Unit 1

Traffic Characteristics Measurement And Analysis:

Traffic Characteristics
Overview
Information on traffic characteristics is vital in selecting the appropriate geometric features of a
roadway. Necessary traffic data includes traffic volume, traffic speed, and percentage of trucks or other
large vehicles.
Traffic Volume
Traffic volume is an important basis for determining what improvements, if any, are required on a
highway or street facility. Traffic volumes may be expressed in terms of average daily traffic or design
hourly volumes. These volumes may be used to calculate the service flow rate, which is typically used
for evaluations of geometric design alternatives.
Average Daily Traffic: Average daily traffic (ADT) represents the total traffic for a year divided by
365, or the average traffic volume per day. Due to seasonal, weekly, daily, or hourly variations, ADT is
generally undesirable as a basis for design, particularly for high-volume facilities. ADT should only be
used as a design basis for low and moderate volume facilities, where more than two lanes
unquestionably are not justified.
Design Hourly Volume: The design hourly volume (DHV) is usually the 30th highest hourly volume for
the design year, commonly 20 years from the time of construction completion. For situations involving
high seasonal fluctuations in ADT, some adjustment of DHV may be appropriate.
Traffic Speed Traffic speed is influenced by volume, capacity, design, weather, traffic control devices,
posted speed limit, and individual driver preference. For design purposes, the following definitions
apply:

Low-speed is 45 mph [70 km/h] and below

High-speed is 50 mph [80 km/h] and above

Several tables and figures for high-speed conditions will show values for 45 mph [70 km/h] to provide
information for transitional roadway sections.
Design Speed: Design speed is a selected speed used to determine the various geometric design
features of the roadway. It is important to design facilities with all elements in balance,consistent with
an appropriate design speed. Design elements such as sight distance, vertical and horizontal
alignment, lane and shoulder widths, roadside clearances, superelevation, etc., are
Posted Speed:. Posted speed refers to the maximum speed limit posted on a section of highway.
TxDOTs Procedure for Establishing Speed Zones states that the posted speed should be based
primarily upon the 85th percentile speed when
adequate speed samples can be secured. Speed zoning guidelines permit consideration of other
factors such as roadside development, road and shoulder surface characteristics, public input, and
pedestrian and bicycle activity.
Traffic characteristics
1. Road User Characteristics
Various factors which affect road user characteristics may broadly be classified under four heads:
Physical
Mental
Psychological and
Environmental
Physical Characteristics
The physical characteristics of the road users may be either permanent or temporary. The pavement
characteristics are the vision, hearing, strength and the general reaction to traffic situations.
Vision plays the most important role of all these. These include the acuity of vision, peripheral vision
and eye movement; glare vision, glare recovery and in-depth judgment. Minimum standards for acuity
of vision are often laid down by licensing authorities. Field of clearest and acute vision is within a cone
whose angle is only 3 degrees, though the vision is fairly
satisfactory up to 10 degrees in general and even up to 20 degrees in the horizontal plane. However in
the vertical plane the field of clear vision may be about two thirds of that in the horizontal plane.
Hearing helps drivers in a way, though it is more important for pedestrians and cyclists. Though
strength is not an important factor in general, lack of strength may make parking maneuvers difficult,
particularly for heavy vehicles.
The reaction to traffic situations depends on the time required to perceive and understand the
traffic situation and to take the appropriate action.
The temporary physical characteristics of the road users affecting their efficiency are fatigue, alcohol
or drugs and illness. All these reduce alertness and increase the reaction time and also affect the
quality of judgment in some situations.

Mental Characteristics
Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can affect the road user characteristics.
Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behavior, driving practice, rules of roads and psychology of
road users will be quite useful for safe traffic operations. Reactions to certain traffic situations become
more spontaneous with experience. Understanding the traffic regulation and special instruction and
timely action depends on intelligence and literacy.

Psychological Factors
The emotional factors such as attentiveness, fear, anger, superstition, impatience, general attitude
towards traffic and regulations and maturity also come under this. Distractions by non-traffic events
and worries reduce attentiveness to traffic situations.
Environmental Factors
The various environmental conditions affecting the behavior of road user are traffic stream
characteristics, facilities to the traffic, atmospheric conditions and the locality. The total reaction time
or the PIEV time of the drivers varies considerably from driver to drier based on the above road
users characteristics. But the reaction time of a particular driver may vary depending on the type of
the problem and also environmental and modifying factors.
2. Vehicular Characteristics
Static characteristics of vehicles affecting road design are the dimensions, weight and maximum
turning angle. The height of vehicle affects the clearance of the overhead structures. The height of
driver seat affects the visibility distance and the height of head light affects the head light sight
distance at valley curves. The field of vision ahead for the driver also depends on the design of wind
shield and the front portion of the vehicle body. The length of vehicles affects the capacity, over taking
distance and maneuverability of vehicles. The minimum turning radius depends on the length of wheel
base and the features of the steering system and this affects design of sharp curves for the maneuver
of vehicles at slow speeds. Gross weight, axle and wheel loads of vehicle govern the structural design
of pavements and cross drainage structures.
Dynamic characteristics of vehicles affecting road design are speed, acceleration and braking
characteristics and some aspects of vehicle body design. The speed and acceleration depends up on
the power of the engine and the resistances to be overcome and are important in all the geometric
design elements. The deceleration and braking characteristics guide safe vehicle
operation. The riding comfort on vertical curves depends on the design of suspension system of the
vehicle. The impact characteristics on collision and the injuries to the occupants depend on the design
of the bumper and body of vehicle.
Relationship between Flow, Speed and Concentration:
SPEED: Speed is the rate of movement of traffic or specified components of the traffic and is
expressed in metric units in km/hr. It is denoted by V.
Time-mean speed: The average of the speed measurements at one point in space over a period of
time is called time mean speed. It is denoted by Vt.

Where Vt = time-mean speed, kmph

Vi = observed instantaneous speed of ith vehicles, kmph
n = number of vehicles observed
Space-mean speed: The average of the speed measurements at an instant of time over a space is
called space mean speed. It is denoted by Vs.

Where Vs = space-mean speed, kmph

d = length of road, considered, m
n = number of individual vehicle observations
t1= observed travel time (sec) for ith vehicle to travel distance d, m
Spot speed: The instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified section or location is called spot
speed.
Running speed: The average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is
in motion is called running speed.
Running speed= Length of course/running time

Journey speed: Also known as overall speed or travel speed. It is the effective speed of a vehicle
between two points and is the distance between two points divided by the total time taken by the
vehicle to complete the journey including all delays incurred enroute.
Journey speed = Distance/total journey time
VOLUME (OR) FLOW: Volume can be defined as the number of vehicles passing a specified point
during a stated period of time. It is usually expressed in vehicles per hour. It is denoted by Q.
DENSITY (OR) CONCENTRATION: It is the number of vehicles present in a stated length of road at
an instant. It is usually expressed in vehicles per km length of road per lane and it is denoted by K.
Space head way: The distance between the fronts of successive vehicles is called space head way. It
is measured in meters and is denoted by s.
Time head way: The time interval between the passages of the fronts of successive vehicles at a
specified point is called time head way. It is measured in seconds and denoted by h.
RELATION AMONG TRAFFIC PARAMETERS:
The shape of the flow concentration curve depends upon number of factors.
Vs=Q/K

TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES

Traffic volume is the number of vehicles in a specified direction on a given lane or road way that costs
a given point or cross section during specified unit of time and this is used as a quantitative measure
of flow and it is usually expressed in the units of vehicle per hour (or) vehicles per day. A complete
traffic volume study may include the distribution of traffic by direction and turning moments and also
with distribution of different lanes per unit time.
OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNT
Traffic volume is generally expressed as a true measure of the relative importance of roads and in
deciding priority for improvement and expansion.
Traffic volume study is used in planning traffic operation and control of existing facilities and also for
planning and designing the new facilities.
Traffic volume study is used in analysis of traffic patterns and trends.
Classified volume study is used in useful in structural design of pavements in geometric design and
in computing road way design.
Volume distribution study is used in planning one-way streets and other regulatory measures.
Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning side walk, cross walks subways and pedestrian
signals.
Turning movement study is used in the design of intersections, in planning signal timings,
canalization and other control devices.
There are variations in traffic flow from time to time. Hourly traffic volume varies considerably during a
day; the peak hourly volume may be much higher than average hourly volume. Daily traffic volumes
vary considerably in a week and there are variations with season. Hence if a true picture is to be

obtained, the hourly traffic volume should be known along with the patterns of hourly, daily and
seasonal variation. In classified traffic volume study, the traffic is classified and the volume of each
class of traffic viz., buses, truck, passenger-cars, other light vehicles, rickshaws, Tongas, bullock carts,
cycles and pedestrians
is found separately. The direction of each class of traffic flow is also noted. At intersections the traffic
flow in each direction of flow including turning movements are recorded .
COUNTING OF TRAFFIC VOLUME
Traffic volume counts may be done by mechanical counters or manually.
MECHANICAL COUNTERS
These may be either fixed (permanent) type or portable type. The mechanical counter can
automatically record the total number of vehicles crossing a section of the road in a desired period.
The working may be by the effect of impulses or stimuli caused by traffic movement on a pneumatic
hose placed across the roadway or by using any other type of sensor. Traffic count is recorded by
electrically operated counters and recorder capable of recording the impulses. The impulses caused by
vehicles of light weight may not be enough in some cases to actuate the counter. Also it is not possible
to easily record pedestrian traffic
by this method. Other methods of working the mechanical detectors are by photo-electric cells,
magnetic detector and radar detectors. The main drawback of the mechanical counter is that it is not
possible to get the traffic volumes of various classes of traffic in the stream and the details of turning
movement.
MANUAL COUNTS
This method employs a field team to record traffic volume in the prescribed record sheets. By this
method it is possible to obtain data which cannot be collected by mechanical counters, such as vehicle
classification, turning movements and counts where the loading conditions or number of occupants are
required. However it is not practicable to have manual count for all the 24 hours of the day and on all
days round the year. Hence it is necessary to resort to statistical sampling techniques in order to cut
down the manual hours involved in taking complete counts, first the fluctuations of traffic volume
during the his if the day and the daily variation are observed. Then by selecting typical short count
periods, the traffic volume study is made by manual counting. Then by statistical analysis the peak
hourly traffic volumes as well as the average daily traffic volumes are calculated. This method is very
commonly adopted due to the specific advantages over other methods.

SPEED STUDIES

The actual speed of vehicle over a particular route may fluctuate widely depending on several factors
such as geometric features, traffic conditions, time, place; environment and driver.
Travel time is the reciprocal of speed and is a simple measure of how all well a road network is
operating.
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified section or location.
Average speed is the average of a series of spot speed measurements via; space-mean speed and
time-mean speed. Space mean speed represents the average speed of vehicles in a certain road.
Space-mean speed is calculated from:

Where Vs= space-mean speed, kmph

d= Length of road, considered, m
n= Number of individual vehicle observations
tl= Observed travel time (sec) for it vehicle to travel distance d, m
The average travel time of all the vehicles is obtained of vehicles at a point on the roadway and it is
the average of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot. Timemean speed is calculated
from:

Where Vt=time-mean speed, kmph

Vi= Observed instantaneous speed of it vehicles, Kmph
n= Number of vehicles observed
The space-mean speed is slightly lower than time-mean speed under typical speed conditions on rural
highways.
Running speed is the average maintained by a vehicle traverses a particular stretch of road, while the
vehicle is in motion; this is obtained by dividing the distance covered by the time during which the
vehicle is actually in motion.

Overall speed or travel speed is the effective speed with which a vehicle traverses a particular route
between two terminals; this is obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by the total time taken
including all delays and stoppages reroute. Speed studies carried out occasionally give the general
trend in speeds. There are two types of speed studies carried out,

Spot speed study

Speed and delay study

SPOT SPEED STUDY
Spot speed study may be useful in any of the following aspects of traffic engineering:
To use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulations.
To use in geometric design-for redesigning highways or for deciding design speed for new facilities.
To use in accident studies.
To study the traffic capacity.
To decide the speed trends.
To compare diverse types of drivers and vehicles under specified conditions.
The spot speeds are affected by physical features of the road like pavement width, curve, sight
distance, gradient, pavement unevenness intersections and road side developments. Other factors
affecting spot speeds are environmental conditions (like weather, visibility), enforcement, traffic
conditions, driver, vehicle and motive of travel.
There are a number of methods to measure spot speed. The spot speed may be obtained either by
finding the running speed of vehicles over a short distance of less than 50 metre or by finding the
instantaneous speed while crossing a section, depending on the sampling periods of the day, days of
the week and months of the year.
One of the simplest methods of finding spot speed is by using enoscope which is just a mirror box
supported on a tripod stand. In its simplest principle, the observer is stationed on one side of the road
and starts a stopwatch when a vehicle crosses that section. An enoscope is placed at a convenient
distance of say 30 m in such a way that the image of the vehicle is seen by the
observer when the vehicle crosses the section where the enoscope is fixed and at this instant the stop
watch is stopped. Thus the time required for the vehicle to cross the know length is found and is
converted to the speed in kmph. The main advantage of this method is that it is simple and cheap
equipment and is easy to use. The greatest disadvantage is that the progress is as slow as it is difficult
to spot out typical vehicles and the number of samples observed will be less. There is also a possibility
of human error.
Other equipment used for spot speed measurements are graphic recorder, electronic metre, photo
electric meter, radar, speed meter and by photographic methods. Of all these methods, the radar
speed meter method seems to be the most efficient one as it is capable of measuring the spot speeds
instantaneously and also record them automatically. But this equipment is costly.
PRESENTATION OF SPOT SPEED DATA
Average speed of vehicles: From the spot speed data of the selected samples, frequency distribution
table are prepared by arranging the data in group covering various speed ranges and the number of
vehicles in such range. The arithmetic mean is taken as the average speed. The table gives the
general information of the speeds maintained on the section, and also regarding the speed distribution
pattern.
Cumulative speed of vehicles: A graph is plotted with the average values of each speed group on the
X-axis and the cumulative per cent of vehicles travelled at or below the different speeds on the Y-axis.
From this graph, the 85th percentile speed is found out which gives that speed at or below 85 per cent
of the vehicle are passing the point on the highway or only 15 per cent of the vehicles exceed the
speed at that spot. The drivers exceeding 85th percentile speeds are usually considered to drive faster
than the safe speed under existing condition and hence this speed is adopted for the safe speed limit
at this zone. However for the purpose of highway geometric design, the 98th percentile speed is taken.
The 15th percentile speed represents the lower speed limit of it is desired to prohibit slow moving
vehicles to decrease delay and congestion, as 85 per cent of the vehicles to the stream travel at
speeds higher than this value and therefore need overtaking opportunities.

 Modal average: a frequency distribution curve of spot speeds is plotted with speed of vehicles or
average values of each speed group of vehicles on the X-axis and the percentage of vehicles in that
group on the Y-axis. This graph is called the speed distribution curve. This curve will have a definite
peak value of travel speed across the section and this speed is denoted as model speed. The speed
distribution curve is helpful in determining the speed at which the greatest proportions of vehicles
move, given by the model speed.

All vehicles do not travel at the same speed at a location along a road. The amount of speed dispersion
or the spread from the average speed affects both capacity and safety. For free flow of vehicles, the
speed distribution follows a normal distribution curve. The quality of flow of vehicles in a stream
therefore depends on the speed dispersion. This may be judged by several
methods such as (85th minus 15th percentile speeds); Standard deviation of speeds, or the coefficient
of variation in speed.
SPEED AND DELAY STUDY
The speed and delay studies give the running speeds, overall speeds, fluctuations in speeds and the
delay between two stations of a road spaced far apart. They also give the information such as the
amount, location, duration frequency and cause of the delay in the traffic stream. The results of the
speed and delay studies are useful in detecting the spots of congestion, the causes and in arriving at a
suitable remedial measure. The studies are also utilised in finding the travel time and in benefit-cost
analysis. In general the efficiency of the roadway be judged from the travel time.
The delay or the time lost by traffic during the travel period may be either due to fixed delays or
operational delays. Fixed delay occurs primarily at intersections due to traffic signals and at level
crossings. Operational delays are caused by the interference of traffic movements, such as turning
vehicles, parking and imparking vehicles, pedestrians etc., and by internal friction in the
traffic due to high traffic volume, insufficient capacity and by accidents. Therefore the overall travel
speed between the origin and destination points of travel is invariably lower than the desired running
speed.
There are various methods of carrying out speed and delay study, namely:
Floating car or riding check method
License plate or vehicle number method
Interview technique

 Elevation observation
Photographic technique
In the floating car method a test vehicle is driven over a given course of travel at approximately the
average speed of the stream, thus trying to float with the traffic stream. A number of test runs are
made along study stretch and a group of observers record the various details. One observer seated in
a floating car with two stop watches. One of the stop watches used to record the time at various
control points like intersections, bridges or any other fixed points in each trip. The other stop watch is
used to find the duration of individual delays. The time, location and cause of these delays are
recorded by the second observer either on suitable tabular forms or by voice recording equipment. The
no of vehicles over taking the test vehicle and that overtaken by the test vehicles are noted in each
trip by a third observer. The number of vehicles travelling in opposite direction in each trip is noted by
fourth observer. However in mixed traffic flow, more no if observers will be required to count the
vehicles of different classes. In this method the detailed information is obtained concerning all phases
of speed and
delay including location, duration and causes of delay.
The average journey time t (min) for all the vehicles in a traffic stream in the direction of flow is given
by

Where
q= Flow of vehicles (volume per min) in one direction of the stream
na =Average no of vehicles counted in direction of stream and the test vehicle travelling in opposite
direction
ny =The average no of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus the no of vehicles overtaken when
the test is in direction of q
tw=Average journey time, in minute when test vehicle is travelling with stream q.
ta=Average journey time, in minute when test vehicle is running against stream q.
In the licence plate or vehicle number method, synchronized stop watches or voice recording
equipment are used. Observers are stationed at the entrance and exit of a test section where
information of travel time is required. The timing and vehicle numbers are noted by observers of the
selected sample. From the office computations travel time if each vehicle could
be found. But the method does not give important details such as causes of delays and duration and
no of delays within the test section.
In the interview technique, the work can be completed in short time by interviewing and collecting
details from the road users on the spot. However the data collected may not provide with all the details
correctly.
Elevated observation and photographic technique are useful for studying short test sections like
intersections etc.
Intersection delays studies need special attention as this poses a major problem to the traffic engineer.
Such studies at each intersection will help in evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of the
controlled device like signal system, the remedial measures for accidents etc.

Headway
Headway is a measurement of the distance or time between vehicles in a transit system. The precise
definition varies depending on the application, but it is most commonly measured as the distance from
the tip of one vehicle to the tip of the next one behind it, expressed as the time it will take for the
trailing vehicle to cover that distance. A "shorter" headway signifies
a more frequent service. Freight trains might have headways measured in parts of an hour, metro
systems operate with headways on the order of 1 to 5 minutes, and vehicles on a freeway can have as
little as 2 seconds headway between them.
Gap Generation on a single lane
Our initial studies focused on a relatively simple situation with minimal distraction, where traffic was
only present on the near lane of the road to be crossed with vehicles approaching the intersection from
the left of the subject. Vehicles traveled at
constant speed, so the gaps between vehicles remained constant once cars were created.
Gap Acceptance

A driver entering into or going across a traffic stream must evaluate the space between a\potentially
conflicting vehicle and
itself and decide whether to cross or enter or not.
Gap means the time and space that a subject vehicle needs to merge adequately safely between
two vehicles. Gap acceptance is the minimum gap required to finish lane changing safely. Therefore, a
gap acceptance model can help describe how a driver judges whether to accept or not.
The critical gap tc can be defined as the minimum time interval between the major stream vehicles
that is necessary for one minor stream vehicle to make a maneuver (see Figure 1).Values of critical
gaps are different for different drivers (some of them are too fast or risky, some of them are slow or
careful) and there are dependent on types of movements, geometry parameters of intersections,
traffic situation.
TRAFFIC GENERATION FOR STUDIES OF GAP ACCEPTANCE
Gap acceptance plays a crucial role in safe driving. Crossing-path crashes account for 25% of all
crashes on U.S. roadways and about 45% of crashes at intersections (Ragland & Zabyshny, 2003). Safe
road crossing is a complex perceptual-motor task that requires accurate perception of the gap sizes in
a dynamic stream of traffic and fine coordination to synchronize the onset of movement with the
approaching gap. Understanding how drivers decide that a gap is crossable and how they time their
crossing in relation to a moving stream of traffic is critical for the development of training and
technology to lower the risk of crashes.
Most of the research in gap acceptance has been conducted by observing the gaps real drivers select
in natural traffic. These studies have typically focused on estimating the critical gap the minimal
gap size acceptable to a population of drivers (Gattis & Low, 1999; Daganzo, 1981; Mahmassani &
Sheffi, 1981). The critical gap is an important factor used by traffic engineers to estimate the
throughput capacity of intersections.
Studies of gap acceptance have concentrated on how drivers cross through a single stream of traffic.
In day-to-day experience, drivers commonly face the difficult challenge of crossing multiple lanes of
traffic coming from opposing directions. Further complicating matters, drivers must attend to
pedestrians and bicyclists who may cross their line of travel. Little is known about how drivers cope
with the everyday complexity of crossing roads under these circumstances.
We first briefly describe our bicycling simulator, and then present a series of techniques we have
developed for generating traffic patterns used to probe the complex process of deciding whether or not
cross a gap. Finally, we will discuss possible applications of our scenarios to a larger set of gap
acceptance studies.
Gap Acceptance for bicyclists
Vehicle traffic poses a serious threat to the safety of bicycle riders. Motor vehicles are involved in
approximately one-third of all bicycle-related brain injuries and in 90% of all fatalities resulting from
bicycle crashes (Rivara & Aitken, 1998; Acton et al., 1995).
Approximately 500,000 bicycle-related injuries are treated in emergency rooms each year (Baker, Li,
Fowler, & Dannenberg 1993). Children between the ages of 5 and 15 represent a particularly
vulnerable segment of the population, having the highest rate of injury per million cycling trips (Rivara
& Aitken, 1998).
Little is known about why such collisions occur and, in particular, how young bicycle riders make road
crossing decisions. In our laboratory, we use an immersive bicycling simulator to investigate some of
the underlying behavioral and perceptual issues in bicycling riding behavior. A central focus of our
research is gap acceptance behavior for child and adult bicyclists crossing traffic at intersections. A
robust finding from our initial research on childrens road-crossing behavior is that children choose the
same size gaps as adults, but leave less headway when they start to cross. Consequently, child cyclists
end up with far less time to spare when they clear the path of the oncoming car (Plumert, Kearney, &
Cremer, 2004). This puts child cyclists at greater risk for a collision because they have less time
available to recover from an error such as a foot slipping off the pedal.
A second recent finding of this research is that the choices that children and adults make in deciding
whether or not to cross a gap are influenced by the pattern of gaps that a subject sees. For example,
subjects chose smaller gaps when they first were presented a sequence of very small, uncrossable
gaps than when gaps were randomly ordered. Thus, when subjects were forced to wait for a long
stream of dense traffic, they were more likely to cross smaller gaps. Interestingly, this lower gap
threshold persisted at subsequent intersections that had randomly ordered gaps.
The Bicycling Simulator
Our simulator is pictured in Figures 1a and 1b. Subjects ride an actual bicycle mounted on a stationary
trainer. The bicycle is positioned in the middle of three 10 ft wide x 8 ft high screens placed at right

angles relative to one another, forming a three-walled room. Three Projection Design F1+ projectors
are used to rear-project high resolution, textured graphics onto the screens (1280 x 1024 pixels on
each screen), providing participants with 270 degrees
Gap Generation on a single lane
Our initial studies focused on a relatively simple situation with minimal distraction, where traffic was
only present on the near lane of the road to be crossed with vehicles approaching the intersection from
the left of the subject. Vehicles traveled at constant speed, so the gaps between vehicles remained
constant once cars were created.

To control gap generation, we created a computational object called a source that creates new
vehicles and injects them into the simulation. Our initial source produced a continuous stream of traffic
with gaps organized in logical blocks. Each block contained a random permutation of five different gap
sizes: 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, and 5 seconds. This ensured that subjects had a fair chance to see all
gaps. The source was placed a sufficient distance from the intersection that the cars did not pop into
view when they were created. A sink (an object that destroyed vehicles) was placed on the opposite
side of the intersection sufficiently far away that it was not apparent when objects were removed from
the simulation.
Gap Generation For Split Attention Scenarios
Our work to date has always used a highly simplified situation to assess how well children and adults
make road-crossing decisions cars always travel at the same speed, come only from the left-hand
side, and stay in the nearest lane. We have relied on this particular road-crossing scenario because we
wanted to examine childrens road-crossing behavior under the simplest of circumstances. Real-world
crossing situations can be considerably more complex requiring more complex perceptual judgments
and more difficult coordination of movement.

UNIT 2
Highway Capacity And Level Of Service:
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
CAPACITY: Capacity of a facility is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles

can reasonably be expected to traverse a point (or) uniform section of a lane or roadway during a
given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic and
control conditions.
BASIC CAPACITY: The maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a point on a lane or a
roadway during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway and traffic conditions which can
possibly be attained.
POSSIBLE CAPACITY: The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or a
roadway during one hour under prevailing roadway (or) traffic conditions is called possible capacity.
PRACTICAL CAPACITY: The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or
roadway during one hour without traffic density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard
or restriction to the drivers freedom.
IMPORTANCE OF CAPACITY:
The design of a highway facility is possible only where capacity is related to the projected
requirements of traffic. The design features governed by capacity are the highway type, number of
lanes, width of lanes, intersections and weaving sections.
By comparing the present traffic volume with the capacity of existing highway networks, their
adequacy or deficiency can be assessed. Improvement and changes in the geometric features, junction
features, traffic control devices and traffic management measures can be planned effectively if
capacity studies are considered.
Theoretical formula to determine capacity is given by the formula:
C=1000V/S
S=L+0.278Vt+ (V2/254f)
Where,
C=capacity in vehicles per hour per lane
V=speed in K.P.H
S=average spacing in meters of moving vehicles
L=length of vehicles in meters
t=perception reaction time in seconds
f=friction factor
g=acceleration due to gravity in m/sec2
FACTORS AFECTING CAPACITY:
Some of the important factors the affects the capacities of traffic lane are listed below:
1. Lane width: as the lane width decreases the capacity also decreases. The practical capacity of 3m
wide lane in two lane lane rural road may decreases to 76% of the capacity of a 3.5m lane.
2. Lateral clearance: vertical obstructions such as retaining walls or parked vehicles near the traffic
lane reduce the effective width of lane and thus result in reduction in capacity of lane. Further,
restricted lateral clearance effects driving comfort and increases rates. A minimum clearance of 1.85m
from the pavement edge to the obstruction is considered desirable so that
capacity is not affected adversely. When the distance from pavement edge to an obstruction decreases
to 0.75m on one side only, the capacity decreases to 96% and when this obstruction is on both sides,
the percentage further decreases to 80% of the standard design capacity.
3. Width of Shoulders: Narrow shoulders reduce the effective width of traffic lanes as the vehicle travel
towards the centre of the pavement. When vehicle in emergency (like that of a tyre puncture or other
breakdown) has to park on the shoulder of insufficient width, there is reduction in effective lane width
resulting in a great reduction in capacity of the lane.
4. Commercial Vehicles: Large commercial vehicles like truck and buses occupy greater space and
influence the other traffic in the same lane as well as the vehicle along the adjoining lanes. Also these
commercial vehicles may travel at lower speeds especially on grades.
5. Alignment: If the alignment and geometrics are not upto the desired standards, the capacity will
decrease. Particularly, restrictions to sight distance requirement cause reduction capacity. Steep and
long grades affect the capacity. When 60% of the road length has substandard OSD the capacity
decreases to 65% of the standard capacity.
6. Presence of Intersection At Grade: Intersections restrict free flow of traffic and thus adversely affect
the capacity. The capacity of an intersection of two road crossing at grade will be slightly less than the
road with the lower capacity of the two. At signalized intersections as the vehicles have to start stop

alternately to allow crossing traffic, the capacity of the intersection will be further decreased. In order
to provide consistent traffic flow and maximum capacity on important highways is necessary to plan
them as controlled access highways with grade separated intersections.
7. Other Factors which affect the capacity are the stream speed, one or two way traffic movement,
number of traffic lanes, vehicular and driver characteristics, composition of traffic and traffic volume.
IMPORTANCE OF CAPACITY IN HIGHWAY
TRANSPORTATION STUDIES:
An understanding of the capacity of a roadway in highly important to highway transportation engineer.
The following are some of the applications:

The design of a highway facility is possible only when capacity is related to the projected
requirements of traffic. The design features governed by capacity are the highway type,
number of lanes, width of lanes, intersections and weaving sections.

By comparing the present traffic volume with the capacity of existing highway networks, their
adequacy or deficiency can be benefitted by this assessment.

Improvement and changes in the geometric features, junction features, traffic control devices
and traffic management measures can be planned effectively if capacity studies are
considered.
CONCEPT OF LEVEL OF SERVICE:
A term closely related to capacity and often confused with it is service volume. When capacity gives a
quantitative measure of traffic, level of service or LOS tries to give a qualitative measure. A service
volume is the maximum number of
vehicles, passengers, or the like, which can be accommodated by a given facility or system under
given conditions at a given level of service.
For a given road or facility, capacity could be constant. But actual flow will be different for different
days and different times in a day itself. The intention of LOS is to relate the traffic service quality to a
given flow rate of traffic. It is a term that designates a range of operating conditions on a particular
type of facility. Highway capacity manual (HCM) developed by the transportation research board of
USA provides some procedure to determine level of service. It divides the quality of traffic into six
levels ranging from level A to level F. Level A represents the best quality of traffic where the driver has
the freedom to drive with free own speed and level F represents the worst quality of traffic. Level of
service is defined based on the measure of effectiveness (MOE). Typically three parameters are used
under this and they are speed and travel time, density, and delay.
One of the important measures of service quality is the amount of time spent in travel. Therefore,
speed and travel time are considered to be more effective in defining LOS of a facility. Density gives
the proximity of other vehicles in the stream. Since it affects the ability of drivers to manoeuvre in the
traffic stream, it is also used to describe LOS. Delay is a term that describes excess or unexpected time
spent in travel. Many specific delay measures are defined and used as MOE's in the highway capacity
manual.
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN EVALUATING LEVEL OF SERVICE:

Speed and travel time including the operating speed and overall travel time consumed in
travelling over a section of roadway.

Traffic interruptions or intersections with due consideration to the number of stops mile,
delays involved and the speed changes necessary to maintain pace in the traffic stream.

Freedom to manoeuvre to maintain the desired operation speeds.

Drilling comfort and convenience reflecting the roadway and traffic conditions in-so-far as they
affect drilling comfort and convenience of the driver.

Economy with due consideration operating cost of the vehicle.

Multilane Highways
Introduction
Increasing traffic flow has forced engineers to increase the number of lanes of highways in order to
provide good manoeuvring facilities to the users. The main objectives of this lecture is to analyze LOS
which is very important factor for a traffic engineer because it describes the traffic operational
conditions within a traffic stream. Also we are going to study the characteristics
and capacity for multilane highways. Free-flow speed is an important parameter that is being used
extensively for capacity and level-of- service analysis of various types of highway facilities.
Multilane Highways
A highway is a public road especially a major road connecting two or more destinations. A highway
with at least two lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each direction, with no control or partial control

of access, but that may have periodic interruptions to flow at signalized intersections not closer than
3.0 km is called as multilane highway. They are typically located
in suburban areas leading to central cities or along high-volume rural corridors that connect two cities
or important activity centers that generate a considerable number of daily trips.
Highway Classification
There are various ways of classification of highways; we will see classification of highways according to
number of lanes.
Two lane highways.
Multilane highways

Highway Characteristics
Multilane highways generally have posted speed limits between 60 km/h and 90 km/h. They usually
have four or six lanes, often with physical medians or two-way right turn lanes (TWRTL), although they
may also be undivided. The traffic volumes generally varies from 15,000 - 40,000 vehicles per day. It
may also go up to 100,000 vehicles per day with grade separations and no cross-median access. Traffic
signals at major intersections are possible for multilane highways which facilitate partial control of
access. Typical illustrations of multilane highway configurations are provided in Fig. 23:1 and 23:2
Highway Capacity
An important operation characteristic of any transport facility including the multi lane highways is the
concept of capacity. Capacity may be defined as the maximum sustainable flow rate at which vehicles
or persons reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway
during a specified time period under given roadway, traffic, environmental, and control conditions;
usually expressed as vehicles per hour, passenger cars per hour, or persons per hour. There are two
types of capacity, possible capacity and practical capacity. Possible capacity is defined as the
maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point in one hour under prevailing roadway and traffic
condition. Practical capacity on the other hand is the maximum number that can pass the point
without unreasonable delay restriction to the average drivers freedom to pass other vehicles.
Procedure for computing practical capacity for the uninterrupted flow condition is as follows:
1. Select an operating speed which is acceptable for the class of highways the terrain and the driver.
2. Determine the appropriate capacity for ideal conditions from table 1.
3. Determine the reduction factor for conditions which reduce capacity (such as width of road,
alignment, sight distance, heavy vehicle adjustment factor).
4. Multiply these factors by ideal capacity value obtained from step 2.
Level of Service
Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative term describing the operational performance of any
transportation facility. The qualitative performance measure can be defined using various quantitative
terms like:
1. Volume to capacity ratio,
2. Mean passenger car speed,( in km/h)
3. Density, (in p/kmln).
Basically any two of the following three performance characteristics can describe the LOS for a
multilane highway. Each of these measures can indicate how well the highway accommodates the
traffic demand since speed does not vary over a wide range of flows, it is not a good indicator of
service quality. Density which is a measure of proximity of other vehicles in the traffic stream
and is directly perceived by drivers and does not vary with all flow levels and therefore density is the
most important performance measure for estimating LOS. Based on the quantitative parameter, the

LOS of a facility can be divided into six qualitative categories, designated as LOS A,B,C,D,E,F The
definition of each level of service, is given below:
Determination of Level of Service
The determination of level of service for a multilane highway involves three steps:
1. Determination of free-flow speed
2. Determination of flow rate
3. Determination of level of service
Free-flow speed
Free-flow speed is the theoretical speed of traffic density, when density approaches zero. It is the
speed at which drivers feel comfortable travelling under the physical, environmental and traffic
conditions existing on an uncongested section of multilane highway, base conditions for multilane
highways are defined as follows:
1. Lane widths are 3.6 m.
2. Lateral clearance is 1.8 m.
3. A minimum of 3.6 m of total lateral clearance in the direction of travel. Clearances are measured
from the edge of the outer travelled lanes (shoulders included) and lateral clearance of 1.8 m or
greater are considered to be equal to 1.8 m.
4. No direct access points along the highway

TYPES OF LEVEL OF SERVICES

LEVEL OF SERVICE A:Free flow with low volumes and high speeds traffic density is low with
speedscontrolled by drivers, desired speed limits and physical roadway conditions. Little or no
restriction in manoeuvrability due to presence of other vehicles and drivers can maintain their desired
speeds with little or no delay.
LEVEL OF SERVICE B:Zone of stable flow with operating speeds beginning to be restricted somewhat
by traffic conditions. Drivers still have reasonable freedom to select their speed and lane of operation.
This level of service has been used in the design of rural highways.
LEVEL OF SERVICE C:Zone of stable flow, but speeds and manoeuvrability are more closely
controlled by higher volumes. Most of the drivers restricted in the freedom to select their own speed
lane changing or overtaking manoeuvres. A relatively satisfactory operating speed is still obtained and
may suitable for urban design practice.

LEVEL OF SERVICE D: Zone of unstable flow, with tolerable operating speeds being maintained
though considerably affected by changes in operating conditions. Fluctuations in volume and
temporary restrictions to flow may cause substantial drops in operating speeds. Drivers have little
freedom to manoeuvre. Comfort and convenience are low, but conditions can be tolerated for Short
periods of time.
LEVEL OF SERVICE E:Cannot be described by speed alone, but represents operations at even lower
operating speeds than in level D, with volumes at or near the capacity of highway. At capacity, speeds
are typically but not always around 50 K.P.H flow is unstable, and there may be stoppages of
momentary duration.
LEVEL OF SERVICE F: Forced flow operations at low speeds, where volumes are below capacity.
Conditions result from queues of vehicles backing up. Speeds are reduced substantially and stoppages
may occur for short or long periods of time. In the extreme, both speed and volume can drop to zero.

Freeway Operations
Introduction
A freeway is defined as a divided highway with full control of access and two lanes for the exclusive
use of traffic in each direction. Freeways were originally intended to serve longer trips of generally
regional and interurban character. Traffic on freeways differs from that on city streets and rural roads in
that it moves at higher speeds (depending on traffic conditions, design standards, etc.), more
smoothly, and at much larger rates of flow. Speed limits are generally higher on freeways, and are
occasionally non-existent. Because higher speeds reduce decision time, freeways are usually equipped
with a larger number of guide signs than other roads, and the signs themselves are physically larger.
Guide signs are often mounted on overpasses or
overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes. Access to freeways is typically
provided only at grade-separated interchanges, though lower-standard right-in/right-out access can be
used for direct connections to side roads. This chapter basically describes the capacity and level of
service. Later weaving phenomenon in has been described.
Basic features of freeway
Freeway provides uninterrupted traffic flow on a freeway. Traffic on freeway is free-flowing. All crosstraffic (and left-turning traffic) is relegated to overpasses or underpasses, so that there are no traffic
conflicts on the main line of the highway which must be regulated by traffic lights, stop signs, or other
traffic control devices. Specific features are:
1. There are no signalized or stop-controlled at-grade intersections.
2. Direct access to and from adjacent property is not permitted.
3. Access to and from the freeway is limited to ramp locations.

4. Opposing directions of flow are continuously separated by a raised barrier, an at-grade median, or a
continuous raised median.
5. The advantage of grade-separated interchanges is that freeway drivers can almost always maintain
their speed at junctions since they do not need to yield to vehicles crossing perpendicular to mainline
traffic.
A freeway is composed of following three components
1. Basic freeway segment
2. Ramp junction
3. Weaving areas
Basic freeway segment
Basic freeway are that part of segment of freeway which are outside of the influence area of ramps or
weaving areas of freeway. We can see in Fig.24:1 that a basic freeway segment is independent of the
ramps and weaving areas and the flow in such section occurs smoothly at the much larger rates.
Merging and diverging of traffic occurs where on-or-off ramps join the basic freeway segment. Weaving
occurs when vehicles cross each others path while travelling on freeway lanes. The exact point at
which basic freeway segment begins or ends- that is, where the influence of weaving areas and ramp
junctions has dissipated- depends on local conditions, particularly the level of service operating at the
time. If traffic flow is light, the influence may be negligible, whereas under congested conditions,
queues may be extensive.
Level of service (LOS) of a basic freeway segment
Level of service is defined as: qualitatively measures both the operating conditions within a traffic
system and how these conditions are perceived by drivers and passengers.
These operational conditions within a traffic stream are generally described in terms of service
measures as speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, and comfort and
convenience. The three measures of speed, density and flow are interrelated. If values of two are
known, the third can be computed. Six LOS are defined for each type of facility that has analysis
procedures available. Letters designate each level, from A to F, with LOS A representing the best
operating conditions and LOS F the worst. Each level of service represents a range of operating
conditions and the drivers perception of those conditions. Safety is not included in the measures that
establish service levels.
1. LOS A describes free-flow operations. Free-flow speeds prevail. Vehicles are almost completely
unimpeded in their ability to maneuver within the traffic stream. The effects of incidents or point
breakdowns are easily absorbed at this level.
2. LOS B represents reasonably free flow, and free-flow speeds are maintained. The ability to maneuver
within the traffic stream is only slightly restricted, and the general level of physical and psychological
comfort provided to drivers is still high. The effects of minor incidents and point breakdowns are still
easily absorbed.
3. LOS C provides for flow with speeds at or near the FFS of the freeway. Freedom to maneuver within
the traffic stream is noticeably restricted, and lane changes require more care and vigilance on the
part of the driver. Minor incidents may still be absorbed, but the local deterioration in service will be
substantial. Queues may be expected to form behind any significant blockage.
4. LOS D is the level at which speeds begin to decline slightly with increasing flows and density begins
to increase somewhat more quickly. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is more noticeably
limited, and the driver experiences reduced physical and psychological comfort levels. Even minor
incidents can be expected to create queuing, because the traffic stream has little space to absorb
disruptions.
5. LOS E describes operation at capacity. Operations at this level are volatile, because there are
virtually no usable gaps in the traffic stream. Vehicles are closely spaced leaving little room to
maneuver within the traffic stream at speeds that still exceed 80 km/h. Any disruption of the traffic

stream, such as vehicles entering from a ramp or a vehicle changing lanes, can establish a disruption
wave that propagates throughout the upstream traffic flow. At capacity, the traffic stream has no
ability to dissipate even the most minor disruption, and any incident can be expected to produce a
serious breakdown with extensive queuing. Maneuverability within the traffic stream is extremely
limited, and the level of physical and psychological comfort afforded the driver is poor.
6. LOS F describes breakdowns in vehicular flow. Such conditions generally exist within queues forming
behind breakdown points. Breakdowns occur for a number of reasons:
(a) Traffic incidents can cause a temporary reduction in the capacity of a short segment, so that the
number of vehicles arriving at the point is greater than the number of vehicles that can move through
it.
(b) Points of recurring congestion, such as merge or weaving segments and lane drops, experience
very high demand in which the number of vehicles arriving is greater than the number of vehicles
discharged.
In all cases, breakdown occurs when the ratio of existing demand to actual capacity forecast demand
to estimated capacity exceeds 1.00. The figures 24:2-24:7 given below gives a better idea of the LOS
classification done on the basis of density of the traffic stream.

UNIT 3
Parking Analysis And Traffic Safety:
Types of parking facilities:
1. On-street Parking
2. Off-street Parking
Common methods of On-street parking:
i) Parallel parking
ii) 30 degree angle parking
iii) 45 degree angle parking
iv) 60 degree angle parking
v) Right angle parking
Parallel parking consumes the maximum curb length width decreases as the angle of parking
increases. The minimum curb length is consumed by right angle parking, which accommodates nearly
2 times the number of vehicles as parallel
parking.
On the other hand, parallel parking makes the least use of the width of the street, and this is an
important consideration in narrow streets. As the angle parking increases the width of street used also
increases.
From the point of view of maneuverability, angle parking seems to be better than parallel parking
which usually involves a backing motion. Delay of traffic is minimum with angle parking.
As regards safety, it has been noticed that angle parking is more hazardous than parallel parking.
Considering the above, it is recommended that in general parallel parking should be favored on streets
.On exceptionally wide (wider than 20m) and low volume streets, consideration might be given for
angle parking

Traffic Regulatory Measures for On-street Parking:

Though on-street parking is an extravagant use of the precious street space, it cannot entirely
prohibited. A judicious application of appropriate traffic management measures will help mitigate some
of the ill-effects of on-street parking. These measures should be a part of the comprehensive parking
policy for the town, formulated after a careful survey of the situation. The regulatory measures range
from waiting restrictions in a street to the comprehensive control over an extended area, laying down
where vehicles may or may not park, what should be the waiting time and what charges should be
levied for parking.
When a controlled parking scheme is planned, the zone boundaries should be clearly delineated and
suitable traffic signs installed. Natural boundaries such as a river or a railway line could be
advantageously adopted. The carriageways should
be adequately marked.
Prohibited Parking- It is desirable to prohibit parking at certain locations and for a period to ensure
safety and convenience. Such locations are:
1. Near Intersections: The capacity of an intersection is greatly reduced if vehicles are allowed to
park on the approaches. Visibility is also adversely affected and safety is reduced. It is the general
practice to prohibit parking for a distance of about 50m on the approaches to a major intersection.
2. Narrow streets: Narrow streets with heavy traffic require that all possible measures should be
taken to remove obstacles to traffic flow. Prohibition of parking can have a salutatory effect on traffic
flow and congestion. In busy streets of the central area, it is generally desirable to prohibit parking on
two-way streets less than 5.75m wide and one-way streets less than 4.0m wide.

3. Pedestrian crossings: As already mentioned parking manoeuvres cause accident and pedestrians
are the worst sufferers. Parked cars obstruct the visibility at pedestrian crossings. For these reasons it
is desirable to prohibit parking within about 8m from the pedestrian crossing.
4. Structures: Structures such as bridges tunnels and under passes generally have a road ways width
less than the highway and for this reason it is desirable to prohibit parking on them.
5. Entrance drive ways: Vehicles should be prohibited from parking in front of entrance drive ways
leading to houses and buildings. The period for which the parking is to be prohibited should be
determined by a careful analysis of traffic conditions. Normally the period can be from 8am or 9am to
6pm or 7pm with relaxation on Sunday or such other closed days
Off-Street Parking Facilities:
On-street parking can only solve a part of the parking problem of major cities. For a satisfactory
answer, various types of off-street facilities become unavoidable.
The types of off-street facilities commonly considered are:
i) Surface car parks
ii) Multi-storey car parks
iii) Roof parks
iv) Mechanical car parks
v) Underground car parks
i) Surface car parks: Surface car parks properly located and developed on a piece of vacant land or
surrounding an office complex or super market, are very popular with the motorists. Great care is
needed in their design and operation. The overall aesthetics of the area should receive due attention.
A stall size of 2.5m * 5m is probably adequate for Indian conditions predominated by small size cars,
whereas for American conditions 2.6m* 5.5m is recommended.

ii) Multi-storey car parks:

Surface parks consume too much of the precious land in the heart of the city and are not, therefore,
always feasible. One of the alternatives when land is costly is to provide multi-storey car parks. Such
facilities have become common and popular in many cities.
Multi-storey car parks are designed for a capacity of about 400 to 500 cars. Larger capacity tends to
increase the time for unpacking a car. About five floors is also the upper limit for the same reason.
Some of the desirable standards for designing of the multi-storey car parks are:
i) Gradient of the ramp: 1 in 10 generally and 1 in 8 for very short ramps.
ii) Clear height between the floors: 2.1m
iii) Parking stall dimensions: 2.5m * 5m
iv) Inside radius of curves: 7m
v) Width of traffic lane on ramps and entrances: 3.75m
vi) Gradient of sloping floors: Not steeper than 1 in 20
vii) Loading standards: 400kg/m^2
The arrangement of the floors and the access ramps needs careful thought and a large number of
alternatives are available. Ramps are preferably made oneway. If two-way the they should be divided.
iii) Roof parks:

A very popular method of solving the parking problems adopted in many cities is to park the vehicles
on roof tops. Access ramps or mechanical lifts provide the necessary access to the roofs. To economise,
many roofs may be linked together served by a single access ramp. In addition to the ramps, extra
cost is involved in designing the roof tops and the structural elements for the parking load.
iv) Mechanical car parks:
Mechanical car parks provide for lifting of the cars from floor to floor by means of a lift and transfer of
cars to and from the parking stall by means of wheeling or mechanically operated transfer dollies or
cradles. The disadvantages are the higher maintenance costs and the possibility of breakdown due to
mechanical or power failure.
v) Underground car parks:
The great advantage of underground car parks is the least intrusion they cause to the aesthetics of a
place. Underground car parks can be single-storied or multi-storeyed though the latter tend to be very
costly.
Peripheral parking Schemes:
i) Park and walk
ii) Park and ride
iii) Kiss and ride
i) Park and walk: Under this the motorists are induced to park at the outskirts of the town and walk
down to the centre. The inducement is in the form of lower parking charges at the periphery than at
all.
ii) Park and ride: This scheme provides for peripheral parking facilities and public transport side to
the destinations in the town centre. The cast of peripheral parking plus the charges for to and fro
journey by bus should be less than the cost of travel by his
car plus the charges for parking at the town centre.
iii) Kiss and ride: This scheme derives its name from the good-bye kiss of a wife dropping her
husband in the car in the morning near a bus stop from where the husband goes to work by a bus. The
reverse operation takes place in the evening.
effects of parking:
Congestion
Parking takes considerable street space leading to the lowering of the road capacity
Speed will be reduced
Journey time and delay will also subsequently increase
Operational cost of the vehicle increases leading to great economical loss to the community
Accidents
Careless maneuvering of parking and un parking
Environmental pollution
Stopping and starting of vehicles while parking and unparking results in noise and fumes
Affect the aesthetic beauty of the buildings
Cars parked at every available space create a feeling that building rises from a plinth of cars.
Obstruction to fire fighting operations
Parking requirements:
Residential plot area
Less than 300 sq.m require only community parking space.
For residential plot area from 500 to 1000 sq.m, minimum 1/4th of the open area should be reserved
for parking
Offices may require at least one space for every 70 sq.m as parking area
One parking space is enough for 10 seats in a restaurant
Theatres and cinema halls need to keep only 1 parking space for 20 seats.
Parking characteristics:
The study is directed to note the present parking practices prevalent in the
area under consideration and the general problems in parking. In case of kerb
parking, it is also necessary to study the parking pattern, interference to smooth
low of traffic and the accidents involved during parking and unparking
operations.
MULTI-STOREY CAR PARKING:
As surface parking consumes too much of the precious land in the part of a city it is always not
feasible. The probable alternative when the land is too costly is to provide multi storey car parking.
This has become common and popular facility in many metro Politian cities. Multi storey car parking is
designed for a capacity of 400-500 cars. Larger capacity tends to increase the time for unparking a car.
Due to this reason the upper limit for multi storied car parking is fixed as 5floors. It is possible to

construct multi storied garages to park a large number of cars at a time. It is necessary to provide the
interfloor travel facility for the vehicles, which may be either by elevators or by ramps.
Desirable standards for designing of the multi-storey car parks are:
_ Gradient of the ramp: 1 in 10 generally and 1 in 8 for very short ramps.
_ Clear height between the floors:2.1m
_ Parking stall dimensions: 2.5m * 5m
_ Inside radius of curves: 7m
_ Width of traffic lane on ramps and entrances: 3.75m
_ Gradient of sloping floors: Not steeper than 1 in 20
_ Loading standards: 400kg/sq.m
PARKING STUDIES:
The demand by automobiles users of parking space is one of the major problems of highway
Transportation, especially in metropolitan cities. In industrial, commercial and residential places with
multi-storied buildings, parking demand is particularly high. Parking studies are useful to evaluate the
facilities available.
Parking space inventory:
First step in parking study is to collect data on the amount, type and location of space actually or
potentially available for parking in an area. Area to be surveyed should first be delineated. Central
business districts where the parking spills over should also be included in the survey. Survey area is
then subdivided on a street by street basis and the sub divisions marked on map.
Sketch plans of the streets are then prepared in advance. The data on parking facilities should be
recorded on the sketch plans using suitable symbols. The items to be recorded should include the
following
1. Total no. of kerbs, and lengths governed by no waiting and limited waiting restrictions
2. No. of parking space provided in the street.
3. Street width
4. Number and type of traffic signs for regulation of parking
5. Vacant or unused land for temporary or permanent parking space
Parking survey by patrol method:
Purpose: The purpose of parking usage survey is to obtain data on the extent of usage of parking
spaces the survey will include counts of parked vehicles at regular intervals through a period, covering
both the morning and evening peak period on
the parking accumulation and turn-over.
The survey can be for on-street and off-street parking the general methodology for both the surveys is
similar though minor details can be different. The method consists of making periodic observations of
parked vehicles on each patrol. For off- street observations, the entire parking space can be patrolled
or, alternatively, the entrances and exits may be observed continuously.
Parking surveys:
To collect the parking statistics
in-out survey
fixed period sampling
license plate method of survey
in-out survey:
Occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning
Number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is counted
Number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken
Final occupancy in the parking lot is also taken
Data regarding the time duration for which a particular vehicle used that parking lot cannot be
obtained
Parking duration and turnover is not obtained
Parking fare cannot be estimated
Fixed period sampling
Similar to in-out survey
All vehicles are counted at the beginning of the survey
Count is again taken at fixed time intervals of 15 min. to 1 hr.
Chances of missing the number of vehicles that were parked for a short duration.
License plate method of survey:
Results in most accurate and realistic data
Every parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes or so and the license
plate number is noted
down

 Data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was using the parking bay is
obtained
If the time interval is shorter, then there are less chances of missing short-term parkers, and
this method is very
labor intensive.
QUESTIONARIES TYPE PARKING USAGE SURVEYS
The questionnaire types parking usage survey involves interviews with the drivers who use the parking
facilities. As a
result, it is possible to collect information on the extent, to which the existing facilities are being used,
the parking
requirements at the prices existing at the time of survey, the parking demand at different prices, the
distribution of demand
over area and time and the journey purpose of car parkers.
The survey can either be made by making enquiries amount of car owners living in the vicinity of the
survey area, or by
the making enquiries amount the drivers of car seen to park in the area at the time of the survey. [5]
CORDON COUNT
In this method, to be surveyed is demarcated by a cordon line which is crossed by the roads
emanating from the area.
Counting stations are established at these crossing points and a count is made of all the vehicles
entering and living the area.
The difference between two traffic gives the numbers of vehicles parked or in motion in the area. The
counting can be manual
or automatic.
Parking Accumulation: Parking accumulation is defined as the number of parked vehicles in an
area at any specified moment. It can be divided into journey purpose categories.

Parking accumulation is governed by the type of generator or attractor. If the generator is a residential
area then the parking will start depleting say after 7.00 am or 8.00 am depending upon the size of the
city and will remain at minimum level during most of the day time period (say between 10.00 am and
17.00 pm). After 17.00 pm it will start increasing and will remain at the maximum throughout the night
time period. If it is a case of dedicated office parking spaces or a cordoned commercial area, then the
parking will be nearly nil at the start of the day and will peak around 10.00am. It will more or less
remain at that level throughout the day. Afternoon dip may be observed if some employees leave for
lunch. In areas where population size is big (say > 500000) lunch time dips may not be observed. In
case of commercial area the peak will be delayed to 11.00am with the start of the commercial service
users. In case of entertainment area, the peaks will be observed as per the entertainment activity
provided in that area. If it is movie halls then it will take periodic dips and ups every time a movie ends
or starts. If it has food courts and branded outlets then the peak will be towards evening or late
evening.
The accumulation in area only measures the vehicles that area counted at parking lots or spaces but
doe not include the vehicles which remain moving between places at the time of count. In case of
cordoned areas it may account for 15 to 30% vehicles.
The ratio of peak to average accumulation is a measure of the efficiency with which facilities are used.
The peak parking demand may be estimated as:
D = (NKRPPr)/O
Where, D = parking demand, spaces
N = size of activity, measured in appropriate units like floor area
K = portion of destinations that occur at any one time
R = person-destinations per day per unit of activity
P = proportion of people arriving by car

O = average automobile occupancy

Pr = proportion of persons with primary destination at the designated study location

Parking Load : The integration of the parking accumulation curve, over a specified time period,
determines the parking load, in vehicle hours per specified time period.
Parking Volume : Parking volume defines the number of vehicles involved in a parking load i.e.
vehicles per specified time period.
Parking Duration : Parking duration is the length of the time period that a vehicle spends in
parking, in minutes or hours.
Parking Turnover : Parking turnover is the rate of use of parking spaces and is obtained by dividing
the parking volume by the number of parking spaces for a specified time period.
Parking Index: Parking index is another measure to determine the use of parking spaces and is
expressed as a percentage of the theoretically available spaces actually occupied by parked vehicles.
parking Index=
Accident Studies
Objectives of accident studies

Some objectives of accident studies are listed below:

To study the causes of accidents and suggest corrective measures at potential location

To evaluate existing design

To compute the financial losses incurred

To support the proposed design and provide economic justification to the improvement
suggested by the traffic engineer

To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the problem.

Causes of accidents

There are four basic elements in a traffic accident:

i) The road users
(ii) The vehicles
(iii) The road and its condition, and
(iv) Environmental factors-traffic, weather etc.
The road user responsible for the accident may be the driver of one or more vehicles involved,
pedestrians or the passengers. Vehicles involved in the accident may also be defective. The condition
of the road surface or other existing geometric features or any of the environmental conditions of the
road may not be upto the expectation causing an accident. To sum up, an
accident may be caused due to a combination of several reasons and seldom due to one particular
reason. Hence it is often not possible to pin point a particular single cause of an accident.
Various causes of accidents may hence be listed as given below:
(a) Drivers : Excessive speed and rash driving, carelessness, violation of rules and regulations, failure
to see or understand the traffic situation, sign or signal, temporary effects due to fatigue, sleep or
alcohol.
(b) Pedestrians: Violating regulations, carelessness in using the carriageway meant for vehicular
traffic.
(c) Passengers: Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles.
(d) Vehicle defects: Failure of brakes , steering system, or lighting system, tyre burst and any other
defect in the vehicle.
(e) Road condition: Slippery or skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts and other damaged conditions
of the road surface.
(f) Road design: Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper lighting and improper traffic control devices.
(g) Weather: Unfavourable weather condition like mist, fog, snow, dust, smoke or heavy rainfalls
which restrict normal visibility and render driving unsafe.
(h) Animals: Stray animals on the road
(g)Other causes: Incorrect signs or signals, gate of level crossing not closed when required, ribbon
development, badly located advertisement boards or service station etc.
Accident data analysis
The purpose is to find the possible causes of accident related to driver, vehicle, and roadway. Accident
analyses are made to

develop information such as:

Driver and Pedestrian: Accident occurrence by age groups and relationships of accidents to physical
capacities and to
psychological test results.
Vehicle: Accident occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle, severity, location and extent of
damage related to vehicles.
Roadway conditions: Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to characteristics of the
roadway and roadway condition and relative values of changes related to roadways.
It is important to compute accident rate which reflect accident involvement by type of highway. These
rates provide a means of
comparing the relative safety of different highway and street system and traffic controls. Another is
accident involvement by the type of drivers and vehicles associated with accidents.
1. Accident Rate per Kilometer : On this basis the total accident hazard is expressed as the
number of accidents of all types per km of each highway and street classification.

where,R= total accident rate per km for one year, A=total number of accident occurring in one year,
L= length of
control section in kms
2. Accident involvement Rate : It is expressed as numbers of drivers of vehicles with certain
characteristics who were
involved in accidents per 100 million vehiclekms of travel.

where, R= accident involvement per 100 million vehiclekms of travel, N= total number of drivers of
vehicles involved in
accidents during the period of investigation and V= vehiclekms of travel on road section during the
period of investigation
3. Death rate based on population : The traffic hazard to life in a community is expressed as the
number of traffic fatalities per 100,000 populations. This rate reflects the accident exposure for entire
area.

where, R= death rate per 100,000 population, B= total number of traffic death in one year and P=
population of area
4. Death rate based on registration : The traffic hazard to life in a community can also be
expressed as the number of
traffic fatalities per 10,000 vehicles registered. This rate reflects the accident exposure for entire area
and is similar to
death rate based on population.

where, R= death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered,B = total number of traffic death in one year and
M= number of
motor vehicles registered in the area
5. Accident Rate based on vehiclekms of travel : The accident hazard is expressed as the number
of accidents per 100 million vehicle km of travel. The true exposure to accident is nearly approximated
by the miles of travel of the motor vehicle than the population or registration.

where, R= accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C= number of total accidents in one
year and V= vehicle kms of travel in one year
Safety measures related to engineering:
a)Roaddesign: The geometric design features of the road such as sight distances, width of pavement,
horizontal and vertical alignment design details and intersection design elements are checked
corrected if necessary. The pavement surface characteristics including the skid resistance values are
checked and suitable maintenance steps taken to bring them upto the design standards. Where
necessary by-passes may be constructed to separate through traffic from local traffic .To minimize

delay and conflicts at the intersections, it may be essential to design and construct grade separated
intersections or fly overs.
b) Preventive maintenance of vehicles: The braking system and lighting arrangements of vehicles
plying on the roads may be checked at suitable intervals and heavy penalties levied on defective
vehicles. These measures are particularly necessary for public carriers.
c) Before and after studies: The record of accidents and their patterns for different locations are
maintained by means of collision and condition diagrams. After making the necessary improvements in
design and enforcing regulation, it is again necessary to collect and maintain the record of accidents
before and after the introduction of preventive measures to study their efficiency.
d) Road lighting: Proper road lighting can decrease the rate of accidents during night, due to poor
visibility. Lighting is particularly desirable at intersection, bridge sites and at places where there are
restrictions to traffic movements.
Safety measures related to enforcement
The various measures of enforcement that may be useful to prevent accidents at sports prone to
accidents are enumerated here. The motor vehicle rules are revised from time to time make them
more comprehensive.
a)Speed control: To enable drivers of buses to develop correct speed habits tachometers may be
fitted so as to give the record of speeds. Also surprise checks on spot speed of all fast moving vehicles
should be done at selected locations and timings and legal actions on those who violate the limits
should be taken.
b) Traffic control devices: Signals may be re-designed or signal system be introduced if necessary.
Similarly proper traffic control device like signs, markings or channelizing islands may be installed
wherever found necessary.
c) Trainingandsupervision: The transport authorities should be strict in testing and issuing license
to public service and taxis. Even the drivers who have passed the requisite tests should be kept under
supervision and be trained in proper defensive driving. Driving license of the driver may be renewed
after specified period, only after conducting some tests to check whether the driver is fit.
d) Medical check: The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals,
say, once in three years.
e) Special precautions forcommercial vehicles: It may be insisted on having a conductor or
attendant to help and give proper direction to drivers of heavy commercial.
f) Observance of law and regulation: This is one of the most essential steps in enforcement for
prevention of accidents. Traffic or transport authorities should send study group of trained personnel,
assisted by police to different locations to check whether the traffic regulations are being followed by
the road users and also to enforce the essential regulations. The study group can provide useful data
for deciding about the necessary of revision of certain traffic regulations.
Safety measures related to education
a) Education of road users: It is very essential to educate the road users for the various
precautionary measures to use the road way facilities with safety. The passengers and pedestrians
should be taught the rules of the road, correct manner of crossing etc. This may be possible by
introducing necessary instruction in the schools for the children. Posters exhibiting the serious
result due to carelessness of road users may also be useful. The Indian Roads Congress has recently
prepared Highway Safety Code and the document on Road Safety for school children and an Instruction
Manual on Road Safety Education is under preparation.
b) Safety drive: Imposing traffic safety week when the road users are properly directed by the help of
traffic police and transport staff is a common means of training the public these days. Roads users
should be impressed on what should and what should not be done, with the help of films and
documentaries. Training courses may be conducted for drivers. The IRC has been orgainsing Highway
Safety Workshop in different regions of the country

UNIT 4
Traffic Control, Regulation Signal Coordination:
TRAFFIC SIGNALS
At intersection where there are a large number of crossing and right-turn traffic, there is possibility of
several accidents as there cannot be orderly movements. The earlier practice has been to control the
traffic by means of traffic police by showing stop signs alternately at the cross roads so that one of the
traffic streams may be allowed to move while the cross traffic is stopped. Thus the crossing streams of
traffic flow are separated by time, segregation. Traffic signals are control devices which could
alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using red and green traffic light
signals automatically. The main requirements of traffic signal are to draw attention, provide meaning
and time to respond and to have minimum waste of time.
Advantages of traffic signals
Properly designed traffic signals have the following uses:
(1) They provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of most of the
intersections at grade.
(2) They reduce certain types of accidents, notably the right angled collisions
(3) Pedestrians can cross the roads safely at the signalized intersection.
(4)The signals allow crossing of the heavy traffic flow with safety.
(5) When the signal system is properly co-ordinated, there is a reasonable speed along the major road
traffic.
(6) Signals provide a chance to crossing traffic of minor road to cross the path of continuous flow of
traffic stream at reasonable intervals of time.
(7) Automatic traffic signal may work out to be economical when compared to manual control.
(8) The quality of traffic flow is improved by forming compact platoons of vehicles, provided all the
vehicles move at approximately the same speed.
Disadvantages of traffic signals:
(1) The rear-end collisions may increase.
(2) Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control system.
(3) Failure of the signal due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause confusion to the
road users.
The decision to install an automatic traffic control signal must be based on careful analysis of the
existing traffic data and on sound engineering judgment. The major emphasis in the criteria for signal
control is the volume of traffic entering the intersection and its crossing movements.
The various terms used in traffic signals are briefly explained here. The period of time required for one
complete sequence of signal indications is called cycle. A part of the signal cycle allocated to a traffic
movement or a combination of traffic movement is called phase. Any of the division of the signal cycle
during which signal indications do not change is called the interval. The engineer has to design the
signal with the sequence and duration of individual phases to serve all approaching traffic at a desired
level of service. The level service is measured by the vehicle delay, the queue length or the number of
vehicle backed up and the probability of a vehicle entering the intersection during the first green
phase after arrival. The capacity of a signalized intersection depends on physical factors of the roads

such as roadway width, number of lanes geometric design of intersection and also the green and red
phases of the traffic signal. On addition, the capacity is affected by operational and control factors
such as number of turning movement, number and size of commercial vehicles, pedestrian traffic,
peak hour demands, parking regulations , turn control, traffic signal characteristics and abutting land
use.
TYPES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Signals are classified into 3 types:
1) Traffic control signals
Fixed time signal: These are set to repeat regularly a cycle of Red , amber and Green lights.
Manually operated signal: These are operated manually by the employees of traffic department.
Traffic actuated (automatic) signal: Traffic actuated signals are those which the timings of the
phase and cycles are changed according to the traffic demand. In fully actuated traffic signals, the
detectors and a computer assigns the right of way for various traffic movements on the basis of
demand and pre determined programming. Its a very costly affair to be installed at all intersections.
2) Pedestrian signal: These are meant to give the right of way to pedestrians to cross a road, during
the walk period, when the vehicular traffic shall be stopped by red or green signal.
3) Special traffic signal: Flushing beacons are the typical example of traffic signal, which are meant
to warn the traffic. At flashing red signals, the drivers of vehicle shall stop before entering the nearest
cross walk at an intersection or at a stop line, when marked flashing yellow lights are caution signals
meant to signify that drivers may proceed with caution.
Types of traffic signal system:
There are four general types of coordination system for road networks as listed below
1. Simultaneous system In this system all the signals along the given road always shows the same
indication in same direction at the same time as the division of the cycle also same at all intersections.
This system does not work satisfactorily.

2. Alternate system In this system alternate signals or groups of signals show opposite in directions
in a route at the same time can be operated by a single controller only by reversing green or red
indicator connections at successive signal systems. This is considered to be more satisfactory than the
simultaneous system.
3. Simple progressive system Time schedule is made to permit as nearly as possible a continuous
operation of group of vehicles along the main road at a reasonable speed. The signal phases
controlling GO indications along this road is scheduled to work at the predetermined time scheduled.
The phases and intervals at each signal installations may be different but each signal unit works as
fixed time signal with equal single cycle length.
4. Flexible progressive system In this system it is possible to automatically vary the length of
cycle, cycle division and time schedule at each signalized intersection with the help of a computer. It is
the most efficient system of all the four types described above.
5. Special traffic signals Beacons are typical example of special traffic signal which are meant to
warn the traffic. At flashing red signals the drivers of vehicles shall stop before entering the nearest
cross work at intersection or at a stop line, when marked flashing yellow signals are caution signals
meant to signify that driver may be proceed to caution.
SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING DIAGRAMS
1. Stop time or red phase R1 of a signal is the sum of go and clearance intervals or green and amber
phases for the cross flow i.e., (G2+A2) at a two phase signal. During this interval, the pedestrian
crossing time may also be incorporated for the road, if turning movements are not permitted.
2. Towards the end of red phase, there may be short duration when the amber lights are puton along
with red light signal in order to indicate get set to go. This phase is the last parts of red phase itself
and may be called red amber or initial amber. The vehicles are not supposed to cross the stop line
during red amber period.

3. Clearance time or clearance amber phase is provided just after the green phase before the red
phase, to fulfill two requirements:
i. Stopping time for approaching vehicle to stop at stop line after the signal changes from green to
amber and not to cross
the line by the time the signal changes to red phase.
ii. Clearance time for the vehicle which is approaching the stop line at legal speed while the signal
changes from green to amber, allowing sufficient time for the vehicle to cross the intersection area as
it may not be possible for the vehicle to stop before the stop line at that stage. Usually 2.0 to 4.0
seconds would be suitable for the amber phase.
4. Go time or green time is decided based on the approach volume during peak hour and to enable the
queued vehicles to clear off in most of the cycles.

R: Red
G: green
A: Amber
TS1: Traffic signal on road1
TS2: Traffic signal on road2
PS: Pedestrian signal

SIGNAL DESIGN BY WEBSTER METHOD:

In this method the optimum signal cycle (c0) corresponding to least total delay to the vehicles at the
signalized intersection has been worked out. This is a rational approach and the field work consists of
finding
The saturation flow (s) per unit time on each approach of the section
The normal flow (q) on each approach during the design hour.
Based on the higher value of normal flow the ratios y1= (q1/s1) and
y2= (q2/s2) are determined on the approach roads 1 and 2.
In case of mixed traffic it is necessary to convert all the normal flow and saturation flow values in
terms of suitable PCU values which should be determined separately.
The saturation flow is to be obtained from careful studies by noting the number of vehicles in the
stream of compact flow during the green phases and the corresponding time intervals precisely.
In the absence of data the approximate value of saturation flow is estimated assuming 160 PCU Per
0.3m width of the approach.
The normal flow of the traffic is also determined on the approach roads from the field studies for the
design period. (During the peak or off peak hours as the case may be).
The optimum signal cycle is given by Co= 1.5L + 5/ (1-Y) seconds
Where
L= total lost time per cycle in seconds
L = 2n+R
n= no. of phases
R= all red time
Y = y1 + y2+ y3+yn. Are the maximum ratios of flow to saturation flow for
phases 1, 2..n ( i.e. q/s where q = flow and s is saturation flow)
Green time in approach road no. 1= (y1/Y) (Co -L)
Green time in approach road no. 2= (y2/Y) (Co -L)
Signal Warrant Studies
How are traffic signals warranted?
Traffic signals are valuable devices for the control of vehicle and pedestrian traffic. However, because
they assign the rightofway to the various traffic movements, signals exert a profound influence on

traffic flow. Properly located and operated control signals may provide for the orderly movement of
traffic, increase the traffichandling capacity of an intersection while
reducing the overall capacity of the roadway on which it is placed and reduce the frequency of certain
types of accidents. After extensive study and analysis, the Federal Highway Administration developed
the 11 traffic signal warrants contained within the Manual On Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).
These 11 warrants define minimum conditions under which signal installations may be justified. The
Manual suggests that traffic control signals should not be installed unless one or more of the signal
warrants are met. However, the satisfaction of a warrant or warrants is not in itself justification for a
signal. Every situation is unique and warrant guidelines must be
supplemented by the effects of specific site conditions and the application of good engineering
judgment. Installation of a traffic signal should improve the overall safety and/or operation of an
intersection and should be considered only when deemed necessary by careful traffic analysis and
after less restrictive solutions have been attempted.
Warrant 1 Minimum vehicular volume Traffic volumes on intersecting streets exceed specified values
for any 8 hours on an average day.
Warrant 2 Interruption of continuous traffic The traffic volume on a major street is so heavy that
traffic on a minor intersecting street suffers excessive delay or hazard in entering or crossing the major
street. Specified values are exceeded for any 8 hours on an average day.
Warrant 3 Minimum pedestrian volume The vehicular volumes on a major street and the pedestrian
volumes crossing that street exceed specified values for any 8 hours on an average day.
Warrant 4 School crossing Inadequate gaps exist in traffic for schoolchildren to cross at established
school crossings.
Warrant 5 Progressive movement Signalization is necessary to maintain proper grouping or
platooning of vehicles and effectively regulate group speed.
Warrant 6 Accident experience The number of reported accidents potentially preventable by a signal
exceeds a specified value. Additionally, volume requirements of warrants 1, 2 or 3 are 80% satisfied
and less restrictive solutions have been attempted.
Warrant 7 Systems This warrant encourages concentration and organization of traffic flow networks.
Warrant 8 Combination of warrants No single warrant is satisfied, but warrants 1 and 2 are satisfied to
the extent of 80% or more.
Warrant 9 Four Hour Volumes In each of any four hours of an average day the hourly volumes on the
major street and the minor street exceed specified values.
Warrant 10 Peak Hour Delay For one hour of an average day the minor street traffic suffers undue
delay in entering or crossing the major street.
Warrant 11 Peak Hour Volume The peak hourly volumes on the major street and the minor street
exceed specified values for any one hour of an average day.
Listed below are general characteristics of traffic signals
Traffic control signals that are properly located, operated and maintained may have one or
more of the following advantages:

Signals may provide for the orderly movement of traffic by assigning rightofway to conflicting
movements of traffic.

Signals may increase the traffichandling capacity of an intersection by permitting conflicting

streams of traffic to share the same intersection.

Signals may reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents, especially rightangle
(broadside) collisions.

Signals may provide for continuous movement and progression of traffic through coordination
with surrounding traffic signals.

Signals may interrupt heavy traffic to allow both vehicular and pedestrian traffic to cross.
Traffic control signals may have one or more of the following disadvantages:

Signals may increase delay both overall intersection delay and/or specific movement delay.

Signals may encourage the use of alternate and/or less adequate routes by drivers wishing to
avoid the signal.

Signals may encourage increased volumes of traffic on the minor street by drivers wishing to
use the signal.

Signals may encourage disobedience and disregard of traffic control devices. (During periods
of lesser volume on the main street, drivers on the minor street may have sufficient gaps to
cross and/or enter traffic, but be prohibited from doing so by the signal.)

Signals may cause an increase in the frequency of certain types of accidents, especially
rearend collisions.

Signal can decrease the vehicle carrying capacity of the roadways on which they are placed.

METHODS OF SIGNAL COORDINATION

When considering traffic signal coordination, there are generally two environments that require
different approaches, traffic signals located either along a corridor or in a downtown area. The
technique differs in each case and is explained below.
CORRIDOR SIGNAL COORDINATION
Traffic signal coordination is provided along a linear study corridor to improve vehicle progression .
Traffic signal coordination depends upon the length of the corridor and the spacing of intersections in
the corridor. It is critical when developing a signal coordination plan to consider traffic operations of
the side streets. For very long corridors, it may be possible to divide the corridor into sub-areas and
establish a coordination plan for each sub-area.

Figure 7: - Linear Study Corridor

DOWNTOWN SIGNAL COORDINATION ONE-WAY

Typically, downtown roadway networks represent a closed grid structure with heavy traffic flow
patterns in various directions. It is often difficult to design effective signal coordination within a
downtown due to the directionality of the heavy traffic flow patterns. Sometimes roadways in a
downtown network are one-way in operation.
Under these circumstances, functional classificationand traffic volumes play an important role in
selecting a roadway for traffic signal coordination. Functional classification is the grouping of highways
based on the character of service they provide. There are four main functional classifications of
highways: freeway, arterial, collectors, and local access roads. Arterials and collectors can be further
divided into major and minor roads.
Traffic signal coordination on roadways serving the downtown area should be designed to favor the
heavier traffic flow direction. Typically, these roadways carry heavy traffic volumes into the downtown
during the weekday morning condition and out of the downtown area during the weekday evening
condition.

Figure 8: - Downtown Grid System.

simultaneous progression
Simultaneous progression works when
For very closely spaced signals, or for rather high speeds, it may be best to have all the signals turn
green at the same time.
The efficiency of a simultaneous system depends on the number of signals involved.

1 N 1 L
2 S C 100%

For N=4 (4 signals), L=400ft, C=80 sec, S=45fps, the efficiency is 16.7%. A very narrow band So
drivers tend to speed to clear as many signals as they can.

Alternating progression
Alternate progression works when
For certain block lengths with 50:50 splits and uniform block lengths, it is possible to select a feasible
cycle length that
C
L

2
S
L
L
2L

C
S
S
S

The efficiency is 50%, but with zero internal queues.

Forward or simple progression is for ideal situations when there is little internal queuing and the
green indications move down the system at the same speed as the traffic flow. As you can see from
the animation, it looks like a wave moving through the system, away from the left side.
Flexible progression
progression coordination changes during the day to meet the peak demand direction
When different progression schemes are used throughout the day in response to differing traffic
patterns you have flexible progression.

UNIT 5
Traffic And Environment :

Detrimental effects of traffic on the environment:

The following detrimental effects of traffic on our surrounding have been recognized to
be of importance to merit serious study:

(i) Safety
(ii) Noise
(iii) Air pollution
(iv) Vibration
(v) Visual intrusion and degrading the aesthetics
(vi) Severance
Safety of road users has been seriously endangered by the motor vehicle.
Air Pollution:Pollution of the atmosphere by fumes and smell emitted by the motor vehicles makes
the urban streets extremely unpleasant. With further growth of the vehicle population, the problem is
bound to assume serious proportions. In special situations such as in tunnels, ventilation is a major
use.
NOISE
Noise is unwanted sound. The increasing urbanization in cities and the growth of activities therein have
contributed to the mounting volume of noise, intruding upon the quite life and privacy of the urban
dwellers. The annoyance and the discomfort caused by noise can at times assume serious proportions
meriting urgent attention. Noise in cities is the result of a
number of activities such as road traffic, aircraft, railways and industrial and constructional works. The
traffic engineer is concerned with the abutment of noise generated by road traffic, which is often the
predominant source of annoyance.
Effect of Noise:
The detrimental effects of traffic noise can be considered under the following three major groups:
i) Subjective effects
ii) Behavioural effects
iii) Physiological effects
i) Subjective effects can be described by terms of annoyance, disturbance, dissatisfaction, bother
and noisiness. But these effects are difficult to be measured precisely, because a wide variation can
exist among subjects in describing what level of sound causes them annoyance or discomfort.
ii) Behavioural effects cover interference with sleep, speech or any general task. Disturbance in
sleep caused by noise is common in high noise areas. If the noise level is high, it takes longer time to
fall off to sleep and there are greater chances of awakening. Noise can cause interference in speech
and enjoyment of radio and TV programmes. It can cause disturbance in studies and intellectual
pursuits. The efficiency in performing general tasks involving mental activity can be impaired by noise.
iii) Physiological effects are those that cause startle or fright phenomena, and can result in harmful
effects on various parts of the body. At extremely high level and for long periods of exposure it may
produce deafness, but this danger may not be imminent at current levels of noise in cities.
Generation of noise by road traffic:
The generation of noise caused by traffic can be considered under the following categories:
1. Noise generated by various parts of the vehicle.
2. Noise contributed by the interaction between the vehicle and the road surfaces.
3. Noise dependant on the speed, flow and density of traffic.
An important source of noise generation is the vehicle itself. The elements that contribute to vehicle
noise are:
i. Engine
ii. Inlet
iii. Exhaust
iv. Propulsion and Transmission including gears
v. Brakes
vi. Horns
vii. Chassis
viii. Body Structure
ix. Loads in the vehicle
x. Door slamming
Some of the facts related to noise generation by vehicles are summarized below:
i) Motor cycles and scooters are generally noisier than passenger cars.
ii) Because of the large horsepower of the diesel engine and the heavy loads they carry, commercial
trucks are main source of noise.
iii) As vehicles grow older and their mechanical condition deteriorates, the noise generated becomes
more.
iv) The tyre and the road surface interaction is a major generation of noise. Smooth surfaces generally
produce less noise than rough ones.

v) As the traffic volume or flow increases, the noise level inevitably rises. Higher speeds also are
known to cause higher noise level.
vi) Noise levels increases due to acceleration.
Measurement of noise:
The unit of measurement of noise is decibel (dB), which is the unit of sound pressure level.
In order to account for ears response at low and high frequencies, different weighing filters, A, B and
C are used.
Peoples adjustment of what acceptable noise is and what is not varies.
Normally, noise having a level of not more than 60dB (A) will be rated by many as quiet. Noise levels
of 90 dB (A) and above will be rated by many as extremely noisy.
Control of traffic noise:
Techniques available for control of traffic noise can be considered under the following headings:
a. Changes in the design of vehicles
b. Changes in tyre/surface characteristics
c. Elimination of noisier vehicles
d. Modifications in traffic operations
e. Designing streets, buildings and areas for producing less noise.
a. Changes in design of vehicles: Legislative measures in enforcing vehicle manufacturers to design
the vehicles for a
maximum noise level can prove effective if they are enforced properly.
b. Changes in tyre/surface characteristics: Changes in tyre tread design and composition can
bring about a reduction in noise
level. Smoother surfaces result in less noisier roads. But this requirement is against the skid resistance
requirement.
c. Elimination of noisier vehicles: As vehicles become old, their noise level increases. Legislative
measures can prevent such vehicles from being used on the road.
d. Modifications in traffic operations: Some of the measures that are possible under this heading
are:
i) Rerouting of commercial vehicles and buses away from the predominantly residential areas.
ii) Providing bypasses and ring roads to siphon off the through traffic entering the towns.
iii) Providing synchronized traffic signals at street crossings to reduce the stopand- go traffic flow, and
consequently eliminating acceleration noise.
iv) Prohibiting blowing horns by proper signing and enforcement measures.
e. Designing streets, buildings and areas for producing less noise: These measures are
essentially town planning measures. Narrow streets create noise conditions, a situation commonly
known as the canyon effect. When planning new streets it is desirable to plan wider streets. A related
requirement is the height of buildings and set-back from the street. Noise screens such as grass, trees
or shrubs planted alongside the streets can serve as barriers to propagation of sound.
Pollutants due to traffic: The major source of the pollutant is the exhaust gas emitted by the
internal combustion engine, although evaporative losses from the fuel tank and the carburettor and
losses from the crank case account for some proportion of the hydrocarbons.
The following are the components of the exhaust gas:
Carbon dioxide
Water vapour
Unburnt coal
Organic compounds produced from the petrol
Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen
Lead Compounds
Carbon particles (smoke)
Effect of Pollutants:
Carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds are substances which are of concern from
the point of view of the road user and his health. Small doses of carbon monoxide are present in the air
due to traffic may not be a medical danger. Lead compounds in small concentrations are present in the
city streets may not be toxic, but the increase in the concentration may ultimately affect the well-being
of the residents. Smog is a result of the combination of smoke and fog and can cause hazards to
driving and irritation to the eyes.
Measures to reduce air pollution due to traffic:
The following are some of the measures for controlling air pollution from road traffic
(i) Reducing the pollutants at the source, which is the exhaust, the evaporation losses and crank case
losses, by improving the vehicle design and maintenance?

(ii) Use of small cars instead of bigger ones.

(iii) Patronage of public transport system, especially tubes and railways.
(iv) Use of alternative fuels and methods of propulsion.

v) Staggering work hours, to reduce peak hour traffic.

(vi) Institution of parking restraint to promote public transport.
(vii) Restraining traffic through road pricing.
(viii) Controlling idling engines, by insisting that engines should be stopped during traffic delays.
(ix) By constructing bypasses and ring roads to reduce traffic in the mid-town.