
iobvious
our points
all
lie
upon a
186
take along A
to
it,
line.
B,
many
units of
,
expressed by 2 y
of steps from A to points of the series
4 + i.8,
+ i.
2 5
-j-
+ i.lS, &c.
We
however
quantities
we had taken
1,
2,
3,
4,
when squared a
a curve which
is
parabola.
which
the equation to a
is
circle
rosmox.
and
1ST
ill
a barometer
mean
position,
the
series
of time
188
means of a simple
photographic apparatus.
The plotting out of curves from their Cartesian
equations, usually termed curve tracing, forms an ex
tremely interesting portion of pure mathematics. It
may be shown that any relation, which does not in
We
shall
now
and inquire a
Of Complex Numbers.
little closer
M + i M p,
.
so that
we
FIG. 75.
189
POSITION.
to A
through a distance, M Q
to the left
must be equal
equal to A p
MQ ==AP = AM + MP=MP + PQ
Since however
to A
AM
(M p
pQ
PQ
operation
),
AQ
simple
operation
= A M + i (M P + i P Q)
= AM + t.MP + i.i.PQ;
.
since the
=
or
we may
it is
express
it
AM
AM
i
i
A M,
A M.
is
symbolically,
i\
may
be read in words
clockwise
,t
it
equals a, x
1,
we may
termed the
is
Va.
Hence
write
i=V - 1.
since
190
For
this reason
1 is
some
Treated however
times termed an imaginary quantity.
1 has a perfectly clear and
as a symbol of operation \/
it is here an instruction to step forwards
real meaning
;
1 y is termed a
expression of the form x +
number.
complex
Let P be any point determined by the step A P
AM +
IMP, and let r, x, y be the numerical values
Any
AM, and p M.
right-angled triangle p A M that
of the lengths A
quantity r is
number
Further
angle
P,
It follows
r2
=x +
2
from the
2
The
y
then termed the modulus of the complex
1 y.
let
the angle
MAP
contain
6 units of
then
= PMty
=-
./,
sm0
A p
or
-aAM
=
=
cos#
A p
r
r
sin<9,
X
-,
= r cos#.
tesian co-ordinates
-f-
ly
its
1 sin0), or as
form r (cos# +
modulus and the operator
in the
the product of
cos0
1 siu#,
rosmox.
which depends solely on
its
191
6.
argument
Hence we
may
=r
Ap
(cos#
1 sin#)
the ratio of r
1.
The
latter part of
this operation
B
76.
Fir.;.
will
Vl
in A B,
operator (cos#
Ap
=r
(cosO
r,
Thus
sinfl).
AD
be of unit
we may read
sin$)
A D,
represented
This
is
l.
by the
symbol cos#
1 sin#.
"We
results.
192
On
13.
the Operation
given Angle.
1 sin#)
Suppose we apply the operator (cos# +
twice to a unit step.
Then the symbolic expression
(cos0
+ V^l
or
sind) (cos0
(cos0
But
+ V^l
+ V^l sin0),
2
sintf)
we
+ V-I sin(9) 2 =
(cos0
In
cos20
V-l sin20.
manner the
1 sin#) w
cosnd
0, or
we may
Vl
by n
must
once"
write
sinnd.
and
it is
We
till
it
will fall
stretch A p into A Q
it
in this case
Then we must
by some quantity
ing
of A Q to A P
193
POSITION.
p A
be the angle
if
</>
Q,
(cos$
(cOSff)
V
1
sine/))
AP
= AP
.AP=/3.AP =
Sin<)
AQ.
(cos</>
which p
is
</>
sin</>)
the argument.
by a complex
to multiply a step
Hence
number
ment and
by the modulus.
Or, again,
(ii)
step A p as itself
+V
I y, or if r
be
FIG. 77.
BAP, we may
I sin#).
put A P = r(cos# -f
Similarly A Q will be a
complex number, and its scalar magnitude (= p A P
= p r) will be its modulus, while the angle B A Q = 6 +
will be its argument.
We have then the following
<
identity
(coS(/>
+V
(cos#
/>
This
sin<)
(f>
(cos^>
+V
+v
cos(
1 sin$)
+ ^)
may
argument.
o
194
Or secondly,
if
we turn
r,
<f>
gives
to
directed steps
gested on
symbol
p. 45,
-=-!
AP
we ask
What
is
has
of
two
vectors, or
what operation
The answer
is
will
An
convert one
operation which
Now
ratio
The
is
stretch therefore
con
is
195
POSITION.
its
We
are
now
<>,
/""/<,
Spin
to the
Logarithmic Growth
of Unit Step.
Let us take a
to find
how
its
radius grows
and endeavour
all
The term
stretch
stretch
must be considered
less
to
include a squeeze or
than unity.
o 2
06
A Q as
if
we marked
is, its
growth
FIG. 78.
But
if
A p be treated
PQ might be
FIG. 79.
let
o Q be an
POSITION.
97
intents
1 QP.
This we represent by
Since the radius
of the circle is unity the arc Q P, which equals the
radius multiplied by the angle QOP (see p. 143), must
OP.
OP
equally multiplied in de
scribing equal angles about o, it must be growing at
logarithmic rate. What is this logarithmic rate for
rate (seep. 176), since
unit angle
It
o
is
as
is
must equal
OP
P to unit angle
=v
OP x angle QOP
<rle
since o P
1
Thus o P is growing at logarithmic rate
unity.
it describes unit angle ; that is to say, the result of
e"
We
OP =
o A .e v
"
we have
OP
OP
Now
since o P
= oM
= OM
-t-
V
V
MP
P.
.
cos0
= OM = OM,
OM equals
8in0
the angle
PM
-Q
P M.
M o P, but, according
198
measurement of angles,
d.
Thus we must
is
write
OP
= OA .e~ v~ ld
results
^1
sin 01
Further,
o P
OP
OP + OP
that
= 2 A/ 1 P M
= 2oM;
is,
-
-ie
-^-
..
nflj
15.
We
On
are
to
be
199
POSITIOX.
vectors ?
If both the vectors be treated as
complex numbers,
is
FIG. 80.
the result A P
would be purely
difficulty in interpreting
A
Fio. 81.
200
we might
at right angles
follows :
The product A p A Q
.
A Q.
It will be noted at once that this interpretation,
although suggested by the case of the angle Q A p being
.
FIG. 82.
201
POSITION.
be formed
PAQE.
By our convention
PAQE =
AQ A P
Or
QAPE,
AP A
Q.
zero
that
is,
A P
we take a
If
AP
(A p)
0.
/3,
y, 8,
them
a
a/3
=
=
0,
87=
A
/3
/3a,
S,
ay
=
=
first
made
0,
y a,
=
/3
0,
S2
0,
&c.
y /3,
&c.
was
&c.
among
tluit
202
which he
is
magnitudes.
field
of application to scalar
we proceed
symbols we
are employing.
Although
x 2=
and
2x3=
3x2 may
be sheer
FIG. 83.
we
OA be
magnitudes.
If
203
POSITION.
and
alternate units a
ft.
form a a
duct of as
+
many
b ft
07),
alternate
alternate
units
We
Such
units.
determinant
B"
A"
parallel to o A, then o
A"
a and o
B"
ft.
Join
i>
B"
B"
B"
B"
A".
B"
B"
A"
is
j|
aft.
Thus we
o Q
B"
A"
A"
is
204
may
be read
(a
1/3) (of
&
/3)
(aV
-la
a/3.
=
a/6
of /&
oQ
is
zero.
The reader
We
to the plane
tlie
Product of Two
Vectors.
resulli
I have to thank
my
friend
Mr.
J.
I may, perhaps,
allowed to add that by treating the alternate units, like Grassmann, aj
points, and the alternate number as their loaded centroid, a determinarij
of the second order is represented geometrically by a length, and we thv
205
POSITION.
product.
will
vectors be true.
We
different
FIG. 84.
itself
its
is
206
We
we maintain
tions.
The method
been
new
for
207
POSITION.
we
no longer
valid.
"We
are
com
17. Position in
we
are giving to
quan
Three-Dimensioned Space.
AB and
its
plane perpendicular to
that line
we
Thus
of position.
Space in which we live is termed space of
three dimensions ; it differs from space of two dimen
sions in requiring us to have three
as a basis for determining position.
fix
all
positive,
and
all
of the point N,
FIG. 85.
209
POSITIOX.
downwards.
The reader
convince himself
will easily
x, y, z
where
x,
y, z
=x
are
scalar
but
magnitude and sign
three mutually rectangular
;
y .j
k,
FIG. 86.
The
step A p
may
and z .k is indifferent.
The reader will readily recognise that the sum of a
number of successive steps in space is the equivalent
ito the step which joins the start of the first to the
210
those we
concerning steps in space similar to
deduced.
be
a
in
for
plane may
steps
proved
have
By
three systems of
dividing all space into little cubes by
we
may plot out sur
planes mutually at right angles,
we shall choose
Thus
faces just as we plotted out curves.
and
suppose the
values we please for x and y,
any
in some constant
magnitude of the third step related
For example, if we take
fashion to the previous steps.
the rectangle under z and some constant length a,
to the differences of the squares on x and
always equal
a2
symbolically if we take
reach P by taking the step
y, or
AP
= x.i +
+
.
.y
a;
x^
y-,
we
shall
2
7
7/
.
K-
The
series of points
We
present enterprise.
18.
On
two
steps A P
and A
Q.
We
211
POSITION.
till
as
common
extremity.
Such steps
are,
vector steps.
we compared
different points
A will then be
and B Q have
not only direction and magnitude, bat have themselves
The step A P has itself position in
position in space.
space relative to the step B
It
Q.
is
no longer a step
FIG. 87.
to the step B Q.
This
is
the operation r
I
BQ
212
213
POSITION.
it
along
and direction.
Hence the operations by means of which B Q can be
in position
214
made
by a
this
axis
involves
self
The sum
of
is,
as
we have
seen
(p.
of two rotors
is
it
systems.
19.
On
the
Bending of Space.
The
215
POSITIOX.
that
words
correspond to them,
one, however, who will try to imagine the state of a mind con
scious of knowing the absolute position of a point will ever after
be content with our relative knowledge.
1
we
so soon as
we have
one dimension.
For
p. 20.
216
it
all
all
This assumption
points.
we make when
same properties
at
dimensioned space.
sioned space.
Besides the finiteness and sameness of
worm might
its
space the
and deter-
217
POSITION.
bending with
space which
its
plnjsical constitution
was
and
not with
tlie
traversing.
might thus very
was
its
infinite, or that it was
space
reasonably suppose
in
If the worm thus
an
tube.
moving
infinitely long
it
It
its
find
if
or flat space (a straight line)
suddenly transferred
from one to the other it would attribute the feeling
arising from difference of bending to some change
which had taken place in its physical constitution.
Hence in one-dimensioned space of constant bend all
position is necessarily relative, and the finite or in
;
according as
it is
for
most bending D, will pass through a succession of bendings, and each point H between c and D will have its
This supposes the one-dimensioned space of constant bend to lie in a
plane; the argument does not apply to space like tli.it of a helix (or the
form of a, corkscrew), which is of constant bend, bat yet not finite.
1
218
own degree
of bending.
Hence there
is
something
bending there.
abso
worm
pleased,
and
This
positive and negative quantities from that zero.
zero might in fact be purely imaginary ; that is, represent
a,
worm
space
for example, in the case of an ellipse, absolute straightness, a conception which the worm might form as a
limit to its experience of degrees of bend. 1
Thus it
in
of
or
would seem that
space
varying bend,
space
which
is
is
The
Physicists
may
POSITION.
21 9
FIG. 01.
We
worm
of
will associate
220
it
as a
attributing
all
the sameness of
the changes in
its
its space,
and
its
moves uniformly
moves in any fashion
backwards and forwards) changes to which its physical
constitution was subject.
Similar results might also
arise if the worm were either moving in space of the
same bend, which bend could be changed by some ex
ternal agency as a whole, or if again its space were of
varying bend, which was also capable of changing in
any fashion with time. The reader can picture these
cases by supposing the tube made of flexible material.
The worm might either attribute change in its degree
of bend to change in the character of its space or to
change in its physical condition not arising from its
(if it
We
When we
relative position.
221
POSITION.
Just as the
worm
and stretch
at another.
make the
amount
of
termed, by the
In surfaces with some degree of symmetry
there would necessarily be parts of equal curvature, and
fish fit it, or, as it is usually
curvature.
ise
is
222
should
arise.
We are thus
we have formed
hornaloid.
As a result, then,
What
its
space.
may we learn by analogy for the threedimensioned space in which we ourselves exist? To
begin with, we assume that all our space is perfectly
same, or that solid figures do not change their shape in
lesson
it
to another.
We base this
Clifford s Lectures
and Essays,
vol.
i.
p. 323.
it
to be a plane.
Cf.
223
POSITION.
we
are
cognisant.
correct,
it
same. 2
Such an assumption
space)
when we suppose
curvature
:his
as
It
space
is
many
conception (mathematicians
lansubstantiation), I may
Form a geometrical conception of the curvature of his space till he views
From space of a higher dimension, that is, practically, never.
2
the
hich
retain
th>
-M-
that, because a
is
snliil
moved about
in
it
we
are acquainted, it does not follow that the figure really does
The changes of shape may be either imperceptible for
shape.
distances through which we are able to move the figure, or if they do
its
to heat, light,
take place we may attribute them to
physical causes
which may possibly be nitre names for variations in the
or magnetism
curvature of our space.
224
that
result built
We
A
oi
all
that
which we dwell.
But we may press our analogy a step further,
and ask, since our hypothetical worm and fish might
very readily attribute the effects of changes in the
whether, in
fact,
some or
all
we
Our space
is
range of
possibility.
POSITION.
assumed
to
know the
225
For
hard to conceive
srfch
It
ba>>-<l
selves
may
<>l
This remarkable
possibilit;/
seems
first to
226
These
postulates
are*
not,
too
as
often
limited region.
we
really,
On
as
in
start
although
less obviously,
possible
explanation o1
is not homa-
phenomena.
loidal, and again, that
change with the time,
its
may
from centuries of
indiscriminating worship
of
the
genius of Euclid.
proportional to the change, \ve find that waves of space -displacement are
precisely similar to those of the elastic medium which we suppose to propa
gate light and heat.
We
space-twist
is
a quantity exactly,
227
CHAPTER
V.
MOTION.
1.
On
the
WHILE the
ihe sizes,
>resent
;ime to time.
The
in
meaning
life
at-
and the
change
everyday
has in the exact sciences is perhaps better
llustrated by the subject of this chapter than by any
meaning
it
other that
we have
yet studied.
ing the
or wards, since
ts
)f
arms
to
scientific calculation.
is,
tself as
>r
common and
position.
is
sitting at one
-1
228
with his face towards the engine ; and that, while th(
train is going along, he gets up and goes to the othei
end of the compartment and sits down with his back to
the engine.
this description is
amply sufficient,
very far indeed from being
an exact description of the motion of the man during
that time. In the first place, the train was moving
but
and
it is
fast it
it
is
was going
considered.
man
First of
all,
corner of the
We
shoulc
shape of many of his muscles are altered.
thus have to say, first, exactly how fast and in wha
direction he
was moving
at every instant, as
we had
to
229
MOTION.
is
con
and shape,
changes
stantly subject
to
admit
of acwhich, however, are not large enough
urate observation. Here, then, is a problem whose
in
to slight
complexity
is
size
We may
first
of
all restrict
ourselves to the
considered
lere
kf"j>s
We
igid bodies.
iheir
After that
we nmst proceed
to consider
230
may
The
studied
exactly
we
all this
till
then, will
it
be possible
nature.
2.
Let us
talk, to
rigid body.
it is
round or
tilted up.
translation.
If
from the
fact
is
never turned
roun<
sam<
231
MOTION.
direction
and
describe this
at the
same
In order therefore to
rate.
it
will be sufficient to
Now
this
is
a very
much
^uild
must be remembered, is to
ertain point was, and how last
it
state exactly
where
up to
wa>
wav
required
to carry
tandard place,
viz.
it
232
of time within
we may
Where was
Now
is
a continuous quantity
We
one o clock.
Then
for every
it is
necessary to
that instant
we mark down
Let us
first
arises,
these lengths ?
of all observe the difficulty of answering
If we could be content with an approxi
this question.
mate solution instead of
MOTION.
233
ness
FIG. 92.
lof
234
an entry in our
table.
perpendicular to
(this instant
We
ca,ses
the exactness
is
ideal
it
is
and to
state
235
MOTION.
means of a
upon
3.
Uniform
if
it
with an
we were
re
^lotion.
and then,
is
as
we
a straight line.
J straight
236
We
we go up
and
will clearly
if
the
hill is
an hour, and
we
suppose a
hill
same.
This
elevation
of the hill
may be taken
as the
MOTION.
237
curve of positions,
for its
is
It
tion.
may
means
rate by
rate at
quantities.
We
means
4.
Variable Motion.
not uniform,
by the rate at
is
in that case
238
It
As the
train
gets
its
up
the two
train has
first
But
the
first
hour.
train
And
is
239
MOTION.
however small
first
train
although
it
no way of
which
measuring
has just been described of comparing the motion with a
uniform motion having that particular velocity.
Upon this we have to make the very important
remark that the rate at which a body is going is a
the
smallest
There
portion of time.
is
property as
it
does not
a second.
move
This consideration
in fact
is
somewhat
difficult to
has led
many people to
the
of
reject altogether
hypothesis
continuity but still
we may be helped somewhat in understanding it by
it
faster,
[faster
g part of a polygon.
From
a sufficient distance
oft
240
we had
it
if
the
uniform
motion which the body has during a certain interval.
When the polygon looks like a curve the sides are very
short, and any side, being prolonged both ways, will
line is a side of the polygon, it represents the
scope
a curve.
give the rate for the motion represented by the curve, just!
as before the steepness of the prolonged small side of thej
That
is
for the
241
MOTION.
From
given varying inotion at the particular instant.
means of representing the rate we can see how it
is that the instantaneous velocity of a body generally
this
reduced to the
We
made
exact.
Just as
we had
to
of
mere we
shall
We
242
hour
may be
is
average velocity,
general definition may be given as follows
If a body has gone over a certain distance in a
:
b.
This, moreover, enables us to make
some progress towards a method of calculating instan
taneous velocity, for we showed that the problem oJ
straight line a
Now
the
mean
velocity of
r
;
243
MOTION.
body
is
we
are
Flti.
93.
is
lind
If then
we can
On
tJie
Tangent
to
a Curve.
Now
FIG. 94.
and
we suppose
towards a
if
|>n
a V.
Now, looking
at the curve
it
which
2
244
at
At the
tangent.
instant
when
it
passes
over this
to the curve at
when
sense by Newton.
Th<
j
Let us
If a straighj
it will
make a
verl
small circle
or
it
may
.,
it
,,
245
MOTION.
then
it
will
Now,
circle.
and
large,
longs to
It is
it
straighter
will
look
when magnified
to
a given
length.
FIG. 95.
is
marked
off
upon
it;
from
let a
We
is turning round
chord a
[B along the circle as the
the
a
T
and
the
la towards
difficulty in our w ay
position
a
T
B
lis clearly that figures like
get small, as for exP>
ample a
[to
1,
Newton
246
by supposing
the figure is
so that instead
tliat
;
concerned
is less
quently when
it
conse
magnified to the
chord a
b is
at.
FIG. 96.
drawn.
this process,
called
;
247
MOTION.
We
we want
we have
what happens
two points approach
The result at which
to consider
If at a certain
possessing the
b
a on the curve
that
near
to
property
by taking
enough
the line a b can be brought as near as we like to a t
t
bat made
(that
is,
the angle
angle, however
,the point b
here
We
is
or
at
(for
they
now
coin-
[this definition
248
and therefore,
to
is
wanted.
viz.
a railway
249
MOTION.
train, to be varying,
is
We
at a given instant.
might get a very rough approxi
in some cases no approximation at all, by
mation to it, or
That
we like by taking a
mean
less
it
will be possible to
make the
velocity differ
than this
.an gents
as, for
example,
250
we
the latter.
6.
What
On
is
the
actually
wanted
in
every case
will
be
We
number a
will
that
[The method
is
K. P.]
MOTION.
Now
second. 1
there
winch
is
worked
2-51
out,
the time
will tell us
time.
is
at
The following may be taken as a proof. Let a lie the distance from
in t ~
moved over by the body in t seconds, b that moved over
seconds, so that t seconds is the interval we take to find out the mean
1
rest
it.
l>y
Now by
velocity.
seconds,
and similarly
Hence
in
we have
\ve
have
b=
a=
I6(t
\G(t-
1G
+ 2tC +
moved over
(t"
t"-}-
W+
-*).
IGt-
in the interval
during this interval is obtained by dividing the distance moved over by the
time taken to traverse it; hence the mean velocity in our ease for the
interval of
seconds
= b-a
t
t
i!
= 32t +16C.
Now if we
we
two terms
in
the
mean
velocity,
^pendent
lf>/
;.-,
our definition of instantaneous velocity, it is now evident that the instanvelocity of our falling body at the end of t seconds is Z lt feet per
ond.
252
means of this
the (w-i)tli power of the time. It is by
so as to get
rule
one algebraical
process of altering
we
the
problems which
another from it that both of
s
are
another
have shown to be equivalent to one
in practice.
of very great import
yet another problem
be
natural
of
phenomena which can
ance in the study
moves
made to depend on these two. When a point
of it from some fixed
alono- a straight line the distance
from time
line is a quantity which varies
point in the
is the
distance
this
of
The rate of change
to time.
the
moving point; and
as the velocity of
There
is
same thing
can only
the rate of change of any continuous quantity
of the velocity of a
be properly represented by means
point.
port
may be
indicated by a
on a
stick.
The
rate at
of the
time,
terms
any quantity in
so
do
by
we may indeed roughly and approximately
troublesome
most
the
means of a table. But this is also
of describing them is by drawing
the
in
proper way
or horizontal distance, at
a curve in which the abscissa,
1
the time, while the height of
any point represents
the value of the quantity
curve at that point represents
this is done we
Whenever
at that time (see p. 184).
way
MOTION.
253
by
marking
that
if
ofT
On
tlie
Method of Fluxions.
are practically
moving point
at every instant
secondly, to
draw a tangent to a curve at any point
thirdly, to find
the rate of change of a quantity when we know how
it is
great
at every instant.
And the solution of them all
depends upon that process by which, when we take the
algebraical rule for finding the quantity in terms of the
it is
its
will
254
the
mean
of time
is
way
smaller, this
mean
rate
of change
we
call
it,
it is,
as
255
MOTION.
may
bhis
the
method
ive
it)
is
which
or
the tide.
We
may
either write
down a formula
is
256
Thus
constant.
if
we compress
its
volume, and a
will
starting point,
vertical line
represent the
temperatures we
have different hyperbolas with the same asym
ptotes.
ture.
is
done by
down
11,
points on paper (as in
Chap. IV.) to represent successive observations. Thus
in the case of air the pressure would be observed for
properly plotting
different
values of
the volume.
marked
it
to
MOTION
207
geometer has seen that the shape of the curve is hyperhe recognises the law that pressure varies inversely
as volume.
)olic
We
>eing
rule or by a curve.
sponding to a given
number was
to be divided by the
number representing
lie curve,
f a certain curve.
Now
ielp
;:stablished
we may both
use
the
known theorems
troduced by Descartes), or we
may make
use of
s
258
first
is
purpose the
regarded as an
geometrical
for points
way
bola
known
FIG. 97.
pendicular distance
to a fixed diameter
OP
P H from
A a is a
the point
P of
the
circld
ix
259
MOTION.
as
it is
AP
is
sometimes
made
same thing,
If the arc
if
P is made
to
is
the
PM
will represent
circle, then the length of the line
of a point Q oscillating
the distance from the centre
according to a law which is defined by this geometrical
construction.
is called
is
circle
We
tions,
culated.
/iz.
known
o original quantities. Thus, in the case we preusly considered of two quantities whose product is
nstant or which vary inversely as one another,
s 2
it
is
260
it
is
is
Thus the
to the rate of
change
elasticity.
We
define the
elasticity of
a gas as the
If then, in
is
Of Acceleration and
the
fl
:.
n
-
e:
Hodograph.
261
MOTION.
find
it
from the
of
its state
motion
if
we
Now we
\>y
it
change of a
vector.
A
FIG. 98.
Let us
<ro
its
position
is
262
to
AP
How
Clearly by adding
the step
this
is
is
changed from
change made
in
AP
AP
step ?
the
new
by saying
let us
fixed point
the
is
altered, so that
it is
when
therefore obvious
that
it
is
FIG. 99.
.
The question then is At what
directly from A to
rate does this addition take place, or what step per
second is added to the position? The answer as before
:
To sum
up, then,
we
MOTION.
moving point
is
263
we
shall
now apply
it
to a considera
But
present it would be unaltered during the motion.
a point moves uniformly round a circle its velocity,
if
changing in
direction,
and the
line
which
so as always
motion of the
line
would be found
to de
264
and
was
for
that
we
hodograph.
also the hodograph of the motion, we can find the
velocity of the moving point at any particular position
If
and
in its path.
we have
All
to do
is
to
directions
first,
one
is
direction of motion.
But a
in
be
direction
without
being
changed
velocity may
changed in magnitude, and we have seen that then the
acceleration
is
in the
also
205
MOTION.
may
we
acceleration
neither in the
is
it,
but that
drawn
FIG. 100.
in
to
rate of
it is
is
This acceleration
2G6
rate.
downwards, increasing uniformly at the rate of thirtytwo feet a second. In this case, then, we say that the
acceleration, or rate of change per second of the velocity
of the stone, is constant and equal to thirty-two feet a
is
In addition
it
is
MOTION.
On
10.
the
Laws
267
of Motion.
When
is
the basis of
a body
is
all
moving
exact treatment of
us consider -what
let
reflection will
show us that
in
may
be moving upwards or
down
same,
viz. it will
downwards.
its
When we
we must
state the
or
[going slowly,
What
may be keeping
it
up
at a
high
rate.
then, Avhich does depend upon the cirIn whichever of these ways, or in what-
is it,
[sumstances P
sver other way this given amount of push is used, its
Result in every case is obviously to change the rate of
268
The
body by a particular
must in each case be
determined by experiment, but we have learnt by ex
acceleration produced in a
riments which
much
follows
tion of the
MOTION.
269
we did
vector steps in
3 of the pre
in
to
find
order
the
result
of super
ceding chapter,
two
sets
of
circumstances.
surrounding
posing
accelerations, as
Now
body under
law of motion
The ratio of the accelerations which
two
bodies
produce in each other by their mutual
any
:
influence
Let us see
Of Mass and
Force.
this law.
Suppose we
Let the
ratio determined
by ex
their
mutual
influence.
Now
the law as
it
stands above
270
of
under varied
cir
if
Q and R
m to mf.
we choose to
our standard body, we may
If then
it.
An
introduced and
matter.
The
force of a
body
P on a body
Q,
of mass
why mutual
accelerations
271
MOTION.
first
is
body
do know
is
may
tend
To
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