il O Dr. B. C. PUNMIA G ASHOK KUMAR JAIN G ARUN KUMAR JAINContents r i wi 1 12 2 wa ~ 4 ua a! i 1s. & 7 16 ~ z 1 a 8 18. a 9 1. * n ‘Lio. a 4 LiL .- - o - a CHAPTER 2. LOADS AND STRESSES au - 19 22 see 19 23, - 20 24 ” 6 2s. ~ ae 26 ~ 46 21 ~ a7 28. & 47 22 ~ 47 210. ~ 0 211 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES - 0 31. ‘TYPES OF CONNECTIONS : ~ St 32 RIVET AND RIVETING o st 33, RIVET SIZE, RIVET HOLE AND CONVENTIONAL SYMBOIS .. 52. 34 COMMON DEFINITIONS ~~ 35, WORKING STRESSES IN RIVETS ~ & 36 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS a6 yy 32, MODES OF FAILURE OF A RIVETED JOINT - ae 38 STRENGTH OF RIVETED JOINT -~ 2 39, DESIGN OF-RIVETED JOINT : AXIAL LOAD ~ 2 Copyrighted materiali EERE GS REREEERELEEERRRRGEBBE| ECCENTRICALLY LOADED FILLET WELDED JOINTS ECCENTRICALLY LOADED BUTT WELDED JOINTS CHAPTER 6. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS = «1D «ID sie 123 BO WAL ie ua oDBUCKLING FAILURE : EULER'S THEORY IDEAL END CONDITIONS AND EFFECTIVI EREBRBESB SBBREE EEE 158 BEEBE BB BBISG 181 181 8Ba0, a2 a B14. 81h 816. B17 ‘818 819. 820. a2. BERREER SERRE RE EE BREESE gEE BEB Bee BEERERER BERERNESERRI : 8 ' 2 = ve t 2 3 Copyrighted material« BASES SUBJECTED TO BENDING ABOUT TWO AXES 119. COLUMN FOUNDATIONS INDEPENDANT GRILLAGE FOUNDATIONS 11.11. COMBINED GRILLAGE FOOTING CHAPTER 12. RIVETED BEAM CONNECTIONS 21. TYPES OF BEAM CONNECTIONS 2.2. SIMPLE BEAM END CONNECTIONS DESIGN OF FRAMED BEAM CONNECTION DESIGN OF UNSTIFFENED SEAT CONNECTIONS 125. DESIGN OF STIFFENED SEAT CONNECTIONS E E SBSB 8 7 EEE EE BE BEREEERE BESREREEEE EERBBSRBE EEE RSSES DESIGN OF FLANGES CURTAILMENT OF FLANGE PLATES CONNECTION OF FLANGE ANGLES TO WEB INTERMEDIATE VERTICAL STIFFENERS = HORIZONTAL STIFFENERS ~ EEEEEREEEERE B&B E :BEBEE BEE BSSks BERR BER REEE BSSEE FE BBER £ EB RRR BEEBE BR Copyrighted materialEERE BEEBREREEERB E MULTIPLE STIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS BASIC DESIGN STRESS (IS : 801-1975) COMPRESSION ON UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OVERALL FLAT-WIDTH RATIOS MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WEB DEPTH PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMEBERS LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS DESIGN OF FOUNDATION BOLTS THICKNESS OF METAL (IS : 805-1969) BREE &BE R RREEE BRRR 7. 7 33B88 SRESE Sk8E 2 1 1 2ey) 205. STAND PIPES 633 206. | CYLINDRICAL TANKS WITH SUSPENDED BOTTOM 635 207, STRESSES IN SPHERICAL BOTTOM. 638 208. STRESSES IN CONICAL BOTTOM 639 209. STRESSES IN CONNECTION BETWEEN SIDE AND BOTTOM PLATES 640 2010. SUPPORTING RING BEAM 641 2011. STAGING FOR CYLINDRICAL TANKS 643 20.12. RECTANGULAR ELEVATED TANKS a5 2013. RECTANGULAR PRESSED STEEL TANKS 646 20.14. DESIGN EXAMPLES 650 HAPTER 21. DESIGN OF TOWERS AND MASTS 211. INTRODUCTION $81 212, LATTICE TOWER CONFIGURATIONS AND BRACINGS 683 213. LOADS ACTING ON LATTICE TOWERS 684 214, | ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LATTICE TOWERS 686 215. MASTS 690 216. | TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS 691 21.7. LOADS ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS 694 218. | EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION ON CONDUCTORS AND EARTH WIRES = 699 219. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS 702 2110. FOUNDATIONS FOR TOWERS « 708 CHAPTER 22. INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 221, INTRODUCTION 8 222 PRATT TRUSS WITH PARALLEL CHORDS no __223, PRATT. TRUSS WITH INCLINED CHORDS m2 224. WARREN TRUSS WITH PARALLEL CHORDS na 225. WAREN TRUSS WITH INCLINED CHORDS ms 226. K-TRUSS nT 227. BALTIMORE TRUSS WITH SUB-TIES : THROUGH TYPE 720 2210. PENNSYLVANIA OR PETTIT TRUSS WITH SUB-TIES ~~ 7B 2211. PENNSYLVANIA TRUSS WITH SUB-STRUTS om BI 2212, BRACED CANTILEVER WITH SUSPENDED! SPAN GIRDER. 735, CHAPTER 23. SPACE FRAMES 23.1. INTRODUCTION ~ 79233. 24, 44. o eTHoD OF ‘TENSION COEFFICIENTS APPLIED. TO. ‘SPACE RAMES ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES ASTOREY BUILDINGS querer 24 MULT RODUCTION BUILDING FRANES (G FRAMES ls 244, 245. 24.6, 242, ia 249. 24.10. 41. See nG OF MULTISTOREY BUIDIN BRACING OF ‘MULTISTO! DIAPHRAGMS, SHEAR WALLS OR CORES ‘TUBE STRUCTURES SUBSTITUTE FRAMES ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS ANALYSIS OF FRAMES sD TO HORIZONTAL FORCES PORTAL METHOD CANTILEVER METHOD EACTOR METHOD CHAPTER 25, INDUSTRIAL, BUILDINGS 25.1. 3.2 25.3. 25.4. 258. mts 256. INTRODUCTION BRACING OF INDUS BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BENTS IN ‘TRANSVERSE DIRECTION ANALYSIS OF BRACED BENTS PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN HAPTER St NTRODUCTION————— 26.12. CARRYING AXIAL ‘TENSION PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS STAGES OF BENDING OF RECTANGULAR SECTIONS EVALUATION, OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT EVALUATION OF SHAPE FACTOR MOMENT-CURVATURE RELATIONSHIPS 39 7a 150 51 133 155 151 158 167 1 mm296 29.7. 29.9, (wit) yur. NET sECTIC 28. w) ‘MEMBERS 329. rICHED BEAM 32.10. TIMBER COLUMNS AND 3241. ‘MEMBERS. sUBSECTE! BENDING AND ‘STRESSES 3212. MBER “TENSION MEMBERS ap13, JOINTS ‘MEMBERS 32.14. srED J0) IN TIMBER 32s. LED J TIMBER 32.16. DO' :p JOINT WN ‘TIMBER CHAPTER 3° DESIG RY gTRUCTURES 33. YUCTION 332. GENERAL CONDITION oF S AN SEABILITY OF NRY 333. sTERAL EAR! PRESSUR! RETAINING WALLS was, DESIGN ‘oF GRAVITY inc WALL 335. ‘MASONRY 33.6. MASONRY CHIMNEYS ‘APPENDIX-® DEAD ED ‘APPENDIX: UAKE FORCES ‘APPENDIX-C- PERMISSIBLE STRESS! AND LT AREA APPENDIX gi UNITS AND EQUIVALENTS ‘APPENDICES pROFE! F TURAL STEEL SECTIONS 1052 1053 1059 3061 1061 1068, 1069 1074 1085 1086 ool 1095 1102 iis 123 1130 1138 1139 4023.2. 233. ~) METHOD OF TENSION COEFFICIENTS APPLIED TO SPACE FRAMES ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CHAPTER 24. MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS BE SEEERERE RERP INTRODUCTION : BUILDING FRAMES BRACING OF MULTISTOREY BUILDING FRAMES DIAPHRAGMS, SHEAR WALLS OR CORES TUBE STRUCTURES SUBSTITUTE FRAMES ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS METHODS OF COMPUTING BM. ANALYSIS OF FRAMES SUBJECTED TO HORIZONTAL FORCES PORTAL METHOD CANTILEVER METHOD FACTOR METHOD | 2B BB MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BENTS IN TRANSVERSE DIRECTION ANALYSIS OF BRACED BENTS CHAPTER 26, PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 26.6. 26.7. 268. 26.9. 26.10. 26.11. 26.12. INTRODUCTION THE DUCTILITY OF STEEL ULTIMATE LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF MEMBERS CARRYING AXIAL TENSION PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS STAGES OF BENDING OF RECTANGULAR SECTIONS EVALUATION OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT EVALUATION OF SHAPE FACTOR MOMENT-CURVATURE RELATIONSHIPS PLASTIC HINGE LOAD FACTOR CONDITIONS AND BASIC THEOREMS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS DETERMINATION OF COLLAPSE LOAD FOR SOME STANDARD CASES OF BEAMS BRE E@ 51 RE 1ST B aRBa 81826.13. PORTAL FRAMES 834 26.14. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS. 240 CHAPTER 27. BRIDGES 1 : GENERAL 21.1.__ INTRODUCTION 857 27.2. __ SOME DEFINITIONS a 858 27.3. ___ CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL BRIDGES : is 859 27.4. ECONOMICAL SPAN LENGTH: ~ 863 27.5. | CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS = 865 27.6. DIMENSIONS OF ROLLING STOCK ~ 867 27.1. WIDTH OF ROADWAY AND FOOTWAY 867 | 28.5. LIVE LOAD ON COMBINED RAIL-ROAD BRIDGES ~ 286.__IMPACT EFFECT 282.__WIND LOAD 288. | LATERAL LOADS : RACKING FORCE 289. LONGITUDINAL FORCES BERRE | 28.15. PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND DEFORMATION STRESSES 899 28.16. PERMISSIBLE STRESSES = 900 29.1. INTRODUCTION : SOLID WEB GIRDERS 9 293,___HALF-THROUGH PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE FOR RAILWAYS _.. 915 ee 296. DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDERS FOR DECK TYPE RAILWAY BRIDGES NT DESIGN OF LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS OF THROUGH AND HALF THROUGH TYPE RAILWAY BRIDGES 6 29.8. | WIND LOAD ON PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES FOR RAILWAYS .. 299. OVERTURNING EFFECTS DUE TO WIND LOAD ~ 29. 88S210 29.11 29.12. 309. 30.10. 30.11. 30.12. 30.13. CHAPTER 31. BRIDGES V : END BEARINGS 3 coi HORIZONTAL TRUSS EFFECT GENERAL ARRANGEMENT FOR HIGHWAY PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES IRC_RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES TYPES OF TRUSS GIRDERS ECONOMIC PROPORTIONS OF TRUSS BRIDGE SELF WEIGHT OF TRUSS GIRDER DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS WIND LOAD AND WIND EFFECTS ON TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES OVERTURNING EFFECT TOP LATERAL BRACING BOTTOM LATERAL BRACING ANALYSIS OF PORTAL BRACING SWAY BRACING INTRODUCTION : FUNCTIONS 31.2. LS. CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR BEARINGS 313 TYPES OF BEARINGS 314. SLIDING BEARINGS OR PLATE BEARINGS 31.5. | ROCKER BEARINGS 31.6. ROLLER BEARING 31.7. KNUCKLE PIN BEARING 31.8. | RAILWAY BOARD ROLLER BEARING 31.9. PERMISSIBLE STRESSES ON BEARINGS (IS : 1915-1961) 310 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS CHAPTER 32, TIMBER STRUCTURES 321, INTRODUCTION KNOTS, WANES, CHECKS AND SHAKES SLOPE OF GRAIN CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING OF TIMBER FACTORS OF SAFETY PERMISSIBLE STRESSES32.12. 3213. 3214. 325. 32.16. evi) TIMBER TENSION MEMBERS JOINTS IN TIMBER MEMBERS BOLTED JOINTS IN TIMBER NAILED JOINTS IN TIMBER DISC-DOWELLED JOINT IN TIMBER CHAPTER 33. DESIGN OF MASONRY STRUCTURES 33.1. 332, 333. 33.4, 33.5. 33.6, APPENDIX-A APPENDIX-C. APPENDIX-D. APPENDIC-E. INTRODUCTION GENERAL CONDITIONS OF STRENGTH AND STABILITY OF MASONRY STRUCTURES LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING WALLS DESIGN OF GRAVITY RETAINING WALL MASONRY DAMS MASONRY CHIMNEYS DEAD AND IMPOSED LOADS EARTHQUAKE FORCES PERMISSIBLE STRESSES AND BOLT STRESS AREA SI_UNITS AND METRIC/IMPERIAL EQUIVALENTS PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONSSYMBOLS A = Area of cross-section. Ae = Equivalent area. Ag = Gross-area of cross-section. B = Width a,b = Respectively the greater and lesser projections of the plate beyond the column. = Width bo = Width of steel flange in encased member C =The distance centre to centre of battens ; constant Cn = Coefficient ¢ = Distance between vertical stiffeners. c1,¢2 = Respectively the lesser and greater distances from the N.A. to the extreme fibers. D = Overall depth. d =Depth of web a’ = Depth of girder -to be taken as the clear distance between flange angles or where there arc no flange the clear distance between the flanges ignoring fillets. d. = Effective depth of Plate girder. do meter of the reduced end of the column. d, = (i) For the web of a column without horizontal stiff- eners- the clear distance ‘between the flange, neglecting fillets or the clear distance between the inner toes ‘of the flange angles as appropriate. (ii) For the web of a beam with horizontal stiffeners — the clear distance between the horizontal stiffener and the toes of the tension flange angles as appropriate. d, = Twice the clear distance from the N.A. of a beam to the compression flanges, neglecting fillets or the inner toes of the flange angles as appropriate. E = The modulus of elasticity for steel, taken as 2 x 10° N/mm? (MPa) in this book. e = Eccentricity. f = Yield stress fs = Elastic critical stress in bending See = Elastic critical stress in compression, also known as Euler critical stress. fe = Crushing stress 'g = Gauge ; distance, h = Outsiand of the stiffener ; depth of section = Depths I =Moment of inertia. Kp or K. = Flexural stiffnesses. ki ,ke = Coefficients k = Distance from outer face of flange to web toe of filler of member to be stiffened. L =Spanflength of member. 1 = Effective length of member M = Bending moment. N n P = No. of parallel planes of battens = Coefficient in the Merchant Rankine formula, assumed as 1.4. = Axial force (compressive or tensile) P.< = Calculated maximum load capacity of a strut (ix)T t Yy w w Zz B BiB a do Cee Oat Oe Oe % oe oF oe, eat et.al Fhe , cal Ft, cat wo Ten wy ¥ o (=) Calculated maximum load capacity as tension member. ler load. eld strength of axially loaded section. = Ultimate load for a strut = Actual soil pressure Reaction ; Radius of gyration of the section. staggered pitch. = Mean thickness of compression flange. Thickness of web. ‘Transverse shear = Longitudinal shear = Total toad = Pressure of loading on the underside of the base = Section modulus. = Ratio of the smaller to the larger moment. stiffness ratio = Slenderness ratio of the member ; ratio of effective length (/) to the appropriate radius of gyration (7) Characteristic slendemess ratio = VP,/Pe Max. permissible compressive stress in an axially loaded strut not subjected 10 ing = Max. permissible tensile stress on an axially loaded tension member not subjected to bending, Max. permissible bending stress in slab base. = Max. permissible compressive sireas duc to bending in a member not subjected to axial force. = Max. permis force, = Max. permissible stress in concrete in compression. Max. permissible equivalent stress. Max. permissible bearings stress in a member. = Max. permissible bearings stress in a fastener. = Max. permissible stress in steel in compression. = Max. permissible stress in axial tension in fastener. = Calculated average axial compressive stress. = Calculated average stress in a member due to an axial tensile force. = Calculated compressive stress in a member due to bending about a principal axis. = Calculated tensile stress in a member due to bending about both principal axes. = Max. permissible average shear stress in a member = Max. permissible shear stress in a member. = Max, permissible shear stress in fastener. = Ratio of total area of both the flanges at the point of least bending moment to the corresponding area at the point of greatest bending moment. = Ratio of moment of inertia of the compression flange alone to that of the sum of the moments of inertia of the flange each calculated about its own axis parallel to the y-y axis of the girder, at the point of maximum bending moment. ible tensile stress due to bending in a member not subjected to axialIntroduction 1.1. STRUCTURAL DESIGN A structure is a body, composed of several structural elements so assembled that it can set up resistance against deformation caused due to application of external forces. Structural Engineering is that branch of Civil Engineering which deals with both the structural analysis as well as structural design. The various sructural elements that may be present in a structure are: (i) tension members (i) compression members (iii) flexural members (iv) torsional members, and_(v) foundation elements. The structural analysis deals with the determination of internal stresses in these members as well as the determination of reaction components, when the structure is subjected to external forces. The methods of analysis and principles involved in structural analysis do not normally depend upon the type of material used for various structural components. Structural design is taken up after the structural analysis is over. The design of a structure fas two aspects: (i) functional aspect, and (i) strength aspect. In the first aspect of design, called the functional design, a structure is so proportioned and constructed that it serves the needs efficiently for which it is constructed. In the second aspect, called structural design, the structure should be strong enough to resist external forces to which it is subjected during its entire period of service. The following are the requirements that govern the structural design : () It should have adequate strength. (i) It should have adequate stability and rigidity. (iii) It should be durable, (iv) It should not interfere with the functional requirements. (%) It should be economical. (vi) It should be readily adaptable to future extension. The aim of the structural designer is to produce a safe and economical structure to meet certain functional and esthetic requirements. Structural design is to a great extent an art based on creative ability, imagination and experience of the designer. The designer must have a thorough knowledge of structural behavior, of structural analysis and of correlation between the layout and the function of a structure, along with the appreciation of esthetic values. The structural designer uses his knowledge of structural mechanics, the codes of practice and practical experience to produce a safe design. o2 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES. ‘The general design procedure consisis of the following steps. (@® Selection of type of structure. (i) Layout of the structure. (ii) Determination of forces on the structure in the elements (or components) of the ._ structure, and (v) Checking the performance of the structure under service con: 12. TYPES OF STRUCTURES Structures may be classified in many ways, based on size, shape or geometry, support system, type of material used and methods used in their analysis and design. When a structure is subjected to external forces, the elements of the structure are subjected to internal stresses set in them. If the internal stresses and the reaction components can be determined by the application of equations of statics alone, the structure is said to be a statically determinate structure, If however, additional equations, formulated on the basis of consistent deformations Of the elements, are required along with the equations of statics, the structure is known as statically indeterminate structure. Depending upon supporting system, structures may be of three types: @ Line structures having one dimensional supporting system. (i) Surface structures having the two dimensional supporting system. (ii) Space structures having three dimensional supporting system. In the line structure, having one dimensional supporting system, the structure is large in one dimension in comparison to the other two dimensions. In such a structure, the material of the element remains concentrated in one line which may be either straight or curved. Flexible cable is a typical example under this category. A surface structure, which may be either plane or curved, is large in two dimensions and very small in the third dimension. A surface structure may also be composed of 2 number of continuously connected line structures. The common examples of surface structures are shell structures (such as water tanks, chimneys, roofs etc.) having rigid curved surfaces and framed or skeletal structures such as root trusses, bridge girders industrial shades etc. Space siructures or three dimensional structures are targe in three dimensions. ‘The common examples of this type are multistoryed buildings, exhibition pavilions, transmission tower, television masts etc. Depending upon the shape and geomeny, structures may be of three types: @ Shell structures (ii) Framed structures or skeletal structures. (ii) Solid structures. Shell structure are surface structures, mostly made up of plates and sheets. In such structures, loads are resisted by the plates which also serve as covering material. Common examples of this type are: tanks, chimneys, air planes, shell roof coverings of buildings, rail road cars, ship hulls, bins, bunkers etc. Framed structures or skeletal structures are composed of elongated members assembled together. A skeletal structure is the one in which the members may be represented by a line (consisting of line elements) and the intersections of the lines correspond to joints of the structure. The resulting framed structure may be two dimensional (such as roof trusses, bridge trusses, etc) or three dimensional (such as building frames, transmission towers, television masts, trestles, crane girders etc). A solid structure consists of one single linear structural element, such as flexible cable, circular column etc. ions.INTRODUCTION 3 Structures may also be classified on the basis of materials used for construction, as follows: @ = (i) (i) @) (9) i) (vit) Steel structures Aluminum structures Timber structures Plastic structures Masonry structures Concrete structures Composite structures. Another classification that applies to buildings, made wholly or in part, of steel is in accordance with the type of structural framework: 1 2 3. ‘Wall-bearing structure Beam and column structure Long-span framing (a) Plate girders (b) Trusses and mill building frames. (©) Rigid frames. (d) Arches. (e) Suspension systems. In the case of wall- bearing construction, Asa columns are avoided, and the roof structure is sup- ported directly on the wails. Wall-bearing con- masonery WALL = struction has been almost (a) BEARING WALL (b) STEEL GIRDER OR PLATE completely superseded by CONSTRUCTION GIRDER BRIDGE the skeleton frame in al large or heavily loaded a buildings. Wall bearing buildings normally are fee not highly resistant to seismic loading. Almost JcoluMe- all multi-storey skeleton- frame steel buildings (‘ier building) are of beam and (c ) SKELETON BUILDING (4) RIGID BUILDING FRAME FRAME column framing. Long span industrial buildings may employ girders or trusses supported on stanchions, or may use hoor Tass rigid frames. Long-span framing is used to obtain wide, unobstructed floor areasor to carry loads that (el INDUSTRIAL BUILDING (f) STEEL ARCH BRIDGE are too heavy for rolled sections. FIG. 11. TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES4 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1.3, STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS A building structure, consisting of a steel frame work skeleton is made up of the following structural elements or members : (® Flexural members: beams or girders. @ Tension members : ties. (i) Compression members : columns, stanchions, struts. (jv) Torsional members. and (vy) Elements of foundation structure. Some elements or members may be subjected to combined bending and axial loads. The members of steel frame are jointed together by riveted, bolted, pinned or welded connections or joints. No matter how complicated a structure may appear to be, it must consist of some combination of the basic members mentioned above. However, flexural members, (or beams) may, in some cases, appear as extremely heavy built-up girders, and the compression members (or columns) and tension members (or ties) may be combined to form heavy trusses in an extensive frame work. Fig. 1.2 shows typical details of framing for multistorey building while Fig. 1.3 shows the components of an industrial building. The structural elements are made up of the following commonly used structural shapes and built-up sections shown in Fig. 1.4. FLoor cinDER FLOOR BEAM (01ST) FIG. 1.2. FRAMING FOR MULTISTOREYED BUILDINGINTRODUCTION o w@ (iii) (wv) 0) i) (vii) (uti) @&) (i) 1.4. BEAMS AND GIRDERS FIG. 13. FRAMING FOR AN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING Angle section 5 Channe! section I-section (Q)ANGLE (2) TEE (¢)CHANNEL (4) I~ (eo) 2€E Z-section Solid square section 7 square tube. e © ry Circular section (solid) (E)CIRCULAR (9 HOLLOW th) PLATE (i) SQUARE’ (j) HOLLOW ie eee Hollow circular section Plate section. Compound and built-up sections, | (4) COMPOUND AND BUILT-UP SECTIONS FIG. 14, COMMONLY USED STRUCTURAL SHAPES. ‘A beam is a structural member the primary function of which is to support loads normal to its axis. The word beam and the word girder are used more or less interchangeably. However, the word girder may mean either a built-up member (usually a heavy one) or a main beam6 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (single rolled shaped or built-up) which supports other beams. In a beam, loads are resisted by bending and shear, but local stress conditions and deflection are also important considerations. Beams in structures may also be referred to by typical names that suggest their function in the structure, as given below: @ — Girder Usually indicate a major beam frequently at wide spacing that supports small beams. (i) Joists : Closely spaced beams supporting the floors and roofs of buildings. (iii) Purlins —_—: Roof beams usually supported by trusses. (i) Rafters: Roof beams usually supporied by purlins. () Lintet : Beam over window or door openings that support the wall above. (i) Girts : Horizontal wall beams used to support wall covering on the side of an industrial building (vit) Spandrelbeam —: Beam around the outside perimeter of a floor that support the exterior walls and the outside edge of the floor. The term beam-column is used for that structural element that supports both transverse and axial loads. Fig. 1.5 shows some of the commonly used beams sections. The optimum section for flerural resistance is the one in which the material is located as far as possible from the neutral axis. The angle section (Fig. 1.5 a) is not an efficient beam shape, though it may be good for short, lightly loaded spans where the flat leg may be used to support some other element of the structure, such as floor or roof deck. The channel section (Fig. 1.5 b) is also used for light loads, such as for purlins and girs. The I-section (Fig. 1.5 c), known as universal beam, is most commonly used for wall supported structures. Fig. 1.5 (¢) shows a composite section, made of I-section with thin web and with flat plates attached to flanges. This gives higher percentage of material concentrated in the flange, resulting in higher elastic section modulus for the same mass per unit length. Fig. 15 (@) shows composite beam section commonly used as gantry girders for cranes, The bar joist shown in Fig. 1.5 (f) is a light, trussed beam very widely used for floor and roof framing in lightly loaded buildings. The flanges or chords of such a section can be commonly scen on railway platforms. Fig. 1.5 (g) shows a plate-girder used for heavy loads in buildings and bridges. Fig. 1.5 (h) shows double-wev box girders particularly use- ful for heavy, flexural members subjected also to torsion or direct stress. Fig. 15 () shows a castellated beam giving «1 eaR vo1st {GD PLATE ORDER m BOMOLE WED an increased depth of the rolled beam by castellating. To obtain such a section, a zig-zag line is cut along the beam web by an automatic flame cutting machine, The two halves thus produced are rearranged so that the teeth match up and the teeth are then welded together. (a) ANGLE. (©) CHANMEL (c)T-J01ST (4) COMPOSITE (4) COMPOSITE, (1) CASTELLATED BEAM FIG. 1.5. BEAM SECTIONS.INTRODUCTION 7 15, TENSION MEMBERS A tension member is the one which is intended to resist axial tension. Tension members are also called ties or hangers. The cross-sectional arrangement of material in axially stressed tension members is structurally unimportant. Cross-sections of some common tension members are shown in Fig. 1.6. Fig. 1.6 (a) shows an ordinary G roditewentiyusedasisionmenser @ @ | E few wa in bracing buildings, and as tension “a member in timber trusses. Wires,ropes, 9) (BP tea bridge strand and cables, shown in Fig. a tw w ce 1.6 (b) are extremely versatile, mostly f used for suspension structures. Fig 1.6 (c) shows a flat or rectangular & bar once used extensively as eyebars (with enlarged head containing a hole through which pin may pass) in pin FIG. 16. TYPICAL TENSION MEMBERS. connected bridges. Fig. 1.6 (d) and (€) show single angle and double angle members extensively used in single-plane (single gusset) trusses. Fig. 1.6. (f) and (g) show fvo angle and four angle members frequently used in light double plane (double gusset) rivetted trusses. Fig 1.6 (h) shows a form of tension member sometimes used for single plane trusses when bending must also be resisted in addition to axial tension. Form shown in Fig. 16 (® is used for heavier trusses, with their open sides provided with intermittent tie plates or lattice bars as shown by horizontal dotted lines. Structural Tee shown in Fig 1.6 (j) make excellent chord members for lightly loaded welded trusses, since the stem may serve as a gusset for the attachment of single-angle or double angle web members. The L-members (Fig. 1.6 k) are used as tension members in heavier building or bridge trusses with double-plane construction. 1.6. COMPRESSION MEMBERS Compression members, also called columns, struts, posts or stanchions are intended primarily to resist compressive siress. The requirements for compression members are more demandin’, than those for tension members, since in this case the carrying capacity is a function of sha as well as of area and material properties. The buckling of the column in any possible direct: becomes a governing criterion. Some of the commonly used compression sections are shown in Fig 1.7. Fig. 1.7 (a) shows solid circular sec- tion, which is used as compression mem @ ° bo : fi 1 = te ber in machines and special structures such as legs of tall, guyed transmission towers. The cylindrical ube (or hollow le circular section) shown in Fig. 1.7 (6) =3-; is the optimum section for a column [ F j with equal unbraced lengths in each direction. Such sections are extensively 7 r oI used in tubular trusses. However, there i= are connection problems in such a sec- w tion. Fig. 1.7 (¢) shows a square or rec- FIG. 1.7. TYPICAL COMPRESSION MEMBERS.8 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES tangular tube, where the efficiency of a circular tube may be approached and at the same time the connection problem can be made simpler. The single angle section, shown in Fig. 1.7 (d) are useful only for truss members and compression legs of towers. The double angle section (Fig 1.7 e) is commonly used in trusses, while the cruciform arrangement of the double angles (Fig 1.7 f) gives approximately equal radii of gyration in two directions. The I-section shown in Fig 1.5 (g) is commonly used in buildings because of its easy availability in different sizes and ease with which it can be spliced and connected. If the requirement of area is in excess of available section, additional plates can be attached to the flanges as shown in Fig 1.7 (A). Fig. 1.7 (i), () and (k) show built-up column sections, to carry heavy loads. 1.7. STRUCTURAL STEEL Steel is probably the most versatile commonly used structural material. Not only is its versatility apparent in great variety of structures for which it is used but also in many different forms possible in a single building structure or a complex of structures. Many of the properties of structural steel of interest to the designer can be described by the behavior of steel during a simple tension test. The essential elements in steel are metallic iron and the element non-meiallic carbon, with small quantities of other elements such as silicon, nickel, manganese, chromium and copper. It is thus an alloy. Though steel is usually more than 98% iron, with other elements present in small quantities, these other elements have pronounced effect on the properties of steel. Various iron-carbon alloys, used as structural material are of three types: (i) cast iron, (ii) wrought iron, and (iii) steel. Cast iron has a low carbon content, while wrought iron has high carbon content. In many ways, steels are intermediate in carbon content, between cast iron and wrought iron. The approximate limits for carbon in stee! are between 0.04 to 2.25 percent, though the limits for carbon in structural steel are between 0.15 to 1.7 percent. Cast iron: Cast iron has low carbon percentage, which makes it very brittle. The first use of cast iron as structural material was ona 100 ft. span bridge over Severn River at Coolbrookdate, England built in 1779, and which is stilt in service. During the period 1780 to 1820, many more cast iron bridges were built. However its use declined thereafter, because of (i) failures due to brittle facture in tension, and (ii) availability of wrought iron shapes commercially. Wrought iron : Wrought iron has high carbon content, imparting it the ability to permit large deformations without fracture. Due to this quality, it replaced cast iron. The wrought iron could be formed into plates which can, in turn, be cut and shaped into structural members. The early example of use of wrought iron was the Britannia Bridge across the Menai straits in Wales completed in 1850. Steel : Steel has carbon content intermediate between cast iron and wrought iron. With the development of Bessemer process in 1856 and open-hearth steel-making furnace in 1864, large quantities of steel became available for the first time, Many rolled sections, such as rolled bars and I-shapes were made available by 1870. This resulted in the replacement of wrought iron by steel, in construction industry, by 1890. Depending upon the chemical composition, different types of steels are classified as (i) mild steel (i) medium carbon steel (iii) high carbon steel (iv) low alloy steel and (v) high alloy steel. Out of these, the first three types of stecls are known as siructural steel, commonly used in steel structures. Indian standard IS:800-1984 (Code of practice for general construction in steel) is applicable to the types of structural steels covered by the following Indian Standards:INTRODUCTION 9 1. IS: 226-1975 Structural steel (Standard quality) 2, IS: 1977-1975 Structural steel (ordinary quality) 3. IS: 2062-1984 Weldable structural steel 4 IS: 961-1975 Structural steel (high tensile) 5. IS: 8500-1977 Weldable structural stcel (medium and high strength qualities) Structural Stee! (standard quality) IS : 226-1975 Steel in this quality is known as mild steel, designated as St 44-S while the one in copper bearing quality is designated as St 44-SC with copper content varying from 0.2 to 0.35%. Mild steel is used for manufacture of rolled steel sections, rivets and bolts. Steel conforming to IS: 226-1975 is suitable for all types of structures subjected to static, dynamic and cyclic loading, and is suitable for welding upto 20 mm thickness. The chemical composition of this steel is given in Table 1.1. TABLE 11 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STEEL IS:226-1975 Constituents Carbon (for thickness/dia upto 20 mm) Carbon ( for thickness/dia. over 20 mm) Sulphur Phosphorus The physical properties of mild steels are as under: (Mass : 7.85 kg/cm’ (7850 kg/m’) (ii) Young's modulus of elasticity (E): 2.04% 10° MPa (or N/mm’) (iii) Modulus of Rigidity (G): 0.785 x 10° MPa (or N/mm’) (iv) Poisson's Ratio (sx) : 0.3 (in elastic range) (iv) Coefficient of thermal expansion or contraction : 12x10~* per® Cor 6.7x 10-* per °F 18, STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS Structural steel is rolled into a variety of shapes and sizes. The shapes are designated by the shape and size of their cross-section. Following are various types of rolled structural steel sections commonly used: () Rolled steel beam sections (I-section) (ii) Rolled steel channel sections (iit) Rolled steel angle sections, (iv) Rolled steel T-sections. (v) Rolled steel bars (vi) Rolled steel plates. (vii) Rolled steel! sheets and strips. (viii) Mild steel flats. The dimensions and properties of all these sections are given in ‘ISI Hand Book for Structural Engineers’, Vol. 1, Strucuural Steel Sections’. 1. Rolled Steel Beam Sections ISI hand book gives five series of beam sections: (®) Junior beams, designated as ISJB (Indian Standard Junior Beams)10 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (i) Light Beams designated as ISLB (Indian Standard Light Beams) (ii) Medium Beams, designated as ISMB (indian Standard Medium Weight Beams) (iv) Wide Flange Beams, designated as ISWB (Indian Standard Wide-Flange Beams) and (v) H-Beams or column beams designated as ISHB (indian Standard H-Beams) Each beam section is designated by the series to which it belongs followed by the depth (in mm) of the section. For example, ISMB 400 means a beam section of medium weight, and of depth equal to 400 mm. In some cases of wide flange beams and H-beams, more than one section is available for the same depth. For example, there are two sections of IS WB 600; these two sections are differentiated by. writing the mass of the beams per m run. Thus, we have ISWB a 500 @ 133.7 kgim and ISWB 600 @ 145.1 kg/m, both of these Hr wioTH= b —a being two different sections having different properties. Similarly, we have ISHB 300 @ 58.8 kg/m and ISHB 300 @ 63.0 kg/m giving"! dean onan two different sections having different geometrical properties. 2 Rolled Steel Channel Sections ISI hand book gives the following four scrics of channel sections: @ Junior channels designated by ISIC (indian Standard Junior channels) (i) Light channels designated by ISLC (Indian Standard Light Channels) (iii) Medium channels designated by ISMC (Indian Standard Medium Weight Channels) (iv) Special channels designated by ISSC (Indian Standard Special Channels) Each rolled steel channel is designated by the series to which it belongs, followed by its depth (in mm) and then its mass per metre length. Thus, we have ISLC 400 @ 45.7 kg/m, meaning thereby that it is a light channel, having depth equal to 400 mm and mass equal to 45.7 kg/m. A channel section has only one axis of symmetry. DEPTH h Due to this, it is subjected to twisting or torsion, along with bending, F when used as a beam. few bof 3. Rolled Steel Angle Sections FIG. 19. ROLLED STEEL - CHANNEL SECTION ISI hand book gives three series of angle sections: () Equal angles section designated by ISA (Indian Standard Equal Angles) (i) Unequal angles section designated by ISA (Indian Standard Unequal Angles) (ii) Bulb angle section designated by ISBA (Indian Standard Bulb Angles) Since the equal angle section and unequal angle section are designated by the same scries, the width and height of the legs of the angle are also mentioned along with the series. Thus,INTRODUCTION u ISA 4040 will mean a equal angle section, having width and depth equal to 40 mm. Similarly, ISA 4025 will mean an unequal angle section having depth equal to 40 mm and width equal to 25 mm. A bulb angle (Fig. 1.10 c) has unequal legs, and hence only its depth is mentioned along with the series designation. Thus, we have ISBA 300 mean- ing there by that it is a bulb angle section having its depth equal to 300 mm. However, there may be two bulb sections FIG. 110. ANGLE SECTIONS of the same depth, and these are differentiated by mentioning their.mass per metre length. Thus we have ISBA 300 @ 47.5 kg/m and ISBA 300 @ 526 kg/m giving two sections which have different properties. It should be noted that the angle sections mentioned above do not have any axis of symmetry, and hence the principal axes u-v and v-v are inclined to xx and y-y axes. 4. Rolled Steel T-sections (0) EQUAL ANGLE (DrUNEQUAL ANGLE — (c) BULB ANOLE I" (Normal Tee designated by ISNT, having width fe—won! —_ of flange, equal to the depth of section. (ii) H-Tee or wide flange tee, designated by ISHT, having width of flange equal to twice the Wve ' r = depth of the. section. = (ii) Short-Tee, designated by ISST, having the width E byte, of flange shorter than the depth of the section. Spot! (iv) Light-Tee, designated by ISLT, having light 7 oes weight. (¥) Junion-Tee designated by ISIT. Each T-section is designated by the series to which iv it belongs followed by the depth in mm. Thus we have ISNT FIG. 1.11. TEE-SECTION 100, meaning there by that it is a normal Tee section, having its depth equal to 100 mm. Similarly ISLT 100 will mean a light Tee section having depth of section equal to 100 mm. it is always preferable to mention the mass per metre length also, such as ISNT 100 @ 15.0 kg/m or ISST 200 @ 284 kg/m etc. §. Rolled Stee! Bar Sections ISI hand book gives rolled steel bars of two types : @ Round bars designated by ISRO. (i) Square bars designated by ISSQ. Each bar section is designated by the series to which it belongs along with the diameter or the width, in mm. Thus ISRO 100 will mean a round bar having 100 mm diameter. Similarly ISSQ ‘*? ROUND —_(w) SQuaRe 80 will mean a square bar of size 8 mm. FIG. 1.12. BAR SECTIONS *n DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 19, METHODS OF DESIGN Structural design is a process by which a structure required to perform a given function is proportioned to satisfy certain performance criterion in a safe and economic way. To any given structural performance specification, there may be a large number of solutions which will atleast satisfy the safety criterion, although many will clearly be uneconomic. However, ‘one important point that should be noted is that solutions aimed at using the smallest amount of material (ie. minimum weight designs) are very often not the most economical. There are two philosophies for design of structures (®) Elastic design or Working stress design (ii) Plastic design The basic premise of the elastic design method is that the attainment of the yield stress at any point in the structure marks the end of acceptable behavior. ‘The structural components are designed on the basis of working stress defined by the relation: Working stress < _ Yield stress (or safe permissible stress) * Factor of safety In the elastic design, the computed stresses are well within the clastic range, ie. stresses are proportional to strains. In terms of 2 beam, for example, the safety criterion in working stress design may be expressed as [o-Ps [nk (of where f, is the unit stress at the extreme fibre of the beam cross-section, caused by the maximum service load moment M and computed under the assumption that the beam is elast = allowable stress obtained by dividing the limiting stress, such as yicld stress (f) or 1 buckling stress f. by a factor of safety (F. or F.'). In the plastic design method, the usefulness of the material is limited upto ultimate load (or collapse load). The method, while taking account of the plastic extension of steel, is able to predict the load which should just cause the structure to collapse. This method has its main application in the analysis and design of statically indeterminate structures. The plastic design in limit state terms is, in fact, based on the ultimate limit state of collapse. This method provides the margin of safety in terms of load factor. Thus, the working load is determined in terms of collapse load and appropriate load factor by the following relationship : ; _ Collapse load Working load = "Toad factor Indian Standard Code 1S:800-1984 (Code of practice for general construction of steel) recommends the following methods of design of stee! frame work: 1. Simple design 2. Semi-rigid design, and 3, Fully rigid design. 1. Simple Design This method applies to structures in which the end connections between the members are such that they will not develop restraint moments adversely affecting the members and the structure as a whole and in consequence the structure may, for the purpose of design, be assumed to be pin-jointed. The method of simple design involves the following assumptions (1S: 800-1984): (@ ‘The beams are simply supported. (i) All connections of beams, girders or trusses are virtually flexible and are pro- portioned for the reaction shears applied at the appropriate eccentricity.INTRODUCTION 13 (iii) Members in compression are subjected to forces applied at the appropriate eccentricities with the appropriate effective length. (iv) Members in tension are subjected to longitudinal force applied over the net area ‘of the section. 2 Semi Rigid Design This method assumes partial fixidity at the ends and hence as compared to the simple design method, permits a reduction in the maximum bending moment in the beams suitably connected to their supports. It thus provides a degree of direction fixidity, and in the case of triangulated frames, it permits account being taken of the rigidity of the connections and the moment of interaction of members. In cases where this method Of design is employed, calculations based on general or particular ex- perimental evidence shall be made to show that the stresses in any part of the structure are not in excess of those laid down in the code. Stress investiga- tions may also be done on the finished structure for assurance that the actual stresses under specific design loads are not in excess of those laid down in IS 2 800-1984. 3. Fully Rigid Design This method, 2s compared with the methods of simple and semi-rigid designs gives the greatest rigidity and economy in the weight of stee! used when applied in appropriate cases. The end connec- tions of the members of the frame shall have sufficient rigidity to hold the original angles between such members and the members they connect virtually unchanged. Unless otherwise specified, the design shall be based on theoretical methods of elastic analysis and the cal- culated stresses shall conform to the relevant provisions of IS : 800-1984. Al- ternatively, it shall be based on the prin- ciples of plastic design. ‘The end connection behavior which distinguishes the three types of construc- tion (and hence the three types of design) are illustrated in Fig. 1.13. In the strict sense of term, all con- nections are semi-rigid, complete flexibility and complete rigidity being ideal conditions which cannot be at- tained in practice. The lightest framing eno SUPPORTING MEMBER TOP CLIP ANGLE LIGHT SECTION) SEAT ANGLE (1) CONNECTION Gi) SIMPLE owt (a) SIMPLE CONNECTION TOP CLIP ANGLE UNTERMEDIATE SECTION) (1) CONNECTION (>) SEMI~RIGIO CONNECTION {1 SEMI-RIGID JOINT TOP CLIP ANGLE (heavy SECTION a ‘SUPPORTING MEMBER UL} CONNECTION GH) RIGID yoNT {c} RIGID CONNECTION FIG. 113. TYPICAL CONNECTIONS AND TYPES OF JOINT BEHAVIOUR4 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES angles (i.e. top clip angle and bot- tom seat angle shown in Fig 1.13, a) have some moment of resis- tance, and due to this the sup- 100%m, porting member (ie. column) | rolates slightly. Similarly, in rigid RIGID CONNECTION BO%M, SEMIRIGID CONNECTION connection (such as shown in. Fig.1.13¢),clastic deformation of © gonsag SEIN Ne POR Oanoeaal the connecting material, rivet or CORDED GEBW bolt, slip or deformation of ele- sony, ments of supporting members 3 “O*Me SIMPLE CONNECTION (such as column flanges), permit — 2 ao, some diference in angular rota- Mo tion (6' #6) of the joined mem- bers. ° @ Fig. 1.14 shows typical end END ROTATION. 6 (RAD) moment-rotation curves for the _ 2 three types of connections dis- Mes Ruston Monet br UD Ln 75 cussed above. s = End Rotation for Simply Supported Beam with UD.L= 4 FIG. 114. TYPICAL END MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CONNECTIONS. Experimentally Based Design : IS 800-1984 recommends that where the structure is non- conventional or of complex nature, the design may be based on full scale or model tests subject to the following conditions :- (a) A full scale test of prototype structure may be done. The protoype shall be accurately measured before testing to determine the dimensional tolerance in all relevant parts of the structure ; the tolerances then specified on the drawing shall be such that all successive structures shall be in practical conformity with the prototype. Where the design is based on failure loads, a load factor of not less than 2.0 on the loads or load combinations shall be used. Loading devices shall be previously calibrated and care shall be exercised to ensure that no artificial restraints are applied to the prototype by the loading systems, The distribution and duration of forces applied in the test shall be representative of those to which the structure is deemed to be subjected. (b) In the case where the design is based on the testing of a small scale model structure, the modei shall be constructed with due regard for the principles of dimensional similarity. The thrusts, moments and deformations under working loads shall be determined by physical measurements made when the loadings are applied to simulate the conditions assumed in the design of actual structure. 1.10, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND CODES OF PRACTICE A steel structure, before completion, passes through three phases: (i) analysis and design (i) fabrication, and (iii) erection or construction. Thus, apart from the owner, other parties that are involved in the construction of a structure are (a) the designers (6) fabricators, and (©) the erectors. The design is based on the strength of available materials, ie structural steel, rivets, bolts, pins, weld and other connecting components. An economical design can not be produced unless uniform data about material strength are available. For this it is essential that the used materials are manufactured aCcording to certain standards. The presence of standardINTRODUCTION 1s specifications and widely accepted codes of practice for the use of structural steel would give rise of most economical design. Many advanced countries like U.S.A, U.K. USSR, Japan, etc have envolved their own standards and code of practice. India is also one of the leading country in this aspect and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), formerly known as Indian Standard Institution (ISI) is doing this job of preparing standards and codes of practices in India. [SI published the first code of practice entitled Use of Structural Steel in General Building Construction’, and designated as IS: 800 was published in 1956. The code was subsequently revised in 1962, and its latest revision was made in 1984. The following is the list of useful IS Codes: 1 z ay eer ay ll 12 13 14. 15 16. 17. 18. 19. 2. IS : 226-1975 IS : 456-1978 IS : 723- IS : 800-1984 IS : 806- IS : 808-1989 TS : 812-1957 IS : 813-1961 TS : 816-1969 IS : 819-1957 IS : 875-1964 IS : 961-1975 Is : 1024-1979 IS : 1148-1973 IS : 1149-1982 IS : 1161- TS : 1173- IS : 1252- IS : 1261-1959 IS : 1278-1972 IS : 1323-1962 IS : 1363-1967 IS : 1364-1967 Is : 1730- Structural steel (standard quality) (fifth revision) Code of practice for plain and Reinforced concrete (Third revision) Mild steel wire nails. Code of practice for General Construction in steel (second revision) Use of steel tubes in General construction in steel Hot Rolled steel Beams, channels and angle sections Glossary of Terms relating to welding and Cutting of Metals Scheme of symbol for Welding Code of Practice for use of Metal Arc Welding for General Construction in mild steel (first revision) Code of Practice for resistance spot welding for light assem- blies in mild steel. Code of Practice for structural safety of Buildings ; Loading standards (revised) Structural steel (High tensile) second revision) Code of practice for use of welding in bridges and structures subject to dynamic loading (first revision) Hot-rolled steel rivet-bars (up to 40 mm dia) for structural purposes (second revision) High tensile steel rivet bars for structual purposes. Stee] tubes for structural purposes Rolled Steel section, Tee-Bars Rolled steel sections, Bulb-Angies Code of Practice for seam welding in Mild steel. Filler Rods and wires for Gas Welding (second revision) Code of practice for oxy-acetylene Welding for structural Work in Mild stee! (revised) Black hexagon bolts, nuts and lock nuts (dia. 6 to 39 mm) and Black Hexagonal screws (dia. 6 10 24 mm) (first revision) Precision and Semi-precision hexagon bolts, screws, nuts and lock nuts (dia. range 6 to 39 mm) (first revision) Dimensions for steel plates, sheets and strips for structural and General Engineering purposes.16 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 25. IS : 1731- Dimensions for steel flats for structural and General Engin- ering purposes 26. IS : 1732. Dimensions for Round and square steel Bars for structural and General Engineering purposes. 27. IS : 1911. Schedule of unit weight of materials 28 IS : 1929-1961 Rivets for General Purposes (12 to 48 mm dia.) 29. IS : 1977-1975 Structural steel (ordinary quality) (second division) 30. 18 : 2062-1984 Weldable Structural steel (third revision) 31. IS : 2155-1962 Rivets for General Purposes (below 12 mm dia.) 32, IS: 2585- Black square Bolts and Nuts and Black square screws 33. IS : 3640-1967 Hexagon fit Bolts. 34. IS : 3757-1972 High-tensile friction Grip Bolts (first revision) 35. IS : 4000-1967 Code of Practice for assembly of structural joints using High Tensile friction Grip fasteners 36. IS : 6623-1972 High Tensile Friction Grip Nuts. 37. IS : 6639-1972 Hexagon bolts for steel structures 38 IS : 6649-1972 High Tensle Friction Grip Washers 39. IS : 7205-1974 Safety Code for Erection of structural steel work 40. IS : 8500-1977 Weldable structural stecl (medium and high strength qualities) 41 IS : 9595-1980 Recommendations for Metal Arc Welding of carbon and Carbon Manganese steels. In addition 10 the above, IS! has published the following hand books: 1, Hand book for structural Engineers : 1 (Structural Steel Sections) 2. Hand book for structural Engineers : 2 (Steel Beams and Plate Girders) 3, Hand book for structural Engineers : 3 (Steel Column and Struts) Apart from ISI, the Indian Road Congress (IRC), and Ministry of Railways and Railway Board have also prepared and published specifications for construction of structures in structural steel. For design of Railway Bridges, the following publications are useful : @ Bridge Rules (ii) Steel Bridge Code For design of High Way Bridges, Indian Road Congress has specified general features of design, loads and stresses and detailed specifications in their publication: Standard Specification and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Sections I to IX. In the United States of America, specifications for the design, fabrication and erection of structural steel buildings have been prepared by American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) through its popular publication ‘Manual of Steel Construction’ (AISCM). For designs of specific nature, the following specifications are followed: Alsi : American Iron Steel Institute Specifications AWS : American Welding Society Specifications AASHTO : American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official Specification. AREA : American Railway Engineering Association SpecificationsINTRODUCTION nv su : Steel Joist Institute Specifications USASI i US. American Standard Institute Specifications USBPR = US. Bureau of Public Roads Specifications In Britian, Australia and USSR, the following publications are widely followed by the designers: BS 449 (Part II) : Specifications for use of structural steel in Building Part {I : Metric Units. British Standard Insitution. AS 1250 : SSA Steel Structure Code. Standards Association of Australia. SNIP-II-V3 : Code of Practice for design of steel structures of the USSR é State Committee for construction. 1.11. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CONSTRUCTION IN STRUCTURAL STEEL Construction in Structural Steel has the following merits: 1. High strength: Structural Steel has high strength per unit weight. Due to this, the self weight constitutes very small part of the load that can be supported by the steel structure. Due to this, steel members are slender or small in size (in comparison to R.C.C. members), resulting in more available space in the structure. This property is important in design of structures such as tall buildings, long-span bridges and air-plane hangers. 2. Easy Transportation : Because of its small size and self weight, the steel member can be easily transported. 3. Easy Fabrication, Erection and Replacement: Stee structural components possess ease of fabrication and speed of erection, and they can be readily diassembled or replaced. They can also be used as pre-fabricated members. 4. Elasticity: Steel follows Hooke’s law upto high values of stress, in both tension and compression, and its behaviour can be predicted quite accurately, in contrast to reinforced cement concrete, 5. Ductility: Because of its ductility (i, ability 10 undergo large deformations without fracture), steel is able 10 resist sudden collapse. Many of the simplifying assumptions used in structural steel design can be justified because of the ductility of steel. 6. Uniformity: Greater control is exercised in the manufacture of steel. Hence both the properties of steel and uniformity of structural shapes can be,assured. This eliminates the need to over-design a member because of uncertainty about the steel. 7. Strengthening of existing structure: Existing structures can be easily strengthened by connection of additional plates or sections. 8. Gas and Water Tightness: Because of high density of steel, and because of improved welding processes, steel structures can be made water-tight and gas tight. 9. Easy Inspection and Maintenance : Steel structures, can be easily inspected, and hence its maintenance is easy. 10. Longer Life: Steel structures are known to have long service life. LL. Scrap Value: Even at the end of its useful life it has scrap value. However, inspite of the above numerous merits, steel structures have the following demerits. 1, High Cost of Construction: Steel structures have relatively higher cost of construction in comparison to R.C.C. structures.18 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 2, High Maintenance cost: Exposure to water and air has a devastating effect, because of corrosion. This requires painting of steel structures on a periodic basis, resulting in high maintenance cost. However, in the case of weathering steel, a protective layer having an attractive red-brown colour is formed when it oxidizes under exposure to air and water, and hence painting is not required. 3. Poor fireproofing: In case of fire, the rise in temperature results in drastic reduction in thestrength of sicel. Steel at 1000° F has about 65% of the strength at normal temperature, and at 1600°F, it is about 15% only. Such a drastic reduction results in collapse of structure. Hence steel should be covered by insulating material. 4. Buckling: Because of the slender size, compression members of steel tend to fail due to buckling rather than to a lack of material strength. Hence additional steel is required to stiffen the member and prevent buckling. 5. Fatigue: A structural member subject to. many stress reversals or even large changes in either tension or compression may fracture due to fatigue.Loads and Stresses 2.1, INTRODUCTION The basic requirement of any structure or structural component is that it should be strong enough to carry or support all possible types of loads to which it is likely to be subjected. Loads coming on a structure may be divided into three categories: 3. Dead loads 2. Live loads and forces (super-imposed lozds) 3. Wind loads In a building, the dead load consists of weight of all permanent construction (such as walls, partitions, floors etc), including fixed equipment such as plumbing, air conditioning and stationary machines or other mechanical devices. In the case of a bridge, dead load includes weight of deck, tracks, side walks, railings, lighting fixtures etc, and of course the main structural frame. Live loads and forces are the one which are always dynamic, atleast in principle. In a broad sence, live loads and forces include the following : 1 Loads due to occupants 2. Movable machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise 3. Snow load 4. Fluid pressure 5. Earth pressure 6. 7. 8 Earthquake forces Blast forces Thermal forces and 9. Wind forces. The first three of the above forces are generally called as super-imposed loads in buildings. Since wind forces are quite prominent in tall structures (such as buildings, chimneys, water tanks, towers etc), they are normally grouped in a separate category. 2.2. DEAD LOADS ‘The dead load in a building shall comprise the weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs and shall include the weights of all other permanent construction in the building, Such ay20 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES loads do not change their position and do not vary in magnitude. In a bridge, it includes the weight of decks, tracks, side walks, railings, lighting fixtures etc, in addition to the main structural frame, In beginning, the self weight of the structure is not precisely known ; it has to be estimated on the basis of past experience or available thumb rules. ‘The unit mass of some common materials, as per IS: 1911-1967 are given in Table 2.1. Loads due to partitions shall be assessed on the basis of the actual constructional details of the proposed partitions and their positioning in accordance with plans, and the toads thus assessed shall be included in the dead load for the design of the floors and the supporting Structures. Where, however, the actual loads of the partitions cannot be assessed before hand ‘owing to lack of knowledge of the final positioning of the partitions, the floors and the supporting structures shall be designed to carry, in addition to other loads, a uniformly distributed load per square metre of not less than 334 percent of the weight per metre run of finished partitions over the entire floor area subject to a minimum uniformly distributed load of | kN/m? in the case of floors used for office purposes. “TABLE 2.1 UNIT MASS OF SOME COMMON MATERIALS _(JS : 1911-1967) Material Material Mass (kg/m) |. Bituminous substances 4. Building materials Anthracite coal Bricks 1600 to 1920 Peat (dry) ‘Cement (ordinary) 1440 (Charcoal (light) Chalk 2240 Glass 2400 t0 2720 Lime stone 2400 to 2640 Sand stone 2240 t0 2400 Coal tar Steel 73850 Timber 65010720 2 Exeavated materials 5. Structural items, cellings, finishes etc. Clay (dry, compact) 1440 ‘Asbestos cement sheets 1210156 Clay(damp, compact) 1760 Brick masonry 1920 Earth (cry) 1410 to 1840 Brick wall, 100 mm thick 192 Earth (moist) 1600 to 2000 Brick wall, 200 mm thick 384 Sand (dry) 1540 t0 1600 Brick wall, 300 mm thick 576 Sand 1760 to 2000 ‘Cement plaster, 25 min thick 52 Liquids Concrete, piain ‘Alcohol 780 ‘Concrete, reinforced Gasoline Dry rubble masonry kee Galvanised iron sheet, Nitric acid 91% 0.50 mm thick Seem?) Sulphuric acid 879% 1.463 mm thick 13(kg/m2y Vegetable oil Mangalore tiles with battens 63 (kg/m?) Water ((resh) 2.3. LIVE LOADS Live loads, also called super-imposed loads, consist of moving or variable loads, due to people or occupants, their furniture, temporary stores, machinery etc. In the case of bridges, live load consists of toads due to moving vehiclesLOADS AND STRESSES a 1. Live loads on floors due to use and occupancy (@) General : Live load or imposed toads on floors shall comprise of all loads other than dead loads, The imposed loads to be assumed in the design of buildings shall be the greatest loads that probably will be produced by the intended use or occupancy, but shall not be less than the equivalent minimum loads specified in Table 2.2 (and Table A-2 in details) subject to any reductions permitted in para (c) below. Floors shall be investigated for both the uniformly distributed joad (UDL) and the corresponding concentrated loads specified in Table 2.2 and designed for the most adverse effects but they shall not be considered to act simultaneously. The concentrated load specified in Table 2.2 (and Table A-2) may be assumed to act over an area of 0.3 x 0.3 m. However, concentrated load need not be considered where the floors are capable of effective lateral distribution of this load. All other structural elements shall be investigated for the effects of uniformly distributed loads on the floor specified in Table 2.2 (and Table A-2). (b) Live loads due to partitions : In office and other buildings, where actual loads due to light partitions cannot be assessed at the time of planning, the floors and the supporting structural members shall be designed to carry, in addition to other loads, a uniformly distributed Joad per square metre of not less than 33} percent of weight per metre run of finished partitions, subject to a minimum of 1 KN/m’, provided total weight of partition walls per square metre Of the wall area does not exceed 1.5 kKN/m? and the total weight per metre length in not greater than 4.0 KN. (c) Reduction in imposed loads on floors The following reductions in assumed total imposed loads on floors may be made in designing columns, load bearing walls, piers, their supports and foundations : Number of floors (including the roof) Reduction in total distributed imposed load to be carried by the member under ‘on alt floors to be carried by the member consideration under consideration (percent) i 0 2 10 3 20 4 30 5 to 10 40 over 10 50 No reduction shall be made for any plant or mechinery which is specifically allowed for, or in buildings for storage purposes, ware houses and garrages. For beams : Where a single span of beam, girder or truss supports not less than SO m™ of floor at one general level, the imposed floor load may be reduced in the design of beams, girders or trusses by 5 percent of each 50 m’ area supported subject to a maximum reduction of 25 percent. However, no reduction shall be made in any of the following types of loads: (1) any super-imposed moving load, (i) any actual load due to machinery or similar concentrated loads, (iii) additional load in respect of partition walls, and (iv) any impact or vibrations. Also, the above reduction does not apply to beams, girders and trusses supporting roof loads.2 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES TABLE 22, IMPOSED FLOOR LOADS FOR DIFFERENT OCCUPANCIES _ (IS : 875 -1987) Occupancy Classification Residential Buildings @ Dwelling Houses (i Hotels, hostels, boarding houses. lodging houses, dormitories, residential clubs (i) Boiler rooms and plant rooms 67 (#) Store rooms . 45 (0) Garrages 90 (i) Balconies 1.5kN/m at the outer edge Educational Buildings (9 Class rooms, restaurants, offices, staff rooms, 2a ‘Kitchens. toilets (@ Store rooms ete. 45 (it) Libraries and archives: 6.0 N/m? for a min. height 45 of 22m + 2.0KN/m? per (@) Reading rooms 0 44 as (0) Corridars, lobbies, staircases 4s (1) Boiler rooms and plant rooms 4s (it) Balconies Same as for rooms with a | 1.5 kN/m at the outer edge. min, of Institutional bulldings @ Bed rooms, wards, dormitories, lounges 20 18 @ Kitchens, laundaries, laboratories, dining, 20-30 27-48 rooms, cafeteria toilets, i Corridors, passages, lobbies, staircases 40 4s (*) Otfice rooms and OPD rooms 25 27 (Vi) Boiler rooms and plant rooms 50 4s (vit) Baleonies Same as for (2 vii) Same as for (2 vii) Business and office buildings () Rooms with separate store 2s 27 (i Banking halls 30 27 (ii) Vaults and strong rooms 50 45 () Record roomsstore rooms 5.0 4s Mercantile Buildings (Retail shops 40 36 (i) Wholesale shops 6.0(min) 45 (min) Dining rooms, restaurants, cafeteria 30 27 (). Corridors, passages, staircases 40 45 Office rooms 25 22LOADS AND STRESSES a Industrial buildings (Work areas without machinery/equipment 23 (Work area with machineryfequipment (i) Cafeteria, dining rooms 30 (Corridors, passages, staircases 40 ‘Storage Buildings (© Storage rooms (other than cold storage) | 24 kN /m? per each metre of storage height witha min. of 7.5 kN/m* @ Coldstorage 5.0 N/m per each metre of storage height with a min. of 7.5 kN/m? (ii) Corriors, passages ete. so 75 2. Imposed loads on various types of roofs (@) Imposed toads on various types of roofs : On flat roofs, sloping roofs and curved roofs, the imposed loads due to use or occupancy of the buildings and the geometry of the types of roof shall be as given in Table 2.3, Roofs of buildings used for promenade or residential to assembly purposes shall be designed for the appropriate imposed floor loads given in Table 2.2 (Table A-2) for the occupancy. (6) Concentrated load on roof coverings : To provide for loads incidental to maintenance, unless otherwise specified by the engineer-in-charge, all roof coverings (other than glass or transparent sheets made of fibre glass) shall be capable of carrying an incidental load of 0.90 KN concentrated on an area of 12.5 em* so placed as to produce maximum stress in the coverings. (©) Load due to rain : On surfaces where positioning, shape or drainage systems are such as to make accumulation of rain water possible, loads due to such accumulation of water and the imposed toads for the roof as given in Table 2.3 shall be considered separately and the more critical of the two shall be adopted in the design. (d) Dust load : In areas prone to settlement of dust on roofs (example : steel plants, cement plants), provision for dust load equivalent to probable thickness of accumulation of dust may be made. (@) Loads on members supporting roof coverings : Every member of the supporting structure which is directly supporting the roof coverings shall be designed to carry to more severe of the following loads : (1) The load transmitted to members from the roof covering(s) (b) an accidental concentrated load of 0.9 KN concentrated over a length of 125 cm placed at the Most unfavourable position of the member. However, in case of sloping roofs with slope greater than 10°, members supporting the roof purlins, such as trusses, beams, girders, etc. may be designed for two-thirds of the imposed foad on purlins or roofing sheets. 3, Imposed horizontal loads on parapets and balustrades (@) Parapets, parapet walls and balustrades. Parapets, parapet walls and balustrades, together with the members which give them structural support shall be designed for the minimum loads given in Table 2.4. These are expressed as horizontal forces acting at hand rail or coping level. These loads shall be considered to act vertically also but not simultaneously with thePy DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES horizontal forces. The values given in Table 2.4 are minimum values and where values for actual loadings are available, they shall be used instead. (®) Gradstands and the like. Grandstands, stadia, assembly platforms, reviewing stands and the like shall be designed to resist a horizontal force applied to seats of 0.35 KN per linear metre along the line of seats and 0.15 kN per liner metre perperdicular to the line of seats. ‘These loadings need not be applied simultancously. Platforms without seats shall be designed to resist a minimum horizontal force of 0.25 kN/m? of plan area. ‘TABLE 2.3 IMPOSED LOADS ON VAROUS TYPES OF ROOFS Type of Roof Flat, sloping or curved| roof with slopes up to| and including 10 degrees @) Access provided b) Access not Provided except for ‘maintenance Sloping roof with slope’ {greater than 10 degrees ‘Curved roof with slope of| tine obtained by joining] springing poiat to the crown with — the horizontal, greaterthan 10 degrees NOTE : 0.75 kN/m™ For roof membrane sheets or purlins: 0.75 KN/m? Jess 0.02 KN/m?for every degree Increase in slope over 10 degrees (0.75 ~ 0.5277) KN/m? where yen hh= the height ofthe highest point of the structure measured from its springing; and 1= chord width of the roof if singly curved and shorter of the two sides if doubly curved Alternatively, where structural analysis can| be carried our for curved roofs of all slopes! in a simple manner applying the laws of slatistcs, the curved roof shall bedivided into} ‘minimum 6 equal segmenis and for cach. segment imposed load shall be calculated! appropriate to the slope of the chord of each segment as given in (i) and (fi) above 3.75 KN uniformly distributed over any| span of one metre width of the roof slab] and 9 KN uniformly distributed over the| ‘span of any beam of truss or wall 1.9 KN uniformly distributed over any| span of one metre width of the root sia and 4.5 KN uniformly distributed over the span of any beam or truss or wall, Subject to aminimum of 0.4 N/m? Subject to a minimum of 0.4 KN/m? 1, The loads given above do not include toads due to snow, rain, dust collection, ete. The roof shall bbe designed for imposed loads given above or for snow/rain load, whichever is greater. 2. For special types of roofs with highly permeable and absorbent material, the contingency of roof material increasing in weight due to absorption of moisture shall be provided for.LOADS AND STRESSES 2 ‘TABLE 2.4 HORIZONTAL LOADS ON PARAPETS, PARAPET WALLS AND BALUSTRADES Usage area Light access stairs gangways and the like not more than 600mm wide Light access stairs, gangways and the like, more than 600 mm wide; stairways, landings, balconies and parapct walls (private and part of dwellings) All other stairways, landings and balconies, and all parapets and handrails to roots| ‘except those subject to overcrowding covered under (iv) Parapets and balustrades in place of assembly, such as theatres, cinemas, churches, schools, placea of entertainment, sports, buildings likely to be over-crowded. NOTE : In the casc of guard parapets on a floor of multi-sioreyed car park or crash barriers provided in certain buildings for the escape, the value of imposed horizontal load (together with impact load) may be determined. 4. Loading effects due to impact and vibration (@) Impact allowance Jor lifts, hoists and machinery. The imposed loads specified in (1) above shall be assumed to include adequate allowance for ordinary impact conditions. However, for structures carrying loads which induce impact or vibration, as for as possible, calculation shall be made for increase in imposed ioad, due to impact or vibration. In absence of sufficient data for such calculation, the increase in the imposed loads shall be as follows : Structure Impact Allowance (min.) (® For frames supporting lifts and hoists 100 percent (For foundations, footings and piers supporting lifts and hoisting apparatus 40 percent (iii) For supporting structures and foundations for light machinery, shaft or motor units 20 percent (iv) For supporting structures and foundations for reciprocating machinery or power units 50 percent (6) Concentrated imposed loads with impact and vibration : Concentrated imposed loads with impact and vibration which may be due to installed machinery shall be considered and provided for in the design. The impact factor shall not be less than 20 percent which fs the amount allowable for light machinery. Provision shall also be made for carrying any concentrated equipment loads which the equipment is being installed or moved for servicing and repairing. (©) Impact allowances for crane girders : For crane gantry girders and supporting columns, to following allowances shall be deemed to cover all forces set up by vibration, shock from slipping or slings, kinetic action of acceleration, and retardations and impact of wheel loads (Table 2.5).DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES ‘TABLE 25, IMPACT ALLOWANCES FOR CRANE GIRDERS. Additional load Vertical loads for hand operated cranes Horizontal forces iransverse to rails 1. For electric over head cranes with trolley having rigi| ‘mast forsuspension of lifted weight (such as soaker crane, stripper crane etc) 2. For all other electric over head cranes and hand| ‘operated cranes ()25% of maximum static loads for crane girders for al lasses of cranes (fi 25% for columns supporting class 1It and class IV cranes (iii) 10% for columns supporting class Land lass It eranes (jv) Noaddional load for design of foundations 10% of max wheel loads for crane girders only 10% of weight of crab and the weight lifted by the cranes, acting on any one crane track rail, acting in either| direction and equally distributed amongst all the wheels ‘none side of rail track. For frame analysis this force shall be applied on one side of the frame at 2 time in either direction. 5% of weight of crab and the weigh lifted by the cranes, (ing on any one crane track rail, acting in either direction and equally distributed amongst the wheels on| one side of rail track For the frame analysis, this force shall be applied on one side of the frame at a time in either direction, Horizontal traction forces along the rails For overhead cranes, either electrically operated or hand operated. 5% of all static whee! loads Note : See IS : 807-1976 for classification (classes 1 10 4) of cranes. Forces specified in (¢) and (d) shall be considered as acting at the rail level and being appropriately transmitted to the supporting system. Gantry girders and their vertical supports shall be designed on the assumption that either of the horizontal forces in (c) and (d) may act at the same time as the vertical load. 2.4, WIND LOADS. 1. General Wind is the air in motion relative to the surface of the earth, Since the vertical components of atmospheric motion are relatively small, specially near the surface of the earth, the term ‘wind’ denotes almost exclusively to horizontal wind. Wind pressure, therefore, acts horizontally on the exposed vertical surfaces of walls, columns, chimneys, towers etc and inclined roof surfaces. ‘The primary cause of wind is traced to differences in solat and terrestrial radiations setting up irregularities in temperature which give rise to convection either upwards or downwards. Gravity is the operative force working in some cases through the agency of pressure difference. ‘The wind velocities are assessed with the aid of anemometers or anemographs which are installed at meteorological observations at heights generally varying from 10 to 30 metres. All exposed structures are affected to some degree by wind forces. The liability of a building to high wind pressures depends not only upon the geographical location and proximity of other obstructions to air flow but also upon. the characteristics of the structure itself.LOADS AND STRESSES Fa ‘The effect of wind on the structure as a whole is determined by combined action of external and internal pressures acting upon it. 2. Basic wind pressures In the majority of structures, it is satisfactory to treat wind as a static load. The factors which determine the proper equivalent static pressure (p.) ate best under stood through the following equation’ presented by Davenport (1960) : Pe = Cy. Cu. Cy. g sn (2l) where C, =a coefficient depending upon the shape of the structure C, = acoefficient dependant upon nearby topographic features C, =a gust coefficient dependent upon the magnitude of gust velocities and size of the structure q = dynamic-pressure intensity, given by 4 =5ev% su(2.2) where pp =air density vu = design wind velocity at height H (the height above ground at which p. is evaluated, or a characteristic height of the structure). va Also, vn = Va (z woe(2.3) where vy, = basic design wind velocity at height A (the height selected as standard for the measurement of wind velocities). @ =an exponent for the velocity increase with height determined by the surface roughness in the vicinity of the site and other influences. Combining Eqs. 2.1 through 2.3, we get H Be = 3Cs-Cu.Cy.p vk (2.4) 3, Design wind speed as per IS : 875-1987 The design wind speed (V; ) is obtained by multiplying the basic wind speed (Vs) by the factors ky, ke and ky : Ve = Vahey ks (2.5) where Vy =the basic wind speed in m/s at 10 m height (Fig. 2.1 and Table 26) ky = probability factor (or risk coefficient) ka = terrain, height and structure size factor ks = topography factor. 3.1 Basic wind speed : For basic wind speed, India has been divided into six zones. Fig. 2.1 gives basic wind speed map of India, as applicable to 10 m height above mean ground level. Basic wind speed for some important citiestowns is given in Table 2.6DESIGN OF STEFL STRUCTURES: TABLE 2.6, BASIC WIND SPEED IN SOME IMPORTANT CITIES/TOWNS Basle Wind Speed (mis) Chandigarh a Coimbatore » Cattack 50 Darbhanga 55 Darjeeting 0 Dehra Dun ” Delhi ” Durgapur ” Gangtok a7 Gauhatt 50 Gorakhpur 47 Imphal a7 Jabalpur ar Pondicherry Port Blair Pune Raipur Rajkot Ranchi Roorkee Rourkela Simla Srinager Surat ‘Tinuchchirrappalli ‘Tevandrum Udaiper Vadodara 3.2 Probability factor (or risk coefficient) : ki Basic wind speeds given in Fig. 2.1 have been worked out for SO years return period. The design life of structure is based on the functional aspect as well as the importance of. 47 a a 44 39 39 a7 a7 Sst essesess $e BsStEsssssessyrsLOADS AND STRESSES ~@ the structure. The factor k, is based on statistical concepts which take account of the degree of reliability required and period of time in years during which there will be exposure to wind, ie. life to the structure. If the suggested life of the structure is more than 50 years (such as nuclear power reactors, satellite communication towers etc.), factor Ai is found by the relation A-B [iose{ - jtoeect Po }] A+4B where a N = mean probable design life of structure in years, Py = risk level in N years (nominal value= 0.63), Xv.p = extreme wind speed for given values of N and Py and Xsqas=extreme wind speed for N= 50 years and Py = 0.63 (2.6) A and B are coefficients having following values for dif- ferent wind speed zones : Zone A B 33 m/s 83.2 92 39 mis 84.0 14.0 44 m/s 88.0 18.0 47 ms 88.0 20.5 ‘50 ms 88.8 22.8 ‘55 m/s 90.8 27.3 The value of ks are given FIG. 24, BASIC WIND SPEED in Table 2.7 TABLE 2.7. VALUES OF FACTOR ki Class of structure 1. All general buildings and structures 2. Temporary sheds and structures under construction 3. Buildings and structures presenting a low degree of hazard to lifeand property in event of failure 4 Important buildings and structures such as hospitals and communication buildings (towers, power plant}0 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES. 3.3 Terrain, height and structure size factor (k; factor) This factor takes into account terrain roughness, height and size of structure. Terrain categories : Selection of terrain categories is made with due regard to the effect »f obstructions which constitute the ground surface roughness. The terrain on which a specific tructure stands is grouped under the four categories. Category 1: This represents exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions and in shich the average height of any object surrounding the structure is less than 1.5 m. This includes ypen sea coasts and flat treeless plains. Category 2 : This represents open terrain with well scattered obstructions having height yenerally between 1.5 to 10 m. This includes air fields, open park lands and underveloped sparsely built-up outskirts of towns and suburbs. Open land adjacent to sea coast may also ve included in this cateogry. Category 3 : This represents terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of building structures upto 10 m in height with or without a few isolated tall structures. This category includes well wooded areas, and shrubs, towns and industrial areas fully or partially developed. Category 4 : This represents terrain with numerous large high closely spaced obstructions. This category includes large city centres, generally with obstructions above 25 m and well developed industrial areas fully or partially developed. TABLE 28. VALUES OF FACTOR kz Note : Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation. It is permissible to assume constant wind speed between two heights, for simplicity. Structure size : Buildings or structures are classified into the following three different classes depending upon their size (ie, greater horizontal or vertical dismension).LOADS AND STRESSES 31 Class A: Structures having maximum dimension less than 20 m Class B: Structures having maximum dimension between than 20 to 50 m Class C : Structures having maximum dimension greater than SO m. Height : The design wind speed is a function of height at which the design wind speed is being computed. Table 2.8 gives the values of k2 factor, to obtain design wind speed variation with height, in different terrains and for different classes of building structures. It should be very clearly noted that for a given structure, out of the three factors ki , k: and ky , factors ke, and ky are fixed depending upon zone, life of structure, terrain category and class of structure while factor kz varies with the height of the element (of the structure) at which the design wind speed is B computed, 3.4, Topography factor ky : The basic wind speed Vp given in Fig. 2.1 takes into 10N AFFECTED BY TOPOGRAPHICAL account of the general level eee een Mill of site above sea level. This does not allow for local topographic features such as hills, valleys, cliffs, escarp- ments, or ridges which can significantly affect wind speed in their vicinity. The GENERAL NOTATIONS effect of topography is to ac- celerate wind near the sum- mits of hills or crests of cliffs, escarpments or ridges and decelerate the wind in valleys or near the foot of cliffs, steep excarpments or ridges. ‘The effect of topography will be significant at a site when the upwind slope ( 6°) is greater than about 3°, and below that, the value of ks may van, be taken to be equal to 1.0. The value — $ of ks (confined in the range of 1.0 to I 1.36) for slopes greater than 3° is given i by is IEE 2.2) (0) CLIFF AND ESCARPMENT where C has the following values : Slope Value of C eos 17 12 (2) FIG. 22. GENERAL NOTATIONS DOWNWIND SLOPE > 3° crest i DOWNWRD SLOPE<3* >i? 036 where Z is the height of crest or hill and L is the projected length of (0) HLL. AND AU0cE upwind zone from average ground level to crest in wind direction (Fig. 2.2) FIG. 23, TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURESR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Factors is determined from Fig. 24 for cliffs and escarpments and from Fig. 2.5 for hills and ridges. 7 CREST: COEST. ° In Figs. 2.4 and 2.5, H is the height 1 of the crest above ground level and, |, i x is the distance from the summit orcrest relativeto theeffectivelength 4 jt Non L.. The effective horizontal length of the hill, depends upon the slope 6, and its value will be as under: Slope Le {sr 0 Os 3<0<17? L vewno & cownwnn B >ir a . 03 FIG. 24. FACTOR s FOR CLIFF AND ESCARPMENT where Y is the effective height Of the feature. The influence of topographic features is considered by modifying the effective ength as follows : Up wind effective length als Le CREST CREST 20 Downwind effective length =25Le {+ 3 4. Design wind pressure rm ls 1 | et fy ‘The design wind pressure atany 1 3] ots height above mean ground level is — obtained by the following relation- = ship : Ss*s0 08 OS 1S 182028 R=06V? 28) pmo oii fe where p, = design wind pressure in N/m® at heightz ¥_ = design wind velocity in mis at height z FIG. 25. FACTOR + FOR RIDGE AND HILL 5. Design wind loads The wind load on a building shall be calculated for the following: (a) The building as a whole () Individual structural members (©) Individual structural clements (such as roofs and walls) (@ Individual structural units (such as glazing and fixing) 6. Wind load on building as a whole The total wind load on a particular building or structure is given by F =Cy.Ae-Pe on(2.9) where - F = wind force acting in a direction specifiedLOADS AND STRESSES 3 Ae = effective frontal area of the structure Pe = design wind pressure “Cy = force coefficient for the building The overall force coeffi- cients for rectangular clad build- ings of uniform section with flat roof in uniform flow shall be as given in Fig. 2.6, and for other clad buildings of uniform section shall be as given in Table 29. The force coefficient for solid > shapes mounted on a surface are fed MALU OF CevEenaue t= f08 = given in Table 2.10. The values of force coefficients differ for the wind acting on different faces of fre a building or structure. In order % to determine the critical load, the 19} a total wind load should be cal- ed culated for each wind direction. SBS 10 BO BS 90 (0) VBLUES OF CyVERSUS-£ FORT <1 ELEVATION FAC, Pgbh bay Building of circular shapes: For coefficients for buidings of circular cross-section shapes shall be as given in Table 2.9. FIG. 26. FORCE CO-EFFICIENTS FOR RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS TABLE 2.9 FORCE COFFICIENTS OF CLAD BUILDING OF UNIFORMA SECTION (ACTING IN THE DIRECTION OF WIND) Gf Jor HeightIBreadth Ratio 2 5 10 All surfaces Rough or with projection ‘Smooth Ellipse bid =172xm DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES TABLE 2.9 (Contd) ria =12LOADS AND STRESSES 35 TABLE 29 (Conta) dsr <236 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Note : 1, Structures that, because of their size and design wind velocity, are in the supercritical flow regime may need further calculation to ensure that the greatest loads do not occur at some wind speed below the maximum when the flow will be subcritical 2 The coefficients are for buildings without projections, except where otherwise shown. 3. In the above table Va.b is used as an indication of the airflow regime. ‘TABLE 2.10 FORCE COEFFICIENTS FOR SOLID SHAPES MOUNTED ON A SURFACE Side Elevation Description of Shape o Circular Dise 12 Spherical Solid OS ForMaD<7 02 For 4zD 27 7, Wind load on structural members Table 2.11 gives the force coefficients for individual structural members of infinite length. For members of finite length, the coefficients should be multiplied by a factor K that depends ‘on the ratio 1/b where 1 is the length of the member and b is the width across the direction of wind. The values of K are given in Table 2.12. ‘The force coefficients are given for two mutually perpendicular directions, normal and transverse, designated as Cy, and Cy, respectively. Normal force, Fn = Cyn paK!b «(2.10 a) Transverse force, F, = ChipaKIb su(210 BY where pa is the design wind pressure. While estimating the value of K, following special cases should be noted. (® Where any member abuts on to 2 plate or wall in such a way that free flow of air around that end of the member is prevented, then the ratio of 1/b shall be doubled for the purpose of determining K ; and (i) When both the ends of a member are so obstructed, the ratio //b shall be taken as infinity for the purpose of determining K. Wires and cables : Force coefficients for wires and cables are given in Table 2.13, depending upon the diameter (D) and the design wind speed ( Va ) and the surface roughness.LOADS AND STRESSES 2y ware yewwoy aaa ‘sove> 240 UL ee ‘tow pure q suorustmp ot oF vores oy uaaif x {> wwoFoqjec sary ou ‘21g ge My: 210) oz + 0 6r+ oO 60+ so + w+ 0 06 st + st + 90+ SOL + 1+ t+ sy oO oz + 0 ot + 0 t Ste 0 Ot + 0 vi+ 0 - = oT, 5 o ol oO] 3 D i) % @ ras “TH ==, see ’ T « aWWe | | ei | fb | Stal SS! 3 4 } ! ‘ * i 0 st- TF “t= 0 st ~ to - | set ~ vt vt TO + oz - O8T vO + ot- vt + t= sol + so - | sco + SLO ~ co + 0% - Ta - = set 90+ 0 ste + foe Lo + s6o- | SLI + To + ot ot - | Lt + Ot+ 06 90+ sett 60+ tr + To - PE seo + sso + st+ T+ go + St + sy 0 s0t + 0 ot + o ot + ro + se + si+ gt + [S60 + 6t+ o walep D ca 5 %D % D % 0 3 ba ‘J % @ sero i iv rr a8 wos “yp ea 4s at ey f we Heeot ~ we a a —P Spies | as it | ke $ ~ i iL Z 4 4 at aN ; é ‘4 $ é t 4 HIONET QLINLINI 40 SHBEWAN WANLNEIS TVNGIAIGNI WOd (4) SLNATDIMIIOD BDBOA “WZ TTAVL38 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES ‘TABLE 2.12. REDUCTION FACTOR X FOR INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS Ub oF UD Circular cylinder, suberitical flow Circular cylinder, supercritical flow (Ova 6 m*/s) Flat plate perpendicular to wind! Ova = 6 m/s) TABLE 2.13, FORCE COEFFICIENTS FOR CABLES AND WIRES Dva<06 m/s Dvg206mis Diva <06m/s Divs 06m'/s 8 Wind load on structural elements such as roofs and walls When calculating the wind load on individual structural elements such as roofs and walls, and individual cladding units and their fittings, it is essential to take account of the pressure difference between the opposite faces of such elements or units. For clad structures, it is, therefore, necessary to know the internal pressure as well as the external pressure. The wind load F, acting in a direction normal to the individual structural element or cladding unit is F =(Cpe—Cp)A.pr oo(211) where — Cye = external wind pressure coefficient Cy: = internal pressure coefficient ‘A = surface area of structural element or cladding “unit, and Ps = design wind pressure If the surface design pressure varies with height, the surface areas of the structural element may be subdivided so that the specified pressures are taken over appropriate areas. Positive wind load indicates the force acting towards the structural clement and negative away from it External air pressure coefficients (Cpe ). Table 2.14 gives the average external pressure coefficient for the walls of clad buidlings of rectangular plan. In addition, local pressure concentration coeflicenty are also given. Table 2.15 gives the average external pressure coefficients and pressure concentration coefficients for pitched roofs of rectangular clad buildings. Where no pressure concentration coefficients are given, the average coefficients shall apply.LOADS AND STRESSES ‘TABEL 2.14. EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS (Cpe) FOR WALLS OF RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS, 27.2 |¢ | > Iz iw. ¢ A o | +07 | -o2 | -os | -os . aL_|e 08 tee > wo | -05 | -05 | +07 | -o2 c 1 @ | +07 | -023 | -06 | -06 a<4] AOL 8 =e w | -0s |-os | +07 | -01 A 0 | +07 | -02s | as |-06 . “i ou ow | 05 |-05 | +07 |-o2s £ 0 | +07 | -03 | -o7 | -07 -u ql af | [oes | cas | oar [oes ‘ 0 | +08 | -025 | os |-o8 w e -12 o | -28 |-o8 | +08 |-o2s o c +07 | -04 | -o7 | -07 7 mia iil a oo | -0s | -os | +08 | -o1 0 | +095 | -1as | -09 |-o9 12s ow |-08 |-o8 | +09 | -oas ‘ 4 1 ~or |=ary] . os fe ~12s} |" "4 a 5 Note. h is height to caves or parapet, I is greater horizontal dimension of building and w is ‘0. lesser horizontal dimension of a building.DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES TABLE 2.15. EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT (Cpe ) FOR PITCHED ROOFS OF RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDING -08 -04 -08 -04 08 -06 07 -06 -07 -06 -07 -06 -07 -06 -10 -06 -09 -06 -08 -06 -08 -05 -08 -08 -08 ~08 -08 -08 -09 -07 -08 -08 -08 -08 -08 -08 08 07 -08 07 +02 S| -08 07 +05 08 -07 Note 1. A is the height to eaves or parapet and w is the lesser horizontal dimension of a building. Note2. Where nolocalcoefficientsare given, the overall coefficients apply. Note 3. For hipped roofs the local cocfficiont for the hip ridge may be conservatively taken as the appropriate ridge value. Internal air pressure coefficient (Cpi) : Internal pressure in a building depends upon the degree of permeability of cladding 0 the flow of air. The internal air pressure may be positive or negative depending on the direction of flow of air in relation to openings in the buiding. The permeability of cladding may be (i) zero, (ii) normal, (ii) medium and (iv) large, as defined in Table 2.16, where the value of internal 7 KEY PLAN yah or 01S w, whichever is the lesser pressure coefficients (Cp: ) are also given. A positive sign. (+) indicates that the pressure is compression on the surface, The internal pressure coefficient is algebraically added to the externalLOADS AND STRESSES a pressure coefficient and the analysis which indicates greater distress of the member shall be adopted. Evidently, for a critical condition, the the external pressure is combined with - ve internal pressure; similarly the — ve external pressure is combined with +ve internal pressure to obtain the maximum net pressure. TABLE 2.16. INTERNAL AIR PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Opening in relation 1 wall ares Buildings with one open side or opening exceeding 20% of wall area may be assumed to besubjected tointernal positive pressure or suction similar to those for buildings with large openings. A few examples of buildings with one sided open- ingsareshownin Fig. 2.7, indicatingvalues internal = => pressure coefficients with respect to the direction of wind, 9. Wind load on glazing and fixings Areas such as ridges, eaves, cornices and corners of roofs are subjected to high local suction pressures. The coefficients for local suction are given in Tables 2.14, and 2.15. These coefficients should be used to calculate the forces on these local areas of roof sheeting, glass panels and their fixtures. 10. Wind load on lattice towers Force coefficient for lattice towers of square or equilateral triangle section with flat sided mem- bers for wind blowing against any face shall be taken as given in Table 2.17. Here solidity ratio (@) is equal to the effective area (ie. projected area of all the individual elements) of a frame («) For£<1 w) FoR £>1 .>rmal to the wind direction divided by the area enclosed ty the boundary of the frame normal to the wind direction. FIG. 27. VALUES OF Cy FOR BUILDINGS WITH LARGE ONE SIDED OPENINGS (TOP CLOSED) ‘TABLE 2.17. OVERALL FORCE COEFFICIENTS FOR TOWERS COMPOSED OF FLAT SIDED MEMBERS Solidty ratio EG] Eode He} on 02 03 04 os2 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES For square lattice towers with flat sided members, the maximum load which occurs when the wind blows into a corner shall be taken as 1.2 times the load for the wind blowing against a face. 11. Wind load on frames (@) Single frames Force coefficients for a single frame having either (a) all flat sided members, or (6) all circular members in which ali the members of the frame have either DV,<6m’/s or DVa>6m’/s , shall be as given in Table 2.18 according to the type of the member, the diameter (D), the design wind speed (Vz) and the solidity-ratio (p) TABLE 2.18, FORCE COEFFICIENTS FOR SINGLE FRAMES Force coeicien Gor Circular section Sub-ritical low ‘Super critical flow (DYa<6m'/s ) (D¥azom's ) 12 12 12 1 Wt 1s 20 Moltiple frame buildings : Shielding effect ‘When the structure has two or more parallel frames, the wind ward frame will have shielding effect upon the frames to the leeward side. The wind load on the parts of the frames that ae sheltered should be multiplied by a shielding factor(n) given in Table 2.19. ‘TABLE 219, SHIELDING FACTOR 7 FOR MULTIPLE FRAM oes ox | ont E i o oCroroseaososeT oe SOLIOATY RATIONS 2 & Tn the above table, frame spacing ratio ts equal 10 the distance centre to centre of the frams, beams or girders divided by the least overall dimension of the frame, beam _FIG. 28 EFFECTIVE SOLIDITY or girder measured at right angles to the direction of the RATIO f FOR ROUND MEMBERS wind. The effective solidity ratio is equal to g for flat sided members. For members of circular section 8 is obtained from Fig. 28.LOADS AND STRESSES “3 Where there are more than two frames of similar geometry and spacing, the wind load on the third and subsequent frames should be taken as equal to that on the second frame. The loads of the various frames should be added to obtain total load on the structure. 12, Frictional drag In certain buidings of special shape, a force duc to frictional drag shall be taken into account in addition to the wind force discussed above. For rectangular clad buildings, this addition is necessary only when d/h- or d/b is greater than 4, The frictional drag force Fin the direction of wind, is given by the following formulae : I hsb, F' =Cf (d- 4h) bpat Cf (¢- 4h) 2hpa (212 a) I h>b, F =C;(d— 4b) bpa+ Cf (d—4)2hpa (242. b) The first term in each case gives the drag on the roof and the second on the walls. The value of Cy has the following values. Cf = 0.01 for smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the 0.02 for surfaces with corrugations across the wind direction, and Cy = 0.04 for surfaces with ribs across the wind direction. Here, d is the depth along the wind direction, b is transverse to the wind direction and his the height on the building. Example 2.1 Design wind speed and wind pressure An industrial building is to be designed in Delhi Compute the design wind speed and wind Pressure at a height 20 m. The building has maximum dimension of 35 m. Solution For Delhi, the basic wind speed V, =47 m/s (Table 2.6) An industrial building is to be designed for a 50 year life. Hence the risk coefficient ki = 10 (Table 27). “The terrain is in industrial area and hence it belongs to category 3. Also the structure has maximum dimension of 35 m and hence it belongs to class B. Hence from Table 28 for terrain category 3, structure class B and height equal to 20 m, k= 0.98. The ground is assumed to be plain. Hence ky =1 =V,.ki kr ks = 47 x1 x 0.98 X 1 = 46.06 m/s Bigs wind pressure p, = 0.6V? = 0.6 (46.06)'=1273 N/m? = 1.273 kN/m? Note : As per earlier cod. (IS 875-1964) the wind pressure would have been 1500 N/m? Example 2.2 Lateral pressure on a rectangular building : A tall building is to be erected at the outskirts of Madras. The terrain belongs to category 1 and the building’ is a class B structure. Determine the maximum lateral pressure (considering wind ward and leeward faces) at a height of 30 m if the building has medium permeability. The height 10 width ratio of the building is 65 and the length to width ratio is 15 Solution For Madras, Vs = 50 m/s, Factor ky = 1.0 ; factor ks = 1.0 assuming plain ground. For terrain category 1 and structure class B, we get k: = 1.13 for a height of 30 m (Table 28) o V, =50X 1x 113 x1 = 565 mis and P: =0.6 V2 = 0.6 (56.5)* = 1915.4 N/m?“4 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES. External pressure coefficient for rectangular clad buildings are (Table 2.14) For windward face, Coe = + 095 For leeward face Cpe = = 1.85 Since we are considering both the faces of the building (as a whole), the permeability effect will nullify. Lateral pressure = (0.95 + 1.85) 1915.4 = 5363 N/m’= 5.363 kN/m? ote that the pressure direction on both the faces is along the wind. Example 2.3. Design wind pressure on a slope An industrial building of 15 m height is being built at Ajmer, near a hillok The height of the hill is 160 m and the slope is 1 in 4. The building in proposed on the slope at a horizontal distance of 140 m from the base of the hill Find the design wind pressure. Solution Basic wind pressure in Ajmer =47m/s. Risk coefficient k, = 1.0 Let us take the terrain of category 2 and building of class B. For height of building 15 m above ground level, k: = 1.02 6 =tan" 5 = 14,08 For 3°<0@s17 en12d Here Z = 160 m and L =160 x 4=640 m (sce Fig 22) 160 C =12x Ga=03 Again for 3°<@s17 , Le=L=640 m x= horizontal distance of the building from the crest, measured + ve towards the windward side. =~ (L- 100) = - (640 - 140) = - 500 m 500 =~ Go = 0-781 = 0.023 Pit nis Ss 640 Hence from Fig. 2.5, 5 = 0.12 ky =1+C.5= 1403 x 012 = 1.036 é = Vo key kaks = 47 x 1.0 x 1.02 x 1.036 = 49.67 mis and (Ps = 0.6 (V2) = 0.6 (49.67)? = 1480 N/m? Example 2.4. Design wind pressure on building at hill top A monumental building is being built on a hill top at Jodhpur. The size of the building is 20 mx 40 m and the height is 10 m. The height of the hill is 400 m, having a gradient of 1 in 5. The building is proposed at an average distance of 100 m from the crest, towards the downward slope. Compute the design wind pressure on the building Solution Basic wind pressure for Jodhpur, V5 =47 misLOADS AND STRESSES 4s For a memorial building adopt k, = 1.2 Let us take the terrain of category 2, while the structure is of class B. Hence for height of building equal to 10 m above ground, we get k:= 0.98 . Let us now find topography factor ks given by ky =14+C.s Here Z =400 j Ox tans = 113° L =400x5=2000 m For @<17 , Le=L=2000 m 2122 212x402 and & #125 1.2 x 00 0.24 H=10m x =distance of building from crest = + 100 m * 1600 Ty? mea OE H 10 Le = 2000 0.005 Hence from Fig. 2.5, s=1 ky =14C.s=14024x1= 1.24 Hence Vz = Vp oki koks = 47 x 1.2 x 0.98 x 1.24 = 68.54 m/s and P: = 0.6 (68.54)' = 2818 N/m? Example 2.5, Wind pressure on lattice tower A tall lattice square tower with flat sided members is to be erected at Nagpur. Determine the maximum wind pressure acting on the effective area at a height of 80 m. The solidity ratio may be taken as 0.2. Solution For Nagpur, Vy = 44 m/s. Adopt ki= 1.0 and ky = 1.0 Let the terrain be of category 4. The structure is of Class C. Hence from Table 28, k= 1.01 (by linear ineenies) = 44x 10x 1.01 x 10 = 44.44 mis p. =06 (44.44)! = 1185 N/m? Now from Table 217, CG =33 .. Max. wind pressure normal to the face at 80 m height = 3.3 x 1185 = 3910.5 N/m* Also, max. wind pressure in diagonal direction of tower, at 80 m height = 1.2% 3910.5 = 4693 N/m? Example 2.6 An industrial building at the out skirts of Jaipur uses pitched steel trusses having slopes of 30°. The building has maximum dimension greater than 50 m. Determine the maximum wind pressure to be used for the design of roof, if the area of openings is about 15%. The height to width ratio of the building is 1.3, and the height of the building is tess than 10 m. Solution For Jaipur, Vy =47 ms. ky = 10 and ky= 1.08 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 3. At stresses higher than °°" op, there follows a brief, slighly 450 TENSILE curved portion of the diagram 100 STRENGTH) | unt at upper vil point ow the Per nena A steel suddenly begins 10 yield. 54 4. Then, at a slightly lower stress oy (the lower yield point, or simply the yield point) the ‘specimen keeps stretching (yield- ing) at practically constant stress upto a total elongation of about 1.5 percent of initial length. This amount is more than 10 times ‘the maximum elastic elongation which was attained before yielding started and is known as the plastic range. O24 68 Oe ie 16 5. When the specimen is STRAIN (%) 6 es stretched further, it begins to harden, and an increasing force is required to produce further stretching. This phonomenon is called strain hardening. 6. Strain hardening con- tinues until the specimen reaches maximum or ultimate siress, known as tensile strength. 7. Upon further stretching, ‘some region near the middle sud- a 5 8 & STRESS (N/mm?) o 8 8 nn ole B88 STRESS (N/mm?) 8 3 denly narrows down (a process 59 known as necking, which cor- responds to the discending part ob 2 of stress-strain diagram), and the STRAIN (%) . specimen shortly thereafter vi breaks in two at the narrowest FIG. 29. TYPICAL STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR part of the neck. STRUCTURAL CARBON STEEL 8 The total elongation upto failure is seen to amount to more than 20% of the original length. This ability of structural Steel to undergo sizable permanent (plastic) deformation before fracture is known as its ductility and is a most important property. 9. The most important structural properties of steel are : (i) modulus of elasticity which sree the amount of deflection under (clastic) service conditions, (i) the yield point, that is, that stress below which permanent deformations are small and reversible, and {iii) the ductility. It is also seen that tensile strength is of secondary importance since in most cases, when the yield ‘point is exceeded, a structure will distort into uselessness long before the tensile strength is reached.32 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES hot rivet is driven in its plastic Slate, and a head is formed at HEAD vr the other end, The head so gk formed at the other end of the § T anuractuReo rivet, with the help of a riveing & rane hammer and a buckling bar, is 3 ‘ aves known. es driven hend. a | INTIAL CLEARANCE iceaRance Rivets driven in the field during the erection of a structure are known as field rivets. Rivets driven in the fabricating shop are known as shop rivets. Both these typesare known as hot driven rivets = BUCKING BAR since the rivets are heated to a u temperature ranging between SEINGHAMMER, 1000° F to 1950° F before driving. te) Field rivets are driven by a hand operated pneumatic riveting ham- FIG. 3.1. ESSENTIAL STEPS IN RIVETING mer, while the shop rivets are driven by “bull” riveter. Some rivets are driven at atmospheric temperature, They are known as cold driven rivets which are squeczed or driven to fill the holes and to form the heads by application of large pressure. However, they are smaller in diameter, ranging from 12 mm to 22 mm. Strength of cold driven rivet is more than hot driven rivets. Rivets driven by hand operated riveting hammer are known as hand driven rivets while those driven by power operated equipment are known as power driven rivets. Some times, even the field rivets may also be power driven. ta) RIVET. tw ww 33. RIVETSIZE, RIVET HOLE AND CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS The diameter of unheated rivet, before driving is known as the nominal diameter. Rivets are manufactured in nominal diameters of 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42 and 48 mm. The diameter of rivet hole is made larger than the nominal diameter of the rivet by 1.5 mm : 1 for rivets less than or equal to (e) SNAP HEAD OR (0) PAN HEAD (e) PAN HEAD WITH 24mm and by 2mm fordiameicrs BUTTON HEAD TAPERED NECK exceeding 24 mm. The grip of the b-—1'50— bp —130—+ rivets is equal to the total thick- ness of plates to be joined by the rivet. The length of undriven rivet is the sum of (i) grip, (it) length required for the head to be formed, and (ii) an additional length to fill up the space between the rivet and plate holes. Several types of heads are (6)ROUND COUNTERSUNK ——_(#) COUNTERSUNK used in structural design as shown HEAD HEAD in Fig. 3.2. The commonly used FIG. 32. DIFFERENT TYPES OF RIVET HEADS.56 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES If however, the load is transmitted through bearing between the plate and the head of the rivet, producing tension in the rivet, the rivet is said to be in tension, as shown in Fig. 3.9. (©) Nature and location of load A riveted connection can also be classified according to the nature and location of load with respect to the rivet group. When the load passes through the centroid of rivet cross-sectional area, the connection is said to be a direct load connection (Fig. 3.10 a) in which the rivets FIG. 39. RIVETS IN TENSION. are subjected to direct shear stresses. When the load does not pass through the centroid of the rivet group, it is said of be an eccentric toad con- nection (Fig. 3.10 b) or direct shear or torsional shear connection. When the load transmitted con- sists of a pure torque or moment, it is said to be pure moment connection (Fig. 3.10 c) in which the : (a) DIRECT LOAD CONNECTION (6) PURE MOMENT CONNECTION rivets are subjected to tor- (oinecT sneaR) (TORSIONAL SHEAR) sional shear stresses. If how- ever, the load transmitted ° is such that the rivets are both in shear as well as in tension, it is said to be ° moment-shear connection z of a fension-shear connec- tion (Fig. 310d). Beam 3 Ho to column moment con- nections or column-brack- et connections fall under (>) ECCENTRIC LOAD CONNECTION (6) MOMENT SHEAR CONNECTION this category. (DIRECT SHEAR AND TORSIONAL SHEAR) (TORSIONAL SHEAR AND DIRECT TENSION) There may be two FIG, 310. TYPES OF RIVETED CONNECTIONS. more types of special con- nections: (a) Eccentric ten- sion connection and (6) cova pure couple connection. jese are shown in Fig. lp 3.11 (6) and (c) respective- ly, for joined members shown in Fig. 3.11 (a). In iF these connections, the rivet is subjected to both the direct tension as well as Bending sires, (Compress: FIG. 211, SPECIAL CONNECTIONS INDUCING DIRECT sion as well as tension). TENSION AS WELL AS BENDING STRESSES Ue) PLAN OF CONNECTION (b) ECCENTRIC (e) COUPLE60 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 3. The plates are rigid. 4. The rivet fills the hole completely. 5. Deformation of the plates under the load is neglected. 6. Shearing deformation of the rivets is assumed proportional to the shearing stress. 7. Shearing stress in the rivets is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the rivet cross-section. 8. Unit shearing stress in all the rivets of a joint is uniform. 9. Tensile stress concentration due to rivet holes in the plates are neglected. 10. Bearing stress between rivets and plates is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the nominal contact surface between the rivets and plates. 11, Bending of rivets is neglected. 1. Piteh of Rivets The pitch of rivets in a riveted joint should be such that under a pull P,, the permissible stress in the rivet for shearing aad bearing are not exceeded. From Eq. 3.4, P, =0u(p -d)t Strength of rivet = Rivet value R= P,or Ps which is less. * P. sk or oa (p -d)t sR G8 a) From Eq. 3.7, pilch (p) can be determined. If Eq. 3.8 a is fulfilled, the strength of joint will be P,, and will be lesser than (or at the most equal to ) P, or Ps, The efficiency of the joint designed in this manner will be given by y= Be B= Mtoe pad +.B b) Pca P IS 800-1984 lays down the following specifications for the pitch of rivets. (a) Minimum Pitch : The distance between centres of rivets should be not less than 2.5 times the nominal diameter of rivet. (b) Maximum Pitch (i) The distance between centres of any two adjacent rivets (including tacking rivets) shall not exceed 321 or 300 mm, whichever is less, where f is the thickness of the thinner outside plate. (ii) The distance between centres of two adjacent rivets, in a line lying in the direction of stress, shall not exceed 161 or 200 mm, whichever is less in tension members, and 12¢ or 200 mm, which ever is less in compression members. In the case of compression members in which forces are transferred through butting faces, this distance shall not exceed 4.5 times the diameter of the rivets for a distance from the abutting faces equal to 1.5 times the width of the member. (iii) The distance between centres of any two consecutive rivets in a line adjacent and parallel to an edge of an outside plate shall not exceed (100 mm + 41) or 200 mm, which ever is less in compression or tension members. (iv) When rivets are staggered at equal intervals and the gauge does not exceed 75 mm, the distances specified in (ii) and (iii) between centres of rivets, may be increased by 50 percent, 2, Bdge Distance (a) The minimum distance from the centre of any hole to the edge of a plate shall not be less than that given in Table 3.2.ot DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Strength of rivet in single shear, Px, = ty. 7d°= 80 x 363.05= 29044 N Strength of rivet in double shear, Pq = ty.2% Zd?= 2 x 29044 = 58088 N (iii) Hence Rivet value in single shear = smaller of P, and P,,= 29044N. Rivet value in double shear = smaller of Py and P,,.= 58088 N Example 3.2. A double riveted double cover butt joint in plates 16 mm thick is made with 20 mm rivets at 80 mm pitch. Calculate the pull per pitch length at which the joint will fail and also its efficiency. Take f= 480N/mm. fy = 760N/mm? and f, = 380 N/mm’. Solution Gross diameter or formed diameter of rivet= 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm. For the tension failure in the plates, Pur = fi (pd) t = 480(80—21.5)16 = 449280 N = 449.28 kN Since there are two rivets in one pitch length, and each rivet is in double shear, we have Pa = 2jaxtd f= (21.5)? x 380 = 551836 N = 551.84 kN Also, Pup = UWd.t fax 2X21.5X 16x 7160=522880 N=522.83 kN The joint will thus fail at pull of 449.28 KN, the plates giving way by tearing off. . Strength of the joint = 449.28 kN. Strength of plate =P, =p. if; = 80 x 16 x 480 = 614400 N = 614.4 kN strength of joint _ 449.28 =7312% Sirength of solid plate ~ 6144 ~ 10 = 7312 Example 3.3. A single riveted lap joint is used to connect 12 mm thick plates, by providing 20 mm diameter rivets at 50 mm pitch. Determine the strength of the joint and joint efficiency. Take working stress in shear in rivets = 80 N/mm, working stress in bearing in rivets= 250 N/mm’ and working stress in axial tension in plates =0.6f, where f, = 260N/mmn’. Solution: Formed diameter of rivets = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm = 06f, = 0.6 x 260 = 156 N/mm? Strength of plate in tension, per pitch length; n= Py = Ou (p — d)t = 156(50 — 21.5) x 12= 53352N (1) Strength of rivet in single shear: Po mty ee Z@=s0x% Fausy = 29044 N s=(2) Strength rivet in bearing: Ps = oy Xd Xt = 250 x 21,5 x 12 = 64500 N 3) Strength of joint = minimum of the above three values = 29044N Strength of solid plate, P = oa pt = 156 x 50 x 12 = 93600N Joint efficiency = Meat of PrP and Po. ae x 100= 31.03%@ DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Example 3.7. A double cover butt joint is used to connect plates of 12 mm thick. Design the riveted joint and determine its efficiency. Use power driven rivets and take permissible stresses as per IS : 800-1984. Take permissible axial tension in plate= 0.6, where fy=250 N/mm? Solution The diameter of the rivet is found on the basis of Unwins formula: d =6.04vi = 6.04V1Z = 20.9 mm Since Unwin’s formula gives slightly higher values, adopt nominal diameter of rivet =20 mm. Gross diameter of rivet =20+ 15 =215 mm The permissible stresses for shop rivets as per IS 800-1984 are as follows : ty = 100N/mm?; op = 300 N/mm’, 0.6 fy = 0.6 x 250 = 150 N/mm’? Sat Let p be the pitch of the rivets. ‘Strength of rivet in double shear Py S1y.25d = 100 x 2x F2isy= 72610 N Strength of rivet in bearing on main plate Ps =o .dt = 300 x 21.5 x 12= 77400 N Rivet value = 72610 N ali) strength of plate per pitch length = ou (p ~ d) = 190(p - 21.5)12 = 1800(p — 21.5) N (di) Equating this to the rivet valuc, we get 1800(p — 21.5) = 72610 From which p = 61.8 mm Adopt. p = 60 mm. Adopt thickness of each cover plates re =2x thickness of main plate oe 8 x12=75 m Keep thickness = 8am Efficiency of joint went x 100= 25245 x 100 = 64.2% Example 3.8. Two plates 12 mm and 10 mm thick are joined by a triple riveted lap joint, ft which the plich of the central row: of rivets is half the pitch of rivets in the outer rows. Design the joint and find its efficiency. Take og = 150N/mm’, ty= 680N/mm’ and og = 250N/mm’. Solution : Since the Unwin's formula always gives slightly higher value of diameter of the rivet, we will use smalier of the thickness of the two plates. é d =6.04Vi = 6.04710 = 19.1 mm. Use 20 mm rivets. Gross diameter of rivets =20+ 15 = 21.5 mm.2m : DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES: Hence provide 9 rivets to each side, and arrange them in diamond riveting pat- tem, shown Fig. 3.22. Let the width of the flat = b. Assuming the section to be weakened by one rivet hole only, P, =(0-d)tow = (b - 215) 16 x 150 Equating this to external load, we get (b - 21.5)16 x 150 = 600 x 10° From which, 6 =2715 mm Keep 5 = 280 mm if = 24a 280 = 215 y 19 92.9% Provide pitch and back pitch=90 mm. Provide edge distance = 50 mm Actual stress in rivets 600 x 1000 f= = 91.81 N/mm? 2x Faisy x9 = 600 x 1000 _ 2 Fe = TTS x 16x97 1938 N/mm Actual stresses in flat Al section a-a, P =fi(o-a)r O00, 2 f= Gp — a1 syie™ M5 N/mm At section bb, Pafb-myi+F o 600000 = fx(280 - 2 x 21.5) x 16 + £20000 from which fi = 140.6 N/mm’. At section c~c, P= fib - 3d + 2 600000 = fy (280 — 3 x 21.5) 16 + fh = 116 N/mm At section d-d, Pafib- 3+ 600000 = fx(280 — 3 x 21.5)16 + . fu = 58N/tan? 3.x 600000 9 6 x 600000 916 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES If all the rivets are of equal area, Pier Mir Ae (3.16) In order to find the resultant force R on a rivet, it must be noted that F, acts in the direction of P while F; acts in a direction perpendicular to the radius vector. The maximum value of R in a rivet group will be for the rivet in which F, and the resolved part of F;, in the direction of F; are additive. If F;, makes angle @ with the direction of F;, we have R = VFicos8 + Fy + Frsin 8 or R=VFi+ Fi + 2FiF,c0s6 G.17) ‘The resultant force R in the heavily loaded rivet or any other rivet can also be found graphically by parallelogram of forces. If, in the place of eccentric load, a pure moment M acts on the rivet group, the load carried by any rivet will be given by _MrA y R= E> in general (3.18 a) . Mer or R= +=(3.18) for the particular, case when all the rivets have the same area. The direction of Rin this case will be perpendicular to. the radius vector. Design of the bracket connection In the analysis problem, if the number of rivets in a bracket connection (Fig. 3.25 a) are known, then the load P, acting at a given eccentricity, can be easily 7 frac Po (even found by using Eqs. 3.15, 3.16 and 2] Qo | oO . 3.17. However, in a design problem, 7 the number of the rivets has to be =P | assumed, to start with, for a given {| °o 0O;,0 0 load P acting at a given eccentric t | or for a given moment. This can | be done as follows, for a connection + eo olo o having large number of rivets. EL snes eas gh lees Let there be / number of rivet i lines with naumberofrivesineacn f] © 0 | O © line, having pitch p, as shown in Fig, | 3.27 (a). Fig. 3.27 (6) shows the stress 4 © 0,0 0 diagram for one rivet line, wherein | thestress in each rivet is proportional toits distance fromthenewtral ais. 41g glo o | Let f' be the stress in the out- "| L ermost rivet, and R is the rivet value. PAP ob Pope pf We have pe oo ,_R te w f is ~) FIG. 327.@ DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Design connection If the rivets have initial tension, as in the case of hot driven rivets, the number of rivets can be found using Eq. 3.22. If, however, the rivets do not have initial tension, slightly less number of rivets will be required; in such a case, n may be found by modifying Eq. 3.22 as under om 1 =08V iF (3:30) Example 3.13. 4 load of 100 kN is carried by a bracket riveted to the flange plate of a stanchion, as shown in Fig, 3.29. Each rivet is of 24 mm diameter. Calculate the maximum shear stress in any rivet. Solution Formed diameter of rivets = 24415 = 255mm M= P.e = 100 x 10° x 200 = 20 x 10° N-mm Since the area of section of all the rivets is the same, P_ 100000 R= z 3 = 12500 N EP = 4(40" + 120°) + 4(40° + 407) = 76800 mm? Rivet B will be the most heavily loaded rivet, for which 40° + 120? = 126.5 mm Mur _ 20 x 10° x 126.5 ~ 76800 9486; sina = 7 F,sina = 32940 x 0.3162= 10416 N ; F, cos @ = 32940 x 0.9486 = 31248 N. R= Vv (Fi + Frisina)’ + (Ficosa )' = Vv (12500 + 10416)’ + (31248)? = 38750-N If the rivets are in single shear, = 32940 N 40 0.3162 15.9 N/mm? Example 3.14. Calculate she shearing stress in the rivets B and C for the connection shown in Fig. 3.30. Rivets A and B have 14 mm diameter while rivet-C has a diameter of 22 mm. Solution Formed diameter of rivets A and B= 14+ 15= 15.5 mm Asea of cross-section of rivets A and B = Fs.5y= 188.7 mm? Formed diameter of rivet C = 22 + 1.5= 23.5 mm Area of cross-section of rivet C = 735) ‘= 433.7 mm*a4 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Example 3.18. A double plate bracket is provided using 12 mm thick plates connected to flanges of a steel column having flange thickness of 12.7 mm and transmit a load of 600 kN ‘at an eccentricity of 200 mm. Design the bracket using 22 mm dia. power driven rivets. Solution ‘Axial load on one plate = 5x 600= 300 KN. Formed diameter of rivet = 22 + 1.5= 23.5 mm ‘Taking ty = 100 N/mm? for power driven rivets, Strength of rivet in single shear = (235)? x 100= 43374N= 43374 kN =) Thickness of flange of.the section = 127 mm Thickness of gusset plate =12 mm... ¢ =12 mm Saenghh of chet in beatings 1.04 = 745 x12x300= 600 N i) Hence rivet value = 43.374 Let us provide a pitch p =60 mm M = Pe = 300 x 10° x 200 = 60 x 10° N-mm Nw n=¥V on Here I= number of rivet lines =2 (say) n = number of rivets in each line. Hence provide n = 9. Total rivets =2n=2x9= 18, : : ‘Arrange these as shown + in Fig. 334 (a), : Force in rivet due 10 axial + ne oe + A= Zz = = 16.67 kN + ye az. 2B rh = (0) + (70/'= rf = (120)' + (70)"= 19300 r2 = (180)' + (70)*= 37300 v2 = (240)' + (70)*= 62500 EP = ht 4g}+ 3+ rit ny = 520200. Also for_rivet E, ta) r =rs= ¥62500 = 250 mm +84 BB STE T SPB a. ttt ttt tet t+ 880 Fofce in rivet due to mo- ment: Mor hoo rf = (70)'= 4900 ke8 , DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Now as per Code requirements, Etisal 4. Weoal < 1.4 ty OF 64S sia or 1.156 $14, Hence the design is satisfactory. () Power driven (cold) shop rivets For these rivets, there will be no initial tension. The number of rivets for such a case is given by Eq. 3.30 n=osy 8 oR Providing != number of rows =2, p=60 mm and R = 36305 N as before, we get n=08 TxGox 6.64 Hence provide 7 rivets, and arrange these as shown in Fig. 3.38. Keep the edge distance =40 mm. Height A= (60 x 6) + 40= 400 mm The NA. will tie at #¢=40 = 57mm) above the bottom edge of the bracket. 6x 50x I For both the lines of rivets, Ey =2 [43 + 103 + 163 + 223 + 283 + 343]= 2316 mm Ey? = 2 [437+ 103*-+ 163°-+22374 28374343" j= 572988 2 * 572988 = 43.328 x 10° N-mm The tensile force in the topmost rivet is Ta = Me Ye y = 43.328 x 10° x 343 ~ ‘572988 = 25937 N. Hence, = 71.43 N/mm? Direct shear load in each _P 20x10 rete Fa aa = 14286 N pede bette ee eet j H f 4 f f H H H f Y H 4 f + $ + eo > > + + ne $14 o oOo o> : ° a t o $ t £ % te) FIG. 338,” DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (@) According to type of shank @ Unfinished or black bolts (i) Turned bolts. (6) According to material and strength (Ordinary structural bolt (i) High strength steel bolt © According to SI head and nut We), = * . AWA @) According to Pitch and fit of thread waster (i) Standard pitch bolt wean (ii) Coarse pitch bolt A BOLT ASSEMBLY (ii) Fine pitch bolt FIG. 4.1, BOLT ASSEMBLY In common steel structural work, however, the following three bolt types are recognised: 1. Ordinary unfinished or black bolts 2. Turned and fitted bolts 3. High strength bolts. 4.3. ORDINARY UNFINISHED OR BLACK BOLTS These are manufactured from black round bars of low carbon steel, and the surface of the shank is left unfinished, that is rough as rolled. The head is formed by forging. The diameter under the thread is usually 1.5 to 3 mm less than’ the shank. They remain loose in the holes which are usually made 1.5 mm larger in diameter than the nominal diameter of the bolt, Since the bearing of such bolts on the walls of the holes remains imperfect, the allowable stresses in these bolts are kept lower than the other types of bolts. They are therefore used only for ordinary field work and light loads—specially during erection operations. Table 4.1 summarises the dimensions, range of lengths and other information about black bolts, as recommended by IS : 1364-1983. TABLE 4.1, GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF HEXAGONAL HEAD BLACK BOLT IS : 1364 (Part 1-1983 IS : 5370-1969 * For 1s 125mm. For 125 <1 200, b is 6 mm more and for 1> 200, 6 is 19 mm more96 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES ‘TABLE 4.4 DIMENSIONS FOR HIGH TENSILE FRICTION GRIP BOLTS (1S : 3757-1972) Sic Miz | mis | M2 | M22 | M24 | Maz | M30 | M33 | Mio | M39 a 12 16 20 2 Pn 2 30, 3B 36. 39 da 1s2_| 192 | 244 | 264 | m4 | 324 | 354 | aga | a2 | ase dy Min_| 20 25 30. 34 9 44 48 3 58 3 ’ + | 30 8 46 50 36 Py) 66 R B 84 tl- “4 2 56 o 66 2 8 84 90 com | o4 | o6 | os | o8 | o8 | os | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 e min _| 239i | 256 | as03 | 3055 | 4520 | soss | 5537 | 0.79 | 6644 | 7209 k(st6) Nom | 8 10 B 4 15 v7 19 a 25 Mac | 845 | 1045 | 1355 | 1455 | 1555 | 1755 | 1965 | 2165 2565 Mo. | 755 | 955 | 1245 | 1345 | 1445 | 1645 | 1835 | 2035 | 2295 | 2435 r os | 06 os | os | os | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 10 s(h1S) Nom | 22 a 32 36 41 46 50 55 60 65 Maz | 2200 | 27.00 | 3200 | 3600 | 41.00 | 46.00 | 5000 | 55.00 | 60.00 | 6500 Mi._| 2116 | 26.16 | 31.00 | 3500 | 4.00 _| 45.00 | 4900_| 53.80 | sezo_| 6380 Note 1. — For the dimension / see Table 45 Note 2.— The dimension dy shall not exceed the actual width scross the fat Note3— Sizesshownin bracketsareof second preference. * For lengths up to 130 mm ‘+t For lengths over 130 mm up to 200 mm. Designation of bolts, nuts and washers High tensile friction grip bolts are available in two symbols: 10 K symbol and 8G symbol depend- ing upon the mechanical properties of the material used. The bolt is designated by the size, length and symbol representing the mechanical properties and also the IS number. For example, a friction grip bolt of size M16 and length 100 mm, conforming to the mechanical properties of 10K are designated as: Friction grip bolt Mi6 x 100 IS : 3757-10K Similarly, the nuts and washers are designated (a) HIGH TENSILE FRICTION GRIP BOLT TO BE MARKED FS by size, symbol representing the mechanical proper- (u) wich TENSILE FRICTION GRIP NUT ties (ie. 10 K or 8 G) and the IS number. For ‘example, a friction grip nut of size M20, conforming to the mechanical properties of 10 K is designated as : Friction grip nut M20 IS : 3757-10K BT Similarly, a plain washer of size 21, conforming exes ° to mechanical properties of 10K is designated as: 1 Plain washer 21 IS : 3757-10K ot ‘The high tensile friction grip bolts are com- ) monly abbreviated as HTFG bolts. JEL GSAIM MERERS FIG. 44. HTFG BOLTS, NUTS AND WASHERS.100 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 48. DESIGN OF BOLTED SHEAR CONNECTION From Eq. 4.1, we have P=uT oi) If there are n interfaces, we have Pe=nuT (ii) Dividing this by a factor of safety (F), we have Shear per bolt = . xnxT wn (4.2) Shear per bolt = SUP factory No, of interfaces x proof load. Factor of safety where shear per bolt = Contribution of one bolt to the total shear strength of the joint Slip factor = Coefficient of friction = 0.45 T = Proof load= Maximum permissible load in the bolt, as given in Table 4.8 The total number of effective interfaces is determined by common contact surfaces between adjacent load transmitting structural members with forces in opposite directions; this is, excluding packing pieces through which the bolt passes. ‘The factor of safety (F) is taken as 1.4 for all loads except wind load in which case in may be reduced to 1.2. The factor of safety allows for the stress relaxation in the bolts which may be of the order of 10 percent. Research has proved that stress relaxation in the bolt occurs mostly during first few days after the bolt is tightened. From Eq. 4.2, it is clear that greater the number of interfaces, smaller is the value of the required proof load corresponding to a given shear. This could mean that smaller diameter bolt will be required if the number of interfaces are more, and vice-versa. ‘The various types of shear connections considered in this chapter are (@ Lap join Gi) Butt joint with double cover plates (iii), Moment connection (wv) Flange plate connection (v) Bracket connection Example 4.1. Bolted Lap Joint Design a doubly bolted lap joint for plates 16 mm thick to carry its full load. Take permissible arial tension in plate 0.6 f, where f,= 250 N/mm’. Solution Load carried by the plate per pitch length BOLT LINE =0aXpXt = (06 x 250) p x 16 = 2400p N Fig 48 shows the lap joint. There is only one interface to transmit shear. Since there are two bolis per pitch length, the load carried by cach bolt = 4% 2400p n = 1200p N Hence from Eq. 4.2, king n= 1, 1200 p = ExnxT T = proof load _ (2200p) F _ 1200p (1.4) pn (OASXT = 3733.33 p HG. 48404 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES. sion, separation of interfaces will take place. It is, therefore, very essential to take care 10 avoid separation of interfaces. To ensure that the clamping force is not fully neutralized by the external tension to avoid separation of interface, the code (IS : 4000-1967) limits the external tension to 0.6 times the proof load and to 0.5 of the proof load when the joint is subjected to fatigue. Example 4.6. Bracket Connection under tensile load Fig, 4.14 (a) shows a bracket connection, carrying 144 kN load at a lever arm of 1200 mm. Design the bolted connection of the horizontal member with the flange of the column. Solution Since the inclined member of the bracket has inclination of 45°, the horizontal member (ISMB 200) will be subjected to a tensile force of 144 kN. Due to this, the bolts (Fig. 4.14 b) of the joint are subjected to pure tension. Let us provide 4 HTFG bolts Tension per bolt= 4 = 36 KN ‘The bolts carry @ non-repetitive tensile load. ©. 0.6 Proof load= external tension =36 KN / 2180 125 x73Ke Proof load= 38 = 60 kN 06 Hence provide 4 Nos. HTFG bolts M14 (8G) bolts, each having a proof load of 73.5 "a insretiOn=aK. KN, FIG. 414, Example 4.7. Bolied Flange Connection of a Gas Cylinder Design a bolted flange connection of a gas cylinder of internal diameter 900 mm, in which the internal pressure varies from 0.4 N/mm? to 0.6 N/mm? Solution : Total maximum pressure of gas on the flange = Area of flange x max. pressure= 7 (900)? x 0.6 = 381704 N ‘The bolts are subjected to repetitive tension, since the pressure fluctuates from 0.4 to 0.6 N/mm’, Hence the maximum external tension is limited to 0.5 times the Proof load. 05 x total proof load= 381704 From which, total proof load = SIDA - 763408 N = T6341 KN Providing HTFG bolts M16 (10 K) with a proof load of 105.8 kN, 763.41 105.8 Hence provide 8 bolts. No. of bolts= 722 FIG. 415. FLANGE CONNECTION108 DESIGN OF STEELSTRUCTURES see whether any loose particles like that of sand, metal etc are lodged within or not. The bolts are then introduced and subjected to preliminary tightening so that they are just tight and it becomes impossible to turn them any further by fingers. If power operated wrenches are used, they are set to 5% of the total torque as required by the torque control method. ‘This 5 percent is taken as a just tight bolt condition before giving the final turn as specified. After this mark is made on the nut and the protruding thread portion of the bolt to record the initial position, the nut is tightened so that the relative turn corresponds to that specified in Table 4.9. TABLE 4.9 FINAL TIGHTENING OF HTFG BOLTS (All dimension in mm) Grip of bolt for rotation of the nut (relative to the bolt shank) Not less than 1/2 turn Not less than Ud turn upto 114 - upto 14 over 114 t0 216 upto 14 over 114 to 280 upto 165 ‘over 165 10 360 upto 165, cover 165 10 360 upto 165, ver 165 10 360. As will be seen, this method does not require any sophisticated tools to achieve a preload as ordinary spanners may be used for tighening. The method gives freedom to enginners on site to choose any lubricant or the condition of the bolt without affecting the final result. ‘The inspection is also made easy as this needs to check the final position of the marks previously made on the nuts and the bolts, However, the efficiency of this method very much depends on the initial condition of the joint before giving the final tu, 3. Load indicating bolt : This is developed by GKN Bolts and Nuts Ltd. U.K. and also by Bethlehem Steel Corporation. In the GKN bolts, the head is so shaped that before tightening, it makes contact with the steel with its four comers only. This leaves a gap between the steel and the underside of the bolt head. As the bolt is tightened, the part of the bolt head yields and causes a gradual closure of this gap. The experiments show that to ensure a correct bolt load, it would only be necessary in practice to make sure that the widths of the gaps under the head were reduced to less than 08 mm. This may be done visually or by using a simple feeler gauge. The load indicator bolt by Bethlehem Steel Corporation has a special feature in the form of adding a spline to the end of the bolt. A special wrench, by virtue of its construction, grasps both the nut and the spline, applying a clockwise turning force to the nut and a counter clockwise force to the spline (Fig. 4.17 a). When the fastener assembly reaches a proper torque, the tension is in excess of the specified minimum tension and the wrench will twist off the spline end. (Fig. 4.17 b), Inspection is quick; if the spline has (a) (b) te) been twisted off (Fig. 4.17 c), the tension FIG. 4.17. LOAD INDICATOR BOLT is adequate, (BETHLEHEM STEEL CORPORATION)42 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Example 4.9. Design a pin to connect two pairs of parallel eye bars of size 180 x 50 mm. The space between the inner pairs is 90 mm apart. Take f= 250 N/mm* Sotution 1. Pull transmitted by each eye bar = 180 x 50 (0.6 x 250) x 10-* = 1350 kN 2. Max BM. at B is given by M = PX53=1350X53=71550 kN-mm 71.55 x 10° Nemm 3. Max, shear force at B is V =P = 1350 kN ‘ _ M _ 71.55 x 10° 4 Required Z =f = Tee = 433636 mm’ FIG. 4.22 xy Za =Z = 433636 ey] From which @ = 164.1 mm Provide 170 mm dia. pin. 5. Check for shear : ty = Y= 1350 X10 595 Nymm? A = a70y < 100N/mm*, Hence safe, 6. Check for bearing ome = P, = 1350.x 10° ee td 50 x 170 = 1588N/mm’ < 300N/mm*. Bearing stress in pin, Hence safe. PROBLEMS. 1. Write a detailed note on high tension friction grip bolted connection. What are the advantages of such a connection ? Design a double bolted fap joint for a plate of 20 mm thickness to carry its full load. Design a doubly riveted butt joint with double cover plates, for the data of problem 2. Design a bolted bracket connection for the data of Example 3.13. Compare the two designs. Design the double plate bracket with the data of Example 3.18. Design the bracket connection with the data of Problem 3.11. aveeny16 and (€) According to type of joint : as (i) but joint (i) lap joint, (ii) tee joint, (iv) edge joint and (v) corner joint (Fig. 5.7) Welding is commonly done in four positions : flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead, as shown in Fig 5.5. Vertical and overhead welds are possible because molten metal is carried from the rod to the con- nected joint by the electromagnetic field of the arc and not by gravity. In the flar welding the direction of electromag- netic field is in the direc- tion of gravity. Butt weld o grooved weld is used when the plates or members to be con- nected are in the same plane, or when a T-joint isrequired, as shown in Fig. 5.6 (a). Fillet welds are used for lap joint (Fig. 5.7 b), ‘T-joint (Fig. 5.7¢) or corner joint (Fig. 5.7 e). Plug weld (Fig. 5.6 c) and slot weld (Fig. 5.6 d) are used wherever sufficient space is not available for providing required length offillet weld. The stot welds and plug welds are also used for equalizing stress in plates and to prevent buckling in case of wide plates. 55. BUTT WELD OR GROOVE WELD DESIGN OF STFEL STRUCTURES OVER HEAD FIG. $5. PICTORIAL VIEW SHOWING VARIOUS TYPES OF WELDS. (| FILLED a? PLUG GROOVE FILLET sot FIG. $6. TYPES OF WELDS LL) LA BUTT Lap TEE EDGE 4 FIG. 5.7. TYPES OF WELDS Butt weld or groove weld is used when the plates to be jointed are in the same plane, or when a T-joint is desired, as shown in Fig. 5.6 (a). A butt weld is designated according to the shape Of groove made during the preparation of ends of the pieces to be jointed. The common types of butt welds are shown in Fig 58120 These defects have been shown diagrammatically in Fig, 5.15. Under cut- ting (Fig. 5.15 a, b) takes place due To excessive current and excessive length of arc, resulting in the formation of a groove in the base metal. When the weld metal overflows the groove, but does not fuse with base metal, and over- lap is formed (Fig. 5.15 c). Incomplete penetration takes place when the weld metal does not penetrate up to the root of the joint because of faulty groove preparation (Fig. 5.15 f; g) or because of faulty technique used during welding. Lack of fusion (Fig. 5.15 d, e) takes place when the parent metal is coated with some foreign matter and when the groove is not clean, Due to this, there will be lack of union between two runs of weld metal. Slag inclusion (Fig. 5.15 A) takes place because of formation of oxides due to chemical reaction among the base metal, air and electrode coating, during welding. Some times, a group of gas pores may get entrapped in the weld, as shown in Fig. 5.15 (. Such a defect of gas inclusion is also called porosity. Edge melting off occurs in fillet welds (Fig. 5.1)) because of careless welding. $.8. WORKING STRESSES IN WELDS. Oa DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES a UNDERCUT OVERLAP. FUSION (4) Z ,_&@ IwCOMPLETE w w a tq) PENETRATION thy INCLUSION w w FIG, $15. IMPORTANT WELD DEFECTS. Table 5.4 gives the permissible stresses in welds, as per IS : 816-1969, for mild steel conforming to IS: 226-1962 and electrodes conforming to IS : 814-1974. TABLE 5.4 WORKING STRESSES IN WELDS (1S UNITS) Kind of Stress ible Values (Converted irto SI units) ‘Tension or compression on section through throat of butt weld. 150 N/mm? ‘Bending stress in tension or compression 165 N/mm? Shear on section through throat of butt or| fillet weld 110.N/mm? Plug wied. 10.N/mm?, Note 1. For welding done at the site (field), the maximum values in shear and tension given above arc reduced 10 80%. 2, When the effects of wind or earthquake forces are taken in the design, the above values are increased by 25%.124 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Provide an overlap of 115 mm, as shown in Fig. 5.22. This distatice is more than the distance of 100 mm between the two side fillets. Hence the design is O.K. Z Example 5.3. A tie bar 120mm x10 mm is to be connected to other of size 120mm x 14 mm. If the tie bars are to be loaded by a pull of 160 KN, find out the size of end fillets such that the stresses in both the end fillets are same. Take permissible stress in weld = 110N/mm’. Solution ‘The portion of plates between the welds stretch by the same amount. Therefore, the strain and hence the stress in both the plates are same. The force carried by cach plate will be proportional to its thickness. Thus, if the 10 mm thick plate carries a force Py, the 14 mm thick plate will carry a force 1.4P;. Therefore, to keep the stresses same in both the end welds, we must keep the size of the welds in proportion to the thickness of respective plates. Let the size of lower weld 4 =h . Size of the upper weld B Length of weld in each case Strength of lower weld 4h 20 mm. 16OKN 7h 120x 110 = 92404 N Strength of upper weld= 0.7 (1.4 4)120x 110 2936 h N o Total load carried by tie bar = 160 KN. ae: 0 9240 h + 129364 = 160 x 1000 CE 00 From which A =7.22 mm wo) om Keep h=75 mm. +. Size of lower FIG. $23 weld= 7.5 mm, which is less than the maximum permissible weld size of 10—1.5=85 mm. Also, size of upper weld = 1.4h= 1.4 x 7,5= 10.5 mm. This is also less than the maximum permissible size of 14 - 1.5= 125mm. Example 5.4. A tension member consisting of two channels sections 200mm x 75 mm @ 22.1 kgim back to back is to be connected to gusset plate. Design the welded joint for the condition that the section is loaded to its full strength. Take A = 2821 sq. mm, thickness of flange =11.4mm and the thickness of the web = 61 mm, permissible stress in weld equal to 110N/mm? and permissible stress in’ the section in axial tension = 150N/mm*. Solution In the case of rolled section, the size of weld is limited to three fourth of the thickness. Max. size of weld =2x 6.1= 4.6mm. We shall provide 4 mm weld. Strength of weld per linear mm =0.7x4 x 110= 308 N ‘The load to be carried by cach channel = 2821x150= 423150 N s+ Total length of weld required for one 423150 channel = og = 1380 mm Length of the end weld= 200mm Length of side welds = 1380 — 200= 1180 mm 1180 Overtep = 482 590 mm. 4128 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES: Solution. Taking the moments about line of action of Pz 65 P; = 160 x 1000 x 45.3 11508 N P-P; 160000 — 111508 = 48492 N Size of weld ‘The maximum size of weld for a rounded edge at the toc of the angle= }x thickness = } x 10 = 7.5 mm. FIG. 5.29. Strength of weld per lineal mm = 0.7 x 75x 110 N/mm*= 577.5 N Py 111508 _ Lis s737 sis = 193mm Px _ 48492 and Beas sas me ‘These values are effective and must be increased by twice the weld size, ie. by 27.5 = 15 mm to get the actual length of the welds. Example 5.10. A tie bar consisting of a single angle 60mm x 60mm x 10 mm is to be welded to a gusset plate. The tie bar carries a load of 150 kN along its centroidal axis. Design the joint if both the side fillets and end fillets are to be provided. The centroidal axis of ihe angie lies at 18.5 mm from the heel of the angle. Solution The maximum size of fillet weld at the end, along the square edge of the angle will be 1.5 mm less than the thickness of the angle. Therefore, the maximum size of the end fil- let=10-1.5=85 mm. The maximum size of side fillets, along the rounded edge =}x10=75 mm ‘We shall provide 7.5 mm BriSOaN weld thoughout. Strength of weld per mm length = 0.7X7.5x 110= 577.5 N FIG. 530. The end fillet weld will be placed symmetrical about the line of action of the load in order to avoid eccentricity. The maximum length of the end weld is, therefore equal to 2x 185 = 37mm. ‘The strength of end weld = 5775 x 37= 21368 N= 21.368 KN Taking moments about the line of action of force Pi we get 60 P; = 150 x 41.5 — 21.368 x 41.5 From which P; = 88.97 KN Py [50 — 88.97-— 21.368= 39.662 kN. ISA 6OX60XIOMm Ww132 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Vertical shear stress, be far on(5.10) s | where —_L = total effective length of the weld= (2a + ¢) Torsional shear stress, Tie f= (511) where J = Polar moment of inertia of the weld, (4) ELEVATION = lat by ‘The resultant shear stress at any point of the weld is Sr =V fat fi + 2fa.frcosO (5.12) fr will be maximum at a point for which f; is maximum. This is induced at the farthest point such as point A (Fig. 5.35 c) for which r is maximum and 6 is minimum simultaneously. For a safe design, f; should not C FiteT weLD exceed the maximum permissible value (> Puan Tp 5.14. ECCENTRICALLY LOADED BUTT WELDED JOINTS In the case of a butt welded joint subjected to eccentric loading, the load will never lic in the plane of welds. Fig. 5.36 shows a bracket connection in which the plate bracket has been welded to the flange of steet stanchion by way of a full penetration butt weld. The length (L) of the butt weld is equal to the height d of the plate bracket. Let t =thickness of weld throat Bending moment M =P.e. The weld line will be subjected to two types of stresses : (i) Vertical shear stress fa due to load P and (ii) Tensile or compressive stress f, due to moment M. al ate (5.13) | T ‘ 4. (5.14) | | As per IS: 816-1969, for a weld subjected to combined shear and bending stresses, the equivalent swess fe is given Pm to o f=VET RE (5.15) FIG, 536. FIG. 5.35.136 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES, Example 5.17. A circular shaft of diameter 120 mm is welded to a rigid plate bya fillet weld Of size 6 mm. If a torque of 8 KN-m is applied to the shaft, find the maximum stress in the weld. Solution ‘We shall first derive the relation between the stress developed and the torque applied for such 2 shaft. Let d be its diameter and fh be the size of the weld, Let ¢ be the throat thickness =0.7h, Here t=0.7x6=42 mm. Considering a small area da of the weld as shown in Fig. 5.41, a} J za x (5) . . r=£x00 A ss su eas TH 2, af ae ” Ja G.adt= 221, Z : aferp 4, 4 Torsional shear suess fj = T= 7.5 x —4- HO. Sa or or = 27 frei where T =8 KN-m=8 x 10* N-mm. Substituting the values, we get fe = 2B 942 N/m? (120) x 4: Example 5.18. A circular steel pipe 120 mm external diameter and 100 mm internal diameter © is welded to a rectangular plate 12 mm thick by fillet weld around the perimeter. The pipe is subjected to a vertical point load of 12 kN acting at 500 mm from the welded end. It is also Subjected to a twisting moment of 4 kN-m. Determine the size of the weld, taking permissible shear stress equal to 110 N/mm’. Solution. The weld section is subjected to three stresses. (Vertical shearing stress fe due to vertical force P= 12 KN (i) Horizontal shearing stress fi, due to moment M =P.e= 12x 10° x S00= 6 x 10°N-mm. (ii) Torsional shearing stress f; due to torsional moment T =4 kN-m=4> 10° N-mm. Lett be the throat thickness of the fillet weld. . <2 Vertical shear ses fu de sooma Ppoizin a P1200 ry N/mm* oS This stress acts vertically downwards, at all sections of the weld. (i Horizontal shear stress fi due ‘or wo to M= P.e = 6x10° N-mm FIG. $42.140 10. u DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES tie ‘omm A Mr FIG. 546. FIG. $47 ‘An I-section bracket carrying 120 kN load is connected by a column as shown in Fig. 5.47 by means of two side fillet welds 200 mm deep. The load is eccentric by 70 mm. Calculate the size Of the fillet weld. A bracket consisting of T-section 150 mm x 150 mm and 10 mm is connected to a column as shown in Fig. 5.47. The bracket carries 150 KN load at 80 mm eccentricity. If the size of the weld is 6 mm, find out the maximum throat thickness. ‘A bracket shown in Fig. 5.48 is welded to a stanchion by side fillet welds on three sides as indicated by heavy ines. Calculate the maximum force per mm of weid when the bracket carries 2 load of 200 KN acting as shown. 125 —-|200K 80-f-150-+] tou FIG, 5.48. AIG. 5.49, ‘A bracket is welded (0 2 stanchion by filet welds having a throat thickness of 9 mm and a load ‘of 180 KN is applied in.the plane of the bracket, as shown in Fig. 5.49. ‘The weld extends round three sides andhas the given'dimensions, Determine the mar- imum stress on the throat of the weld. sou Determine the size of fillet weld required to join a plate bracket with flange of a stanchion, as shown in Fig. 5.50. T Determine the depth of the bracket of Fig. 5.50, if the plate is butt welded, using full penetration butt weld. The 300) thickness of plate is 10mm. T FIG. 5.50.144 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1. Single angle section connected by one leg only In the case of single angle connected through leg, net effective sectional area is given by CONNECTED Ana =A, + Ark (6.4) where A, = effective cross-sectional area of connected leg. Az = the gross sectional area of unconnected leg. ‘OUTSTANDING 3A, Pe ves ata : \GUSSET PLATE Where leg angles are used, the effective sectional area of the whole of FIG. 6.4. the angle shall be considered. 2. Pair of angles back-to-back (or a single tee) connected by one leg of the angle (or by the flange of the tee) to the same side of a gusset Ana = Ay + Ark (6.6) where A, = effective cross-section area of vers connected legs (or flange of tee) BR A, = Gross area of outstanding legs xxx (orweb of the tee) SA: (ese) MIBOURLE aniie sere {b)T-SECTION 5A, + Az FIG. 65. ‘The angles shall be connected together (ie. tacked) along their length so that they act as a single member. For that, the outstanding legs should be connected by taking tacking rivets at a pitch not excceding 1.0 m. 3. Double angles or tees placed back to back and connected to each side of a gusset or to each side of part of a rolled section Such members are shown in Fig. 6.6, for which the areas to be taken in computing the mean tensile stress shall be the effective area which will be taken equal to the gross area less the deduction of holes. This is subject to the condition that the angles or tees have been connected by tacking rivets along their length, at a pitch not exceeding one metre. Note (j) Where the angles are back to back but are not tack riveted using a pitch not exceeding 1 m, the provision under (2) and (3) stated above shall not apply and.each angle shall be designed as a single angle connected through one leg in accordance with provision under para a). (ié) Where two tees are placed back to back but not tack riveted using a pitch not exceeding 1 m, the provisions d under para (3) stated above shall noi apply and cach tec 4g) angies ieaies shall be designed as single Tee connected to one side ‘of a gusset in accordance with para (2). FIG. 66. (iii) The area of the leg of an angle shall be taken as the product of the thickness and the length from the outer corner, minus half the thickness and area of the leg of a tee as the product.of the thickness and the depth minus the thickness of the tec. Hence for angle section shown in Fig 6.7 (a) GUSSET PLATE k148 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Case (6) Staggered riveting (Fig. 6.8 6 ) We will try different sections. () Section efg: Flat is weakened by only one rivet hole Anes = t[b — nd} = 12[ 160-1 x 21.5] 1662 mm? wai) (ii) Section e fj k: Applying equation 6.3, Anes = 1 (nd) +m = (a) ww ‘8 FIG. 68. where m =No. of inclined lines = 1; n=2 s =50 mm and g=40 mm. Anat = 12[n-2xa15) +1 2% =1591.5 mm? fii) (iit) Section hifjk: Here on =3) m=2; s=50 mm and g=40 mm, 2 — £50)") ? Anet 12[ 180 3x21.5)+2x 4x40) 521 mm’ Note: Section hifjk may not be critical as the strength of the rivet at f will be added to this, . Most critical sectional area= Aper,min= 1521 mm? P = 0a -Ana= 150 x 1521= 228150 N= 228.15 kN Hence case b (zigzag riveting) is stronger than case (a). Example 6.2. A plate section, 300mm x 12 mm has four staggered holes as shown in Fig. 69. The diameter of hole is 21.5 mm. Locate the critical section and find minimum net area Solution Here s =40 mm, whileg is different for different sections. (Chain abe: Ane: =t [b—nd|= 12 (300-2%21.5}= 3084 mm? ) (if) Chain abjgh: There is only one zig-zag or inclined line a reel Bendy | Ane =H] (b= nd) + me where om =1, n=3;5=40 and g=50 =R = 40)" )_ ? Ana = 12300 axast+1x{2] 2922 mm ii) in) Chain ab fed: There are two zig-zag lines. tw aon ++] 4g, 4ge = 40mm; gi= 50 (for bf) B (toe fen =3 where and152 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES x 2106 — 4 x 21.5 x 10= 7564 mm? 564 x 150= 1134600 N= 1134.6KN (ie. same as for case b above) It should be noted that if we compare the strength of the member in cases (a) to (d), proper tack riveting makes a difference of 15 to 20% in strength. Hence tack riveting is invariably done. It also increases the overall stiffness of the member. Example 6.7. The long leg of ISA 200 x 100 is connected 10 gusset plate by 22 mm diameter rivets in two rows, with gauge space of 75 mm and staggered pitch of 50 mm, as shown in Fig. 6.14. Determine suitable thickness of the angle to transmit a pull of 350 KN. Take a= 150N/mm’. Solution tr Gross diameter of rivets= 22 + 1.5= 23.5mm_ sp @ For section along abc (Fig. 6.14 ), Deduction in width for hole =1x235=23.5 mm @ For section along abde (Fig 614 b), and deduction in width for hole= nd — a 50° =2x 235 - = 3867 mm *. Maximum deduction for hole, in 200 mm leg = 38.67 mm. Now one leg (long leg) of the angle is connected to gusset plate. Hence we get from Eqs. 6.4 and 65 (case 1 of § 6.4 ) 3A tA, ‘Ay =net area of connected leg= (200 — 38.67 — pt Ani =Ar+ Ark where k= ‘Az = Area of outstanding leg= (100 - pe Assuming f= 10 mm for computation of net width of leg, we get Ai = (200- 3867-2 = 156.332 mm? Az =.(100 — Bin oe kb = 22156531 __ 99316 X 156.331 + 95 Ang = Ay + Ark= 156.33 1+95 t x 0.8316= 235.331 mm? 2 Po = ca. Aner or 350 x 10° From which ' Hence adopt t Thus provide ISA 200100 x 10 mm angle section. Example 6.8. if in Example 63, the angle section is subjected to an axial pull of 180 kN, determine the staggered pitch of rivets.156 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Step 3. Design of joint Gross dia. of rivets = 18 + 15= 19.5 mm. Strength of rivets in shearing = $(19.5)'x100x107 = 29.86 KN Strength of rivets = 19.5x5.5x300x 10" Rivet value = 29.86 KN. ‘ 300 Number of rivets = 5552 = 10.05 Provide 11 rivets at a pitch of 2.5 x 18=45 mm and edge distance equal to 35 mm, and arrange these as shown in Fig. 6.18 Step 4. Check for strength @ Chain abed Net area = 2622 ~ 2 x 19.5 x 5.5= 2407.5 mm? (i) Chain abghi Net area aA (nd — TS), Here, on =3; m=1; $=45 mm; g=225 mm; t—55 mm; d=195 mm 1x 45° Aun = 2622-~ (3 x 195 - 2S (it) Chain efogchi ) 5.5 = 2424 mm?* Here Aaa = 2622 ~ (5 x 195 PES, | 55 = 2580.75 mm’. Hence chain abcd is the weakest, giving a min. net area of 2407.5 mm’. Strength of section = ow. Ana= 150x2407,5% 10" = 361 KN. Hence safe. Example 6.12, A tension member consists of two angle sections and carries a load of 200 KN. Design the member when both the angles are connected (a) on both sides of gusset plate, and (b) on the same side of the gusset plate. Solution (a) Angles to both sides of gusset plate (Fig. 6.19) RequiredAnds cn This is case 3 of § 64. Hence gross area required will be about 20% more than the above. Choose 2-ISA 70 x 45, 8 mm thick @ 6.7 kg/m, having a section area of2 x 858 = 1716 mm’, Use 20 dia. power driven shop rivets. FIG. 6.19. = 1333 mm*162 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Sincé the difference is negligible, no further revision is necessary and the section may be taken to be safe. ‘The end connection may now be designed for an axial tensile load of 350 KN. 68. TENSION SPLICES ‘When the required length of a tension member is less than available length, or when two lengths of a tension member have different cross-sections, tension splices are provided to join the two lengths of the member. Tension splices are provided on both the sides of member jointed, in the form of cover plates, so as to form a butt joint, The required number of rivets, to transfer the load, are placed on’ each side of the joint. When tension members of different thickness are to be jointed, filler plates or packing may be used to bring the member in level. According to Indian Standard, additional rivets are to be provided if the thickness of filler plate (or packing) is more than 6 mm. For each 2 mm thickness of packing, the number required by normal calculations should be increased by 2.5 %. For double shear connections packed on both sides, the number of additional rivets or bolts shall be determined from the thickness of thicker packing. The additional rivets or bolts should preferably be placed in an extension of the packing. 6.16. Design a tension splice to connect two plates of size 250mm x 20 mm and 220mm x 12 mm, for a design load of 250 kN. Solution. Since both the plates, carrying a tensile load of 250 KN, are of different thickness, apacking plate of thickness = 20-12 = 8 mm will be required, in addition to the splice plates. Let us use 10 mm thick splice plates on both the sides of the joint, as shown in Fig. 624 (a). We will usc 20 mm dia. ficld rivets, Strength of rivets in double shear= 2x % (21.5)? x 90x10"*= 65.35. KN. Strength of rivets in bearing against 10 mm plate= 215x10 x 270 x 107*= $8.05 kN. Rivet value = 58.05 kN. No. of rivets required on cach side YOmm SPLICE PLATE f joint= 43 PACKING of joint= S53 4 esi '220xI2 rm Provide 5 rivets. Hormone 4Omm SPLICE PLATE PLATE Since the thickness of filler plate te) is more than 6 mm, additional rivets re- quired at the rate of 2.5% for cach 2 mm thickness of packing = 8 x 25s 10%. Additional rivets= 5 x 0.1 Q5 rivets (or say 1 rivets). Hence provide this additional rivet in the extension of this packing plate, Co 60. as shown in Fig. 6.24 (b.) Spacing between Hehe 4 7 pee} the rivets = 3 x 20=60 mm, and edge sad distance = 2x 20=40 mm. FIG. 624.165 10, iL 12, 13, DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES ‘A bridge truss diagonal carries an axial pull of 320 kN and it consists of two mild steel flats 250 mm x 10 ‘mm and 260mm x 18 mm jointed together. Design a suitabie splice at the joint. Design a riveted end connection for the full strength of angle section ISA 110 x 110 x 10 mm, using a tug angle. Design and connection for an angle 125 x 75 x 10 mm, using lug angle with 20 mm dia. shop rivets. The bottom tie of a roof truss is 4m long. In addition to an axial tension of 100 KN, it has to support at its centre be79- a shaft load of 4 kN. The member is composed of two angels 100mm x 75 mm x 10 mm with the longer legs turned down I: and placed back to back on either side of 10 mm thick gusset t plate, as shown in Fig. 629. The angles are tack riveted at 90 cm centres with 20 mm dia. rivets. Assuming pin jointed connections at the nodes, check the efficiency of the section peor: FIG. 629.DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS 73 7.5. PRACTICAL END CONDITIONS AND EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTORS The ideal end con- ditions discussed in the previous article are only Of the theoretical impor- tance, since in actual prac- tice, none of these can be achieved. However, the concept of equivalent length or effective length developed above is useful. e Table 7.2 gives In- dian standard recommen- dations (IS : 800-1984) for finding effective length in the given plane. ‘The values of these tables may also be adopted where columns form part t + 7 of framed structure, Refer Co) (e aw w Fig. 7.8 also, along with FIG. 78. END CONDITIONS ‘Table 7.2. ‘TABLE 7.2. EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS (@) Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at both ends (Fig 78.4) (0) Eftectively held in position at both ends and restrained against rotation at one end (Fig 7.80) {€) Effectivety held in position at both ends, but not restrained against rotation (Fig. 7.8.) (@) Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at one end, and at the other end restrained against rotation but not held in position (Fig. 7.8) (©) Etfectively held in position and restrained against rotation at one end, and at, the other end partially restrained against rotation but not held in position (Fig. 78¢) (f) Effectively held in position at one end but not restrained against rotation, and at the other end| restrained against rotation but not held in position (Fig 7.8/) (g) Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at one end but not held in position| ‘or restrained against rotation at the other end (Fig 78 ‘Note 1: L is the unsupported length of compression member. Note 2: For battened struts, the effective length shall be increased by 10%. Effective length of columns in framed structures : In the absence of more exact analysis, the effective length of columns in framed structures may be obtained from the ratio I/L of effective length 7 to unsupported length L given in Fig. 7.9 when relative displacement of the ends of the column is prevented and in Fig. 7.10 when relative lateral displacement of the ends is not prevented. In the later case, it is recommended that the effective length ratio W/L may not be taken less than 1.2.DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS 7 very long columns. For columns intermediate between very long and short ones, Euler's formula, though applicable, does not give correct results. Rankine proposed an empirical formula for columns which covers all cases ranging from very short to very long struts. He proposed the relation prek where Pc = fe. A= ultimate load for a strut. Pr =2El Eulerian crippling load for the standard case. In the above relation, BE is constant for a material, For short column, Pg is very large and hence z is small in comparison 10 B thus making crippling load P approximately equal to Pe. For long columns, Ps is extremely small and hence 2 is large as compared to oe thus making the crippling load approximately equal to Ps. Thus the value of P obtained a from the above relation covers all cases ranging from short to long columns or struts. ‘The above relation can be re-arranged as : PoPe Pe fe Ps+Pc 1+ Pe/Ps fA +e fe.A = A fe Ly Li; 14 (Ee\ FP +e (F In the above equation, f- is the crushing stress for the material and a is the Rankine’s constant for the material. Though the formula is empirical, the valucs of constant a is not calculated from the values of j-, x* and E, but is determined experimentally. Table 7.4 gives the values of f., and a for the materials commonly used for columns and struts. TABLE 7.4 RANKINES CONSTANTS. or P (7.7) a Material (For hinged ends) Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, Mild Steel Strong Timber Eg. 7.7 is the Rankine’s formula for the standard case of column hinged at ends. For . columns of other end conditions, the values of constants will be changed accordingly. However,. since a is a constant for a particular material used as a hinged column, it is not convenient190 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Tym hy +2 wm 4539 x 10+ 2 x 200 453.9 x 10° + 3.333 0° (2) Equating the two we get 8603.6 x 10° + 102.53 x 10*b = 453.9 x 10° + 3.3336” or b? ~ 30.76 x 10*b = 2445 x 10° Solving this by tial and error, we get > ~591 mm. Provide 6 = 595 mm. This will slightly increase the value of Jy over and above the value of Ix. Tx = 8603.6 10'+ 102.53 10* (595) = 69608 x 10‘mm* Ty = 453.9 x 10" + 3.333 (595)'= 10662 x 10' mm’. I = Inin= 69608 x 10° A =at2(b x 1)= 5626+2Xx595x20= 5626 + 23800= 29426 mm? r=VI/A= ‘y $2608 x 10" = 1538 i a == . 29.26 ae = 148 ~ (148 ~ 145) 2 238. 145.22 N/mm? P = 0X A= 145.22 x 2908 x 10= 42733 KN Example 7.8. A column consist of four ISA 150 x 150 x 12 mm, riveted together as shown in Fig. 7.20. Determine the maximum allowable load if the effective length of the column is 3.5 m. Take fy = 250N/mm’, (b) If the rivets are removed so that the angles act independently, determine the total maximum allowable load. Solution From steel tables, eafre Lex = y= 735.4 X 104 mom* PS.risa Ce = Cy= 414 mm AY isoxtsoxiz a = 3459 mm? eremnenes - (@) When all the four angles are riveted together cbs ‘as shown, they act as one unit. + Ty = Ix=4 [ler + @ (Ca)"} RED = 4 [735.4 x 10‘ + 3459 (41.4)"] 150, = 9313 x 10'mm* r=VIA= Vv 3313 X10" _ 64.97 mm. [150mm -rhe— 150mm —o| 4x 3459 = 1a BO _ 5648, FIG, 720, “e in 197 Que = 132 — (132 ~ 122) se. 125.52 N/mm? P =A. 0ac= (4 3459) x 125.52 x 107= 1736.7 kN198 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 7.13. DESIGN OF BUILT-UP COMPRESSION MEMBERS : LACED AND BATTENED COLUMNS, Single rolled steel sections, such as angles, channels, and T-sections, are useful for lightly loaded compression members while I-sections and H-sections are used for moderate loads. For heavy loads, built-up sections, shown in Fig, 7.2 ¢, f and Fig. 7.11 are used. For usual [sections and H-sections, the load carrying capacity can be increased by using cover plates riveted or welded to the flanges; however such an arrangement is not efficient since ry of the composite section so obtained is very much less than rq. resulting in lower values of permissible stresses. In the built up section consisting of angles, channel sections and [-section, the spacing between the elements is so adjusted that we get equal values of ratio of gyration in two directions, ie. ra =ty is obtained. For example, let us take two I-sections spaced at distance of S centre to centre as shown in Fig. 7.27. If lees hy ste sty and A refer to individual L-sections, we have, for the composite section (Fig 7.27 a): : Ix = 2le 5 = 2| ly +a(3) Equating fyand /y for maximum efficiency, we get Ble =2[y+4(S) | Ate pep t Henoe ($)° == /n~ 2-4 ed cine , + “A From which S=2V rz — 7, =(7.16) s+ Neglecting rj in comparison to re, we (a) (o get S=2re .(T16 a) FIG. 7.27, SPACING OF ELEMENTS IN Similarly, for two channels, spaced at S BUILT-UP SECTIONS. back to back, we have In=2le and ly [by +A (Go + 5) | Equating J; and [y for maximum efficiency, we get @2 2M =k +A (Gy+4) | 8) b-b pn (oye fa teGlee a or s=Vn-% -G| (TAT) Neglecting r3, in comparison to ra, we get S =2[tx-Cy] (7.17 a) In all these systems of built-up sections, when the sections are not connected by plates throughout their length, suitable lateral system is needed to connect the elemental sections so that they act as a composite section rather than acting individually. If the elemental members are not connected by lateral system, each element will act individually and the total safe load carried by such a section will be the sum of strength of individual elements, thereby defeating the very purpose of the compound section, It should be clearly noted that such lateral system simply holds the load carrying elements of the built-up compression member in the relative202, DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES The effective length 4% of the lacing bars should be taken follows : Type of Lacing Effective length (le) 1. Single lacing system (Riveted at ends) Length between inner end rivets of the lacing bar. Thus, in Fig. 7.31 (a), =! 2 Double lacing system (Riveted at ends 0.7 times Jength between the inner end rivets and at intersection) of the lacing bar effectively riveted at intersection. ‘Thus in Fig. 7.31 (6), 4e=0.71 3. Single or double lacing system, welded 0.7 times the distance between the inner ends of welds connecting the lacing bars to the member. 4. Maximum spacing: The maximum spacing of lacing bars, whether connected by riveting or welding, shall be such that the slenderness ratio Ae (= L/re) of the components or elements of the member between consecutive connections is not greater than 50 or 0.7 times the most unfavourable slenderness of the member as a whole, whichever is less, where L is the distance between centres of connection of the lattice bars to each component (as shown in Fig. 7.31). The slenderness ratio of the components within the lacing spacing is Aetonen aot sn(7.22) where L= spacing of lacing and r. is the minimum radius of gyration of elements, This clause is aimed at avoiding any Jocal buckling of the component. It should be noted that if a is the centre to centre distance (horizontal) between the rivet lines of the two elements (Fig. 7.31), the spacing (L) of the lacing is given by L =2acot6 for single lacing system and L =acoté for double lacing system Also, EsecO=acosecd for single lacing and =L secO= acoses@ for double lacing. where / is the length of the lacing between inner end rivets. 5. Width of Lacing bars: In riveted construction, the minimum width of lacing bars shall be follows Width of lacing bars (mm) 65 oo 35 30. 6. Thickness of Lacing bars: ‘The thickness of flat lacing bars shall be not less than one-fortieth of the iength between the inner end rivets or welds for single lacing, and one-sixtieth of the length for double lacing riveted or welded at inerstections. ‘Thus t 1/40 single lacing and t 1/60 for double lacing. It should be noted that width b and thickness ¢ should be such that the compressive or tensile’ stresses (Eq. 7.20) induced in the lacing, due to force F (Eq. 7.19), do not exceed the permissible values. Rolled sections or tubes of equivalent strength may be used instead of flats.206 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Ae = 30.36= 25.532 cot 6. or which gives Hence the value of angle @ should not be less than the above value. However we shall keep = 45° ( > 40.06") for the sake of convenience in construction. Now, for single lacing, ie Fseco= Evz (Fig. 7.31 a )= Bin 509 mm. (or 1 = acosec 0= 360 cosee 45°= 360 VE ~ 509 mm) Effective length of lacing, J, = /= 509 mm Minimum thickness of lacing, ¢ = e 127 mm Hence keep 1 = 14mm, Using 20 mm diameter rivets, minimum width (6) of flat =60 mm. Hence use 60mm x 14 mm flats for lacing, connected by 20 mm dia. power driven shop rivets. kL vin $09 V 12 Maximum slenderness ratio = (Bq, 121)= = 125.9 < 145 Hence satisfactory. For this value of A, He permissible com- pressive stress is given by (Table 7.5). Ove = 64 — (64 - 57) Be 5987 N/mm* Now, — V = 0.025 x 1345= 33.625 kN For single system, the force in lacing bar is given by Eq. 7.19(@): = rand" Tana 75 HN Compressive stress in each lacing bar 23.776 x 1000 _ 60x 14 Tensile stress in each lacing bar 23:76 x 1000 (60 = 215) Design of end connections Using 20 mm dia. ai Sen rivets, strength of each rivet © In single shear: Pr = 100, x (21.5)'= 363 KN (i) In bearing = i 2 SH Rivet value = R= 36.3 KN. For the rivet system shown in Fig. 7.32(b) No. of rivets= 2FCD8? — 2X 23.776 008 45° _ 995 m1 Hence the lacing will consist of 60 mm x 14 mm flats, connected by one power driven shop rivet of 20 mm dia. at each end. The arrangement is shown in Fig.. 7.35. = 28,3 N/mm? < ge. Hence safe. = 44.1 N/mm*< 150. Hence safe.210 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (©) Check for local buckling of column angles : The arrangement for single laced system is shown in Fig 7.39. Refer Fig. 7.31 also. Keeping the distance of rivet lines from the angle face= 60 mm, we have a =350-(60+60)=230 mm. Hence spacing (L) of lacing bars is given by L =2a cot 0= 2 x 230 cot 45°= 460 mm Twin for each component=19.4 mm Hence for the areal of the column, L dea Ee gar OT As per code requirement, Ae should be equal 10 or less than 0.74 (= 07 x 53.7 = 37.6) or 30 whichever is less. Hence the column angles are safe against local buckling. (©) Check for local buckling of lacing JH L«scomn ef (=i :. Effective length & = 3253 mm (for single lacing system.) _t. Trin = i= 102 289 mm 460} 08230 60} Vm Viz eoaoaw 4 = 112.7 < 145 Hence safe. FIG. 739. 2.89 © Strength of lacing bars in tension and compression Total transverse shear, V = 0.025 P= 0.025 x 1159.3 = 28.98 KN Hence, for single lacing system, axial i = each lacing is v v = ysind Dsind rena Fe ‘This force will be compressive in one lacing and tensile in the next lacing. (D Strength of flat in tension Rivet diameter = 20 mm Gross diameter = 20 + 1.5=215mm mm. Net area of lacing = (60 ~ 21.5) x 10= 385 mm* Hence tensile stress ‘in each lacing bar of ae 4? x 1000= 53.22 N/mm’. Permissible tensile stress, o = 0.6f,= 0.6 x 250= 150 N/mm? Hence safe (ii) Strength of flat in compression For the flat, 4 -i- 112.7 Hence, from Table 7.5, for = 250N/mm? and = 1127, ue = 72. (T2 — 64) x 21 69:84N/eam?24 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES Fig. 7.42 (a) shows distorted shape of a batiend column. The points of contraflexure will be midway between batten plates. Fig 7.42 (b) shows the free body diagram. The transverse shear force to each side of point of contraflexure will be ay, where N is the number of parallel planes of battens. If C is the centre to centre spacing of battens, the bending moments arising at each end of battens plate, due to this transverse shear will be M =M=M = (1%) x ca VE = (25) *o= ay ‘The longitudinal shear in- duced due to these moments is Vi = 4a + My= 2S Ss NS (7,28) where S= minimum transverse distance between the centroids of the rivet group/welding. Battens shall be of plates, angles channels or L-sections and shall be riveted or welded to the main components so as to resist simultaneously a longitudinal shear vee and moment (eo) COLUMN wiTH BaTTENS (b) FREE BODY DIAGRAM ve Ma oN FIG. 742, MOMENTS AND SHEARS IN BATTEN PLATE + n 6. The longitudinal shearstress in the batten will be equal to B where D is the overall depth of the batten plate and ¢ is the thickness. Va Hence pr tt on(7.29) where Tre = permissible average shear stress= 100 N/mm” for steel conforming to IS : 226-1975 7. The bending stress in the batien is 7:30) where Ove OF Op = permissible bending stress = 165N/mm? for steel conforming to IS : 226-1975. Example 7.23, Design the battens of built-up column of Example 7.20. Solution 1 Spacing of battens : The spacing C of battens is given by c 1 i = ite umn. Kz $50 oF 027 times + of composite cotu Here, remix = Minimum radius of gyration of component= 53.4 mm220 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1(a) Where the ends of compression members are faced for bearing over the whole area, they shall be spliced to hold the connected members accurately in posi- 3 2 tion, and to resist any tension & = when bending is present. e a * (6) The ends of compres- 8 $ sion members faced for bear- z g ing shall invariably be machined to ensure perfect contact of surfaces in bearing. 2. Where such members are not faced for complete bearing, the splices,shall be designed to transmit all the forces to which they are sub- jected. 3. Wherever possible, splices shall be proportioned and arranged so that the centroidal axis of the splice coincides as nearly as possible with the centroidal axes of the members jointed in order to avoid eccentricity; but where eccentricity is present in the joint, the resulting stress shall be provided for. Design steps 1. Assume width of splice plate equal to the width of the flange, 2. When the ends of the columns are not faced, the splices take the full axial load of the column. If the ends are perfectly faced for: bearing over the whole area, splices simply hold the two columns in position. However, in this case, it is usual practice 10 design the splices to transmit 50% of the axial load of the column. 3. Assume column splice to act as a short column, having zero slenderness ratio, adopt ec (for A=0), for the type of steel used. Hence find the thickness of splice: pate 4 Assume suitable rivet diameter, compute the rivet value and determine the number of rivets required to transmit the axial load. 5. Where upper column does not have full bearing over the lower column, provide a bearing plate of suitable thickness ¢. In such a case, it is assumed that the axial load of the column is taken by flanges alone, and the load taken: by web is neglected. This assumption w FIG. 7.46. RIVETED COLUMN SPLICESDESION OF STEEL STRUCTURES Axial load in each flange splice = 4x 200= 100 KN Axial load due to moment = aM. + 0X1000_ 78 IN. Hence max. compressive load in the flange splice= 100 + 177.8= 2778 KN. Width of splice plate= lesser of the flange width of the two sections= 200 mm. ‘Taking A =0, c= 0.6 x 250= 150N/mm’, for the splice plate. = 277.8 x 1000 150x200" °26 mm Provide 10 mm thick splice plate on each flange. Use 20 mm dia. power driven rivets. Strength of rivets in single shear = 100 x % (21.5)'x 10"? =363 KN Strength of rivets in bearing = 300 (21.5 x 9) x 10° = 58.05 KN. ». Number of rivets needed per splice plate, tobe put on one side of the joint= 278. 765, Hence provide & rivets, in two rows of 4 each. Keeping a pitch of 70 mm and an edge distance of 35 mm, length of splice plate= (7 x 70) + (2 x 35) = 560 mm, Extra rivets for thickness of filler plate being greater than 6 mm = 25025-9) = gi2s %. . No. of extra rivets = 1965 x 8125 = 062. However provide 2 extra rivets, one in each row, on the upper side of the joint. The width of splice plate will be tapered from 225 mm to 200 mm as shown in Fig. 752 (6). (ii) Design of web splice plate (shear plate) ‘Two splice plates will be used, one on each side of the web. Let us provide two rivets on each side of the horizontal joint at a pitch of 80 mm, as shown in Fig. 7.51. The horizontal shear of 45 KN is assumed to act at the joint. Hence the ‘two rivets provided on either side of the joint will be subjected an eccentric load, at a lever arm of 40 mm. M = 45 x 40= 1800 kN-mm= 1.8 kN-m ‘The eccentric horizontal force H is equivalent to (i) an axial horizontal load H = 45 KN and (if) a moment M = 45 x 40 = 1800 KN-mm, both acting through C.G. (point G) of the rivet group consisting of rivet no. 1 and 2. Force due to axial load in each rivet = Fy = Mer 1800x 40 "TP 2 @0y = 225 KN Since both F, and Fm act at right angles to each other, the resultant force is FeVhi+Fa = Vv (22.5)? + (22.5) = 31.82 KN FIG. 751, terDESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS 20 Hence ec = 139 — (139 — 32) 136.85 N/mm? Hence for cased column, with section ISHB 350 @ 72.4 kg/m P SA. Gac= 9221 X 136.85= 1261.8 kN > 1200 kN. Hence satisfactory. Step 6. Provide 5 mm dia. ties @ 150 mm c/c along with 6 longitudinal bars of 12 mm dia, as shown in Fig. 7.54, Encase the column in Mi5 concrete. Step’ 7. Checks: Slendemess ratio of uncased column = 57.76 < 250 Hence admissible. Step 8. For composite section, permissible load is P = Ase. Ose +AcOe where total area = 350 x 450= 157500 mm’, Ase =9221 mm; Ae =157500-9221 = 148279 mm”, Ore Cae = 136.85 N/mm’, o- = 4N/mm’. Hence P = (9221x136.85+ 148279x4) 10° = 1261.89+ 593.12 = 1855.01 KN. which is less than twice the load capacity (= 1145.6KN) of the uncased section. Example 7.30. A column 45 m in length is adequately restrained in position but not in direction at both ends. It consists of ISWB 200 @ 28.8 kgim, and is encased in M15 concrete, with a cover of 50 mm on all the sides. Determine the safe load which the encased column can carry. Take fy = 250 N/mm’, Solution For ISWB 200 @ 288 kg/m, we have A =3671 mm’; h =200; b = 140; re =846 mm; hy = 29.9 mm Effective length 1sL=45 m (@ For uncased column 1 45x 1000_ pe 99g 150.5 < 250; Hence admissible. Also, for A = 1505 and f= 250 N/mm’.Design of Flexural Members : Beams 81. INTRGGCTION Fiextrajembers or bending members are commonly called beams. A beam is a structural member, Ue imary function of which is to support loads normal to its axis, The loads produce bending ™m and shear force in the beam. The idea of beam aciion is of great age bul despite th lonnistory of use, the systematic design of beams had to await the development of theory Oendir.. Intellectual giants such as Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo concerned themselves with the tength yf beams, but it was not until nearly 200 years after Galileo’s death that Navier d¢ed the correct flexural stress formula. Torsional stresses and lateral buckling were investigateby late nineteenth and twentieth century workers. Beam structuies may also be referred to by typical names that suggest their function in the stare, as given below : (@ irder : Usually indicate a major beam frequently at wide spacing that supports nall beams, (@#) isis: Closely spaced beams supporting the floors and roofs of buildings. (i) riins : Roof beams usually supported by trusses. (iv) fers: Root beams usually supported by purlins. (¥) els : Beams over window or door openings that support the wall above. Wi) os + Horizontal wall beams used to support wall coverings on the side of an strial building. (vil) ‘dre! beam : Beam around the outside perimeter of a floor that support exterior walls and outside edge of the floor. The tePim-column is used for that structural element that supports both transverse and axial lo: Dependiion conditions at the supports, beams may be (i) simply supported (ii) fixed (iif) cantileve propped cantilever and (v) continuous. Fig. 81; some of the commonly used beam sections. The cfficient utilization of material in @ js determined by the geometrical layout of web and flanges. The optimum section for fltresistance is the one in which the material is located as far as possible from the nevljs, in the form of flanges. In practice, there will be need for some web material to KG flanges apart and to resist shear. As a measure of beam efficiency, it (233)DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS : BEAMS 237 Teme = VF 3V vmes 81 2 bd bs —+ (8.7) where 6= width of beam and d is the depth of the beam. ‘The ratio of the maximum shear stress and mean shear stress is 15. For an I-beam (Fig. 84 b), the maximum shearing stress also occurs at | 6 the N.A. and its magnitude is given by b> VIB 2 2 mee =H Bay ed an te wom = 37 [ OA) te] (8.76) FIG. 64 Maximum permissible shear stress (IS : 800-1984) ‘The maximum shear stress in a member having regard to the distribution of stress in conformity with elastic behaviour of the member in flexure, shall not exceed the value Tm given by Tam = 0.45 f, (88) where tm = maximum permissible shear stress, and fj= yield stress of steel. Average shear stress ; The average shear stress in a member calculated on the cross-section of the web shall not exceed the value Tw given by 04h, (89) for unstiffened web. The cross-sections of the web shall be taken as follows : For rolled I-beams and channels : The depth of the beam multiplied by the web thickness. For plate gitders : The depth of the web plate multiplied by its thickness, Note 1. For rectangular sections, the cross-section of the web is taken equal to (bxd). 2. The above recommendations are valid only when the depth of the web docs not exceed 85 times the web thickness. For webs where the depth to thickness ratio exceeds 85, stiffeners are necessary. For such stiffened webs, the allowable shear stress depends upon the spacing of the stiffeners and tne dimensions of the panel. 85, BEARING STRESS Beams may either be supported directly on other structural members (such as steel stanchions ete.), or else they may rest on concrete or masonry Ta supports such as walls or CRITICAL pilasters. In the later case, yr reane the support is of a weaker i material than steel, and it ae at Becomes necessary 10 yk . spread the load (support . reaction) over largerarea, | Tp} SEARING “TTTTTT ETT] T so that the bearing stress ty TPP y fp bene does not exceed a certain 3 3 permissible value. This is N achieved by the provision of a bearing plate, as shown in Fig. 8.5. FIG. 85. BEARING STRESS.DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS at 8.8, LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS We have seen in § 8.3 that for most of the rolled shapes, the permissible stress in bending (ore) is equal to 0.66 f,. The important conditions associated with the use of this value is (@, the member must have an axis of symmetry in the plane of the web, (ii) the member must be loaded in the plane of the web (iii) the compression flange must have lateral support, and (iv) the section is compact. Loads on a beam cause bending, due to which tension is induced in one flange and compression is induced in the other flange. The compression flange behaves somewhat like a column and will tend to buckle to the side, or laterally, as the stress increases, if it is not restrained in some way. Most beams have some lateral sup- port — specially those which sup- port the floor slab, However, the (0) FULL LATERAL SUPPORT degree of lateral support is often a matter of engineering judgment Fig. 8.6 shows lateral support con- ditions of beams. In some cases, the degree of lateral support may not be clear. In doubtful cases, it is conservative and safe to assume no lateral support. Fig. 86 (a) shows two cases of full lateral support for the top flange, assumed to be in compres- sion. In Fig, 8.6(c),nolateral support (») INTERMITTENT LATERAL le} NO LATERAL SUPPORT exists for top flange. Fig. 86 (b) SUPPORT shows intermittent lateral support. ‘Another important corte FIG. 86. LATERAL SUPPORT CONDITIONS. (condition No. iv mentioned above) for the section to qualify for the relation ae (oF om) = 0.66f, is that the section should be a compact section — a condition that deals with the response of the beam in an overload situation. To qualify as compact, the section must develop its full plastic moment before localised buckling can occur. In other words, the section must be proportioned so that no local buckling of the flange or web occurs before the full plastic moment capacity is achieved. A cross-section that meets this criterion is said to be compact, and for that section, a (OF om)= 0.66 f, Loao 8,9. DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAM The design of a laterally supported béam is carried out in the following steps Step 1 : Determine the effective span of the beam. Also, estimate self weight of the beam, and add it to the super-imposed load to get the total load on the beam. The self weight may be assumed to be equal to total load W/300 to 1/350 kNim. Step 2 : Compute the maximum B.M. (M) and shear force (V) in the beam. Step 3: Take ow= oie = 0.66 f,. Step 4 : Find section modulus (Z) of the beam : za PeDESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS : BEAMS 24s (a) Built-in at the supports, free at end (o) Built-in at the supports, restraint against torsion at the end by continuous construction (See Fig. 8.8) (© Built-in at the suppor, restrained against lateral deflection and torsion at the free end (See Fig. 89) @ Continuous at the support, unrestrained against torsion at the support and free at the end (see Fig. 810 a) \85L .75 L : P=0SL 3L FACE BEAMS EXTENDING OVER SEVERAL BAYS (a) CANTILEVER Ly CONTINUOUS AT THE (b) CANTILEVER 3 CONTINUOUS AT THE SUPPORT, UNRESTRAINED AGAINST SUPPORT, PARTIALLY RESTRAINED AGAINST ‘TORSION AT THE SUPPORT AND TORSION AT 'THE SUPPORT AND UNRESTRAINED AT THE END UNRESTRAINED AT THE END ¢ Zz oR BETTER CONNECTION AT INTERSECTIONS. % (©) CANTILEVER SPAN CONTINUOUS AT THE SUPPORT, FULLY RESTRAINED AGAINST TORSION AT THE SUPPORT AND UNRESTRAINED AT THE FREE END FIG. 8.10. beDESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS : BEAMS, 65 9 TABLE 8.4 (CONTD,) : VALUES OF ose CALCULATED FROM feb FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF Sy (N/tam? or MPa) e888 SESRSSERRE SIBEUREESESREBERE 200 200. 202 203, 208 204 205 206 207 208 208 208 209DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS : BEAMS, 253 ‘TABLE 8.5C : MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE BENDING STRESSES, oie N/mm? (MPa) IN EQUAL FLANGE L-BEAMS OR CHANNELS WITH fy = 340N/mm? 2 > 2.0 or