Storage Tank Heat Transfer

Marzo 1.
982
Predict storage-tank heat transfer precisely

Use this procedure to determine the rate of heat transfer from a vertical storage
tank when shortcut methods are inadequate.
Jimmy D. Kumana and Samir P. Kothary , Henningson , Durham and Richardson , Inc.
Heating or cooling storage tanks can be a major energy expense at plants and tankfarms. Though many
procedures for calculating such heat-transfer requirements have been published [1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 10] , the simplifying
assumptions that they use can lead to significant errors in computed heat-transfer rates. This is of concern
because efficient sizing of tanks , insulation , heaters and coolers depends on accurate estimates of heat
transfer to and from the various tank surfaces . And the ultimate value of being accurate increases as energy
costs continue to rise.
The procedure presented here determines the heat transfer to or from a vertical-cylindrical storage tank
seated on the ground - like the one in Fig. 1 . It includes the effects of tank configuration, liquid level ,
ambient temperature and wind speed, as well as temperature variations within the tank and betweeen air and
ground. A partially worked example shows how to use the technique , and how to do the calculation on a
computer.
The theory.
Storage tanks come in many different shapes and sizes. Horizontal-cylindrical and spherical tanks are used
for storage of liquids under pressure ; atmospheric tanks tend to be vertical-cylindrical , with flat bottoms and
conical roofs as shown in Fig. 1 . The example presented here is for the latter configuration , but the
procedure applies to any tank for which reliable heat-transfer correlations are available.
Fig.1 - Typical vertical-cylindrical tank

For the sake of simplicity , we assume that the tank contents are warmer than the ambient air , and that we
are concerned with heat loss from the tank rather than heat gain. But the method may , of course , be applied
to either case.
Consider , then , the categories of surfaces from which heat may be transferred across the tank boundaries :
wet or dry side walls, tank bottom , and roof. In the context used here , "wet" refers to the portion of the wall
submerged under the liquid surface , whereas "dry" refers to the portion of the wall in the vapor space , above
the liquid surface.
In general, the heating coils would be located near the bottom of the tank , in the form of flat "pancakes".
Therefore , the temperature of the air (or vapor) space above the liquid level may be expected to be lower
than the liquid itself . Expereience has shown that the average bulk temperatures of the liquid and vapor
space may be significantly (i.e. , more than 5 F ) different , and they are treated accordingly in our
procedure. Use of differnt liquid and vapor temperatures is an important departure from the traditional
approach , which assumes the same value for both.
Therefore , the temperature of the air (or vapor) space above the liquid level may be expected to be lower
than the liquid itself . Expereience has shown that the average bulk temperatures of the liquid and vapor
space may be significantly (i.e. , more than 5 F ) different , and they are treated accordingly in our
procedure. Use of differnt liquid and vapor temperatures is an important departure from the traditional
approach , which assumes the same value for both.
Our basic approach is to develop equations for calculating the heat loss from each of the four categories of
surfaces , and then add the individual heat losses to get the total heat loss. Thus :
For dry sidewall :
qd = Ud Ad (TV - TA)
Eq. 1
For wet sidewall :
qw = Uw Aw (TL - TA)
Eq. 2
For tank bottom :
qb = Ub Ab (TL - TG)
Eq. 3
For tank roof :
qr = Ur Ar (TV - TA)
Eq. 4
Total :
Q = q d + q w + qb + q r
Eq. 5
When using these equations in design or rating problems , we either assume the various temperatures for
typical conditions or determine them by measurement.
The area values are also easy to obtain :
Ad = D (L - Lw)
Eq. 6
A w = D Lw
Eq. 7
Ab = D2 / 4
Eq. 8
Ar = ( D /2) (D2/ 4 + d2)0,5
Eq. 9
The complications arise when we try to estimate the overall heat-transfer coefficients Ud , Uw , Ub and Ur , for
the four surfaces of the tank. For the tank geometry chosen , these can fortunately be calculated from the
individual film heat-transfer coefficients in the conventional manner , using published correlations.
The overall coefficients.

Table I shows the component coefficients for each surface . The overall heat-transfer coefficient for the dry
sidewall of the tank (Ud) is calculated as the sum of the resistances of vapor film , fouling , metal wall ,
insulation (if any) , and outside air (convection plus radiation).
Table I
Individual film heat-transfer coefficients
Type
Surface
Dry wall
hvw
Inside
Wall
construction
Outside
Fouling
Wet wall
hLw
tM + t I
kM
kI
-1
tM + t I
kM
hFd
Bottom
hVr
hLb
tM
-1
kI
Wf.hAw + hRd Wf.hAw + hRw
Roof
-1
tM
kM
kM
Wf.hAr + hRr
hG
hFr
hFb
hFw
-1
Note : Tank roof and bottom are uninsulated.
The outside-air heat transfer coefficient (hAw) is a function of wind velocity as well as temperature gradient.
Data on the effect of wind velocity and T have been presented by Stuhlbarg [10] and Boyen [2] . With a little
bit of manipulation , their data were replotted , yielding the "wind enhancement factor "(Wf) in Fig. 2 .
By definition :
Wf = hAw / h'Aw = hAr / h'Ar
Eq.(10)
Therefore , once the outside-air coefficient for still air (h'Aw) is known , the overall dry-sidewall coefficient at
various wind velocities can be computed as :
1/Ud = 1/hVw + tM/kM + tI/kI + 1/(Wf.h'Aw + hRd) + 1/hFd
Eq.(11)
Similarly , the overall coefficients for the wet sidewall, bottom and roof surfaces are :
1/Uw = 1/hLw + tM/kM + tI/kI+ 1/(Wf.h'Aw + hRw) + 1/hFw
Eq.(12)
1/Ub = 1/hLb + tM/kM+ 1/hG + 1/hFb
Eq.(13)
1/Ur = 1/hVr + tM/kM + 1/(Wf.h'Ar + hRr) + 1/hFd
Eq.(14)
Eq.13 and 14 assume that the roof and bottom are not insulated , which is generally the case in temperature
climates. We shall now review correlations for the individual heat-transfer coefficients needed to obtain the
overall coefficients.
Individual film heat-transfer coefficients.
The film heat-transfer coefficients may be divided into four categories : convection from vertical walls ,
convection from horizontal surfaces , pure conduction , and radiative heat transfer. Within each category ,
correlations are presented for several flow regimes.
Vertical-wall film coefficients. These apply to the inside wall (wet or dry) and the outside wall (still air) . For
vertical plates and cylinders , Kato et al. [6] recommend the following for liquids and vapors :
NNu = 0,138 NGr0,36 . (NPr0,175 - 0,55)
Eq.(15)
where ,
0,1 < NPr < 40 and NGr > 109
For isothermal vertical plates , Ede [4] reported the following for liquids :
NNu = 0,495 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(16)
where ,
NPr > 100 and 104 < (NGr . NPr) < 109
and for gases :
NNu = 0,0295 . NGr0,40 . NPr0,47 (1 + 0,5 . NPr0,67)-0,40
Eq.(17)
where ,
NPr 5 and (NGr . NPr) > 109
For vertical plates taller than 3 ft , Stuhlbarg [10] recommends :
h = 0,45 . k . L-0,75 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(18)
where ,
104 < (NGr . NPr) < 109
Horizontal-surface heat-transfer coefficients. These coefficients apply to the roof and inside-bottom
surfaces of the tank . The bottom is assumed to be flat. For surfaces facing up [8] :
NNu =
For surfaces facing down :
NNu =
0,14 (NGr . NPr)0,33
Eq.(19)
0,27 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(20)
Both equations apply in the range 2x107 < NGr . NPr < 3x1010
Nomenclature.
A
Cp
Area of heat-transfer surface , ft 2 ; Ab for bottom , Ad for dry wall ,

Aw for wet wall , Ar for roof.
D
d
Specific heat at constant pressure , BTU/lb- F

Diameter of tank , ft.
Height of conical roof at center , ft.
Acceleration due to gravity , 4.17 x 108 ft/h2
417000000
Individual film coefficient of heat transfer , BTU/ft 2h-F ; hAw for air
outside the walls , hAr for air above the roof , h'Aw and h'Ar for still
air , hLw for liquid between the walls , hLb for liquid near the bottom ,
hVw for vapor near the walls , hVr for vapor near the roof.
hF
Fouling coefficient , BTU/ft2 h-F ; hFw for liquid at the walls , hFb for
liquid at the bottom , hFv for vapor at the walls or the roof.
hG
Heat-transfer coefficient for ground , BTU/ft 2 h-F
hI
Heat-transfer coefficient for insulation , BTU/ft 2 h-F
hM
Heat-transfer coefficient for metal , BTU/ft 2 h-F
hR
Heat-transfer coefficient for radiation , BTU/ft 2 h-F ; hRb for bottom ,

hRd for dry wall , hRw for wet wall , hRr for roof.
Thermal conductivity , BTU/ft-h-F ; kG for ground , kI for insulation ,

kM for metal wall.
L
Lw
Total length for heat-transfer surface , ft.
NGr
Grashof number , L3. 2. g. .T / 2
NNu
Nusselt number , h.D/k or h.L/K
NPr
Prandtl number , Cp./k
Rate of heat transfer , BTU/h

Individual rate of heat transfer , BTU/h ; qb for bottom , qd for dry
wall , qw for wet wall , qr for roof.
q
T
T
t
Total length for wetted surface , ft.
Temperature , F ;TA for ambient air , TL for bulk liquid , TV for

vapor , TG for ground , Tw for inside wall , Tws for outside wall.
Temperature difference , F.
Surface thickness, ft ; tI for insulation , tM for metal.
Overall heat-transfer coefficient , BTU/ft 2 h-F ; Ub for bottom , Ud for

dry wall , Uw for wet wall , Ur for roof.
Wf
Wind enhancement factor.
Volumetric coefficient for thermal expansion , F-1
Viscosity of fluid , lb/ft-h
Density of fluid , lb/ft3 .

Emissivity.
Equivalent coefficients for conductive heat transfer. The wall and insulation coefficients are derived from
the thermal conductivities :
hM=
kM / t M
Eq.(21)
hI =
kI /tI
Eq.(22)
The coefficient for heat transfer to and from the ground is the coefficient for heat conduction from a semiinfinite solid [9] :
hG =
8 . kG / .D
Eq.(23)
Fouling coefficients. The coefficients hFd , hFw and hFb apply to the vapor and liquid at the wall, and the
liquid at the bottom of the tank , respectively. These are empirical, and depend on the type of fluid and other
factors such as tank cleaning . Generally , hFd is the greatest of the three , and hFb the least , indicating that
the greatest fouling resistance is at the bottom of the tank.
Fouling coefficients. The coefficients hFd , hFw and hFb apply to the vapor and liquid at the wall, and the
liquid at the bottom of the tank , respectively. These are empirical, and depend on the type of fluid and other
factors such as tank cleaning . Generally , hFd is the greatest of the three , and hFb the least , indicating that
the greatest fouling resistance is at the bottom of the tank.
Equivalent coefficient for radiative heat transfer. The coefficient for sidewalls and roof depends on the
emissivity of these surfaces , and is given by [8] :
hR=
Eq.(24)
With these relationships , we now have the tools to calculate heat transfer to or from the tank.
EXAMPLE.
ABC Chemical Corp., has a single manufacturing plant in the U.S. , and exports a high-viscosity specialty oil
product to Europe. The oil is offloaded in Port City , and sored in a flat-bottom , conical-roof tank rented from
XYZ Terminal Co. Ltd. The tank is located outdoors and rests on the ground . It is equipped with pancaketype steam-heating coils because the oil must be maintained above 50 F in order to preserve its fluidity.
Other pertinent data are : tank diameter is 20 ft ; tank height is 48 ft (to the edge of the roof) ; roof incline is
3/4- in per foot ; tank sidewalls are 3/16 - in carbon steel ; insulation is 1 1/2 -in fiberglass , on the sidewall
only.
XYZ Terminal Co. , does not have metering stations on the steam supply to individual tanks, and proposes to
charge ABC Chemical for tank heating on the basis of calculated heat losses, using the coventional tables [1] ,
and assuming a tank wall temperature of 50 F. The project engineer from ABC Chemical decided to
investigate how XYZ's estimate would compare with the more elaborate one described in this article.
First, the engineeer collected basic data on storage and climate. Oil shipments from the U.S. , arrive at Port
City approximately once a month , in 100,000-gal batches. Deliveries to local customers are made in 8,000gal tanktrucks , three times a week on average. The typical variation in tank level over a 30-day period is
known from experience.
The ambient temperature goes through a more complex cycle, of course. Within the primary cycle of 365
days , there are daily temperature variations. But in the seasonal cycle, heat supply is required only during
the winter months, when temperatures fall well below 50 F.
Wind conditions at the storage site are not as well defined, and therefore much harder to predict. However,
we can assume that the wind speed will hold constant for a short period of time, and calculate the heat loss
for this unit period under a fixed set of conditions.
The wind speed to be used must be based on the known probability distribution of wind speeds at the site.
The procedure for determining the annual heat loss consists of adding up the heat losses calculated for each
unit period (which could be an hour , 12 hours , 24 hours , or 30 days , as appropiate). This example
demonstrates the calculation of heat loss for only one unit period , 12 hours , using an ambient temperature
of 35 F , a wind velocity of 10 mph. , and a liquid level of 50% . The other data required are given in Table II
. Note that the liquid temperature is controlled at 55 F to provide a 5 F margin of safety.
Data for ABC Chemical Co. , example
Table II
Physical Properties
Liquid
Air
Vapor *
Density , lb/ft
4.68
0.08
0.08
0.6
0.25
0.25
40.00
0.007
0.007
0.12
0.0151
0.0151
0.000001
0.002
0.002
Specific heat ,
BTU/lb -F
Viscosity , cP
Thermal conductivity ,
BTU/ft-h-F
Coefficient of volumetric
expansion per F
Assumed fouling
coefficients
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
1,000
800
1,000
BTU/ft2h-F
BTU/ft2h-F
Bottom
500
Thermal conductivities
Metal walls
Insulation
Ground
10.00
0.028
0.80
BTU/ft-h-F
Surface emissivity
Wall and roof
0.9
Temperatures
Vapor in Tank
50
Liquid in Tank
55
F
Outside Air
35.00
Ground
40
* Since the liquid has low volatility , the vapor space is assumed to be mostly air.
Since the Prandtl and Grashof numbers occur repeatedly in the fim heat-transfer coefficient equations , and
remain relatively unchanged for all the conditions of interest , let us first calculate their values . Thus , for the
liquid phase :
NGr =
L3.2.g..T / 2 =
NPr =
CP. / k =
97,5 . L3. T
484
Similarly , for the vapor phase ,

NGr =
L3.2.g..T / 2 =
Npr =
1,90 x 107 . L3. T
0.28
We can now calculate the individual film heat-transfer coefficients , using the appropiate L and T values in
the Grashof-number equations. This is an iterative process that requires initial estimates for wall and ground
temperatures , plus wall temperatures.
Coefficient for vapor at wall (hVw) . As an initial approximation , assume that the wall temperature is the
average of the vapor and outside-air temperatures :
Tw =
(50 + 32)/2 =
42,5 F
Then find the Grashof number :

NGr = 1,90x107 x (L - Lw)3 x (TV - Tw)
1.97E+12
Employing Eq. 15 , find the Nusselt number and then the coefficient ,
k=
0.0151
ft
L=
48.00
Lw =
24.00
ft
then ,
NNu = 0,138 NGr0,36 . (NPr0,175 - 0,55) =
921.1
hVw = NNu . k / (L - Lw) =
0.581
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for liquid at the wall (hLw) . Here , neither NPr nor (NGr NPr) falls within the range of the applicable
correlations (Eq. 16 , 18) . Let us try both , again using an average for Tw :
Tw = (TL + TA) / 2 =
45.00
NGr = 97,47 .L3.(TL - Tw) =
1.35E+07
Using Eq. 16 and 18 , we get two estimates for the heat-transfer coefficient :
k=
0.12
NPr =
484
hLw = (0,495.k / Lw).(NGr . NPr)0,25 =
0.704
BTU/ft2-h-F
hLw = (0,45.k / Lw0,75).(NGr.NPr)0,25 =
1.415
BTU/ft2-h-F
To be conservative , we use the higher value :

hLw =
1.415
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for vapor at roof (hVr) . We consider this a flat plate with :
ft
Diameter =
20.00
and use Eq. 20 , again with :
Tw =
42.5
F
k=
0.0151
NGr = 1,90x107 . D3 (TV - Tw) =
1.14E+07
hVr = (0,27.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,25 =
0.154
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for liquid at tank bottom (hLb) . Assume that the ground temperature (TG) is 5 F above
ambient , and use an average of liquid and ground temperatures as a first approximation for the tank-bottom
temperature :
Tw = (TL + TG)/2 =
(TL + Tamb + 5 ) =
47,5F
Then , figure the Grashof number , and use Eq. 19 to get the coefficient :
NGr = 97,47.D3.(TL - Tw) =
5.85E+06
NGr . NPr =
2.83E+09
hLb =
1.105
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for outside air at roof (h'Ar) . Assume :

Tws = Tw
since the roof is uninsulated , and get the coefficient for still air from Eq. 19 :
NGr = 1,9x107.D3.(TWs - TA) =
1.14E+12
hAr = (0,14.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,33 =
0.663
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for outside air at wall (h'Aw) . Assume that the temperature drop across the film is one-fourth of
the drop from the inside fluid to the outside air (averaged for the wet and dry walls) , and use Eq. 15 to find
the coefficient :
T =
hAw =
17,5/4 =
4,375 F
NGr = 1,9x107.L3.T =
0.51
9.19E+12
BTU/ft -h-F
2
Conduction coefficients for ground , metal wall, and insulation (hG , hM , and hI) . These are
straightforward from Eq. 21-23 :
hM = kM / tM =
640
BTU/ft2-h-F
hI = kI / tI =
0.224
BTU/ft2-h-F
hG = 8 . kG / .D
0.102
BTU/ft2-h-F
Radiation coefficients for dry and wet sidewall , and roof (hRd , hRw , hRr) . As for the outside-air film
coefficients , assume that :
Tws = TA + 0,25 (Tbulk - TA)
where ,
Tbulk is the temperature of the liquid or vapor inside the tank , if the surface is insulated.
For the uninsulated roof , assume that :
Tws = TA + 0,5(TV - TA)
Then ,
Tws =
38.75
for the (insulated) dry sidewall ,
Tws =
40.00
for the wet sidewall ,
Tws =
42.5
hRw =
0.759
BTU/ft2-h-F
hRr =
0.765
BTU/ft2-h-F
for the roof.

F
Using Eq. 24 , find the coefficient for each of the three cases :
hRd =
BTU/ft2-h-F
0.757
Closing in on results.
Table III summarizes the heat-transfer coefficients just calculated , including the corrections for wind - h'Aw
and h'Ar are multiplied by 3,3 and 3,1 , respectively , based on data for 10-mph wind in Fig. 2 . Substituting
these individual coefficients in Eq. 11-14 , we obtain the U values listed in Table III.
TABLE III
Heat-transfer coefficients after first iteration

Coefficient
Dry wall
hVw
0.5815
hLw
Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
1.415
hVr
0.1537
hLb
1.105
hG
0.102
h'Ar
0.6635
hAr*
2.057
h'Aw
0.51
0.51
hAw*
1.683
1.683
hM
640
640
hI
0.224
0.224
640
640
hF
1,000
800
1,000
500
hR
0.7565
0.1516
0.7594
0.1828
0.7651
0.1457
0.0933
U*
* For 10-mph wind.
What remains to be done ? When we began the calculations , we assumed that the outside-wall temperatues
were related to the bulk-fluid temperatures by :
Tw = TA + 0,5 . (Tbulk - TA)
for uninsulated surfaces
Tws = TA + 0,25 .(Tbulk - TA)
for insulated surfaces
In order to calculate accurate coefficients for heat transfer , we must now obtain better estimates of these wall
temperatures. This requires an iterative procedure that can be programmed and run on a computer.
For dry wall , the rate of heat loss is given by all three of the following :
qd = Ud.Ad.(TV - TA)
Eq.(25)
qd = hVw . Ad . (TV - Tw)
Eq.(26)
qd = (hRd + hAw).Ad.(Tws - TA)
Eq.(27)
Solving Eq. 25 and 27 for Tws yields :

Tws = (Ud/(hRd + hAw)).(TV - TA) + TA
Eq.(28)
Similarly , solving Eq. 25 and 26 for Tw yields :

Tw = TV - (Ud/hVw).(TV - TA)
Eq.(29)
Using the same approach , now calculate Tw and Tws for the wet wall , and Tw for the roof and bottom of the
tank.
To find the correct wall temperatures , use the initial estimates of U and h values in Eq. 28 and 29 (and in the
parallel equations for the other surfaces) to get new Tw and Tws values . Table IV shows these temperatures
after a second iteration . Using these new temperatures , recompute Grashof numbers , individual heattransfer coefficients and overall coefficients , and then iterate again to get a new set of Tw and Tws values .
When the current and previous iteration's temperature estimates are the same (within a specified tolerance) ,
the iteration is completed.
TABLE IV
Second iteration yields closer temperature estimates
Temperature
Iteration
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
Tw (inside) , F
2
1
46.0
42.5
52.7
45
35.75
42.5
53.7
47.5
2
1
Tws (outside) , F
35.9
38.75
36.5
40
35.75
42.5
Table V lists the individual and overall coefficients after the second iteration . Although it is clear that
additional iterations are needed , let us accept these values as sufficiently accurate for the present purpose .
Then we can obtain the total heat-transfer rate (Q) by using the U values in Eq. 1-5 and summing.
TABLE V
Heat-transfer coefficients after second iteration

Coefficient
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
hVw
hLw
0.463
0.98
hVr
0.181
hLb
0.619
hG
0.102
h'Ar
0.31
hAr*
0.96
h'Aw
0.317
0.317
hAw*
1.047
1.047
hM
640
640
640
640
hI
0.224
0.224
hF
1000
800
1000
500
hR
0.75
0.7514
0.75
U*
0.1393
0.1655
0.1636
0.0875
* For 10-mph wind.
Table VI shows the calculated heat-transfer rates through each boundary , and the total rate . Note that the
roof and bottom of the tank account for only slight heat loss , despite being uninsulated.
TABLE VI
Rate of heat transfer during unit period
U,
Area ,
BTU/ft2h-F
ft2
Surface
T ,
q,
BTU/h
Dry wall
0.1392
1508
15
3148.704
Wet wall
0.1655
1508
20
4991.48
Roof
0.1636
315
15
773.01
Bottom
0.0875
314
15
412.125
TOTAL
3645
9,325.3
Note : Total for 12-h period is 111.904 BTU.
This , of course , is for the unit period of time , when wind speed is 10 mph , the tank is half full , and the air
is 35 F .
Table VII shows how the results of unit-period heat losses can be tabulated and added to get the cumulative
heat loss for a month or year. Of course , this requires climatic data and tank-level estimates for the overall
time-period.
TABLE VII
Summing losses for unit periods yields heat loss
for 30 days
Period
1
2
3
-
Liquid
level ,
%
50
50
43
-
TA
F
35
27
42
-
Wind
speed ,
mph
10
5
0
-
Heat
loss ,
BTU
111,904
392,407
42,591
-
42
93
59
56
60
49
Total for 30-day period :
55
48
60
30
20
15
0
12,368
0
8,389,050
Comparison with other methods.

Aerstin and Street [1] offer a very simple method for calculating heat loss from tanks. For a tank with 1,5 in of
sidewall insulation, and a wind speed of 10 mph , the recommended overall U (based on k = 0,019 for the
insulation) is 0,14 for T = 60 F and 0,14 for T = 100 F. Adjusting these values for k = 0,028 and T = 17
F , as in our example , yields an overall U of 0,206 BTU/ft2h-F . The total exposed surface is 3.331 ft2 (tank
bottom not included) , and thus the overall rate of heat transfer by their method is :
Q=
0,206 x 3331 x 17
11,666
BTU/h
This compares with a heat loss of 8.913 BTU/h (for the exposed surface) calculated by the procedure of this
article-see Table VI . Thus their method yields a result 31% too high in this case.
Stuhlbarg [10] takes an approach similar to that proposed here , but his method differs in how the outside
tankwall film coefficient is computed. Stuhlbarg recommends the use of a manufacturer's data table , and
does not explicitly distinguish between the bulk liquid temperature in calculating the proper heat-transfer
coefficient.
The algebraic method of Hughes and Deumaga [5] resembles the one presented in this article in many ways.
But it does not recognize differences between liquid and vapor temperatures inside the tank , nor does it
account for the interaction between T and wind speed in calculating a wind-enhancement factor . Finally ,
even though their procedure requires iteration , the focus of the iterative efforts is to get better estimates of
fluid properties , not tankwall temperatures.
Conclusions.
Our engineer at ABC Chemical was able to negociate a significant reduction in the heating charges proposed
by the XYZ Terminal Co. , which had used a shortcut method for its estimate , because the procedure
presented here is rational and defensible. A rigorous solution of the interations can easily be reached on a
digital computer or even a programmable calculator , and the effort pays off in better design or operation
criteria.
Mark Lipowicz , Editor.
References.
1. Aerstin F. , and Street G. , "Applied Chemical Process Design" .
2. Boyen J. L. , "Thermal Energy Recovery" .
3. Cordero R. , "The cost of missing pipe insulation" .
4. Ede A. J. , "Advances in Heat Transfer " . Vol. 4.
5. Hughes R. , and Deumaga V. , "Insulation saves energy".
6. Kato, Nishiwaki and Hirata , Intl. J. , of Heat and Mass Transfer.
7. Kern D. Q. , "Process Heat Transfer".
8. Perry R. H. , and Chilton C. H. , "Chemical Engineers' Handbook".
9. Rohsenow W. M. , and Hartnett J. P. , "Handbook of Heat Transfer".
10. Stuhlbarg D. , "How to Design Tank Heating Coils".
The Authors.
Jimmy D. Kumana is Chief Process Engineer at Henningson , Durham and
Richardson , Inc. , P.O. Box 12744 , Pensacola , FL. 32575 , where he is involved
in all aspects of engineering design . He holds a B. Tech. , degree from the Indian
Institute of Technology , and an M.S. , from the University of Cincinnati , both in
chemical engineering. Mr. Kumana is registered as a professional engineer in four
states , and is active in AIChE as chairman of his local section. He holds a patent
on distillation of fuel-grade ethanol.
Samir P. Kothari was a process engineer with Henningson , Durham and
Richardson , Inc., when this article was written . He recently joined Hoffmann La
Roche Inc., Nutley , N. J. 07110 , where he is engaged in designing chemical
process plants. Mr. Kothari holds a B.S. , degree from M. Sayajirao (India) and a
n M.S. fro the University of Cincinnati , both in chemical engineering . He belongs
to AIChE and has written several technical articles.
Samir P. Kothari was a process engineer with Henningson , Durham and

Richardson , Inc., when this article was written . He recently joined Hoffmann La
Roche Inc., Nutley , N. J. 07110 , where he is engaged in designing chemical
process plants. Mr. Kothari holds a B.S. , degree from M. Sayajirao (India) and a
n M.S. fro the University of Cincinnati , both in chemical engineering . He belongs
to AIChE and has written several technical articles.
Marzo 1.98
Predict storage-tank heat transfer precisely

Use this procedure to determine the rate of heat transfer from a vertical
tank when shortcut methods are inadequate.
Jimmy D. Kumana and Samir P. Kothary , Henningson , Durham and Richardson , In
Heating or cooling storage tanks can be a major energy expense at plants and tankfarms. Though ma
procedures for calculating such heat-transfer requirements have been published [1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 10] , the sim
assumptions that they use can lead to significant errors in computed heat-transfer rates. This is of con
because efficient sizing of tanks , insulation , heaters and coolers depends on accurate estimates of h
to and from the various tank surfaces . And the ultimate value of being accurate increases as energy c
continue to rise.
The procedure presented here determines the heat transfer to or from a vertical-cylindrical storage tan
the ground - like the one in Fig. 1 . It includes the effects of tank configuration, liquid level , ambient te
and wind speed, as well as temperature variations within the tank and betweeen air and ground. A par
example shows how to use the technique , and how to do the calculation on a computer.
The theory.
Storage tanks come in many different shapes and sizes. Horizontal-cylindrical and spherical tanks are
storage of liquids under pressure ; atmospheric tanks tend to be vertical-cylindrical , with flat bottoms a
roofs as shown in Fig. 1 . The example presented here is for the latter configuration , but the procedur
any tank for which reliable heat-transfer correlations are available.
For the sake of simplicity , we assume that the tank contents are warmer than the ambient air , and th
concerned with heat loss from the tank rather than heat gain. But the method may , of course , be app
case.
Consider , then , the categories of surfaces from which heat may be transferred across the tank bound
or dry side walls, tank bottom , and roof. In the context used here , "wet" refers to the portion of the wa
under the liquid surface , whereas "dry" refers to the portion of the wall in the vapor space , above the
surface.
In general, the heating coils would be located near the bottom of the tank , in the form of flat "pan
Therefore , the temperature of the air (or vapor) space above the liquid level may be expected to be lo
liquid itself . Expereience has shown that the average bulk temperatures of the liquid and vapor space
significantly (i.e. , more than 5 F ) different , and they are treated accordingly in our procedure. Use o
liquid and vapor temperatures is an important departure from the traditional approach , which assume
value for both.
Our basic approach is to develop equations for calculating the heat loss from each of the four categori
surfaces , and then add the individual heat losses to get the total heat loss. Thus :
For dry sidewall :
qd = Ud Ad (TV - TA)
For wet sidewall :
qw = Uw Aw (TL - TA)
For tank bottom :
For tank roof :
Total :
Q = qd + qw + qb + qr
When using these equations in design or rating problems , we either assume the various temperatures
conditions or determine them by measurement.
The area values are also easy to obtain :
Ad = D (L - Lw)
Aw = D Lw
Ab = D2 / 4
Ar = ( D /2) (D2/ 4 + d2)0,5
The complications arise when we try to estimate the overall heat-transfer coefficients Ud , Uw , Ub and U
four surfaces of the tank. For the tank geometry chosen , these can fortunately be calculated from the
film heat-transfer coefficients in the conventional manner , using published correlations.
The complications arise when we try to estimate the overall heat-transfer coefficients Ud , Uw , Ub and U
four surfaces of the tank. For the tank geometry chosen , these can fortunately be calculated from the
film heat-transfer coefficients in the conventional manner , using published correlations.
The overall coefficients.

Table I shows the component coefficients for each surface . The overall heat-transfer coefficient for th
sidewall of the tank (Ud) is calculated as the sum of the resistances of vapor film , fouling , metal wall ,
any) , and outside air (convection plus radiation).
Table I
Individual film heat-transfer coefficients
Type
Surface
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
Inside
hvw
hLw
hVr
hLb
Wall
construction
tM + t I
kM
-1
kI
tM + t I
kM
tM
-1
kI
-1
kM
tM
-1
kM
Outside
Wf.hAw + hRd
Wf.hAw + hRw
Wf.hAr + hRr
hG
Fouling
hFd
hFw
hFr
hFb
Note : Tank roof and bottom are uninsulated.
The outside-air heat transfer coefficient (hAw) is a function of wind velocity as well as temperature grad
the effect of wind velocity and T have been presented by Stuhlbarg [10] and Boyen [2] . With a little bit
manipulation , their data were replotted , yielding the "wind enhancement factor "(Wf) in Fig. 2 .
Vwind =
Wf =
T =
10
mph
12.50
hAw / h'Aw =
10
mph
7.50
hAr / h'Ar =
By definition :
Wf = hAw / h'Aw = hAr / h'Ar
Therefore , once the outside-air coefficient for still air (h'Aw) is known , the overall dry-sidewall coefficie
wind velocities can be computed as :
1/Ud = 1/hVw + tM/kM + tI/kI + 1/(Wf.h'Aw + hRd) + 1/hFd
Similarly , the overall coefficients for the wet sidewall, bottom and roof surfaces are :
1/Uw = 1/hLw + tM/kM + tI/kI+ 1/(Wf.h'Aw + hRw) + 1/hFw
1/Ub = 1/hLb + tM/kM+ 1/hG + 1/hFb
1/Ur = 1/hVr + tM/kM + 1/(Wf.h'Ar + hRr) + 1/hFd
Eq.13 and 14 assume that the roof and bottom are not insulated , which is generally the case in tempe
climates. We shall now review correlations for the individual heat-transfer coefficients needed to obtain
coefficients.
Individual film heat-transfer coefficients.

The film heat-transfer coefficients may be divided into four categories : convection from vertical walls ,
from horizontal surfaces , pure conduction , and radiative heat transfer. Within each category , correla
presented for several flow regimes.
Vertical-wall film coefficients. These apply to the inside wall (wet or dry) and the outside wall (still a
vertical plates and cylinders , Kato et al. [6] recommend the following for liquids and vapors :
NNu = 0,138 NGr0,36 . (NPr0,175 - 0,55)
where ,
0,1 < NPr < 40 and NGr > 109
Eq.(15)
For isothermal vertical plates , Ede [4] reported the following for liquids :
NNu = 0,495 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(16)
NPr > 100 and 104 < (NGr . NPr) < 109
where ,
and for gases :

NNu = 0,0295 . NGr0,40 . NPr0,47 (1 + 0,5 . NPr0,67)-0,40
where ,
NPr 5 and (NGr . NPr) > 109
For vertical plates taller than 3 ft , Stuhlbarg [10] recommends :
h = 0,45 . k . L-0,75 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(18)
104 < (NGr . NPr) < 109
where ,
Horizontal-surface heat-transfer coefficients. These coefficients apply to the roof and inside-bottom
the tank . The bottom is assumed to be flat. For surfaces facing up [8] :
NNu =
0,14 (NGr . NPr)0,33
Eq.(19)
0,27 (NGr . NPr)0,25
Eq.(20)
For surfaces facing down :

NNu =
Both equations apply in the range 2x107 < NGr . NPr < 3x1010
Nomenclature.
A
Area of heat-transfer surface , ft2 ; Ab for bottom , Ad for dry wall , Aw for
wet wall , Ar for roof.
Cp
Specific heat at constant pressure , BTU/lb-F
D
d
g
Diameter of tank , ft.

Height of conical roof at center , ft.
Acceleration due to gravity , 4.17 x 108 ft/h2
Individual film coefficient of heat transfer , BTU/ft2h-F ; hAw for air
outside the walls , hAr for air above the roof , h'Aw and h'Ar for still air ,
hLw for liquid between the walls , hLb for liquid near the bottom , hVw for
vapor near the walls , hVr for vapor near the roof.
hF
Fouling coefficient , BTU/ft2 h-F ; hFw for liquid at the walls , hFb for
liquid at the bottom , hFv for vapor at the walls or the roof.
hG
Heat-transfer coefficient for ground , BTU/ft2 h-F
hI
Heat-transfer coefficient for insulation , BTU/ft2 h-F
hM
Heat-transfer coefficient for metal , BTU/ft2 h-F
hR
Heat-transfer coefficient for radiation , BTU/ft2 h-F ; hRb for bottom , hRd
for dry wall , hRw for wet wall , hRr for roof.
Thermal conductivity , BTU/ft-h-F ; kG for ground , kI for insulation , kM

for metal wall.
L
Lw
Total length for heat-transfer surface , ft.

Total length for wetted surface , ft.
NGr
Grashof number , L3. 2. g. .T / 2
NNu
Nusselt number , h.D/k or h.L/K
NPr
Prandtl number , Cp./k
Rate of heat transfer , BTU/h

Individual rate of heat transfer , BTU/h ; qb for bottom , qd for dry wall ,
qw for wet wall , qr for roof.
q
T
Temperature , F ;TA for ambient air , TL for bulk liquid , TV for vapor , TG
for ground , Tw for inside wall , Tws for outside wall.
T
t
Temperature difference , F.
Surface thickness, ft ; tI for insulation , tM for metal.
Overall heat-transfer coefficient , BTU/ft2 h-F ; Ub for bottom , Ud for dry

wall , Uw for wet wall , Ur for roof.
Wf
Wind enhancement factor.
Volumetric coefficient for thermal expansion , F-1

Viscosity of fluid , lb/ft-h
Density of fluid , lb/ft3 .
Emissivity.
Equivalent coefficients for conductive heat transfer. The wall and insulation coefficients are derive
thermal conductivities :
hM=
kM / tM
Eq.(21)
hI =
kI /tI
Eq.(22)
The coefficient for heat transfer to and from the ground is the coefficient for heat conduction from a se
solid [9] :
hG =
8 . kG / .D
Eq.(23)
Fouling coefficients. The coefficients hFd , hFw and hFb apply to the vapor and liquid at the wall, and t
the bottom of the tank , respectively. These are empirical, and depend on the type of fluid and other fa
as tank cleaning . Generally , hFd is the greatest of the three , and hFb the least , indicating that the gre
resistance is at the bottom of the tank.
Equivalent coefficient for radiative heat transfer. The coefficient for sidewalls and roof depends on
emissivity of these surfaces , and is given by [8] :
hR=
Eq.(24)
With these relationships , we now have the tools to calculate heat transfer to or from the tank.
EXAMPLE.
ABC Chemical Corp., has a single manufacturing plant in the U.S. , and exports a high-viscosity speci
product to Europe. The oil is offloaded in Port City , and sored in a flat-bottom , conical-roof tank rente
Terminal Co. Ltd. The tank is located outdoors and rests on the ground . It is equipped with pancake-t
heating coils because the oil must be maintained above 50 F in order to preserve its fluidity.
Other pertinent data are : tank diameter is 20 ft ; tank height is 48 ft (to the edge of the roof) ; roof inc
in per foot ; tank sidewalls are 3/16 - in carbon steel ; insulation is 1 1/2 -in fiberglass , on the sidewa
XYZ Terminal Co. , does not have metering stations on the steam supply to individual tanks, and prop
charge ABC Chemical for tank heating on the basis of calculated heat losses, using the coventional ta
assuming a tank wall temperature of 50 F. The project engineer from ABC Chemical decided to inves
XYZ's estimate would compare with the more elaborate one described in this article.
First, the engineeer collected basic data on storage and climate. Oil shipments from the U.S. , arrive a
approximately once a month , in 100,000-gal batches. Deliveries to local customers are made in 8,00
tanktrucks , three times a week on average. The typical variation in tank level over a 30-day period is
experience.
First, the engineeer collected basic data on storage and climate. Oil shipments from the U.S. , arrive a
approximately once a month , in 100,000-gal batches. Deliveries to local customers are made in 8,00
tanktrucks , three times a week on average. The typical variation in tank level over a 30-day period is
experience.
The ambient temperature goes through a more complex cycle, of course. Within the primary cycle of 3
there are daily temperature variations. But in the seasonal cycle, heat supply is required only during th
months, when temperatures fall well below 50 F.
Wind conditions at the storage site are not as well defined, and therefore much harder to predict. How
assume that the wind speed will hold constant for a short period of time, and calculate the heat loss fo
period under a fixed set of conditions.
The wind speed to be used must be based on the known probability distribution of wind speeds at the
The procedure for determining the annual heat loss consists of adding up the heat losses calculated fo
period (which could be an hour , 12 hours , 24 hours , or 30 days , as appropiate). This example dem
the calculation of heat loss for only one unit period , 12 hours , using an ambient temperature of 35 F
velocity of 10 mph. , and a liquid level of 50% . The other data required are given in Table II . Note tha
temperature is controlled at 55 F to provide a 5 F margin of safety.
D=
L=
Lw =
20.00
48.00
24.00
ft
ft
ft
tank diameter , ft.

tank height , ft.
liquid level , ft
Tamb =
35.00
ambient temperature, F
Vwind =
10.00
mph
tM =
3/16
in
tank sidewalls thickness
tI =
1 1/2
in
insulation thickness (fiberglass - on the sidewall only)
Data for ABC Chemical Co. , example
Table II
Physical Properties
Liquid
Air
Density , lb/ft3
4.68
0.08
0.6
0.25
40.00
0.007
0.12
0.0151
0.000001
0.002
Specific heat ,
BTU/lb -F
Viscosity , cP
Thermal conductivity ,
BTU/ft-h-F
Coefficient of volumetric
expansion per F
Assumed fouling
coefficients
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
Bottom
1,000
800
1,000
500
BTU/ft2h-F
Thermal conductivities
Metal walls
Insulation
Ground
10.00
0.028
0.80
BTU/ft-h-F
Surface emissivity
Wall and roof
0.9
Temperatures
Vapor in Tank
50
Liquid in Tank
55
F
Outside Air
35.00
Ground
40
* Since the liquid has low volatility , the vapor space is assumed to be mostly air.
Since the Prandtl and Grashof numbers occur repeatedly in the fim heat-transfer coefficient equations
relatively unchanged for all the conditions of interest , let us first calculate their values . Thus , for the l
NGr =
L3.2.g..T / 2
Sea (X) =
2.g../ 2
NGr =
(X) . L3. T
and ,
NPr =
CP. / k
97.5
484
Similarly , for the vapor phase ,

NGr =
L3.2.g..T / 2
Sea (X) =
2.g../ 2
NGr =
(X) . L . T
and ,
NPr =
1.9E+07
CP. / k
0.28
Iteration 1.
We can now calculate the individual film heat-transfer coefficients , using the appropiate L and T valu
Grashof-number equations. This is an iterative process that requires initial estimates for wall and grou
temperatures , plus wall temperatures.
Coefficient for vapor at wall (hVw) . As an initial approximation , assume that the wall temperature is
of the vapor and outside-air temperatures :
Tw =
42.50
F
NGr = (X) x (L - Lw)3 x (TV - Tw)
1.93E+12
k=
0.0151
ft
L=
48.00
Lw =
24.00
ft
then ,
NNu = 0,138 NGr0,36 . (NPr0,175 - 0,55)
914.9
hVw = NNu . k / (L - Lw)
0.576
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for liquid at the wall (hLw) . Here , neither NPr nor (NGr NPr) falls within the range of the app
correlations (Eq. 16 , 18) . Let us try both , again using an average for Tw :
Tw = (TL + TA) / 2
45.00
NGr = (X).L3.(TL - Tw)
1.35E+07
Using Eq. 16 and 18 , we get two estimates for the heat-transfer coefficient
k=
0.12
NPr =
484
hLw = (0,495.k / Lw).(NGr . NPr)0,25
0.703
BTU/ft2-h-F
hLw = (0,45.k / Lw0,75).(NGr.NPr)0,25
1.415
BTU/ft2-h-F

hLw =
1.415
BTU/ft2-h-F
ft
Diameter =
20.00
Tw =
42.5
F
k=
0.0151
NGr = (X) . D3 (TV - Tw)
1.12E+12
hVr = (0,27.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,25
0.152
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for liquid at tank bottom (hLb) . Assume that the ground temperature (TG) is 5 F above
and use an average of liquid and ground temperatures as a first approximation for the tank-bottom tem
TG = Tamb + 5 =
40.00
Tw = (TL + TG)/2 =
47.50
NGr = (X).D3.(TL - Tw) =
5.85E+06
NGr . NPr =
2.83E+09
hLb = (0,14.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,33 =
1.105
BTU/ft2-h-F

Tws = Tw
NGr = (X).D3.(TWs - TA) =
1.12E+12
hAr = (0,14.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,33
0.657
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for outside air at wall (h'Aw) . Assume that the temperature drop across the film is one-fo
drop from the inside fluid to the outside air (averaged for the wet and dry walls) , and use Eq. 15 to fin
coefficient :
T = 0,25.((TG -Tamb) + (Tws -Tamb)) =
4.375
NGr = (X).L .T =
9.00E+12
NNu = 0,138.NGr
0,36
.(NPr
0,175
- 0,55) =
hAw = NNu.k / L =
1,592.93
0.501
BTU/ft2-h-F
Conduction coefficients for ground , metal wall, and insulation (hG , hM , and hI) . These are straig
from Eq. 21-23 :
hM = kM / tM =
BTU/ft2-h-F
640.00
hI = kI / tI =
0.224
BTU/ft2-h-F
hG = 8 . kG / .D
0.102
BTU/ft2-h-F
Radiation coefficients for dry and wet sidewall , and roof (hRd , hRw , hRr) . As for the outside-air film
coefficients , assume that :
Tws = TA + 0,25 (Tbulk - TA)

where ,
Tbulk is the temperature of the liquid or vapor inside the tank , if the surface is insulated.
For the uninsulated roof , assume that :
Tws = TA + 0,5(TV - TA)
Then ,
Tws =
38.75
Tws =
40.00
Tws =
42.5
for the roof.
hR =
hRd =
0.041
618.773
600.373
0.755
BTU/ft2-h-F
hRw =
0.031
625.000
600.373
0.758
BTU/ft2-h-F
hRr =
0.021
637.594
600.373
0.764
BTU/ft2-h-F
Closing in on results.
Table III summarizes the heat-transfer coefficients just calculated , including the corrections for wind h'Ar are multiplied by 3,3 and 3,1 , respectively , based on data for 10-mph wind in Fig. 2 . Substitutin
individual coefficients in Eq. 11-14 , we obtain the U values listed in Table III.
TABLE III
Heat-transfer coefficients after first iteration

Coefficient
Dry wall
hVw
0.5756
hLw
Wet wall
Roof
1.415
hVr
0.152
hLb
hG
h'Ar
0.657
hAr*
2.037
h'Aw
0.501
0.501
hAw*
1.654
1.654
hM
640.00
640.00
hI
0.224
0.224
hF
1,000
800
1,000
hR
0.755
0.758
0.764
640.00
U*
0.1511
0.1789
0.1445
Ad
Aw
AR
1,508
Qd
1,508
Qw
315
QR
Ai (ft2) =
Qi BTU/hr
(Eq.1)
3,417.2
9,937.2
Q = Q d + Q w+ Q R + Q B
(Eq.2)
5,396.9
BTU/hr
(Eq.3)
683.8
* For 10-mph wind.
Iteration 2.
What remains to be done ? When we began the calculations , we assumed that the outside-wall temp
related to the bulk-fluid temperatures by :
Tw = TA + 0,5 . (Tbulk - TA)
for uninsulated surfaces
Tws = TA + 0,25 .(Tbulk - TA)
for insulated surfaces
In order to calculate accurate coefficients for heat transfer , we must now obtain better estimates of th
temperatures. This requires an iterative procedure that can be programmed and run on a computer.
For dry wall , the rate of heat loss is given by all three of the following :
qd = Ud.Ad.(TV - TA)
Eq.(25)
qd = hVw . Ad . (TV - Tw)
Eq.(26)
qd = (hRd + hAw).Ad.(Tws - TA)
Eq.(27)

Tws = (Ud/(hRd + hAw)).(TV - TA) + TA
Eq.(28)

Tw = TV - (Ud/hVw).(TV - TA)
Eq.(29)
Using the same approach , now calculate Tw and Tws for the wet wall , and Tw for the roof and bottom o
To find the correct wall temperatures , use the initial estimates of U and h values in Eq. 28 and 29 (an
parallel equations for the other surfaces) to get new Tw and Tws values . Table IV shows these temper
a second iteration . Using these new temperatures , recompute Grashof numbers , individual heat-tran
coefficients and overall coefficients , and then iterate again to get a new set of Tw and Tws values . Wh
current and previous iteration's temperature estimates are the same (within a specified tolerance) , th
completed.
TABLE IV
Second iteration yields closer temperature estimates
Temperature
Tw (inside) , F
Tws (outside) , F
Iteration
Dry wall
Wet wall
2
1
2
1
46.1
42.50
35.9
38.75
52.5
45.00
36.5
40.00
(Iteration 2) : For wet wall , roof and bottom tank , the rate of heat loss is given by all three of the following :
For wet wall , the rate of heat loss is given by all three of the following :
qw = Uw.Aw.(TL - TA)
Eq.(25)
qw = hLw . Aw. (Tw - TA)
Eq.(26)
qw = (hRW + hAw).Aw.(Tws - TA)
Eq.(27)
Tws = (Uw/(hRw + hAw)).(TL - TA) + TA
Eq.(28)
Tw = TL - (Uw/hLw).(TL - TA)
Eq.(29)
For roof tank , the rate of heat loss is given by all two of the following :
Eq.(25)
qr = hVr Ar (Tw - TA)
Eq.(26)
Solving Eq. 25 and 26 for Tw yields :
Tw = TV - (Ur/hVr).(TV - TA)
Eq.(29)
For bottom tank , the rate of heat loss is given by all two of the following :
Eq.(25)
qb = hLb Ab (Tw - TG)
Eq.(26)
Solving Eq. 25 and 26 for Tw yields :
Tw = TL- (Ub/hLb).(TL - TG)
Eq.(29)
Coefficient for vapor at wall (hVw) . As an Iteration 2 , the wall temperature is:
Tw =
46.1

NGr = (X) x (L - Lw)3 x (TV - Tw)
1.01E+12
k=
0.0151
ft
L=
48.00
Lw =
24.00
ft
then ,
NNu = 0,138 NGr0,36 . (NPr0,175 - 0,55)
725.4
hVw = NNu . k / (L - Lw)
0.456
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for liquid at the wall (hLw) . Here , neither NPr nor (NGr NPr) falls within the range of the app
correlations (Eq. 16 , 18) .
Tw =
52.5
NGr = (X).L .(TL - Tw)

3
3.41E+06
Using Eq. 16 and 18 , we get two estimates for the heat-transfer coefficient
k=
0.12
NPr =
484
hLw = (0,495.k / Lw).(NGr . NPr)0,25
0.499
BTU/ft2-h-F
hLw = (0,45.k / Lw0,75).(NGr.NPr)0,25
1.004
BTU/ft2-h-F

hLw =
1.004
BTU/ft2-h-F
Diameter =
20.00
ft
Tw =
35.78
F
k=
0.0151
NGr = (X) . D3 (TV - Tw)
hVr = (0,27.k/D).(NGr.NPr)
2.12E+12
0,25
0.179
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for liquid at tank bottom (hLb)

Tw =
53.7
F
NGr = (X).D3.(TL - Tw) =
9.87E+05
NGr . NPr =
4.78E+08
hLb = (0,14.k/D).(NGr.NPr)
0,33
0.077
BTU/ft2-h-F

Tws = Tw
35.78
F
NGr = (X).D3.(TWs - TA) =
1.16E+11
hAr = (0,14.k/D).(NGr.NPr)0,33
0.311
BTU/ft2-h-F
Coefficient for outside air at wall (h'Aw) . Assume that the temperature drop across the film is one-fo
drop from the inside fluid to the outside air (averaged for the wet and dry walls) , and use Eq. 15 to fin
coefficient :
T = 0,25.((TG -Tamb) + (Tws -Tamb)) =
5.93
NGr = (X).L .T =
1.22E+13
NNu = 0,138.NGr
0,36
.(NPr
0,175
- 0,55) =
hAw = NNu.k / L =
1,777.62
0.559
BTU/ft2-h-F
Conduction coefficients for ground , metal wall, and insulation (hG , hM , and hI) . These are straig
from Eq. 21-23 :
hM = kM / tM =
BTU/ft2-h-F
640.00
hI = kI / tI =
0.224
BTU/ft2-h-F
hG = 8 . kG / .D
0.102
BTU/ft2-h-F
Radiation coefficients for dry and wet sidewall , and roof (hRd , hRw , hRr)
Tws =
35.9
Tws =
36.5
Tws =
35.78
F
for the roof.
hR =
hRd =
0.164
604.950
600.373
0.749
BTU/ft2-h-F
hRw =
0.104
607.604
600.373
0.750
BTU/ft2-h-F
hRr =
0.197
604.164
600.373
0.748
BTU/ft2-h-F
Table V lists the individual and overall coefficients after the second iteration . Although it is clear that a
iterations are needed , let us accept these values as sufficiently accurate for the present purpose . Th
obtain the total heat-transfer rate (Q) by using the U values in Eq. 1-5 and summing.
TABLE V
Heat-transfer coefficients after second iteration

Coefficient
Dry wall
Wet wall
Roof
hVw
0.456
hLw
1.004
hVr
0.179
hLb
hG
h'Ar
0.311
hAr*
0.965
h'Aw
0.559
0.559
hAw*
1.845
1.845
hM
640.00
640.00
640.00
hI
0.224
0.224
hF
1,000
800
1,000
hR
0.749
(Eq.11)
0.1420
0.750
(Eq.12)
0.1710
0.748
(Eq.14)
0.1619
U*
* For 10-mph wind.

Effect of wind velocity and T on heat-transfer rate (Fig. 2)
Vwind =
Wf =
T =
10
mph
18.7
hAw / h'Aw =
10
mph
11.1
hAr / h'Ar =
Table VI shows the calculated heat-transfer rates through each boundary , and the total rate . Note th
and bottom of the tank account for only slight heat loss , despite being uninsulated.
TABLE VI
Rate of heat transfer during unit period
Surface
U , BTU/ft2h- Area ,
F
ft2
T ,
Dry wall
0.1420
1,508
15.00
Wet wall
0.1710
1,508
20.00
Roof
0.1619
315
15.00
Bottom
0.0439
314
15
TOTAL
3,645
Note : Total for 12-h period is 112.093 BTU.
This , of course , is for the unit period of time , when wind speed is 10 mph , the tank is half full , and t
F .
Marzo 1.982
er precisely
sfer from a vertical storage

adequate.
ham and Richardson , Inc.
and tankfarms. Though many

shed [1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 10] , the simplifying
ansfer rates. This is of concern
on accurate estimates of heat transfer
urate increases as energy costs
rtical-cylindrical storage tank seated on

on, liquid level , ambient temperature
eeen air and ground. A partially worked
n a computer.
cal and spherical tanks are used for

indrical , with flat bottoms and conical
guration , but the procedure applies to
an the ambient air , and that we are

od may , of course , be applied to either
rred across the tank boundaries : wet

ers to the portion of the wall submerged
e vapor space , above the liquid
nk , in the form of flat "pancakes".
el may be expected to be lower than the

the liquid and vapor space may be
gly in our procedure. Use of differnt
approach , which assumes the same
m each of the four categories of

Thus :
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
e the various temperatures for typical
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Eq. 9
oefficients Ud , Uw , Ub and Ur , for the

tely be calculated from the individual
correlations.
at-transfer coefficient for the dry

r film , fouling , metal wall , insulation (if
s well as temperature gradient. Data on

nd Boyen [2] . With a little bit of
ctor "(Wf) in Fig. 2 .
3.3
3.1
Eq.(10)
verall dry-sidewall coefficient at various
Eq.(11)
ces are :
Eq.(12)
Eq.(13)
Eq.(14)
generally the case in temperature

oefficients needed to obtain the overall
vection from vertical walls , convection

hin each category , correlations are
and the outside wall (still air) . For

ids and vapors :
Eq.(17)
o the roof and inside-bottom surfaces of
m , Ad for dry wall , Aw for
417000000
/ft h-F ; hAw for air

and h'Ar for still air ,
Aw
near the bottom , hVw for
of.
2
at the walls , hFb for

r the roof.
F
h-F
h-F ; hRb for bottom , hRd
und , kI for insulation , kM
bottom , qd for dry wall ,
k liquid , TV for vapor , TG

wall.
etal.
Ub for bottom , Ud for dry
F-1
ation coefficients are derived from the
heat conduction from a semi-infinite
and liquid at the wall, and the liquid at

he type of fluid and other factors such
ast , indicating that the greatest fouling
walls and roof depends on the
o or from the tank.
ports a high-viscosity specialty oil

om , conical-roof tank rented from XYZ
s equipped with pancake-type steamreserve its fluidity.
e edge of the roof) ; roof incline is 3/4fiberglass , on the sidewall only.
individual tanks, and proposes to

es, using the coventional tables [1] , and
Chemical decided to investigate how
is article.
nts from the U.S. , arrive at Port City

ustomers are made in 8,000-gal
vel over a 30-day period is known from
Within the primary cycle of 365 days ,

y is required only during the winter
uch harder to predict. However, we can

d calculate the heat loss for this unit
tion of wind speeds at the site.
he heat losses calculated for each unit

propiate). This example demonstrates
mbient temperature of 35 F , a wind
given in Table II . Note that the liquid
on the sidewall only)
Table II
Vapor *
0.08
0.25
0.007
0.0151
0.002
mostly air.
nsfer coefficient equations , and remain

heir values . Thus , for the liquid phase :
e appropiate L and T values in the

estimates for wall and ground
hat the wall temperature is the average
within the range of the applicable
erature (TG) is 5 F above ambient ,

ion for the tank-bottom temperature :
op across the film is one-fourth of the

alls) , and use Eq. 15 to find the
, and hI) . These are straightforward
) . As for the outside-air film
s insulated.
g the corrections for wind - h'Aw and

wind in Fig. 2 . Substituting these
II.
iteration
Bottom
1.105
0.102
640.00
500
0.0932
AB
314
QB
(Eq.4)
439.3
d that the outside-wall temperatues were
btain better estimates of these wall

d and run on a computer.
Tw for the roof and bottom of the tank.
alues in Eq. 28 and 29 (and in the

ble IV shows these temperatures after
mbers , individual heat-transfer
of Tw and Tws values . When the
n a specified tolerance) , the iteration is
ure estimates
Roof
Bottom
35.78
42.5
35.78
42.5
53.7
47.50
-
all three of the following :
ure is:
within the range of the applicable
op across the film is one-fourth of the

alls) , and use Eq. 15 to find the
, and hI) . These are straightforward
n . Although it is clear that additional

r the present purpose . Then we can
summing.
nd iteration
Bottom
0.077
0.102
640.00
500
(Eq.13)
0.0439
r rate (Fig. 2)
3.3
3.1
and the total rate . Note that the roof

sulated.
period
q,
BTU/h
3,211.47
5,156.52
766.04
207.07
9,341
, the tank is half full , and the air is 35
1) - Le Ptrole - RAFFINAGE ET GNIE CHIMIQUE

Pierre Wuithier
DITIONS TECHNIP - 1972.
Fig. 2.9.1 Typical overall heat transfer coefficients from flat steel surfaces
Figure 2.9.1 provides some typical overall heat transfer coefficients for heat transfer from bare steel flat surfaces to ambient air.
If the bottom of the tank is not exposed to ambient air, but is positioned flat on the ground, it is usual to consider this component
of the heat loss to be negligible, and it may safely be ignored.
For 25 mm of insulation, the U value should be multiplied by a factor of 0.2
For 50 mm of insulation, the U value should be multiplied by a factor of 0.1.
Table 2.9.2 Effect on heat transfer with air movement
Table 2.9.2 shows multiplication factors which need to be applied to these values if an air velocity is being taken into account. However,
surface is well insulated, the air velocity is not likely to increase the heat loss by more than 10% even in exposed conditions.
Velocities of less than 1 m/s can be considered as sheltered conditions, whilst 5 m/s may be thought of as a gentle breeze (about 3 on th
Beaufort scale), 10 m/s a fresh breeze (Beaufort 5), and 16 m/s a moderate gale (Beaufort 7).
Table 2.9.3 Overall heat transfer coefficients for oil tanks

For bulk oil storage tanks, the overall heat transfer coefficients quoted in Table 2.9.3 may be used.
Fig. 2.9.1
Table 2.9.2
Table 2.9.3
International site for Spirax Sa
Wind Velocity Effects on exposed, Bare and Insulated Surfaces.
urfaces
teel flat surfaces to ambient air.

sual to consider this component
ment
y is being taken into account. However, if the

even in exposed conditions.
ught of as a gentle breeze (about 3 on the
il tanks
ed.
nal site for Spirax Sarco
1 Centipoise = 2,41935 lb/ft.h

Storage Tank Heat Transfer

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Storage Tank Heat Transfer

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Marzo 1.

Predict storage-tank heat transfer precisely

Fig.1 - Typical vertical-cylindrical tank

For wet sidewall :

For tank bottom :

For tank roof :

Ar = ( D /2) (D2/ 4 + d2)0,5

The overall coefficients.

Wf.hAw + hRd Wf.hAw + hRw

Note : Tank roof and bottom are uninsulated.

1/Ub = 1/hLb + tM/kM+ 1/hG + 1/hFb

1/Ur = 1/hVr + tM/kM + 1/(Wf.h'Ar + hRr) + 1/hFd

0,14 (NGr . NPr)0,33

0,27 (NGr . NPr)0,25

Area of heat-transfer surface , ft 2 ; Ab for bottom , Ad for dry wall ,

Specific heat at constant pressure , BTU/lb- F

Acceleration due to gravity , 4.17 x 108 ft/h2

Heat-transfer coefficient for ground , BTU/ft 2 h-F

Heat-transfer coefficient for insulation , BTU/ft 2 h-F

Heat-transfer coefficient for metal , BTU/ft 2 h-F

Heat-transfer coefficient for radiation , BTU/ft 2 h-F ; hRb for bottom ,

Thermal conductivity , BTU/ft-h-F ; kG for ground , kI for insulation ,

Total length for heat-transfer surface , ft.

Grashof number , L3. 2. g. .T / 2

Nusselt number , h.D/k or h.L/K

Prandtl number , Cp./k

Rate of heat transfer , BTU/h

Total length for wetted surface , ft.

Temperature , F ;TA for ambient air , TL for bulk liquid , TV for

Overall heat-transfer coefficient , BTU/ft 2 h-F ; Ub for bottom , Ud for

Wind enhancement factor.

Volumetric coefficient for thermal expansion , F-1

Viscosity of fluid , lb/ft-h

Density of fluid , lb/ft3 .

Data for ABC Chemical Co. , example

Similarly , for the vapor phase ,

1,90 x 107 . L3. T

Then find the Grashof number :

hVw = NNu . k / (L - Lw) =

NGr = 97,47 .L3.(TL - Tw) =

hLw = (0,45.k / Lw0,75).(NGr.NPr)0,25 =

To be conservative , we use the higher value :

Coefficient for outside air at roof (h'Ar) . Assume :

for the (insulated) dry sidewall ,

for the wet sidewall ,

for the roof.

Heat-transfer coefficients after first iteration

for uninsulated surfaces

Tws = TA + 0,25 .(Tbulk - TA)

for insulated surfaces

qd = (hRd + hAw).Ad.(Tws - TA)

Solving Eq. 25 and 27 for Tws yields :

Similarly , solving Eq. 25 and 26 for Tw yields :

Heat-transfer coefficients after second iteration

Comparison with other methods.

Samir P. Kothari was a process engineer with Henningson , Durham and

Predict storage-tank heat transfer precisely

Jimmy D. Kumana and Samir P. Kothary , Henningson , Durham and Richardson , In

For wet sidewall :

For tank bottom :

For tank roof :

The overall coefficients.