Computer Networ ks

1. Introduction to networks
Introduction
What is a network?
A network is formed when you connect things. Networks are all around us:

Towns and cities interconnected by roads and motorways

Computers exchanging data through cables
Mobile phones linked by radio
People gossiping

Most experts agree that a computer network is formed when two or more computers
communicate. However, there are some people who insist that you need three
computers to make it a real network.

Why use a network?

Benefits of computer networks
By interconnecting PCs, printers, faxes and other devices you can share information
and resources effectively and efficiently.
One printer shared between several PCs
Send email from one place to another in fractions of a second
Share useful files or databases with hundreds of people

Disadvantages of computer networks

People quickly become dependent upon networks.
If a shared printer breaks down it inconveniences several people
Email viruses can wreak havoc and cause loss of important files
If a vital central computer goes down, nobody can do any work

1. Introduction to networks

Scale
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WANs span large geographical areas, typically countries or
continents.
The telephone system
A banks secure ATM (cash machine) network
Satellite links between TV companies
Connections are made by copper or fibre-optic landlines, line-ofsight microwave radio, or satellite relay.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MANs connect sites around a town or city.
Town council offices
University campus network
Cable TV company
Connections are made by copper or fibre-optic landlines, line-ofsight microwave or high-frequency radio.

Local Area Network (LAN)

LANs connect computers within a building or site.
School or office network
Connections are made by copper or fibre-optic cable, infrared or
short-distance microwave radio.

Other terms
Other abbreviations are now creeping into popular use.
Campus Area Network (CAN): somewhere between a LAN and a MAN, this describes
connections over a village-sized area. Usually restricted to larger universities.
Tiny Area Network (TAN): used by some people to describe small networks within a
house or small office.

Computer Networks

Topology
Star
In a star layout, all computers are connected to a central hub.
Star networks allow computers to be connected & disconnected with
ease, so long as enough ports are available. However, if the hub
breaks then the entire network goes down.

Ring
In a ring layout, each computer connects to two neighbours to form
a loop. Messages are passed from computer-to-computer until they
reach their destination.
Ring networks are efficient and cheap but if one of the computers
breaks or is removed then the entire network goes down.

Mesh
Mesh networks connect many computers directly to each other.
This means faster communication, and provides alternative routes if
a computer or link breaks. However, more connections means mesh
networks are expensive to build.

Bus
A bus provides a common electrical connection for a number of
computers, but only two computers may communicate at the same
time otherwise there will be a signal collision.
Buses are very cheap and allow easy connection & disconnection.
However, buses tend to slow down with increased message traffic.

Extended Star (Tree)

The extended star design breaks the network into smaller star
configurations, each minor hub connected to a major hub.
Extended stars offer an economical, modular way of organising
networks. They are very common in modern network designs.

1. Introduction to networks

Relationships
Client-Server
A server program carries out work for client programs.
Server software is often located on a powerful, high-specification machine, allowing it
to serve many clients at once. For this reason, the computer itself is usually referred to
as a server. A range of server programs are available:
File server: stores files centrally
Print server: processes all printing for the network and sends work to
selected printers.
Internet proxy server: connects to an ISP on behalf of other computers on
the network, passing messages to-and-from the Internet.
Database server: allows simultaneous access to large database files.
Webserver: hands out webpages on request.
Mail server: stores and processes email; like a post office.
Domain controller: this manages security for the network, processing
passwords and deciding who can access services.
Client software is located on normal-specification computers, known as workstations.
Typical client software includes:
Web browser: requests webpages from a webserver.
Email client: sends and receives messages from a mail server.

Peer-to-Peer
When a computer is capable of acting as both client and server, we
call it a peer. Peer-to-peer networks contain computers that are requesting services
from each other.

Computer Networks

2. Network media
Electrical media
Plain copper wire
A pair of plain copper wires is a poor medium for electronic
signals, and is therefore rarely used in computer networking.

Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI)

When a signal current passes through a wire or circuit it creates small electrical
and magnetic fields. These fields can affect signal currents in other wires, or
other circuits, adding electrical noise to the signals, degrading them.
Long, plain copper wires are easily affected by EMI hence they should not be used
to carry computer signals more than a few of metres.

Co-axial Cable (Co-ax)

In co-ax a copper wire is surrounded by a copper screen.
This screen (usually a fine braid or mesh of copper
filaments) is connected to signal ground and it absorbs
EMI, protecting the signal wire from electrical noise.
Screen and signal wire are separated by plastic insulation.

Bandwidth
The closeness of the screen and signal wire creates an effect called capacitance.
This limits the range of frequencies bandwidth that may be carried
through the cable.

Attenuation
This capacitance and electrical resistance of the copper creates an impedance to
signals, measured in ohms per metre (/m), reducing the strength of the signal
over a long distance. This reduction is called attenuation and it is measured in
decibels (dB).

2. Network media

Co-ax offers high bandwidth, low noise & attenuation and is excellent for computer
networking over hundreds of metres. However, it is expensive to buy and install.
A range of different co-ax cables is available, identified by codes. Popular types used
for computer networking include RG-8 and RG-58.

Connectors
In networking, RG-8 thick co-axial cable is terminated with
N connectors. These bulky connectors are also used with radio
equipment.
RG-58 thin co-ax is usually terminated with BNC connectors1.
These are also associated with oscilloscopes, older video recorders
and radio equipment.

Twisted Pair (UTP & STP)

If pairs of plain copper wires are wrapped around each other
this helps cancel-out EMI. Twisted pair cables offer good
bandwidth but are not as good as co-axial cable. However,
this kind of cabling is very cheap to buy and install.
Twisted pair comes in two flavours: UTP (unshielded
twisted pair) and STP (shielded twisted pair). STP costs
more but offers better electrical characteristics.
The most popular kind of UTP used for networking is Category 5e (Cat5) cable.

Plenum cable
If you are installing a cable in an air duct, you must use a special fire-resistant,
low-smoke plenum version of the cable.

Connectors
The standard connector used with Cat5 cable is the
RJ45. After sorting individual wires into appropriate
channels the connector is crimped onto the wires.

It is often stated in textbooks that BNC is an abbreviation of British Naval Connector but the initials actually stand for
Bayonet Neill Concelman, a hybrid of designs by Paul Neill (N connector) and Carl Concelman (C connector).
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Optical media
Fibre-Optic
Optical fibre transmits signals as pulses of light along
a flexible glass tube. It does not use electricity, except
to power the transmitting and receiving circuitry at
either end.
Fibre optic cables have exceptional bandwidth, zero
EMI and very low attenuation and can carry signals
for miles. However, they are expensive to buy and
install.
Fibre optic cables come in two types: single-mode or multi-mode. Multi-mode cables
carry multiple signals at once and is cheaper but can only carry signals about a mile.
Single-mode cables are more expensive but are used for long-distance (up to 24 miles).

Connectors
There are two types of connector commonly used
with optical fibre. The SC is the most popular in
LAN networking.

2. Network media

Wireless media
Infrared
Infrared signals may be used for short-distance connections. However, they are easily
interrupted by bad weather or smoke, and offer a relatively slow method of connection,
typically less than 10 Mbps.

Radio
The most common kinds of wireless network use radio links. Radio technology has
been around for a hundred years and is becoming more popular for local area networks.

How radio works

A transmitter generates an electromagnetic field whose size varies at a set
frequency. This field spreads outward as an electromagnetic wave, which is
detected at a distance by a receiver tuned to respond to the selected frequency
only. Signals may be carried on this wave by making subtle modulations when
varying the field. Radio signals tend to be broadcast in all directions from an
antenna. However, parabolic dishes can be used to focus the wave into a
directed beam.
Higher frequencies allow more data per second to be modulated onto the wave, giving
increased bandwidth. However, higher frequency equipment costs more money.
Frequency ranges are reserved for commercial radio stations, emergency services,
mobile phones, etc. Typical radio frequencies used for computer networking include:
High frequency (3 MHz 30 MHz) for long-distance, low speed
communication. These waves may be bounced off the ionosphere
surrounding the Earth, allowing them to be sent over the horizon.
Microwave (1 GHz 100 GHz) for line-of-sight or short distance
communication. Line-of-sight means that the transmitters beam is focussed
directly on the receiver. Microwave dishes are seen on top of tall buildings.
There are three main ways the data signal is passed from place-to-place by radio wave:
Cellular radio uses overlapping cells (localised transmissions over a few
miles). Each neighbouring cell uses a different frequency so that a receiver
can be retuned as it moves from cell to cell. The most common example is
mobile phones, working in the UHF frequency range (300 MHz 3 GHz).
Satellite relay uses geostationary satellites outside the Earths atmosphere,
rotating around the planet so that they stay in the same place in the sky all
the time. Microwave signals are beamed at the satellite; the satellite then retransmits the signals to another location.

Computer Networks

3. Local Area Networks

LAN technologies
Ethernet
Ethernet also known as IEEE 802.3 uses a bus topology.

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection)

If two PCs attempt to transmit on the bus at the same time then data will be
garbled. This is called a collision.
When a collision occurs, both network cards generate a jamming signal to
ensure that the corrupted data is not accepted by other cards. Each card then
waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit.
Such designs are flexible but heavy usage results in slower access times. Also,
as more PCs are added to the bus the chance of collision increases, slowing
access even further.

10base-5 (Thick Ethernet)

10base-5 Ethernet uses RG-8 coaxial cable to form a bus, terminated at each end by a
resistive load (to stop signals reflecting at the end of the cable).
This bus can be tapped by a transceiver unit that connects to the AUI2 interface on the
network card, via a patch cable with 15-pin D connectors at each end.
RG-8 coaxial cable
transciever
terminator
AUI interface (DB15)

Thick Ethernet can carry a 10 Mbps transmission along a single bus up to 500m. As
many as four repeaters (signal regenerators) can be used to lengthen the bus to a total
of 2.5 km. This technology is slow, uses expensive bulky cable and is rarely used now.

The AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) is also known as the DIX (DEC / IBM / Xerox) interface.

3. Local Area Networks

10base-2 (Thin Ethernet)

10base2 Ethernet uses a bus made from RG-58 coaxial cable, tapped by T-piece BNC
connectors that connect directly to PC network cards.

Thin Ethernet can carry a 10 Mbps transmission along a single bus up to 200m length
(in reality 185m). Up to four repeaters can be used to lengthen the bus to a total of
1 km. Popular in the 1980s, this is slow, costly and is rarely used now.

10base-T
100base-TX (Fast Ethernet)
1000base-T (Gigabit Ethernet over Copper)
These Ethernet designs place the bus inside a hub, with Cat5 UTP patch cables
radiating to PCs. The design is known as a logical bus / physical star. The cables
connect to the hub and PC network card with RJ45 connectors.

hub
Cat5e UTP cable

10base-T and 100base-TX work at 10 and 100 Mbps respectively. The cables radiating
from the hub may be up to 100m long. This technology is cheap, fast and 100base-TX
is now the most popular form of connection for LANs.
1000base-T works at 1 Gbps but compatible equipment is still costly at present. Cat 5e
cable is capable of supporting gigabit transmissions but Cat 6 cable allows full duplex
transmission at this speed.

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Computer Networks

Twisted pair Ethernet uses Cat 5e cable and RJ45 connectors wired according to the
TIA-568A and TIA-568B schemes:

A patch cable (straight through cable) connects a computer to a hub and uses 568A at
both ends. Alternatively, some companies prefer to use 568B at both ends.
A crossover cable connects a computer directly to another computer (or a hub to
another hub) and uses 568A at one end and 568B at the other.

1000base-FX (Gigabit Ethernet)

Houses the bus in a hub, with radiating fibre-optic cables. These are usually used to
interconnect other hubs in an extended star design.

Token Ring
Despite their name, token ring designs usually use a logical ring / physical star
arrangement. Each PC connects with two wires (send and receive) to a central hub
called an MAU (Multistation Access Unit). Token passing is used to regulate access.

Token passing
Only one PC at a time may speak on the network. This is controlled by passing
a token from machine to machine. The PC that wishes to speak hijacks the
token for its own use, releasing it either when it has finished speaking or after a
suitable time-out. Token passing is very efficient under lots of data traffic.

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3. Local Area Networks

Token ring
Token ring networks use STP cable to connect PCs to the MAU in a single, onedirectional ring. These networks may run at speeds of 4 Mbps, 16 Mbps, 100 Mbps or
1 Gbps but are more expensive to run than Ethernet networks and have therefore
declined in use over the last 20 years. Token ring is also known as IEEE 802.5

FDDI
FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface) uses fibre-optic cable to form a dual ring
network running at 100 Mbps or 200 Mbps. The lower speed uses the second ring for
redundancy, the higher uses both simultaneously.

Wireless technologies that are not LANs

These technologies are designed to replace direct cabling, machine-to-machine. They
cannot support more than two machines and are therefore not true networking
technologies.

IrDA
The IrDA (Infrared Data Association) standard for infrared devices was designed to
allow devices such as PCs, PDAs and peripherals to communicate. It is not normally
used for conventional LAN networking.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is designed for connecting computers and communications devices together
directly over very short distances typically up to 10 metres using 2.4 GHz radio
frequencies. It may be used to connect a laptop or PDA to a nearby network interface.
The rate of data communications is 700 Kbps, which is relatively slow.

Wireless LANs
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
Unlike Bluetooth, Wi-Fi was designed specifically for computer networking. There are
a range of 802.11 standards called 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, etc. defining the
exact details of Wi-Fi radio communication. The links also use 2.4 GHz frequencies
but run at rates up to 54 Mbps over short distances. Lower speed may be attained over
distances up to 200 feet away.
The latest Wi-Fi specification (802.11n) promises speeds up to 540 Mbps.

Wi-Max (IEEE 802.16)

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is essentially a variation
of Wi-Fi that has better performance over longer distances. Theoretically it can
broadcast at 70 Mbps for 30 miles distance but real-world tests suggest that 0.52 Mbps
over 35 miles is more typical.
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