Moving About Dot Point

1.2 Average Speed VS Instantaneous Speed

Average speed is a calculated value equal to the total distance travelled divided by
the total time taken while instantaneous speed is the actual speed of a vehicle at a
particular point in time.

1.3 Scalar VS Vector

Scalar only has a magnitude while vector have both magnitude and direction. (mass
time speed) Vectors can be represented through vector diagrams. (force velocity
acceleration). Average velocity is determined by the change in displacement over
the change in time.

1.4 Distance VS Displacement

Distance is the total length of the path travelled by an object while displacement
indicates the shortest distance of a straight line and direction that a object travels.

2.3 Newton's First Law of Motion

An object at rest or moving with constant velocity will remain at rest or moving with
constant velocity while no net force acts on it. Positive force acts in the direction of
the moving object while negative force acts against the direction of the object's
motion. It is also known as 'Inertia.' Tendency of an object to resist change in
velocity.

Air Resistance and friction act against the objects motion, driving force cause
forward momentum and gravity gives the car it's weight and reaction force stops
the car 'sinking into the Earth.'

2.7 Average Acceleration

Change in velocity (v) / change in time (t) = (v-u)/t

2.9 Mass and Weight

Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It is a scalar quantity measured in kg.
Weight is a measure of the gravitational force acting on an object. W=mg, is
measured in Newtons and is a vector quantity acting downwards.

2.10 Forces Acting on Car in Different Scenarios

Horizontal Surface
Weight Force (downwards)
Friction Force (opposite direction of car)
Reaction Force (acting upwards)
Horizontal Surface (pressure on accelerator)
Friction Force
Forward Force
Weight Force
Horizontal Surface (pressure on brakes)
Friction Force on brake pads
Vehicle on Icy Path
No friction force
Weight and Normal Force are balanced
Vehicle Climbing a Hill
Driving Force is greater than frciton
Weight Force
Descending a Hill
Weight Force
Mgsin0 > Driving Force
Vehicle Following Curve on Horizontal Road
Forward Force
Retarding Forces (air resistance)
Turning force (friction between tyres and road perpendicular to direction of
travel)

2.11 Newton's Second Law of Motion

The acceleration of an object is proportionalto the unbalanced force acting on it and
inversely proportional to mass (F=ma).

2.14 Centripetal Force

F=mv2 / r

3.1 Relationship between work and kinetic energy

Work done by gravitational force will equal the kinetic energy the falling object
gains (and also equal the gravitational potential energy the object loses). Kinetic
energy equals to half x mass x v2 while work equals Force x displacement.

3.5 Law of Conservation of Energy

Sates that energy cannot be created or destroyed only transferred from one form to
another.

4.1 Momentum
Momentum equal to mass multiplied by velocity.

4.2 Impulse
Impulse equals change in momentum which is Force multiplied by time.

5.4 Assess reasons for introduction of low speed zones in built up

areas and addition of airbags and crumple zones to vehicles
a) Low speed zones cause a car to reduce the momentum the car contains. That
means that impulse would be less as well. This reduces that distance and time it
would take for a car to stop if needed and would create safer conditions for
pedestrians and other vehicles.
b) Airbags in a collision would help increase the impulse which an individual would
increase the time and distance for an individual to come to a stop. This would
reduce the force and impact of which the individual hits the surface due to the
miniature holes which allows to escape.
c) Crumple zones when a vehicle experiences a collision, to reduce the force
(impact) would have to reduce the acceleration gradually rather than at an instant.
Crumple zones reduce this force through increasing the stopping distance of the car.
Crumple zone to just this where they slowly crumple meaning the car slowly comes
to a halt.

Force and Newtons Laws of Motion

A force is a push and pull. Forces can start things moving, stop them or change their
speed or direction. Some types of force require contact (friction). However some
forces do not require contact (gravity). Force is a vector quantity and is measured in
newtons (N).
The force on an object due to the pull of gravity is called weight (W). The
magnitude of the weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass.

Gravitational Field Strength is defined as the force of gravity on a unit of mass.

W=Mg

Net Force is the sum of vector of the forces acting on an object. The normal
reaction is a force which acts perpendicular to a surface as a result of an object
applying a force to the surface.

Forces In and Out of Balance

Newtons First Law of Motion- every object continues in its state of

rest or uniform motion unless made to change by a non- zero net force. This
is expressed in acceleration in the direction of the net force. The acceleration
can take the form of a change in speed, direction or both.

Newtons First Law and Inertia

Inertia of an object is its tendency to resist changes to its motion. Inertia is not a
force while inertia of an object depends only on its mass. This can be stopped
through the use of seatbelts.

Weight- of car and acts through the centre of the mass

Normal Reaction Force- pushes up on all four wheels. Its magnitude

is usually greater at the front wheels than the rear wheels.

Describing Movement Textbook (Chap 9)

9.1- Distance and Displacement


Distance- measure of the total length of the path taken during the
change in position of an object (scalar quantity)

Displacement- measure of the change in position of an object (vector

quantity)

When adding vectors the sum of the two initial vectors is represented
through the resultant vector, from the tail of the first vector to the head of
the second one

9.2- Speed and Velocity

Speed is a measure of the rate at which an object moves over a

distance. This is calculated by distance travelled/time taken (scalar quantity)

Velocity is a measure of the time rate of displacement or the time rate

of change in position. Relative velocity is the difference between the velocity
of the object relative to the ground and the velocity of the observer relative
to the ground.

If travelling in same direction, you add the two velocity, however if

travelling in opposing directions you must subtract the velocities

Instantaneous speed of an object at any particular point while

instantaneous velocity is the velocity at one particular point (has a direction)

9.3- Acceleration

Acceleration- rate at which an object changes its velocity (vector

quantity). Therefore, average acceleration is the change of velocity/ time.

When subtracting vectors, flip the second vector to produce a negative

vector. Then you add the negative to the positive vector.

a = v/t Or a = (v u) / t

a = acceleration (m/s2), v = change in velocity (m/s), v = final

velocity (m/s), u = initial velocity (m/s), t = time (s)

Displacement/Distance Vs. Time Graph

This graph of displacement versus time being linear has a constant slope. Since the
slope represents velocity, then velocity is constant. So the object must be moving in
a straight line with constant velocity. The slope of a displacement versus time graph
is velocity. Both displacement and velocity are vectors. The slope of a distance
versus time graph is speed. Both distance and speed are scalars.

Vector Addition
Using the triangle method Two vectors, A and B, drawn to scale, are to be added.
1. Move one vector, in this case B, so that its tail touches the head of the other

vector, A.
2. The sum of the two vectors, known as the resultant vector, can be found by
drawing an arrow from the tail of one vector to the head of the other. The length of
the new arrow formed is the magnitude of the resultant vector and the direction of
the arrow is the direction of the resultant vector.
3. Trigonometry may need to be used to determine the magnitude and direction of
the resultant vector. Assuming that the vectors are drawn to scale, the size of the
resultant vector may be determined by simply measuring the length of the arrow
using a ruler. The angle of the resultant vector can be determined using a
protractor.
4. When adding three or more vectors, each additional vector (from the third vector
onwards) can be added to the previous two, tail to tip for as many vectors as
required, one at a time.

Vector Subtraction
1. Change the direction of the vector that is to be subtracted, so that it keeps its
original magnitude, but points in the opposite direction.
2. Add this new vector to the first vector using the vector addition methods

Newtons Laws of Motion

It states that a body will continue to move at a constant velocity or remain
stationary unless it is being acted upon by a net (resultant) force.
INERTIA:
Newton's first law of motion describes inertia. Inertia is short for Newtons first law.
Inertia was formulated by Galileo Galilei. Inertia is the properties that will make all
matter oppose any force that could potentially cause a change in its motion. Inertia
of a body can be measured by its mass.
MASS:
Mass is an intrinsic property of that body that never changes. Someones mass
stays the same if there on earth or the moon. The internal mass of an object
determines its acceleration in the presence of an applied force.
A net external force is needed to change the velocity of an object because a change
in velocity is an acceleration and a force is required to produce an acceleration. In
the absence of a net force, the velocity of an object will remain constant in
magnitude and direction.

Newtons Second Law of Motion

F net = ma

Force and acceleration are directly proportional, while mass and acceleration are
inversely proportional.

Newtons Third Law of Motion

For every action, theres and equal and opposite reaction.
For Newtons third law, action means force; reaction means a resulting,
opposing force.
Equal and opposite means equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
The action and the reaction are not exerted on the same object.
Together, the force and the resulting reaction force are called an action reaction
pair.

Normal Force
A normal force is the reaction force of a weight force. It is a result of Newtons third
law of motion. Importantly, the normal force always acts perpendicularly from a
surface and is always generated by the component of the weight force that is
perpendicular to the plane surface.

Mass and Weight

Mass is a numerical measure of its inertia; a fundamental measure of the amount of
matter in the object. Weight is the force of gravity on the object and may be defined
as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg.

Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object
changes its velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity. The
direction of the acceleration vector depends on two things:
1.

whether the object is speeding up or slowing down

2.

whether the object is moving in the + or direction

Friction and Air Resistance

Friction acts between objects rubbing or sliding together. Friction is always parallel
to the rubbing surfaces and always acts in the direction opposite to the (actual or

potential) sliding direction. There are two types of friction, static and kinetic friction.
Static friction- The friction that exists between two surfaces that is not moving
relative to each other.
Kinetic friction- The friction that exists between two surfaces that is moving
relative to each other.
Air resistance, also called drag, is the forces that are in opposition to the relative
motion of an object through the air. Drag forces act opposite to the oncoming flow
velocity. Drag, unlike other resistive forces, depends directly on velocity.

Forces Involved in Velocity Change of a Vehicle

A vehicle travelling at a constant velocity has zero net force on it .

The forward thrust produced by the engine is exactly balanced by

frictional forces opposing the motion

If the drivers foot is removed from the accelerator, the thrust produced
by the engine drops dramatically.

The frictional forces opposing the motion of the vehicle become the
dominant force and the vehicle slows down.

When the accelerator is pressed down, the forward acting thrust this
action produces exceeds (for a time) the opposing frictional forces

There is a net forward force and the car accelerates in that direction

As it gets faster, the friction increases until it equals the new thrust
produced by the engine - then the velocity becomes constant again

Pressing on the brakes ultimately increases the friction between the

tyres and the road in the direction opposing the cars motion

Usually when this is done by the driver, the foot is off the accelerator
and so the engine produces almost no force

The net force is in the opposite direction to the motion of the vehicle

The vehicle slows down

Friction between the tyres and the road is greater when the tyres are
not skidding

ABS on cars senses when the tyres begin to skid and release the brake
pressure, helping to maintain maximum frictional force between the tyres and
the road


There are some frictional forces such as air resistance opposing the
motion of the car in this circumstance

Because there is almost no friction between the tyres and the road, it
becomes almost impossible to speed up, slow down or change direction while
traversing the ice

Following a Curve in the Road

The force required to cause an object to move in a circle is called a centripetal force.
If the car is travelling at a constant speed, the centripetal force required to make
the car round the curve of a given radius depends on the mass and the velocity of
the car.
The tighter the curve the larger the centripetal force needed to successfully drive
around it.
The faster the cars speed the larger the force needed to round the curve.
The more massive the car the larger the force needed to round the curve.

Section 3- Moving vehicles have kinetic energy and energy

transformations are an important aspect in understanding
motion
Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work. It may exist in a variety of
forms and may be transformed from one type of energy to another.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy states that energy may neither be created nor
destroyed. Therefore the sum of all the energies in the system is a constant.

Collisions
Mechanical interaction between two or more objects that results in an exchange of
energy. The different ways in which energy is exchanged or transferred allow
collisions to be classified as elastic or inelastic. An elastic collision conserves total
kinetic energy. An inelastic collision does not conserve the total kinetic energy of a
system. The kinetic energy of the system is lost and is converted into other forms of
energy, such as heat, sound and potential energy.

Work and Energy

Work is always done when a force acts on a body and causes motion. Work done =
force acting distance moved in direction of force (W (J) = F(N) s (m)) Work can

be done by a force or against a force. When work is done by a force, that is, when
the body moves in the same direction as the acting force, positive work has been
done. However, when work is done against a force, that is, when the body moves in
the opposite direction to that of the force, negative work has been done.

Energy
The energy stored in an object is the measure of its capacity to do work. Energy can
exists in many forms; mechanical, height, potential and kinetic.
Potential energy which is possessed by a body because of its relative to a fixed
position reference point, often the Earths surface. Potential energy can be
calculated by (P.E = mgh)
Kinetic energy is energy possessed because an object is in motion, and again is a
ability of the object to do work. The kinetic energy of a moving object is equal to the
amount of work done to bring the object to rest. K.E = 12 mv2
Most inelastic collisions, in this case traffic accident, will result in conversion of
kinetic energy to sound, heat and damage to the vehicle. The more inelastic a
collision, the more kinetic energy is converted and more damage will be done as a
result.

Section 4 - Change of momentum relates to the forces

acting on the vehicle or the driver
Momentum = mass x velocity OR p = mv

Newtons Laws and Conservation of Momentum

If objects collide, they both experience equal and opposite forces which will cause a
change in the velocity of the masses. This change in velocity of the masses will
cause an acceleration on each.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
By direct application of Newtons laws we discover that during a collision in a closed
system, momentum is conserved. Law of conservation of momentum, i = f

Section 5- Safety devices are utilised to reduce the effects

of changing momentum
During a collision, the vehicle is often brought to rest very rapidly. The large inertia
of the means the vehicle will be difficult to stop. Also, the inertia of the passengers

causes them to continue to move forward although the vehicle may have stopped.
With safety, this could potentially cause serious injuries to passengers of the
vehicle.
During a collision, the change in momentum is often large, as the car is often
brought to rest (zero velocity) from a high velocity. By lengthening the time of the
change of momentum, the net force experienced by the vehicle will be reduced
according to the impulse equation.
Kinetic Energy
Safety features in modern cars crumple zones, are designed to absorb kinetic
energy in a crash. As energy cannot be created or destroyed, when a car brakes its
kinetic energy changes into heat energy. The brakes heat up and then transfer the
energy to the surroundings. Modern cars also have safety features that absorb
kinetic energy in collisions. These typically include air bags and crumple zones.
Crumple zones deform the vehicle which increases the amount of time the person
takes to come to a stop. This reduces the acceleration and force on the person, so
reducing injury.
Low Speed Zones
Even a small difference in vehicle speed can make a large difference to the
probability of serious injury. If a car hits a pedestrian at 50 km/h the car driver is
twice as likely to kill the pedestrian than if the car hits a pedestrian at 40 km/h.
For every extra kilometre per hour of speed:
the stopping distance increases.
the time to react and avoid a crash decreases.
the impact of a crash is more severe on the vehicle, driver, passengers and
pedestrians.
the likelihood of serious injury or death increases

Air Bags
Air bags are used in automobiles because they are able to minimize the effect of the
force on an object involved in a collision. Air bags accomplish this by extending the
time required to stop the momentum of the driver and passenger. If instead of
hitting the windshield, the driver and passenger hit an air bag, then the time
duration of the impact is increased.
Crumple Zones
the crumple zones are designed to compress and absorb the impact of a collision,
allowing the vehicle to change its motion over a longer period of time and over a
longer distance. The passenger compartment is the only area built rigid so that it
will not crush the occupants inside.

Seatbelts

In a crash, a person who is not restrained by a seatbelt will continue to travel

forward at the speed the vehicle was travelling prior to the crash, until something
stops them. This could be an impact with a solid object inside the vehicle, such as
the steering wheel, dashboard or windscreen. This reduces the injury that the
passenger could obtain if not wearing a seatbelt.