RDBMS Material

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Relational DataBase Management System -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
Relational DataBase Management

System
Courses
Course Objective
In this course all the important aspects of Relation Database
Management System is covered in detail with appropriate examples.
Section 1 of this course covers how data and information was
organised before concept of database came into existense and then how
programming in computers changed dramatically after the introduction of
database systems. This section also talks about various database systems that
are available. Fuctions of RDBMS and role of DBA are also covered in detail.
Section 2 talks about tables and relationships. In this section the
reader would also get an insight on database normalizaton and the importance
of normalizing tables. Last topic in the section is Joins. By going thorugh joins
one would understand how data are fetched from two or more database tables
by applying joins.
Section 3 covers Structred Query Language (SQL). In this section
we would know more about how tables and databases are defined(DDL) and
how the data in the tables are maniuplated and controlled through data
manipulation language(DML) and data control language(DCL).
Course Content
1.
Introduction to Database Management Systems

i.
ii.
Types of Database Systems
iii.
Advantages of Database system
iv.
Functions of DBMS
v.
2.
Introduction - Approach to Data Management - from files to Database
Role of a Database Administrator
Basics of ERM & Normalization
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Relational DataBase Management System -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
i.
ii.
iii.
3.
Entity Relationship Modelling

Normalization - 1NF, 2NF & 3NF
Joins
Introduction to RDBMS & Structured Query Language

i.
ii.
Introduction to RDBMS & SQL - Overview

Introduction to Data Definition Language(DDL)
iii.
Introduction to Data Manipulation Language(DML)
iv.
Introduction to Data Control Language(DCL)
Courses
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Introduction to Database Management Systems -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS
1. Introduction to Database
Management Systems
Course Contents | Prev : Next
1.1 Introduction - Approach to Data Management- from files to

Database
A file is a collection of records or documents dealing with an
organization, person, area or subject. A file, in the computer world, is a self
contained piece of information available to the operating system or any
number of individual programs. In a computer, a file system is the collection of
files, where the files are placed logically for storage and retrieval.
1.1.1 File-Based System

Advantages of File Based system
File-based systems was the first method to store data in
computers. The data was stored and retrieved sequentially from
the disk.
File based systems are an early attempt to computerise the
manual filing system (organizing the files with the help of
papers). For example, a manual file can be set up to hold all the
details relating to a particular matter as a project, product, task,
client or employee. In an organisation there could be such files
which may be labeled and stored.
The manual filing system works good when the number of items
to be stored is small. It even works quite well when the number
of items stored is quite large and they are only needed to be
stored and retrieved. However, a manual file system crashes
when the referencing of files are not proper and processing of
information in the files is carried out.
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1.1.1 File-Based System

Drawbacks of File Based system
There were certain drawbacks in using the file-based approach
which will be discussed in detail using the below example.
Example:
In a university, a large number of students are enrolled and they
have the option of choosing the various courses. The personal details of
students, fees paid by them, the number and details of the courses available,
the number and the details of faculty members in various departments are the
separate files in the university system. Consider the effort to answer the
following queries.
Figure 1.0 : File Based System

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Annual fees paid by the students of Computer science

department.
Number of students requiring the transport facility from a
particular area.
This year's revenue from students as compared to last year.
Number of students choosing the different courses in different
departments.
As shown in Figure1.0, in a file-based system, different programs
in the same application may be interacting with different private data files.
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Thus the drawbacks of the file system are:

a. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency
Since data resides in different private data files, the file system
leads to uncontrolled duplication of data. This duplication leads to wastage of
a lot of store room. This also costs time and money to enter the data more than
once. For example, the address information of student may have to be
duplicated in transport details data file (Figure 1.0). The data in a file system
can become inconsistent if multiple persons modify the data concurrently. For
example, if any student changes the residence and the change is notified to
only his/her file and not to bus list. Entering wrong data is also another reason
for inconsistency.
b. Unanticipated Queries
Handling sudden/ad-hoc queries can be difficult in a file-based
system, because it requires changes in the existing programs. For example,
finding the number of faculty members(Faculty Details Data file in figure1.0)
who used the transport facility (Transport Details Data File in figure1.0) in this
year may be difficult as separate file system is used to store the details.
c. Data Isolation
Though data used by different programs in the application may
be related, they reside in isolated data files. For example, there is a relationship
between the course details (Course Details data file) and student details
(Student Personal Details data File), but they stand isolated as shown in Figure
1.0.
d. Concurrent Access Anomalies
In large multi-user systems the same file or record may need to be
accessed by multiple users simultaneously. Handling this in a file-based
system is difficult. For example, the transport details may be accessed by both
faculty and students simaltaneously (Figure 1.0)
e. Security Issues
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In data-intensive applications, security of data is a major concern.

Users should be given access only to required data and not the whole database.
The data in a file-based system can be made secure only by additional
programming in each application. For example, the student marks should be
accessed only by the faculty members and not by the fellow students (Figure
1.0).
f. Integrity Issues
In any application, there are some data integrity rules that need to
be maintained. These could be in the form of certain conditions/constraints on
the elements of the data records. In a file-based system, all these rules need to
be explicitly programmed in the application program. For example, the salary
structure of each faculty will be dependant on their designation as well as on
any other conditions which needs to be explicitly programmed (Figure 1.0).
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g. Recovery Issues
System failures or loss of connection to remote systems should be
dealt by the file system. In the event of operating system failure or "soft" power
failure, special routines in the file system must be invoked similar to individual
program failure. The damaged structures must also be corrected by the file
system . These may occur as a result of an operating system failure for which
the OS is not able to notify the file system, power failure or reset. The file
system must also record events to allow the analysis of systemic issues as well
as the problems with specific files or directories.For example, during the
admission process of students if there is a system failure, the non recovery of
data will cause issues (Figure 1.0).
It may be noted that, facing the above issues like concurrent
access, integrity security problems, etc., is possible in a file-based system.
Though all these are general issues of concern to any data-intensive
application (An application which processes huge volume of data
simultaneously), each application has to handle all these problems on its own.
The application programmer should bother not only about implementing the
application business process but also about handling these general issues.
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1.1.2 Database Approach

In order to overcome the limitations of the file-based approach,
the concept of database and the Database Management System (DBMS) was
introduced in 1960's.
The Database Management System (DBMS) is the System that
works on a database which is a static storage. The user interacts with database
through DBMS. The purpose of a DBMS is to provide an efficient way of storing
and retrieving the data quicker for both single-user and multi-user systems.
Database Management largely involves:
Storage of Data
Manipulation of the data
Access restriction for unauthorized users
We shall discuss in detail about this in the next section.
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Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS
Management Systems
1.2 Types of Databases

The following are the types of Data Bases.
Hierarchical Database Management System (HDBMS)
Network Database Management System (NDBMS)
Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
These topics would be covered in the next sessions
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1.2.1 Hierarchical Database Management System(HDBMS)
Figure 1.1 : Hierarchical Database Management System

A hierarchical database is controlled in pyramid fashion, similar
to the branches of a tree extending downwards.
The related fields or records are grouped together so that there
are higher-level records and lower-level records.
The root record is the parent record at the top of the pyramid. (i.e,
Segment which has no parent record).
A "leaf" is a segment with no children. In figure 1.2 leaf segment
is at the botton and it does not have children.
A child record maps to only one parent record to which it is
linked. In contrast, a parent record may have one or more child
records linked to it.
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Databases strive by moving from the top to down.

A record search is performed by starting at the top of the
pyramid and working down through the tree from parent to
child until the correct child record is found.
Example of HDBMS
Figure 1.2 : Animals Heirarchy

In Figure 1.2, Animals is the root record, Fish and Mammals are
the child records of Animals, Fresh Water and Marine are the sub child of
the Animals, Halibut, Rainbow Trout, Dog and Cat are the leafs.
Advantages
This database type can be accessed and updated rapidly because
of the tree-like structure and the relationships between records
are defined in advance.
Disadvantages
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Each child in a tree may have only one parent and relationships
or linkages between the children are not permitted, even if they
seem right from a logical standpoint.
Hierarchical databases are so firm in their design that adding a
new field or record requires that the entire database be
redefined.
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1.2.2 Network Database Management System(NDBMS)
Figure 1.3 : Network Database Management System

A network database seems more similar to a cobweb or
interconnected network of records.
Parents are termed 'owners' and Children are termed 'members'.
In network database, each child or member can have one or more
parents (or owners).
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1.2.2 Network Database Management System(NDBMS)

Example of NDBMS
In Figure 1.4, The Store node is parent or owner. Customer node,
Manager node and Salesman node are the children or members of the Store
node. They also act as the parent or owner of Order node, where in store,
customer, manager and salesman are interconnected. Items node has a single
parent or owner which is the Salesman node.
Figure 1.4 : Network representation in a Store Management
Advantages
A lot of connections can be made between the different types of
data and the network databases, and they work more flexibly.
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Disadvantages
Network databases must be described in advance.
There is a limit to the number of connections which can be made
between records.
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1.2.3 Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)

Relational databases connect the information (Data) in different
files by using common information elements (data elements) or
a key field.
Information (Data) is stored in different tables in relational
databases, each having a key field which is used to uniquely
identify each row.
Each table has a key field that uniquely identifies each row which
is the principle, and these key fields can be used to connect one
table of information (data) to another.
In relational databases, a relation is a table or file filled with data,
rows or records are termed as tuples, and columns are termed as
attributes or fields.
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Figure 1.5 : Relational Database Management System

The above Figure 1.5 shows the relationship between the Student
Table and Course Table. The primary key of Student Table ie Student ID and
the primary key of Course Table ie Course ID. These are referenced in the
StudentCourse Table (Refer to Section 2.2 for more details about primary key).
This table works as mapping between the student and course details and its
used to get the reports similar to the number of students taking up a particular
course etc.
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1.2.3 Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)

Example of RDBMS
Figure 1.6 : Tables in Relational Model

Please refer figure 1.6 which explains about RDBMS. It has three
tables (i.e Database1, Database2, Database3). All these three tables have a
unique column called Social Security No.(SSN*) which is identified as a Key
field to link all the three tables. This key field is used to uniquely identify each
row. This represents the relationship between the tables.
Advantage
The database server and application tools can be easily installed
and upgraded.
RDBMS permits multiple database users to access a database
simultaneously.
Authorization and privilege control features in an RDBMS permit
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the DBA (Database Administrator) to restrict the access to

authorized users and grant privileges to individual users
derived from the types of database tasks they need to perform.
RDBMSs support a generic language called "Structured Query
Language" (SQL). The SQL syntax is simple and the language
uses standard English language keywords and phrasing, making
it fairly intuitive and easy to learn.
Supports data independence
RDBMS is simple and flexible.
RDBMS is more effective since SQL is very easy to learn.
Reduces redundancy of information.
Disadvantage
Searching for a data or information can take extra time as
compared to other methods.
* SSN is the unique id or number given to each citizen in USA
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Advantages of Database system -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS
Management Systems
1.3 Advantages of Database system

As discussed in Sec1.1 file-based approach has certain
limitations which have been overcome by using DBMS. Let us see about it in
detail with an example for both file-based approach and DBMS.
Simple file processing system refers to the traditional approach
of handling the data for computer-based applications. DBMS is a replacement
of the manual file-based system.
Computers, initially designed for engineering purposes were
considered as a blessing, since they helped in efficient management. The
manual file work was transformed to computers in the file processing
environment. Processing became very effective and fast, but the file processing
systems have some drawbacks.
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Figure 1.7 : File Based System in a University

It is not mandatory to understand working of the file-system in
order to understand DBMS. However, a comparison between the file-system
and DBMS will definitely help us to understand the advantages of DBMS.
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Figure 1.7 presents a typical traditional file processing system. In
this Library, Examination and Course Enrollment are three different systems
used by the students of a university. They use Library application for lending
books from the library, Examination application for registering for the exams
and Course Enrollment application for course registration. Here each
application uses a data file called Course Enrollment data file which holds the
same information about the students course details. Even though the
enrollment content of three data files are the same it has been maintained
separately for each application. The important point being highlighted is that
the program and data are interdependent. As a result, if we make any change
in one of them, it will reflect on the other. For example suppose a student has
registered for a course via Course Enrollment application and the same
student gives incorrect course information in the examination application.
Since data is interdependent, here it leads to manual errors and incorrect
details. The designers and developers find it very difficult to make such
changes to the system. More details are given below:
All systems (including file processing systems) are created after a
detailed analysis of the requirements of the organizations. But it is not possible
to develop a system that does not need a change afterward. There are many
reasons for changes in a system. The main reason is that the users get the real
feel of the system only when they use it and not when they tell their
requirements to analysts or designers. The designers design and later develop
the system based on those requirements, but, when the system is developed
and presented to the users, only then they realize the mistakes in their
requirements.
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The developed system could turn out to be different from what
was expected, and the difference could be minor or major. We may also need to
make changes to a developed system due to change in requirements. For
instance, let us assume the bills are generated on a monthly basis in an
organization. If the company decides to bill the customers after every ten days,
it needs to make changes to the file processing system, since bills are generated
by the system.
Let us consider another example for changes in a system. Let us
assume that initially bills did not contain the address of the customer, and the
company wants the address also on the bill. It calls for a change in the system.
There could be many more such scenarios, and the system may undergo a
continous change.
So we need changes in the system, but due to program-data
interdependence these changes in the systems are very hard to make.
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Figure 1.8 : DataBase System in an University

The above figure shows different subsystems or applications in
an educational institution, like library, examination and course enrollment
system. There are different application programs for every subsystem.
However, the data for all applications is stored at the same place in the
database and all application relevent data and credentials are managed by the
DBMS. It is a classical database system environment and it introduces the
following advantages.
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a. Data Sharing
The data for different applications or subsystems is present in
the same location. So, data that is common among different applications need
not be stored repeatedly, as was the case in the file system based environment.
For example, all three systems of an educational institution shown in figure 1.7
need to store the student data. Here, the data like registration number, name,
address, father's name etc. that is common among different applications is
being stored repeatedly in the file based system environment, where as, it is
stored in the database system and is shared by all applications.
The interesting thing is that the individual applications are not
aware that the data is being shared and they do not need to. Each application
gets the impression that the data is being used only by it. However a change in
data through one application gets reflected in the other applications also. This
helps in saving storage space which could have otherwise been wasted in
redundant data storage.
b. Data Independence
Data and programs are independent of each other, so change is
one has no or minimum effect on the other. Data and its structure are stored in
the database where as application programs manipulating this data are stored
separately, the change in one does not necessarily affect the other.
c. Controlled Redundancy
This means that we do not have to duplicate the data
unnecessarily. We do duplicate data in the databases; however, this
duplication is deliberate and controlled.
d. Better Data Integrity

This is an important feature which validates the data being
entered in the database. Since the data is being placed at a central location and
managed by DBMS, it provides a conducive environment to check or to ensure
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that the data being entered into the database is actually valid.
Integrity of data is very important, since all the processing and
the information produced inturn are based on this data. If the data entered is
not valid, we cannot rely on the correctness of the results produced. The
business decisions are made based on the information present in the database
and invalid information leads to wrong decisions, and business inturn
collapses. In the database environment, DBMS provides many features to
ensure the integrity of data, hence we have more reliable data.
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1.3.1 Comparison of Files Base and Database system
Characteristics
File Based Approach
Database Approach
Data Redundancy
Data Consistency
Concurrent Access Anomalies
Security
Integrity
Recovery
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Functions of Database -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS
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1.4 Functions of Database

DBMS:
The following are the functions which are performed by a typical
a. Data Definition
The DBMS provides the functions to describe the structure of the
data in the application. These include defining and modifying the record
structure, the type and size of fields and the various constraints/conditions to
be satisfied by the data in each field.
Figure 1.9 : Example of Data Definition

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Example:
In Figure1.9 Attributes such as Name, Email Address,.., State are
the defined columns of the Student table. Each column has specific length, type
and rules applicable to the corresponding columns. So here Attribute (i.e
Columns) represents data elements and Length, Type, Rules represent the data
definitions.
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b. Data Manipulation
The DBMS must be able to handle requests from the users to
retrieve, update and delete the existing data in the database, and add new data
to the database .The DBMS performs these operations in the database .
c. Data Dictionary Management

The data dictionary stores the definition of data elements
(information elements) and their relationships.This information is called as
metadata.The metadata contains the definition of data, data type, integrity
constraints, relationship between data elements etc. Any change made in a
database structure is automatically reflected in the data dictionary. The DBMS
provides the data abstraction and it removes structural and data dependency
from the system.
d. Data Security & Integrity

Data integrity is an important component of information security.
It refers to the consistency and accuracy of data is stored in a database. Data
integrity ensures that the data entered into the database is accurate, valid, and
consistent. The DBMS includes the functions which manage the integrity and
security of data in the application. These can be easily invoked by the
application and hence the application programmer need not code these
functions in his/her programs.
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e. Data Concurrency & Consistency
The DBMS makes sure that multiple users can access the
database concurrently without compromising the integrity of the database. In
a single-user database, the user can modify data in the database without being
concerned that other users would modify the same data at the same time.
However, in multi-user database, several simultaneous transactions can
update the same data at same time. Transactions executing at the same time
should produce meaningful and consistent results. Hence, the control of data
concurrency and data consistency is a vital in multiuser database.
same time.
Data concurrency means that many users can access data at the
Data consistency means that each user sees a consistent view of

data, including visible changes made by the user's own transactions and
transactions of other users.
f. Data Backup & Recovery

The DBMS provides the backup and data recovery procedures to
ensure data safety and integrity. DBMS system provides special utilities which
allow the DBA to perform routine and special backup and restore procedures.
Recovery Management handles the recovery of the database after a failure.
g. Performance
Optimizing the performance of the queries is one of the important
functions of a DBMS. The DBMS has a set of programs that form the Query
Optimizer which evaluates the different implementations of a query and
selects the best among them.
Thus the DBMS provides a convenient and effective environment
to use when a large volume of data and many transactions are to be processed
in the environment.
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Role of a Database Administrator -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS
Management Systems
1.5 Role of a Database Administrator

The database administrator executes a critical role within an
organization. It is an very important and key role in Database Management
Systems. The major responsibility of a database administrator is to handle the
process of creating and maintaining the database of an organization. The
database administrator is responsible for defining the internal layout of the
database and for ensuring that the internal layout optimizes the system
performance.
The database administrator has the complete access to change all
important data of an organization. The database administrator decides what
data will be stored in the database and how to organize data in the database so
that it can be accessed easily on need basis. To design the database of an
organization, the database administrator must meet with users and identify
their requirements.
The database administrator is also responsible for preparing
documentation, including recording the procedures, standards, guidelines, and
data descriptions that are necessary for an efficient and continuous use of the
database. Documents should contain the materials to help end users, database
application programmers, the operation staff, and all personnel connected
with the database management system.
The database administrator is responsible for monitoring the
database environment; like whether the database is reaching the performance
standards, and ensuring the accuracy, integrity, and security of data.
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Apart from the roles and responsibilites mentioned in the
previous section, a database administrator also has the following
responsibilities:
Installing and upgrading the database server and application
tools.
Allocating database system storage and planning future
allocations based on volume.
Managing the requests from application developers to modify
database schemas. Generating user credentials.
Ensuring compliance to vendor license agreements.
Providing access privileges to users.
Monitoring and optimizing database performance.
Planning for periodic backup and recovery of data.
Maintaining data archives.
Contacting database vendors if required for any technical
support.
Generating reports as per requirements by firing queries.
Tuning the database (ie a group of activities to optimize and
homogenize the performance of a database).
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Figure 1.10 : Pictorial representation of DBA roles

The above figure depicts the different roles of the database
administrator, namely, creating primary storage structures, starting up and
shuting down the database, understanding the oracle architecture, Enrolling
and Monitoring Users, Granting and Revoking privileges, Managing the
database etc.

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2.Basics of ERM & Normalization
2.1 Entity Relationship Modeling

Introduction
The Entity-Relationship model (or ER model) is a way of
graphically representing the logical relationships of objects in order to create a
database. Creation of an ER diagram is the first step in designing a database. It
helps the designer(s) to understand and to specify the desired components of
the database and the relationships among those components. An ER model is a
graphical representation which contains entities or "items", relationships
among the entities and attributes of the entities and relationships.
The following are the three basic elements in the ER model.
Entities : Any objects or items
Attribute: The Attribute is nothing but a property of an entity
Relationships : The links between various entities
Let us take University database as an example and try to understand how ER
model is arrived at.
Example:
A university consists of a number of departments. Each
department offers several courses. Each course includes a number of modules.
Students enroll in a particular course and study modules towards the
completion of that course. Each module is taught by a lecturer from the
appropriate department, and each lecturer teaches a group of students.
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Entities
RDBMS

2.1.1 Entities
Entities are real world items or concepts that exist on their own
and are represented as objects or things of interest. An entity type is a
collection of entities that share a common definition.
Identify all nouns in our university example,
appropriate department, and each lecturer teaches a group of students.
This scenario consists of students, lecturers, modules, courses
and departments. So here the physical things(Physical things are those which
exist in this world, that we can touch, feel etc.) like students, lecturers and
abstract things(An abstract thing is an idea or a concept in your mind. It is not
something that you can physically reach out and touch, smell, hear, taste, see)
like modules,department etc., make an entity type. If we take students as an
entity type, then each student in the university is an entity. The entities are
represented as nouns in the description because they are objects or things.
We can touch an entity of physical things and feel the entity of
abstract things but an entity type is simply an idea. Student is an idea of
physical things (entity type) while Scott, Nancy, Lindsey, and Mackenzie are
touchable (Student names are entities). Department is an idea of abstract
things (entity type) while IT,CSE,ECE and CIVIL are entities.
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2.1.1 Entities
Entity Diagrams
In an E-R Diagram, an entity is usually drawn as a rectangle.
The box is labeled with the name of the entity type. The entities
identified in our example are shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 : Entities
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Weak Entity
If an entity depends on another existing entity then it is
considered as weak. A weak entity cannot be identified by its own attributes. A
weak entity is represented by double rectangles in E-R diagram.
Example:
SubModule is a good example for weak entity. The SubModule
will be meaningless without a Module entity and so it depends on the existence
of Module as shown in Figure 2.2
Figure 2.2 : Weak Entity
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Entity Relationship Modeling

2.1.2 Attributes
Attributes represent properties, facts, aspects or details of an
entity. There are attributes or particular properties that describe each entity.
In our University database each student in the university will
have a Student ID, Name, Course taken etc. Similarly each lecturer will have
his/her own properties of ID, Name, department etc.
Attributes will have a name, an associated entity and properties
of an entity. Attributes are often nouns also.
Attributes in ER diagram
In an E/R Diagram attributes are represented by an oval.
A line is used to link an attribute to its entity.
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RDBMS

2.1.2 Attributes
The figure below represents the entities and their corresponding attributes in the University database.
Figure 2.3 : Entities and Attributes
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2. Basics of ERM & Normalization
RDBMS

2.1.2 Attributes
Multivalued Attribute
A multivalued attribute is an attribute that has more than one
value attached to it. For instance if phone number and graduating degree are
the attributes of an Entity called Person, then those attributes could have
multiple values, as a person could have multiple phone numbers or could hold
multiple graduating degrees. We represent a multivalued attribute by double
oval in E-R diagram.
Single Valued Attribute: Attribute that holds a single value; in
Our example the attributes of Students such as Roll number, Age, Date of
Birth, City etc., can have only a single value.
In our example, a Student can have multiple phone numbers, and
so Phone number is a multivalued attribute.
Figure 2.4 : Multivalued Attributes
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RDBMS

2.1.3 Relationships
The association between two or more entities is called a
relationship. In our University database, each student studies several Modules
and each Lecturer teaches several Students. Here the entity types Student Modules and Lecturer - Students have a relationship. The Verbs most often
describe relationships between entities.
example:
Identify the verbs(relationships) in our University database

appropriate a department, and each lecturer teaches a group of students.
Each relationship has a name, a set of entities that participate in
it, a degree and a cardinality ratio. The degree is the number of entities that
participate in that relationship(most have degree 2, For example in figure 2.3
each Lecturer teaches several Students, so we can say that this relationship
has degree 2. Here the degree is 2 because it has two entities related to it).
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RDBMS

2.1.3 Relationships
Relationships in an ER diagram
Relationships are denoting links between two entities.
The name of the relationship is given in a diamond box (For
example Belongs to as shown in Figure 5.1).
Cardinality Ratio
shown:
Each entity can be involved in three types of relationships as
One to One (1:1)

Each student belongs to one University. We can illustrate this
ratio by writing ones on the lines indicating the relationship as
shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 : One-one Mapping

The notation for the 1:1 relationship is shown in Figure 2.6.
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Figure 2.6 : One-one Mapping
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RDBMS

2.1.3 Relationships
Cardinality Ratio
One to Many (1:M)
A lecturer teaches many students, and this One to Many
relationship is illustrated in figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 : One-Many

The notation for the 1:M relationship is shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8 : One-Many
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RDBMS

2.1.3 Relationships
Cardinality Ratio
Many to Many (M:M)
Each student takes many modules, and each module is taken by
many students as shown in figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9 : Many-Many
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RDBMS

2.1.4 Making E/R Models
Till now we have seen how to identify the basic elements in an ER
Diagram. Finally, to make an E/R model you need to identify:
Entities
Attributes
Relationships
Cardinality ratios
Now lets see how an ER model will look like when all these
elements are put together. The final ER Model of our University database is
shown in the Figure 2.10. In this figure we have shown the entities and the
relationship between the entities which depict the complete ER model of a
University. Here Department, Course, Module, Lecturer and Student are the
entities.
The relationships in the Figure 2.10 are defined as Department
Offers many Courses and those two entities have One to Many relationship. A
Department Assigns Many Lecturers(One(1) To Many(n)). Each Lecturer
teaches Many Students(One(1) To Many(n)). Every Student takes several
Modules(Many(n) To Many(n)). Every Module includes Many Courses(Many(n)
To Many(n)). A Course is enrolled by Many Students(One(1) to Many(n)).
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2.1.4 Making E/R Models
The ER Model for the above example is given below:
The complete ER Model for our University database will be as
shown in the diagram below. It is an Integrated ER model containing the
Entities and Relationships for a University database.
Figure 2.10 : University ER Model

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Summary
ER Diagrams play a major role in database designing.
The ER Diagrams act as a non-technical communication tool.
This tool is used by both technical and non-technical users.
Entities represent real world things; They can be conceptual as a
transaction or physical as a bank.
Figure 2.11 : ER Model Summary
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Introduction-Normalization
RDBMS
2.2 Normalization - First Normal Form, Second Normal Form and

Third Normal Form
The database design technique that is used to organize tables in a
manner that reduces redundancy and dependency of data is called
Normalization. It is the scientific process of decomposing complex
tables(Relations) into smaller and easily manageable tables. The use of
normalization is to accurately access data from database. Without
normalization, database systems can be inaccurate, redundant, slow and
inefficient. They might not produce the data that is expected. Listed below are
the advantages of normalization.
Advantages
Smaller, simpler and well-structured relations.
Avoids unnecessary duplication of data. That is, it helps to
reduce redundancy.
Provides data integrity.
Helps to avoid update anomalies. That is, it isolates data so that
additions, deletions, and modifications of a field can be made in
just one table. The changes are then propagated to the rest of the
database through the defined relationships.
Save storage space.
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Normalization
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Edgar Codd invented the relational model and he proposed the

theory of normalization with the introduction of First Normal Form. He
continued to extend the theory with Second and Third Normal Forms. Later
Edgar Codd joined with Raymond F. Boyce to develop the theory of Boyce-Codd
Normal Form(BCNF).
Theory of Normalization is still developing. For example, the
discussions on 6th Normal Form are in progress. However, in most practical
applications normalization achieves its best in Third Normal Form. The
evolution of Normalization theories is illustrated below:
Figure 2.12 : Normalization Evolution
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Primary Key
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Let's understand a few things before we proceed -What is a KEY ?
A KEY is a value used to uniquely identify a row in a table. It
could be a single column or a combination of multiple columns.
Note: The columns in a table that are NOT used to uniquely
identify a record or row in a table are called non-key columns.
What is a primary Key?
A primary key is a single column value that is used to uniquely
identify a database record.
Figure 2.13 : Primary Key

The primary key column in a table must always have a value.
The primary key column in a table cannot have duplicate values.
Each primary key value must be unique.
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Primary Key
The primary key values cannot be modified.

The primary key column should have a value when a new record
is inserted into the table.
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Primary Key
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Example:
The table below contains the details of students. Here studentId
is Primary Key which is used to uniquely identify the details of a student from
the table.
Figure 2.14 : Primary Key Illustration
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Composite Key
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Composite Key
If two or more columns are used to uniquely identify a record
then combination of those multiple columns constitutes a composite key.
In the Student table given below, we have StudentId, TestId and
Mark. Here one student can take multiple tests and one test can be taken by
multiple students. In this case in order to uniquely identify the mark of a
student in a test we require both StudentId and TestId. This is a composite key.
Student Table
StudentId
TestId
Mark
101
T001
400
101
T002
380
102
T001
290
103
T001
430
103
T003
410
103
T001
390
Table 2.1
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Functional Dependency
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Functional Dependency
In simple terms, functional dependency can be explained as
follows. If you know one attribute then you can get another attribute. Then
both these attributes are said to be functionally dependent. In the Student
table given below, we can get the attribute 'Name' if you know the attribute
'StudentId', then Name and StudentId are functionally dependent. Here we can
say StudentId is determinant and Name as dependent.
For example, let's consider the Student table given below. Table
2.2 stores student details(StudentId, Name, Languages Known), student's
department details (Dept_No, Dept_Name) and lecturer details
(LecturerInCharge, Designation) for Students.
In this approach, we keep repeating the languages known and
department details data for all the students in the same field. This is called an
UnNormalized table. Instead of storing the same data again and again, we
could normalize the data and create related tables.
Let's see how we can normalize the table,create related tables and
learn forms with the Student table(which is not normalized):
Student Table (UnNormalized Table):
Lecturer
StudentId Name Dept_No Dept_Name Languages Known
In
Designation
Charge
101
Kevin
D001
CSE
102
James
D002
ECE
English,Hindi,Tamil Jacobs Asst.Professor

English,Hindi
Williams
Professor
Table 2.2
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First Normal Form
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
2.2.1 First Normal Form
To move from unnormalized form to first normal form all multivalued attributes (called repeating groups) should be removed. The repeating
groups nust be eliminated. All attributes must be atomic.
Table 2.2 is not in 1NF since there are repeating groups (more
than 1 value in a field). The column "Languages Known" has(English, Hindi
and Tamil) in the Row(Tuple)1 and (English and Hindi) in the Row(Tuple) 2
.To satisfy 1NF we can create separate rows for each value in Languages
Known by duplicating the values in the remaining columns. Table 2.3
represents the same.
1NF Rules
Each column in a table should contain single value.
Each record needs to be unique as shown in Table 2.3
StudentId Name Dept_No Dept_Name
Languages Lecturer In
Designation
Known
Charge
101
Kevin
D001
CSE
English
Jacobs
Asst.Professor
101
Kevin
D001
CSE
Hindi
Jacobs
Asst.Professor
101
Kevin
D001
CSE
Tamil
Jacobs
Asst.Professor
102
James
D002
ECE
English
Williams
Professor
102
James
D002
ECE
Hindi
Williams
Professor
Table 2.3 : 1NF Form

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Second Normal Form
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
2.2.2 Second Normal Form
Partial functional dependencies must be removed. If two
attributes of a table are combined to form a composite key, then the non-key
attributes of that table must depend on both the attributes of the composite
key. They must not depend on one of the attributes, which is the part of the
composite key.
2NF Rules
Rule 1- The table should be in 1NF.
Rule 2- The Single Column must be used as Primary Key.
A relation in 1NF will be in second normal form (2NF) if there are
no partial dependencies.
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Partial dependency
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Partial dependency
It is the functional dependency on part of the primary key instead
of the entire primary key.
It is clear that we can't move forward to make our simple
database in 2nd Normalization form unless we partition the columns in Table
2.3. Here, assume that StudentId and Dept_No together act as the key
(Composite key). As per 2NF all non-key attributes must be dependent on
whole key.
In Table 2.3 the attribute 'Dept_Name' is functionally dependent
on whole key (StudentId+Dept_No). That is, you can get the department name
only if you know both StudentId and Dept_No. All other column attributes can
be identified by just providing 'StudentId'. So for all other columns StudentId
acts as the primary key. So split the table as given below to satisfy 2NF.
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Second Normal Form
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Student
StudentId
Name
Dept_No
101
Kevin
D001
102
James
D002
Table 2.4
Department
Lecturer
Dept_No Dept_Name
In
Designation
Charge
D001
CSE
D002
ECE
Jacobs
Asst.
Professor
Williams Professor
Table 2.5
Languages
StudentId
Languages known
101
English
101
Hindi
101
Tamil
102
English
101
Hindi
Table 2.6
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Second Normal Form
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Introducing Foreign Key
A foreign key is a field in a table that matches the primary key
column of another table. The cross-reference tables can be achieved by Foreign
Key.
In Table 2.7,Dept_No is the foreign Key
Student
StudentId
Name
Dept_No
101
Kevin
D001
102
James
D002
Table 2.7
Figure 2.15 : Foreign Key

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Second Normal Form
Foreign key refers primary key of another table. It helps to

connect the two tables.
The values of a foreign key and a primary key may be different.
The foreign key ensures that a row in a table is mapped to a
corresponding row in another table.
Foreign key does not have to be unique; most often it is not
unique.
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Foreign Key
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
Foreign Key
Figure 2.16 : Foreign Key Illustration

Why do you need a foreign key?
Integrity.
Foreign key is required in RDBMS for the concept of Referential
Referential integrity
It is a concept used in database to ensure that there is consistency
in table relationships. If one table has a foreign key to another table, then the
concept of referential integrity states that you cannot add a record to the table
that contains the foreign key unless there is a corresponding record in the
link/relationship with the other table.
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Referential Integrity
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
For example, consider the Figure 2.16 given in the previous page,
where Dept_No in the Student table is foreign key of Dept_No in Department
table. Here let's try to add a student with StudentId as "103" and Dept_No as
"D003" in Student table as shown below. But the entry for Dept_No "D003" is
not present in Department table which means we have added a student to a
department which does not exist. This leads to inconsistency of data across
related tables. Hence RDMS has the concept of referential integrity which does
not allow to add a record to the table that contains the foreign key unless there
is a corresponding record in the table to which it is linked.
Student
StudentId
Name
Dept_No
101
Kevin
D001
102
James
D002
103
Annie
D003
Table 2.8
Department
Dept_No Dept_Name
Lecturer In Charge
Designation
D001
CSE
Jacobs
Asst. Professor
D002
ECE
Williams
Professor
Table 2.9
Transitive functional dependencies
When changing a non-key column might cause any of the other
non-key columns to change, it is called transitive functional dependency.
Attributes that are not a part of the key must not depend on any non-key
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attribute.
Consider the table 2.9. Changing the non-key column Lecturer In
Charge , may change Designation. Here Dept_No acts as the key. All other
columns are non-key attributes. As per 3NF non-key attributes should not be
dependent on any other non-key attributes but 'Lecturer In Charge' is
dependent on 'Designation'. Both Lecturer In Charge and Designation are nonkey attributes. So it forms transitive dependency. So, to satisfy 3NF let's split
the table in a short while.
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Third Normal Form
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
2.2.3 Third Normal Form
Third normal form (3NF) is the third step in database
normalization and it builds on the first (INF)and second normal forms(2NF).
The Third Normal Form(3NF) states that all column references in

the referenced data that are not dependent on the primary key should be
removed. Another way of putting this statement is that only foreign key
columns should be used to reference another table, and the other columns
from the parent table should not exist in the reference table.
The Second Normal form(2NF) covers in case of multi-column

primary keys. 3NF is meant to cover single column keys as mentioned in
transitive functional dependencies above.
3NF Rules
Rule 1- The table should be in 2NF.
Rule 2- The table has no transitive functional dependencies which
is explained above.
We need to divide our table if it has to be moved from second
normal form(2NF) into Third Normal form(3NF). In table 2.1 Dept_No acts as
the key. All other columns are non-key attributes. The non-key attributes
should not be dependent on any other non-key attributes as per third normal
form. The 'Designation' is dependent on 'Lecturer In Charge' and these are non
key attributes in the Lecturer table explained. It forms transitive dependency.
So, to satisfy 3NF split the table as follows.
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Third Normal Form
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Third Normal Form
RDBMS

Third Normal Form
2.2.3 Third Normal Form
Student
StudentId
Name
Dept_No
101
Kevin
D001
102
James
D002
Table 2.10
Department
Dept_No
Dept_Name
LecturerId
D001
CSE
L01
D002
ECE
L02
Table 2.11
Lecturer
LecturerId LecturerName
Design
L01
Jacob
Asst.Professor
L02
Williams
Professor
Table 2.12
Languages
StudentId
Languages known
101
English
101
Hindi
101
Tamil
102
English
101
Hindi
Table 2.13
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Third Normal Form
Table 2.13
The example given above cannot be decomposed further to attain
higher forms of normalization because it is already normalized to the highest
level.Normally only complex data bases would need next levels of
normalization.
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RDBMS
2.3 Joins
What are Joins?
A join is a technique where records from two or more tables are
retrieved through a single SQL query and shown as a single output. As it forms
a set, It can be saved as a table or used as it is. A join is a means of combining
columns from two tables by using values common to both tables. It allow us to
combine data from more than one table into a single result set. A join condition
is used in the WHERE clause of select, update and delete queries.
Note: The query will give results from two tables as Cartesian
product(A Cartesian product is defined as all possible combinations of rows in
all tables). If join condition is omitted. The first table's rows are joined with all
rows of the second table. For example, if the first table has 30 rows and the
second table has 10 rows, the result will be 30 * 10, or 300 rows. This query will
take a long time to execute.
Let's use the two tables below to explain the join conditions.
Database table "Student"

StudentId
Name
Dept_No
101
Kevin
1001
102
James
1002
103
Jacobs
1001
104
Williams
1001
105
Jose
1003
106
Jack
1003
107
Rob
1004
Table 2.14
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2.3 Joins
Database table "Department"
Dept_No
Dept_Name
1001
CSE
1002
ECE
1003
EEE
1004
CIVIL
Table 2.15
In the above example the column that is common between both

the tables is Dept_No. Using Dept_No,the Student and Department tables can
be joined to combine data from both the tables as shown below.
Figure 2.17 : Joining of tables
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2.3 Joins
Lets consider a scenario to retrieve the details of student who
belong to 'CSE' department. We have to join two tables based on the common
column present in the two tables.
Figure 2.18 : Mapping data

Result: After joining two tables:
StudentId
name
dept_no dept_name
101
Kevin
1001
CSE
103
Jacobs
1001
CSE
104
Williams
1001
CSE
Table 2.16
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RDBMS
2.4 Summary
The Entity-Relationship model (or ER model) is a way of
graphically representing the logical relationships of objects in
order to create a database.
An ER model is a graphical representation which contains
entities or "items", relationships among them and attributes of
the entities and the relationships.
The database design technique which is used to organize tables
in a manner that reduces redundancy and dependency of data is
called as Normalization.
There are three forms of normalization. They are First Normal
form(1NF),Second Normal form(2NF) and Third Normal
form(3NF).
A key is a value used to uniquely identify a row in a table. One or
more columns could be used to form a key for a table.
A primary key is a single column value used to identify a
database record uniquely.
A composite key is a primary key derived by combining multiple
columns and is used to identify a record uniquely.
The field in a table which matches the primary key column of
another table is called as foreign key. The cross-reference tables
can be achieved by foreign key.
First Normal Form-The multi-valued attributes (called repeating
groups) should be removed i.e. elimination of repeating groups.
All attributes must be atomic.
Second Normal Form- Partial functional dependencies must be
removed. The attributes that are not a part of the key should be
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dependent on the entire key for that entity.

Third normal Form- States that all column reference in
referenced data that are not dependent on the primary
key(transitive dependency) should be removed.
Join is a means of combining fields from two tables by using
values common to both. It allows to combine data from more
than one table into a single result set.
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RDBMS
2.5 Webliography
http://jcsites.juniata.edu/faculty/rhodes/dbms/ermodel.htm
http://www.phlonx.com/resources/nf3/
http://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_join.asp
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Introduction Relational Data Base Management System (RDBMS) & Structured Query Language (SQL ) -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS
3. Introduction to RDBMS &

Structured Query Language
3.1 Introduction Relational Data Base Management System (RDBMS)

& Structured Query Language (SQL )
3.1.1 Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
A Data Base Management System that is based on a relational
model is called as RDBMS. Relational model is the most successfully used Data
Base Management System Model (DBMS) model.
Relational model represents data in the form of a table. A table is
a two dimensional array which contains rows and columns.
Consider a scenario of a college where we need to maintain huge
amount of student details. All these student details are stored in a table as
mentioned in Figure 3.1.
In Figure 3.1, (as discussed in Section 2 ER model) students is the
entity and Name is one of the attributes of this students entity. Other
attributes are RollNo and Phone. The table given below contains rows and
columns. Each row contains data related to an entity/students. Each column
contains the data related to an attribute.
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Figure 3.1 : Student Table
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RDBMS


3.1.1 Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
Figure 3.1 shows the data represented in relational model and the
terms that are used to refer to various components of a table. The terms
mentioned below are used in relational model.
Tuple / Row
A single row that is available in the table is called as tuple. Each
row in the table represents the data of a single entity. For example, in Figure 3.1
s1, Louis Figo, 454333 represents a row.
Attribute / Column
A column in the table stores an attribute of the entity. For
example, in Students table (Figure 3.1) Louis Figo, Rahul, etc. are the attributes
as highlighted in figure.
Column Name
Each column that is available in the table is given a name. This
name is used to refer to values in the column. In Students table (Figure 3.1),
RollNo, Name and Phone are the column names of the table.
Table Name
Each table is provided with a name. The name that is provided is
used to refer to the table. The name of the table depicts the contents of the
table. In the above Figure 3.1, Students is the name of the table.
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RDBMS


3.1.2 Structured Query Language (SQL)
Relational database management systems ( RDBMS) use SQL
(Structured Query Language) for data manipulation and retrieval. SQL is the
standard language for relational database systems. It is a non-procedural
language.
Non-procedural language requires the programmer to specify
what the program should do, rather than providing the sequential steps
indicating how the program should perform a task.
SQL Commands are divided into three categories, depending upon what they
do:
DDL (Data Definition Language)
DML (Data Manipulation Language)
DCL (Data Control Language)
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Introduction to Data Definition Language(DDL) -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS

3.2 Introduction to Data Definition Language(DDL)

Data Definition Language ( DDL) statements are used to create
and modify the structure of your tables and any other objects in the database.
Some of the DDL commands are CREATE, ALTER and DROP.
3.2.1 CREATE statement

A CREATE statement in SQL is used to create a table.
The general syntax of the CREATE statement is given below:
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
( column_name1 data_type constraints,
column_name2 data_type constraints,
...
column_nameN data_type constraints,
);
where,
table_name - is the name of the table
column_name1, column_name2,.... ,column_nameN- is the name
of the columns
etc.
data_type - is the data type for the column like char, date, number
constraints - constraints are used to validate or limit the type of

data that can go into a
https://aspire.tcs.com/aspire/courses/rdbms/module3/session3.2_introduction-to-data-definition-language_1.html
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table.
Constraints are optional for the columns.
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RDBMS


We will focus on a few constraints now:
NOT NULL
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
UNIQUE
NOT NULL: The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to not accept NULL
values. This means that this column must contain some value while inserting
or updating a record.
PRIMARY KEY: Primary key uniquely identifies each record in the database. So
a primary key column cannot contain NULL values.(Refer Section 2 for more
details about Primary Key).
FOREIGN KEY: A foreign key is a column in a table that matches the primary
key column of another table. The foreign key can be used to map two tables.
(Refer Section 2 for more details about Foreign Key).
UNIQUE: Unique constraints are used to make sure that no duplicate values
are entered in specific columns that do not participate in a primary key. A
column defined as UNIQUE can contain NULL values.
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RDBMS


Basic SQL DATA types :
I.
CHAR: The CHAR data type is used for storing fixed length
character strings with a maximum size of 2000 bytes. The
CHAR(n) holds fixed length of n characters.
II.
DATE: It allows to define the Date attributes as Date fields

in the database. Here the DATE data type stores year,
month, and day values.
III.
NUMBER: It allows to define a column as number field. Only

number values can be stored in the database.
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RDBMS


Now let's see how to implement the SQL queries with examples:
Example1:
With the help of CREATE statement, let's create Students table
with columns as RollNo, Name and Phone as shown below.
CREATE TABLE Students (
RollNo NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
Name CHAR(25) NOT NULL,
Phone NUMBER
);
Here "Students" is the name of the table. RollNo, Name and

Phone are the columns of the table. NUMBER and CHAR(25) are the data types
which convey what kind of data that particular column will hold.
Here RollNo is given as PRIMARY KEY which means that this
particular column will not accept any duplicate values. The other two columns
are defined as NOT NULL which conveys that these two columns will not
accept NULL values.
Note: NULL specifies that the column doesn't have any value or
the column is empty.

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RDBMS


Example2:
Let's see another example using the Create Statement.
The query below is used to create "employees" table with columns
such as employee_id, first_name, etc.
CREATE TABLE employees (
employee_id NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
first_name CHAR(10) NULL,
last_name CHAR(10) NOT NULL,
email CHAR(25) NOT NULL,
phone_number NUMBER NOT NULL,
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
job_id CHAR(10),
salary NUMBER,
commission_pct NUMBER,
manager_id NUMBER,
department_id NUMBER
);
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RDBMS


Example3:
In Example1 and Example2 we explained how to create primary
key and NOT NULL constrains. Now let's see how to implement foreign key
constraints. To implement foreign key we need two tables that are dependent
on each other.
In Example 2 we have employees table which contains the
department_id as one of the columns but does not have department details.
Now let's create a department table which contains details of the department
such as department_id and department name.
CREATE TABLE department(
department_id NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
department_name CHAR(10)
);
Consider a scenario where we need to identify the

department_name of an employee. In this case the employees table is
dependent on department table to get the department name based on the
common column department_id. Foreign key constraint comes into picture in
this case. The syntax below creates foreign key. (For more details about Foreign
key refer Section 2).
CREATE TABLE employees (
employee_id NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
first_name CHAR(10) NULL,
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last_name CHAR(10) NOT NULL,

email CHAR(25) NOT NULL,
phone_number NUMBER NOT NULL,
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
job_id CHAR(10),
salary NUMBER,
commission_pct NUMBER,
manager_id NUMBER,
department_id NUMBER
department(department_id )
FOREIGN
KEY
REFERENCES
);
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RDBMS


3.2.2 DROP statement
The DROP command is used to remove a table from the database
. If you drop a table, all the rows in the table are deleted and the table structure
is removed from the database permanently. Once a table is dropped using
DROP command , we cannot retrieve the data / table back. So we should be
careful while using this command.
Syntax:
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example1:
The following command is used to permanently remove the
Students table structure/definition along with the data that was created.
DROP TABLE Students;
After execution of the above command the entire Students table is

removed from the database. We cannot get back any data about Students
table.
Example2:
Let's see how the employees table definition/structure is removed
from the database.
DROP TABLE employees;
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After execution of the above command the entire employees table

is removed from the database. We cannot get back any data about employees
table.
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RDBMS


3.2.3 ALTER statement
The ALTER statement helps to modify the structure of an existing
table in the database.
Once you've created a table within a database, you may wish to
modify it's definition at some instance. ALTER statement allows you to make
changes to the structure of a table without deleting or recreating it.
General syntax of Alter statement is given below.
Syntax for adding a column to the existing table:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name data_type;
Example:
Let's see how we can alter or edit the structure of the Students
table that we created using CREATE statement in Section 3.2.1 using SQL
queries. Let's assume that we have to add a new column called 'gender' to the
existing Students table .
ALTER TABLE Students ADD gender CHAR(10);
In the above example the "gender" column with the data type as
CHAR(10) has been added to the existing Students table.
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RDBMS


Syntax for adding constraints:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT clause ;
where: A CONSTRAINT clause is optional in the above ALTER TABLE
statement for defining the constraint.
Example:
In the example below Unique constraint is applied to Phone
column in order to avoid duplicate phone numbers getting inserted into the
table.
ALTER TABLE employees ADD UNIQUE Phone;
The constraint UNIQUE has been added on column Phone of

employees table to show unique data.
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RDBMS


Syntax for adding constraints:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT clause ;
where: A CONSTRAINT clause is optional in the above ALTER TABLE
statement for defining the constraint.
Example:
In the example below Unique constraint is applied to Phone
column in order to avoid duplicate phone numbers getting inserted into the
table.
ALTER TABLE employees ADD UNIQUE Phone;
The constraint UNIQUE has been added on column Phone of

employees table to show unique data.
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Introduction to Data Manipulation Language (DML) -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS

3.3 Introduction to Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data manipulation language (DML) is a family of computer
language that includes commands which permit users to manipulate data in a
database. This manipulation involves inserting data into database tables,
retrieving existing data, deleting data from existing tables and modifying
existing data.
DML commands:
INSERT - To add a new row into a table
UPDATE - To update existing records within a table
DELETE - To delete records in a table
SELECT - To retrieve records from a table
https://aspire.tcs.com/aspire/courses/rdbms/module3/session3.3_introduction-to-data-manipulation-language_1.html
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RDBMS


3.3.1 INSERT Statement
The INSERT statement inserts new rows into an existing table.
The syntax for INSERT statement is as follows.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (col1,col2,col3,....)
VALUES (vallue1,value2,value3,.....);
Example 1:
Now let's see how to insert the details of students into Students
table. The following is the structure of the Students table. Let's see how to
insert the details of a student named David.
Name
Null?
Type
RollNo
NOT NULL
NUMBER
Name
NOT NULL
CHAR(25)
Phone
NUMBER
Gender
CHAR(10)
Table 3.1
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RDBMS


In the query given below RollNo, Name, Phone and Gender are
the columns defined in the Students table. Using INSERT statement the
corresponding values 100, David, 9830028200, Male are inserted into those
columns.
INSERT INTO Students(RollNo, Name, Phone, Gender)
VALUES (100,'David',9830028200,'Male');
Similarly, we can insert details of another student named 'Peter'.

Let's try to ignore a column which accepts NULL value during insertion.
INSERT INTO Students(RollNo, Name, Gender) VALUES
(200,'Peter','Male');
In the above query we have given values only for three columns
(RollNo, Name, Gender). Though we didn't mention Phone, the record will be
successfully inserted because it is not mandatory to provide values for the
columns which can accept NULL values during insertion. In Students table
Phone and Gender are the columns which can accept NULL values. For Peter's
record Phone column will be empty.
The data we inserted is represented in the table below:
RollNo Name
100
David
200
Peter
Phone
Gender
9830028200
Male
Male
Table 3.2
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RDBMS
3. Introduction to RDBMS & Structured

Query Language

Example 2:
Let us assume employees table structure as below:
Name
Null?
Type
Employee_Id
NOT NULL
NUMBER
First_Name
CHAR(10)
Last_Name
NOT NULL
CHAR(10)
Email
NOT NULL
CHAR(25)
Phone_Number
NOT NULL
NUMBER
Hire_Date
NOT NULL
DATE
Job_ID
NOT NULL
CHAR(10)
Salary
NUMBER
Commission_PCT
NUMBER
Manager_ID
NUMBER
Age
NUMBER
Department_ID
NUMBER
Table 3.3
Query:
INSERT
INTO
(First_Name,Last_Name,Email,Phone_Number,
employees
Hire_Date,Job_ID,Salary,Commission_PCT,Manager_ID,Age,Department_ID)
VALUES ('George', 'Gordon','GGORDON',6505062222,
'01-JAN-07','SA_REP',9000,.1,148,25,80);
Result:
ERROR at line 1:
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ORA-01400:
cannot
("E668292"."EMPLOYEES"."EMPLOYEE_ID")
insert
NULL
into
In the above query we are trying to insert the details of an employee

without providing value for Employee_ID column. Employee_ID column is a NOT NULL
column. So it is mandatory to provide value for the same. Since we tried to insert some
data excluding the NOT NULL column value, the execution of the query gives an error.
Since we didn't give any value for the Employee_ID column the value that will get into
the table would be NULL. So it has thrown as error as "cannot insert NULL into
EMPLOLYEE_ID column".
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RDBMS
3. Introduction to RDBMS & Structured Query Language

Let's now insert a row by providing Employee_ID column value.
INSERT INTO employees
(Employee_ID,First_Name,Last_Name,Email,Phone_Number,
VALUES (10,'George', 'Gordon','GGORDON',6505062222,
'01-JAN-07','SA_REP',9000,.1,148,25,80);
Inserting another employee:

INSERT INTO employees
(Employee_ID,First_Name,Last_Name,Email,Phone_Number,
VALUES (11,'James', 'Keats','j_keats@gm',6505062221,
'01-JAN-07','SA_REP',7000,.1,148,25,80);
The inserted data is represented in table format below:
Employee_Id First_Name Last_Name

10
11
George
James
Email
Phone_Number Hire_Date Job_ID Salary Commission_PCT Manager_ID Age Department_ID
Gordon
GGordon
6505062222
01/01/07 SA_REP 9000
148
25
80
Keats
j_keats
@gmail.com
6505062221
01/01/07 SA_REP 7000
148
25
80
Table 3.4
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RDBMS


3.3.2 SELECT Statement
table.
Select statement is used to retrieve the data from the database

General syntax of the Select statement is given below:
Syntax:
SELECT
search_condition
column_list
FROM
table_name
WHERE
where
column_list includes one or more columns from which data is
retrieved.
table_name is the name of the table from which the information
is retrieved.
search_condition specifies the conditions based on which rows
will be retrieved.
The three clauses used in the SELECT statement:
Clause
Description
SELECT
Describes the columns that will

be included in the result set.
FROM
Names the table from which the

query will retrieve the data.
Specifies the conditions that

must be met for a row to be
WHERE included in the result set. This
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clause is optional.
Table 3.5
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RDBMS


Example 1:
If we want to view the details of all students after inserting the
values in the Students table, the query below can be executed.
SELECT * FROM Students;
Result:
RollNo Name
100
David
200
Peter
Phone
Gender
9830093024
Male
Male
Table 3.6
Here * denotes all the columns and rows of the table.
Example 2:
Let's assume that we want to select a row from Students table
whose roll no is 200.
To retrieve this the following query is executed.
SELECT name FROM Students WHERE RollNo=200;
Result:
Name
Peter
Table 3.7
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Table 3.7
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RDBMS


Example 3:
Now let's consider a scenario where we need to retrieve the Salary
from employees table whose first name is George. The query for the scenario
will be as follows:
SELECT Salary FROM employees WHERE first_name= 'George'
There are chances that there are more than one employees with
first name as George. The above query will retrieve all the employees whose
first name is George. But if we need only one specific employee whose first
name is George then we can add one more condition in WHERE clause which
will help in retrieving the exact required data.
SELECT Salary FROM employees
WHERE first_name= 'George' AND employee_id= 10 ;
Result:
Salary
9000
Table 3.8
In the above query we have added two conditions with the help of
the "AND" key word. AND checks for both the conditions and will retrieve the
record which matches both. So salary of the employee(i.e George as shown in
result) is retrieved from the employees table whose FIRST_NAME is "George"
and EMPLOYEE_ID is equal to 10.
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RDBMS


So far we saw how to retrieve data from one table. Now let's see
how to retrieve data from more than one table.
Joins.
To retrieve or combine data from more than one table we use
Joins:
Join command is used to combine records from two or more
tables in a database. Join command creates a set that can be saved as a table or
used as it is.
A Join is a means of combining fields from two tables by using
values common to each other.
A Join condition can be used in the WHERE clause of SELECT,
UPDATE, DELETE statements. (Refer Section 2 in this document for more
details)
The following is the syntax for joining two tables:
SELECT col1, col2, col3... FROM table_name1, table_name2
WHERE table_name1.col2 = table_name2.col1;
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RDBMS
3. Introduction to RDBMS & Structured Query

Language

Example:
Let's assume that Department table has the following data.
Department_ID
Department_Name
80
Sales
Table 3.9
The employees table has the following data:

Employee First
Last
_Id
_Name _Name
Email
Phone
_Number
Hire
_Date
Job_ID Salary
Commission Manager
Department
Age
_PCT
_ID
_ID
10
George Gordon GGordon 6505062222 01/01/07 SA_REP 9000
148
25
80
11
James
j_keats
6505062221 01/01/07 SA_REP 7000
@gmail.com
148
25
80
Keats
Table 3.10
The column that is common between the two tables is Department_ID. So using
Department_ID we can join Department table and employees table. Please find below query for the same.
SELECT employee_Id, first_name,department_name,department_id
FROM department,employees
WHERE department.department _id = employees.department_id;
Result:
Employee_Id
First_Name
Department_Name
Department_ID
10
George
Sales
80
11
James
Sales
80
Table 3.11
Here data from employees table and department table are joined and displayed.
Department_Id from department table is compared with Department_Id from employees table
and the records that have same value for Department_ Id(i,e. 80) have been displayed.
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RDBMS


3.3.3 UPDATE Statement
Let' see how to modify the existing rows in a table.
In Section 3.3.1 we saw how to insert the records into a table. Here
we will see how to update the inserted records.
The UPDATE statement modifies the set of existing table rows.
General syntax for the UPDATE statement is given below.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET (column_name1 = value,column_name2=value,..)
WHERE condition;
Note: The WHERE clause in the above syntax specifies which

record or records should be updated. All records will be updated, if we omit the
WHERE clause in UPDATE statement.
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RDBMS


Let's see a few examples for the UPDATE statement.
Example 1:
RollNo Name
100
David
200
Peter
Phone
Gender
9830093024
Male
Male
Table 3.12
Let's update the Name "David" in the students tables to "John".
We use the below query for the same.
UPDATE students SET name = 'John' WHERE rollno = 100;
Result:
1 row updated.
Students table will look like this now:
RollNo Name
100
John
200
Peter
Phone
Gender
9830093024
Male
Male
Table 3.13
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RDBMS

Language

Example 2:
employees table has the following data:
Employee First
Last
_Id
_Name _Name
Email
Phone
_Number
Hire
_Date
Job_ID Salary
Commission Manager
Department
Age
_PCT
_ID
_ID
10
148
25
80
11
James
j_keats
6505062221 01/01/07 SA_REP 7000
@gmail.com
148
25
80
Keats
Table 3.14
Now we want to update the salary of the employee whose manager_ID is 148.
We use the below query for the same.
UPDATE employees SET salary = 10500 WHERE manager_id = 148;
Result:
2 rows updated.
In the above query employees table is updated with the salary value 10500 for the rows which
have the manager_id as 148.
There were two rows which had manager_id as 148 and they have been updated with salary
value as 10500 from 9000 and 7000 respectively.
employees table will look like this now:
Employee First
Last
_Id
_Name _Name
Email
Phone
_Number
Hire
_Date
Job_ID Salary
Commission Manager
Department
Age
_PCT
_ID
_ID
10
148
25
80
11
James
j_keats
6505062221 01/01/07 SA_REP 10500
@gmail.com
148
25
80
Keats
Table 3.15
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RDBMS


3.3.4 DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete the rows from a table.
The DELETE statement syntax is given below.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition ;
If we include the WHERE clause, the statement deletes only those

records that satisfy the condition. If we omit the WHERE clause, the statement
deletes all records from the table, but the table still exists without records.
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RDBMS


Example 1:
Students table has the data as shown below:
RollNo Name
100
John
200
Peter
Phone
Gender
9830093024
Male
Male
Table 3.16
If we want to delete a row from the above table whose RollNo is
100, we use the below query.
DELETE FROM Students WHERE ROLLNO = 100;
Result:
1 row deleted.
After deleting the record, Students table will look like this:
RollNo
Name
200
Peter
Phone
Gender
Male
Table 3.17
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RDBMS

Language

Example 2:
employees table has the following data:
Employee First
Last
_Id
_Name _Name
Email
Phone
_Number
Hire
_Date
Job_ID Salary
Commission Manager
Department
Age
_PCT
_ID
_ID
10
148
25
80
11
James
j_keats
6505062221 01/01/07 SA_REP 10500
@gmail.com
148
25
80
Keats
Table 3.18
Now let's delete the employee details whose hire date is 1st Jan 07.
DELETE FROM employees WHERE hire_date = '01-JAN-07';
Result:
2 rows deleted.
Two rows which have the Hire_Date value as '01-JAN-07' have been deleted from employees
table (Refer Example 2 of Sec3.2.1).
Note : The DELETE statement is different from the DROP statement. The DELETE statement
deletes some (or all) data from the table but the table exists in the data base. The DROP statement removes
the table permanently from the data base.
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Introduction to DCL(Data Control Language) -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS

3.4 Introduction to DCL(Data Control Language)

The Data Control Language (DCL) component of the SQL
language and it is used to provide privileges to the users to access or to
manipulate the database. The following are two main commands:
GRANT - This command is used to grant privileges to a user.
REVOKE - This command is used to revoke (remove) privileges
from a user.
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RDBMS


3.4.1 GRANT command
In order to do anything within a database you must be given the
appropriate privileges. Database operates in a closed system where you cannot
perform any action at all unless you have been authorized to do so. This
includes logging onto the database, creating tables, manipulating data (ie
select, insert, update and delete) in tables created by other users, etc.
Syntax:
GRANT privilege_name ON table_name TO user_name;
Where,
privilege_name is the access right or privilege granted to the
user.
table_name is the name of the table in the database.
user_name is the name of the user to whom an access right is
being granted.
Example:
GRANT SELECT ON employees TO user10;
to user10.
This command grants a SELECT permission on employees table
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RDBMS


3.4.2 REVOKE command
The SQL command is used to revoke a privilege on a table.
Syntax:
REVOKE privilege_name ON table_name FROM user_name;
Where,
privilege_name is the access right or privilege revoked from the
user.
table_name is the name of the table in the database.
user_name is the name of the user from whom an access right is
being revoked.
Example:
REVOKE SELECT ON employees FROM user10;
This command will REVOKE a SELECT privilege on employees

table from user10. If you REVOKE SELECT privilege on a table from a user,
then the user is not able to SELECT data from that table anymore.
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Summary -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
RDBMS

Summary:
DDL
Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to define,
modify or remove the table structure.
Commands:
CREATE - This command is used to create objects in the database
ALTER - It alters the structure of the database
database
DROP - This command is used to delete the object from the
DML
Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for
managing data within the database.
Commands:
SELECT - retrieve data from the table
INSERT - The data is insert into a table
UPDATE - It updates existing data with new data within a table
DELETE - It deletes the records from a table but the space for the
records remain
DCL
Data Control Language (DCL) statements:
Commands:
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Summary -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
GRANT - It gives the user's access privileges to database

REVOKE - withdraw access privileges which was already
provided to the user
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Relational DataBase Management System -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Relational DataBase Management

Introduction to Database Management Systems

Types of Database Systems

Advantages of Database system

Introduction - Approach to Data Management - from files to Database

Role of a Database Administrator

Basics of ERM & Normalization

Relational DataBase Management System -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Entity Relationship Modelling

Introduction to RDBMS & Structured Query Language

Introduction to RDBMS & SQL - Overview

Introduction to Data Manipulation Language(DML)

Introduction to Data Control Language(DCL)

Introduction to Database Management Systems -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

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1.1 Introduction - Approach to Data Management- from files to

1.1.1 File-Based System

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1.1.1 File-Based System

Figure 1.0 : File Based System

Introduction to Database Management Systems -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Annual fees paid by the students of Computer science

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Introduction to Database Management Systems -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Course Contents | Prev : Next

Thus the drawbacks of the file system are:

Introduction to Database Management Systems -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

In data-intensive applications, security of data is a major concern.

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Introduction to Database Management Systems -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Course Contents | Prev : Next

Course Contents | Prev : Next

Introduction to Database Management Systems -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Course Contents | Prev : Next

1.1.2 Database Approach

Course Contents | Prev : Next

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Course Contents | Prev : Next

1.2 Types of Databases

Course Contents | Prev : Next

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Course Contents | Prev : Next

1.2.1 Hierarchical Database Management System(HDBMS)

Figure 1.1 : Hierarchical Database Management System

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Databases strive by moving from the top to down.

Figure 1.2 : Animals Heirarchy

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Course Contents | Prev : Next

1.2.2 Network Database Management System(NDBMS)

Figure 1.3 : Network Database Management System

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Course Contents | Prev : Next

1.2.2 Network Database Management System(NDBMS)

Figure 1.4 : Network representation in a Store Management

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

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1.2.3 Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)

Types of Data Bases -- TATA Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.