6 - Quality and Availability Targets PDF

QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY
OBJECTIVES
This chapter provides an extensive description of digital transmission network models used
for the allocation and quality and availability objectives in accordance to ITU-R
recommendations based on ITU-T Recommendations G.821, G.826, G.827, and G.828. This
chapter deals with quality and availability events, parameters, and objectives as well as the
calculation and relationships of the parameters to existing atmospheric fading mechanisms.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
1.1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
2
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
3
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.1.8
3.1.9
3.1.10
3.1.11
3.1.12
3.1.13
3.1.14
3.1.14.1
3.1.14.2
3.1.14.3
3.2
Quality and availability predictions

Predicting quality
Quality and availability objectives
Why and at what price?
Recommendations - background
Digital transmission network models
Introduction
Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX)
Definition
Classification
Example
Other digital transmission network models
Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP)
Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS)
Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP)
Objective allocation based on Rec. ITU-T G.821
Basic definitions
Applicability
Bit error
Bit rate
Bit-error ratio
Expressing the quality objectives
Bit-error ratio and time intervals
Available and unavailable time single direction
Available and unavailable time bi-direction path
Expressing available and unavailable time
Definitions of events occurring during available time
Available and unavailable time - example
BER at bit rate 64 kbit/s
Quality objectives
Definition of quality parameters
Errored second ratio
Severely errored second ratio
Quality and availability parameters
Quality allocation in the HRX
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
I
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.1.1
3.3.1.2
3.3.2
3.3.2.1
3.3.2.2
3.3.2.3
3.3.3
3.3.3.1
3.3.3.2
3.3.4
3.3.4.1
3.3.4.2
3.3.5
3.3.5.1
3.3.5.2
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
4
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
4.1.6.1
4.1.6.2
4.1.6.3
4.1.6.4
4.1.7
4.1.7.1
4.1.7.2
4.1.7.3
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.1.1
4.4.1.2
4.4.1.3
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.3.1
4.4.3.2
4.4.3.3
4.4.3.4
II
End-to-end objectives
Partial allocation
The derivation of the quality parameters values
Quality allocation in the HRX - summary
Detailed allocation at different portions of HRX
Local-grade
Quality objectives
Availability objectives
Medium-grade
Quality objectives
Digital section
High-grade portion
Quality objectives
Hypothetical Reference Digital Path - HRDP (high grade)
Quality objectives
Real Digital Radio Link (high grade)
Quality objectives
Quality and availability objectives - summary
Quality objectives
Applications
Basic definitions
Applicability
Available and unavailable time single direction path
Definition of block
Events occurring during available time
Errored Block (EB)
Errored Second (ES)
Severely Errored Second (SES)
Background Block Error (BBE)
Quality parameters
Errored Second Ratio (ESR)
Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR)
Background Block Error Ratio (BBER)
End-to-end quality objectives in the HRP
National portion
International portion
End-to-end unavailability objectives in the HRP
Basic portions of the HRP
Allocation of quality objectives in the national portion
Access section
Short-haul section
Long-haul section
Summary of quality objectives - national portion
Allocation of quality in the international portion
Intermediate countries: Lmin L 1 000 km
Intermediate countries: L > 1 000 km
Terminating countries: Lmin L 500 km
Terminating countries: L > 500 km
9
9
10
11
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
16
16
16
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
18
19
19
20
21
21
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
26
26
27
27
27
27
28
29
30
31
31
31
4.4.4
4.4.5
5
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.3.1
5.1.3.2
5.1.4
6
6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.6.1
6.1.6.2
6.1.6.3
6.1.6.4
6.1.6.5
6.1.7
6.1.7.1
6.1.7.2
6.1.7.3
6.1.7.4
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.3
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.1.1
6.4.1.2
6.4.1.3
6.4.2
6.4.2.1
6.4.2.2
6.4.2.3
6.4.2.4
6.4.3
6.4.4
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
8
8.1
8.1.1
Notes
Allocation of unavailability objectives
Objective allocation based on ITU-T Rec. G.827
Basic definitions
Applicability
Path type b and reference path for allocation
Objectives allocation
National portion
International Portion
Notes
Objective allocation based on ITU-T G.828
Basic definitions
Applicability
Reference network model
Definition of block
Errored Block (EB)
Errored Second (ES)
Severely Errored Period (SEP)
Quality parameters
Severely Errored Period Intensity (SEPI)
National portion
Access section
Short haul section
Long haul section
Allocation of quality objectives in the international portion
Intermediate countries (Lmin Llink 1 000 km)
Intermediate countries (Llink > 1 000 km)
Terminating countries (Lmin Llink 500 km)
Terminating countries (Llink > 500 km)
Notes
Allocation strategy
Mapping
Spare factor (Ericsson approach)
Allocation in parts of the network
Fading versus quality and availability parameters
Frequency versus quality and availability parameters
Allocation alternatives
Avoiding distance-based allocation
Final remarks
Appendices
Summary of network models
HRX (based on ITU-T G.821)
31
32
32
32
32
33
33
34
34
34
35
35
35
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
39
39
39
39
40
40
40
41
41
42
42
43
43
43
45
45
45
45
45
III
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.1.5
8.1.6
8.1.7
8.1.8
8.2
8.3
8.3.1
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.4.4
8.5
8.6
8.6.1
8.6.2
8.6.3
8.6.4
8.6.5
8.6.6
IV
HRDS (based on ITU-T G.821 and ITU-R F.696-2)

HRDP (based on ITU-T G.821)
RDRL (based on ITU-T G.821)
HRP (based on ITU-T G.826)
HRP (based on ITU-T G.826 and ITU-R F.1491-1)
Path type b (based on ITU-T G.827)
Portion of the path type b (based on ITU-T G.827)
Comparison of SESR
Quality and availability parameters versus fading mechanisms
Fading occurrence
Calculation of the unavailability parameters - Rec. G.821
Unavailable time ratio (UATR)
Available time ratio (UATR)
Severely errored second ratio (SESR)
Errored second ratio (ESR)
Planning for unavailable time
Some statistical evaluations
Errored seconds ITU-T G.821
Application to a 64 kbit/s channel
Application at different capacities
Critical bit errors
Critical BER for SES evaluations
45
46
47
47
48
48
49
49
50
50
51
51
51
52
52
52
52
53
53
54
54
55
55
QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES
Quality and availability predictions
1.1
Predicting quality
Predicting quality in a microwave network is about to answer the
following questions:
1. Is the connection available?
2. If yes, what are the values of the availability and quality parameters?
3. How good is the connection in comparison with the current
availability and quality objectives?
1.2
Quality and availability objectives
1.2.1
Why and at what price?

During the process of planning a radio connection, adequate quality and
availability objectives are established following careful consideration of
those parameters that affect these attributes. These objectives then
provide, to a certain degree, a built-in confidence level that guard
against fading caused by interactions between the transmitted signals
and the atmosphere, topography and the signals transmitted by other
radio stations located in the vicinity.
Quality and availability objectives are often a result of a compromise
between, on the one hand, compliance with requirements of the service,
and on the other hand, current economic and technical limitations.
1.2.2
Recommendations - background
The recommendations discussed in this chapter take into account that
services are based on the concept of an Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN). The following ITU-T recommendations are basic for
the design of microwave networks:
Recommendation G.821
Quality and availability allocation for parts of a microwave network is

NOT performed based on ITU-T recommendations, rather on ITU-R
recommendations.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING
Digital transmission network models
2.1
Introduction
In order to facilitate the study of the error performance of digital
transmission systems (bit errors, jitter, transmission delays, availability,
etc), it is occasionally necessary to define digital transmission network
models that comprise a combination of different types of transmission
devices. These models are hypothetical in that they include entities of a
defined length and composition corresponding to real digital radio-relay
links present in international networks.
Transmission may be conducted via optical fiber, radio-relay systems,
satellite systems or cable.
2.2
Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX)
2.2.1
Definition
A digital HRX (Hypothetical Reference Connection) is a network
model in which studies relating to overall performance may be
conducted, thereby facilitating the formulation of standards and
objectives. The HRX is the starting-point for the apportionment strategy
found in Recommendation ITU-T G.821.
The HRX is a 27 500 km connection operating at 64 kbit/s and is
subdivided into circuit grades (classes, portions) that represent the
sections in a real end-to-end connection.
The grades may be local, medium and high and are illustrated in
Figure 1.
27 500 km
1250 km
LE
25 000 km
ISC
1250 km
ISC
LE
Local
grade
Medium
grade
High
grade
Medium
grade
Local
grade
Figure 1: The Hypothetical Reference Connection and its portions.

T=Terminal Point, LE=Local Exchange, ISC=International Switching
Center.
A precise location of the boundary between the medium and the high
grade of the HRX is presently not available.
2
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
2.2.2
2.2.3
Classification
Local-grade networks are defined as those operating between the

subscribers and the local exchange at rate below 2 Mbit/s.
Typically, these networks are metallic subscriber loop circuits.
Medium-grade circuits are those operating between local

exchanges and the national network. The combined length of the
local and medium grade links must not exceed 1250 km.
High-grade circuits are long-haul links, for example, satellite

connections and international connections operating at primarily
high bit-rates.
Example
An example of a possible geographical location of grades is illustrated
in Figure 2.
T
T
T
Local-grade
T T LE
T
Uunimannaq
Medium-grade
High-grade
T = Terminal
LE = Local Exchange
ISC = International Switching
Center
Copacabana
ISC
High-grade
High-grade
Fukuyama
Figure 2: Possible geographical location of grades.
2.3
Other digital transmission network models

The following digital transmission network models will be studied:
Hypothetical Reference Digital Link (HRDL) is employed by the
ITU-T in digital systems, the length of which is 2500 km.
Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP) is employed by the
ITU-R and which is equivalent to HRDL. Designed for the performance
specification of transmission systems as radio systems.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS) is employed by the

ITU-R and designed to accommodate the performance specification of
transmission systems as digital lines and radio systems.
2.3.1
Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP)

An HRDP is built up of nine consecutive and equally long (approx. 280
km) radio-link sections (HRDS), see Figure 3. HRDP also includes nine
sets of digital multiplexing equipment in accordance with CCITTs
(currently ITU-T) recommended hierarchical levels. Each of the units
may consist of a number of linked multiplexing units. HRDP comprises
a portion of the entire HRX.
2500 km
1
64 kbit/s
6
64 kbit/s
64 kbit/s
9
64 kbit/s
First-order digital multiplexer

Other multiplexer eqipment located at the ITUrecommended hierarchical
Digital radio section
Figure 3: The Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP).
2.3.2
Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS)

The path lengths have been chosen to be representative of digital
sections likely to be encountered in real operational networks, and are
sufficiently long to permit a realistic performance specification for
digital radio systems, see Figure 4.
This model does not include digital equipment such as multiplexers and
exchanges. An HRDS can form a constituent element of an HRDL.
The appropriate value of the distance Y is dependent on the network
application. For now, the lengths of 50 km and 280 km have been
identified as being necessary.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
Y km
X kbit/s
X kbit/s
Terminal
equipment
Terminal
equipment
Figure 4: The Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS).
2.3.3

Likely the HRX, the digital HRP (Hypothetical Reference Path) is a
network model in which studies relating to overall performance for high
capacity links may be conducted, see Figure 5. The HRP is the startingpoint for the apportionment strategy found in ITU-T Recommendation
G.826.
Terminating
country
IG
PEP
National
portion
Intercountry
Intermediate countries
IG
IG
IG
Terminating
country
IG
PEP
National
portion
27 500 km
PEP = Path End Point
IG = International Gateway
Figure 5: The Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP).

Recommendation ITU.T G.821 was developed during the late 70s and
adopted in 1980. It defines quality and availability parameters and
objectives applicable to international digital connections operating
below the primary rate of the digital hierarchy that use equipment
designed prior to the adoption of the revised Rec. ITU-T G.826 on a
data to be supplied by the ITU.
Detailed design of microwave networks is performed in accordance to
the ITU-R recommendations illustrated in Figure 6.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
ITU -T G.821
End-to-end quality objectives (HRX)
ITU-R F.557-4
ITU-R F.557-4 ! HRDP (used for high grade allocation)
ITU-R F.594-4 ! HRDP (used for high grade allocation)
ITU-R F.634-4 ! RDRL (used for high grade allocation)
ITU-R F.695 RDRL ! (used for high grade allocation)
ITU-R F.696-2 HRDS ! (used for medium grade allocation)
ITU-R F.697-2 HRX ! (used for local grade allocation)
Figure 6: ITU-R recommendations derived from Rec. ITU-T G.821 and

applicable in the design of microwave networks.
3.1
Basic definitions
3.1.1
Applicability
The quality objectives are applicable to a single direction.
3.1.2
Bit error
Recommendation ITU-T G.821 quantifies the occurrence of
transmission impairments (bit error) restricted to the bit rates below the
primary rate, operating as a part of an ISDN-network, which is based on
the control of bit impairment (bit error) of each bit position.
3.1.3
Bit rate
Bit rate is the amount of transmitted bits per time unity, usually
measured in seconds. For example: 64 kbit/s and 2 Mbit/s.
3.1.4
Bit-error ratio
Bit-error ratio is the amount of bit errors with respect to the total
amount of transmitted bits during a specified time interval.
3.1.5
Expressing the quality objectives

The quality objectives are expressed as the ratio of average periods,
each period having a time interval T0, during which the bit-error ratio
(BER) exceeds a threshold value. The ratio is assessed over a much
longer time interval TL, that is, TL >> T0.
3.1.6
6
Bit-error ratio and time intervals

Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
The following bit-error ratios and time intervals are used in quality
objective statements, in accordance with Rec. ITU-T G.821:
BER > 1 10-3 during T0 = 1 second
Zero bit errors under T0 = 1 second, which is equivalent to the

concept of EFS (Error Free Seconds).
Thus, the reference values for time intervals are 1 minute and 1 second
while the reference values for the bit-error ratios are 110-3 (one bit error
per one thousand bits) and 110-6 (one bit error per one million bits).
3.1.7
Available and unavailable time single direction

A period of Unavailable Time (UAT) begins with the onset of 10
consecutive SES events. These 10 seconds are considered to be part of
unavailable time.
A new period of Available Time (AT) begins with the onset of 10
consecutive non-SES events. These 10 seconds are considered to be
part of available time.
3.1.8

A bi-directional path is in the unavailable state if either one or both
directions of the path are in the unavailable state.
3.1.9
Expressing available and unavailable time

Available time + Unavailable time = Measured time
AT + UAT = 100%
if expressed in ratio as follows
AT + UAT = 1
3.1.10
(1)
(2)
(3)
Definitions of events occurring during available time

Errored second (ES) is defined as one-second period in which one or
more bits are in error or during which Loss of Signal (LOS) or Alarm
Indication Signal (AIS) is detected.
Severely errored second (SES) is defined as a one-second period
having a bit-error ratio (BER) equal or worse than 110-3 (BER110-3)
or during which Loss of Signal (LOS) or Alarm Indication Signal (AIS)
is detected.
3.1.11
Available and unavailable time - example
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
Consider a measured period of 1 month divided into one-second

intervals, see Figure 7.
T0 =1 s
Available
No bit
error
Unavailable Unavailable Unavailable
No bit error
BER=110-3
No bit error
BER>310-3
Available
No bit error
TIME
TL =1 month
BER<610-5
BER=610-3
BER=210-4
BER=410-3
BER=310-3
BER=210-4
Available time
110-8
Available
110-7
110-6
110-5
110-4
BER=210-4
Unavailable time
110-3
110-2
110-1
1100 BER
Figure 7: Available and unavailable time.
3.1.12
BER at bit rate 64 kbit/s

BER =
3.1.13
64
= 1 10 3
64 000
SES and UAT
(4)
Quality objectives
The quality (error performance) objectives are stated in terms of the
events discussed earlier. These events constitute the quality parameters
and should only be evaluated whilst the path is in the available state.
The quality parameters (also known as performance parameters) are
usually defined with respect to the total available time during a
measured period, that is, generally as a ratio of the averaged measured
periods.
The measured periods over which the ratios are to be assessed have still
not been specified since the period may depend upon the application.
3.1.14
Definition of quality parameters
3.1.14.1 Errored second ratio

Errored Second Ratio (ESR) is the ratio of ES to total seconds in
available time during a fixed measurement interval. Convincible
3.1.14.2 Severely errored second ratio

Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR) is the ratio of SES to total
seconds in available time during a fixed measurement interval.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
3.1.14.3 Quality and availability parameters

In Figure 8, the parameters are divided in two parts: parameters under
available time and parameters under unavailable time.
PARAMETERS UNDER AVAILABLE TIME

ESR
SESR
BER
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100

UATR
PARAMETERS UNDER UNAVAILABLE TIME
Figure 8: Parameters under available and unavailable time.
3.2
Quality allocation in the HRX
3.2.1
End-to-end objectives
The quality parameters and the end-to-end objectives in the entire HRX
are illustrated in Table 1. The performance objectives illustrated in the
table should be met concurrently. In other words, the connection fails
to satisfy the objective if any of the requirements in the table are not
met.
Performance
classification
Severely errored
seconds
Errored seconds
Performance
objectives
< 0.002
< 0.08
Table 1: Quality parameters and end-to-end objective allocation.
3.2.2
Partial allocation
The quality parameters errored seconds (ES) and severely errored
seconds (SES) are related to the three classes a, b and c in an ISDNconnection. The allocation is illustrated in Table 2.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
Circuit
Classification
Local grade
(2 ends)
Medium grade
(2 ends)
Allocation of errored seconds and severely errored

seconds given in the previous table
15% block allowance to each end
15% block allowance to each end
40% (equivalent to conceptual quality of 0.0016% per km
for 25 000 km)
High grade
Table 2: Objective allocation for the three circuit classes.

Block allowance implies that the stated ratio of the overall end-to-end
allowance is allocated to a local or medium grade portion regardless of
its length.
The length of the circuit is considered when allocating the high-grade
portion. The high-grade allotment is then divided on the basis of the
length resulting from a hypothetical per-kilometer allocation, that is,
40%25 000 km yields 0.000016 %/km.
The actual length covered by the medium grade part of the connection
will vary considerably from one country to another. For unusual small
and large countries the reference length of the medium grade will not fit
properly.
The end-to-end allocation of quality in the HRX network model is
illustrated in Figure 9.
27 500 km
1250 km
LE
25 000 km
ISC
1250 km
ISC
LE
T
15%
15%
40%
15%
15%
Local
grade
Medium
grade
High
grade
Medium
grade
Local
grade
Figure 9: The end-to-end allocation of quality in the HRX network

model.
3.2.3
The derivation of the quality parameters values

The quality parameters values are derived in accordance with Table 1
and Table 2, see Figure 10.
10
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
ESR=0.08
ESR
15%
At one end
15%
At one end
Local grade
ESR=0.012
40%
Medium grade
ESR=0.012
High grade
ESR=0.032
SESR=0.002
SESR
50%
50%
SESR=0.001
(Additional allowance)
SESR=0.001
15%
At one end
Local grade
ESR=0.00015
15%
At one end
40%
Medium grade
ESR=0.00015
High grade
ESR=0.0004
Figure 10: The derivation of the values of the quality parameters.
3.2.4
Quality allocation in the HRX - summary

The allocation of the quality parameters errored seconds and severely
errored seconds for the three different classes local, medium and high
grade is illustrated in Table 3.
Circuit classification
Performance objective
SESR
Normal Adverse condition
0.012 0.00015 --------------------0.012 0.00015
0.001
0.032 0.0004
ESR
Local grade
Medium grade
High grade
Table 3: A summary of quality allocation for classes in the medium

grade.
The remaining 0.001 SESR is a block allowance to the medium and
high-grade classifications to accommodate the occurrence of adverse
network conditions occasionally experienced (intended to mean the
worst-month of the year) on transmission systems. The following
allowances are consistent with the total 0.001 SESR figure:
0.0005 SESR to a 2 500 km HRDP for radio-relay systems which

can be used in the high grade and the medium grade portion of the
connection
0.0001 SESR to a satellite HRDP
Whenever necessary, administrations may allocate the block allowances

for the local and medium grade portions of the connection but within
the total allowance of 30% for any one end of the connection.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
11
The objectives presented above correspond to a very long connection.

However, large portions of real international connections will be
shorter, thus it is expected that a significant portion of real connections
will offer a better performance than the limiting values discussed
above. On the other hand, a small percentage of the connections will be
longer and in this case may exceed the allowances outlined in the
recommendation.
3.3
Detailed allocation at different portions of HRX
3.3.1
Local-grade
3.3.1.1
Quality objectives
The allocation of quality objectives in the local grade of the HRX is
given in Recommendation ITU-R F.697-1.
The local grade is a portion in the HRX network model, which together
with the medium-grade has a length of 1 250 km. Local grade circuits
operate between the subscribers (T) and the local exchange (LE).
The following quality objectives apply to each direction and to each 64
kbit/s channel of a digital radio system when constituting the entire
local-grade portion of an ISDN connection. These quality objectives are
to take into consideration fading, short-term and long-term interference
and all other sources of performance degradation during periods under
which the system is considered to be available.
SESR: the bit error ratio should not exceed 110-3 for more than
0.00015 of any month with an integration time of 1 second.
ESR: the total errored seconds should not exceed 0.012 of any
month.
The quality objectives correspond to the values in the first row of the
Table 3.
3.3.1.2
So far, the ITU-T and ITU-R do not include availability objectives in
the local-grade portion of the HRX. For example, recommendation
ITU-R F.697-1 does not include availability objectives of any kind.
There are, however, a number of values in ITU-T rep. 1053-1
suggesting that unavailability objectives should range between 0.01%
and 1%, averaged over one or more years for a bi-directional system.
For local-grade systems, unavailability is determined as a result of two
principal effects - equipment and adverse propagation.
3.3.2
12
Medium-grade
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3.3.2.1
Quality objectives
The medium grade is a portion in the HRX network model, which
together with the local-grade portion has a length of 1250 km. Medium
grade circuits operate between the local exchange (LE) and the
International Switching Center (ISC).
kbit/s channel of a digital radio system when constituting the entire
medium-grade portion at each end of an HRX, realized entirely with
digital radio-relay systems. These quality objectives are to take into
consideration fading, short-term and long-term interference and all
other sources of performance degradation during periods under which
the system is considered to be available.
month.
The quality values correspond to the values in the second row of the
Table 3. Note that there is an additional allowance of 0.00025 over and
above the SESR value for adverse propagation conditions.
3.3.2.2
The ITU-T and ITU-R have not specified the availability objectives for
the medium-grade portion of the HRX.
3.3.2.3
Digital section
3.3.2.3.1 Quality classification and allocation

The length of the local and medium-grade portion (1 250 km) of an
international connection is often far from the actual sizes employed by
the countries. This means that it is difficult to define just one general
quality allocation for the medium-grade portion of the HRDS, which is
applicable to all countries.
Depending on the different applications, four section types with
different quality classifications are introduced in the medium-grade
portion; see Table 4. These classes were introduced by
Recommendation ITU-T G.921 probably with the intention of allowing
for more scope in future quality specifications.
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13
Section quality
classification
1
2
3
4
HRDS length
(km)
280
280
50
50
Allocation
(%)
0.45
2
2
5
Class
(grade)
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Table 4: Digital section classifications the allocation of quality

objectives.
The allocations in column 3 are the percentages of the performance
objectives for ESR (0.08) and SESR (0.001), see Table 1 and Figure 10.
Example: The SESR corresponding to the class medium-grade class,
section quality class 3, should be 2% (from column 3 of the above
table) of 0.001, which gives 0.00002.
3.3.2.3.2 Quality objectives

The allocation of quality objectives in the local grade of the HRX is
The path lengths in the HRDS have been chosen to be representative of
digital sections likely to be encountered in real operational networks,
and that are sufficiently long to permit a realistic performance
specification for digital radio systems. This model does not include
digital equipment such as multiplexers and exchanges.
The values for the quality parameters ESR and SESR are assigned
according to column 3, Table 5, for the four quality classes. The same
proportion is allocated as earlier, that is, 0.001 is allotted to SESR. The
true value is 0.002, however 0.001 is apportioned for errored seconds
and the remaining 0.001 is a block allowance for the medium and highgrade classifications to accommodate for the occurrence of adverse
network conditions. In addition it is allocated 0.08 for ESR of the
available time.
kbit/s channel when constituting the HRDS portion, realized entirely
with digital radio-relay systems. These quality objectives are to take
into consideration fading, short-term and long-term interference and all
other sources of performance degradation during periods under which
the system is considered to be available.
Classes 1 and 2 are allotted an additional allowance of 0.0005 for the
total 2500 km length of the HRDS to accommodate for the occurrence
of adverse propagation conditions. This corresponds to 0.000055 of the
280 km length representing the classes 1 and 2.
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Performance parameters
BER>110-3 (SESR)
One or more errors (ESR)
Class1
280 km
0.00006
0.00036
Ratio of any month

Class2
Class3
280 km
50 km
0.000075 0.00002
0.0016
0.0016
Class4
50 km
0.00005
0.004
Table 5: Quality objectives for a digital section in the HRDS.

The quality objectives are used for dimensioning radio-relay links. It
has to be taken into consideration that the allocation in the table is a
block allowance and not a per kilometer allocation.
3.3.2.3.3 The derivation of the quality parameters values

The derivation of the quality parameters values for a digital section in
the HRDS follows Table 4 and Table 5, and is illustrated in Figure 11.
Class 1: 280 km
0.0045
0.08
0.001
ESR=0.00036
SESR=0.0000045
Additional allowance
0.000055
Class 2: 280 km
0.02
0.08
0.001
ESR=0.0016
SESR=0.00002
Additional allowance
0.000055
Class 3: 50 km
0.02
0.08
0.001
Class 4: 50 km
0.05
0.08
0.001
SESR=0.000060
SESR=0.000075
ESR=0.0016
SESR=0.000020
ESR=0.004
SESR=0.000050
Figure 11: The derivation of the values of the quality parameters.
3.3.2.3.4 Unavailability objectives

The allocation of unavailability objectives in the HRDS (a part of the
HRX) is given in Recommendation ITU-R F.696-1.
The following values are assigned to the four different classes of the
medium-grade of an HRDS:
Class
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Objectives
Planning application
15
1 (high grade)
2 (medium grade)
3 (medium grade)
4 (medium grade)
0.00033
0.0005
0.0005
0.001
Distance-based allocation
Block allocation
Block allocation
Block allocation
Table 6: Allocation of unavailability objectives in the HRDS.

The unavailability objectives are the same regardless of the length of a
real HRDS section. Then, there is no compensation for the case when
the length of a real section is shorter than that of the corresponding
class length.
3.3.3
High-grade portion
3.3.3.1
Quality objectives
The allocation of quality objectives in the high grade of the HRX is
The high-grade is a portion of the HRX network model situated
between the International Switching Centers (ISC) and having a length
of 25 000 km.
The following quality objectives are employed:
month.
The quality values correspond to the values in the third row of the
Table 3.
3.3.3.2
The ITU-T and ITU-R have not specified availability/unavailability
objectives for the high-grade portion of the HRX.
3.3.4
Hypothetical Reference Digital Path - HRDP (high grade)
3.3.4.1
Quality objectives
The allocation of quality objectives in the HRDP is given in
Recommendation ITU-R F.594-3.
The HRDP network model is composed of digital radio-relay systems
and its length is 2 500 km. The quality objectives for an HRDP are
related to the quality objectives of the high-grade portion of an HRDP
since, according to the ITU-T the length of the HRDP (2 500 km) is one
tenth of the length of the HRXs high grade (25 000 km).
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The quality parameters SESR and ESR describing the quality objectives
of an HRDP are stated as for each direction of the 64 kbit/s channel of
the HRDP. The effects of fading, interference and all other sources of
performance degradation are taken into account. The following quality
objectives are one tenth of the corresponding values for the high-grade
portion of the HRX:
SESR = 0.00004 + 0.0005 = 0.00054
ESR = 0.0032
Note that the SESR value is allotted an additional 0.0005 for adverse
propagation conditions.
3.3.4.2
The allocation of unavailability objectives in the HRDP is given in
The availability objective for digital radio-relay systems that constitute
part of an HRDP is 99.7% of the time, the percentage being considered
over a period of time sufficiently long to be statistically valid. It
includes all causes that are statistically predictable, unintentional and
resulting from radio equipment, power supplies, propagation,
interference, and from auxiliary equipment and human activity.
The value of 99.7% is a provisional one and it is recognized that, in
reality, the selected objectives may fall into the range 99.5 to 99.9%.
3.3.5
Real Digital Radio Link (high grade)
3.3.5.1
Quality objectives
The allocation of quality objectives in the RDRL is given in
Real digital radio-relay links with lengths shorter than 2 500 km may
form part of the high-grade portion of an ISDN, and may occasionally
differ in composition from the HRDP.
The following quality objectives are applied to real digital radio links
intended to form a part of a high-grade circuit within an ISDN for
which the length of the link L is between 280 and 2 500 km.
(L/2500) 0.00054 of any month with an integration time of 1
second.
ESR: the total errored seconds should not exceed (L/2500) 0.0032
of any month.
The availability objectives are valid for link lengths in the range 280
and 2 500 km and include allowances for all performance degradations
over and above fading.
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17
3.3.5.2
The allocation of unavailability objectives in the RDRL is given in
Recommendation ITU-R F.695.
The following availability objective is appropriate for a real digital
radio link forming a part of a high-grade circuit within an ISDN
L
2 500
where L is the length of a link in the range 280 to 2500 km.
UAT = 0.3
(5)
The availability objective is valid in the range between 280 and 2 500
km. It includes all causes that are statistically predictable, unintentional
and resulting from radio equipment, power supplies, propagation,
interference, and from auxiliary equipment and human activity. The
estimate of unavailability should also include consideration of the mean
time to restore.
The value of 0.3 is a provisional one and it is recognized that, in reality,
the value selected may fall into the range 0.1 to 0.5. The choice of the
specific value is dependent on various aspects, such as propagation,
geographical size, population distribution and the organization of
maintenance.
3.4
Quality and availability objectives - summary
3.4.1
Quality objectives
Table 7 presents a summary of the quality objectives for the network
models.
Network
model
HRX
HRDS
HRDP
RDRL
Portion/Class
SESR
ESR
Local
Medium
High
Class 1 (280 km)
Class 2 (280 km)
Class 3 (50 km)
Class 4 (50 km)
High grade
High grade
0.00015
0.00040
0.00040
0.00006
0.000075
0.00002
0.00005
0.0032
0.00054 (L/2500)
0.012
0.012
0.032
0.00036
0.0016
0.0016
0.004
0.0032
0.0032 (L/2500)
Table 7: Summary of the quality and availability objectives for the

studied network models.
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3.4.2
Table 8 presents a summary of the unavailability objectives for the
network models.
Network model
HRX
HRDS
HRDP
RDRL
Portion/Class
Local
Medium
High
Class 1 (280 km)
Class 2 (280 km)
Class 3 (50 km)
Class 4 (50 km)
High grade
High grade
UATR
0.0001-0.010
not defined
not defined
0.00033
0.0005
0.0005
0.001
0.003
0.003 (L/2500)
Table 8: Summary of the availability objectives for the studied network

models.
3.4.3
Applications
The HRX is never used for planning purposes, although useful for
setting limits when planning with other sub-network model. For
instance, the HRDS is a part of the Medium Grade.
The terminal point (T) is in most applications close to the local

exchange so the length of the Medium Grade can be considered as
1250 km.
The total apportionment of quality objectives in the medium grade

portion of the HRX shall not be exceeded in any circumstance.
The quality objectives for the classes in the HRDS are to be

accomplished concurrently and the allocation is block allowance
not per-kilometer allocation. Class 3 is frequently employed
(objectives are harder than class 4).
The objectives shall account for effects caused by fading,

interference and other sources of performance degradation.
Class 1 is employed for high-grade allocation and is properly used

as per-kilometer allocation.
Since relatively high frequency bands are now currently employed,

class 3 and 4 will provide better fit to the path lengths.
The section lengths of class 3 and 4 are 1/25 of the length of the
medium grade, while the section lengths of class 1 and 2 are
approximately 1/5.
HRDS sections shall not include multiplexes and switches. Passive

repeaters are allowed, though.
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19
Considering Table 3 and Table 5, the ESR objective for class 3 in

the HRDS is 1/7.5 of the ESR objective for the entire medium
grade. For class 4 it is 1/3. Who cares for forgotten objectives?
Considering Table 3 and Table 5, the SESR objective for class 3 in

the HRDS is 1/7.5 of the SESR objective for the entire medium
grade. For class 4 it is 1/3. However, there is an additional of 0.001
left for using in connection with adverse propagation conditions.
This additional shall be applied in the medium and high grade of the
HRX. Who cares for forgotten objectives?
The objectives are to be met over an evaluation period of 30

consecutive days.
The objectives are applicable to each direction of transmission

independently.

Recommendation ITU.T G.826 was developed during the late 80s and
adopted in 1993. It defines quality and availability parameters and
objectives applicable for international constant bit-rate digital paths
operating at bit rates at and above the primary rate of the digital
hierarchy. It is also applicable for international constant bit-rate digital
paths operating at bit rates below the primary rate. However, for
equipment designed prior to its adoption in December 2002, the
Recommendation ITU-T G.826 is not required to be applicable for
paths with equipment operating with bit rates below the primary rate. In
this case it is recommended to apply Recommendation ITU-T G.821.
The ITU-T G.826 is applicable for PDH paths as well as for SDH paths
employing equipment designed before the adoption of
Recommendation ITU-T G.828 in March 2002, see section 6.
Detailed design of microwave networks is performed in accordance to
the ITU-R recommendations illustrated in Figure 12.
ITU-TG.826
End-to-endqualityobjectives (HRP)
ITU-RF.1491-1
ITU-RF.1491-1!for national portionof theHRP

ITU-RF.1398!for national portionof theHRP
(interference fromother services inthesame frequencyband)
ITU-RF.1397-1!for international portionof theHRP
ITU-RF.1241!for international portionof theHRP
(interference fromother services inthesame frequencyband)
20
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Figure 12: ITU-R recommendations derived from Rec. ITU-T G.826

and applicable in the design of microwave networks.
The parameters and objectives in Rec. ITU-T G.826 are independent of
the physical transport network (digital radio links, metallic cables,
optical fibers and satellite transmission) and are intended to comply
with former ITU-T recommendations. In other words, compliance with
ITU-T G.826 ensures that connections planned with objectives given by
ITU-T G.821 are also fulfilled.
The parameter definitions for digital paths operating at or above the
primary rate are block-based, thus making possible in-service
measurements.
4.1
Basic definitions
4.1.1
Applicability
The quality objectives are applicable to each direction of the path
independently.
4.1.2

A digital HRP (Hypothetical Reference Path) is, as is the case for the
HRX, a network model in which studies relating to overall performance
may be conducted, thereby facilitating the formulation of standards and
objectives. The HRP, see Figure 13, is the starting-point for the
apportionment strategy in ITU-T Recommendation G.826.
Terminating
country
IG
PEP
National
portion
Intercountry
IG
IG
IG
Terminating
country
IG
PEP
National
portion
27 500 km
Figure 13: The Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP).
4.1.3

A period of Unavailable Time (UAT) begins with the onset of 10
consecutive SES events. These 10 seconds are considered to be part of
unavailable time.
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A new period of Available Time (AT) begins with the onset of 10

consecutive non-SES events. These 10 seconds are considered to be
part of available time.
4.1.4

A bi-directional path is in the unavailable state if either one or both
directions of the path are in the unavailable state.
4.1.5
Definition of block
A block is a set of consecutive bits associated with the path and each
bit belongs to only one block. Consecutive bits may not be contiguous
in time. Table 9 specifies the recommended range of the number of bits
within each block for different bit-rate ranges.
Bit rate (Mbit/s) 1.5-5
800Bits/block
5000
>5-15
20008000
>15-55 >55-160 160>3500

400060001500020000
20000
30000
Table 9: Recommended range of the number of bits within each block

for different bit-rate ranges.
Because bit-error ratios are not expected to decrease dramatically as the
bit rates of transmission systems increase, the block sizes used in
evaluating very high bit rate paths should remain within the range of 15
000 to 30 000 bits/block. Preserving a constant block size for very high
bit-rate paths result in relatively constant BBER and SESR objectives
for these paths.
4.1.6
4.1.6.1
Errored Block (EB)

Errored Block is a block in which one or more bits are in error.
4.1.6.2
Errored Second (ES)

Errored Second is a one-second period containing one or more errored
blocks.
4.1.6.3

Severely Errored Second is a one-second period containing 30%
errored blocks.
4.1.6.4

Background Block Error is an errored block not occurring as part of a
SES.
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4.1.7
Quality parameters
The definition of quality objectives are based on the events defined
earlier. These events constitute the quality parameters and should only
be evaluated when the path is in the available state.
4.1.7.1

Errored Second Ratio is the ratio of ES to the total seconds of available
time during a fixed measurement interval. ESR is not expressed in
percentage.
4.1.7.2

Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR) is the ratio of SES to the total
seconds of available time during a fixed measurement interval. SESR is
not expressed as a percentage.
4.1.7.3

Background Block Error Ratio (BBER) is the ratio of errored blocks to
total blocks during a fixed measurement interval, excluding all blocks
during SES and UAT.
4.2

The quality parameters are allocated as ratios, which are related to the
total available time. The allocation of the quality parameters for
different bit rates is illustrated in Table 10. ESR objectives are not
specified for bit rates above 160 Mbit/s because ESR objectives tend to
lose significance for applications at high bit rates.
ESR
SESR
BBER
1.5-5
0.04
0.002
210-4
Bit rate ( Mbit/s)

>5-15 >15-55 >55-160
>160-3500
0.05
0.075
0.16
Not specified
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
-4
-4
-4
210
210
210
110-4
Table 10: The apportionment of quality parameters for different bit

rates.
The values in the table are not expressed as percentages.
4.2.1
National portion
The total allocation to the national portion, see Figure 14, is composed
of two components:
1) A fixed block allowance of 17.5% of the end-to-end objective.
2) A distance-based allocation of 1% per 500 km is assigned to the
portion between PEP and IG and is added to the current block
allowance.
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The actual route length (if it is known) and the air route between the
PEP and the IG should first be calculated. The calculated air route
should be multiplied by an appropriate routing factor specified as
follows:
If the air route distance is shorter than 1000 km, the routing factor is
1.5
If the air route distance is greater or equal 1000 km but shorter than
1200 km, the calculated route length is taken to be 1500 km
If the air route distance is greater or equal 1200 km, the routing
factor is 1.25
When both actual and calculated route lengths are known, the smaller
value is retained. This distance should be rounded up to the nearest 500
km, that is, the two national portions comprise at least 500 km each.
1%/500 km Distance-based
allocation
Distance-based
allocation
17.5% Block allowance
Terminating
country
1%/500 km
Block allowance 17.5%
Terminating
country
Intercountry
PEP
IG
IG
IG
IG
IG
PEP
National
portion
National
portion
Hypothetical Reference Path

27 500 km
Figure 14: The allocation in the national portion of the HRP.

When a national portion includes a satellite hop, a total allowance of
42% of the end-to-end objectives in Table 10 is allocated to this
national portion. This allowance completely replaces both the block and
the distance-based allowances otherwise allotted to the national
portions.
4.2.2
The total allocation to the international portion, see Figure 15, is
composed of two components:
1) A block allowance of 2% per intermediate country, plus 1% for each
terminating country.
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2) A distance-based allocation of 1% per 500 km is assigned to the total

international portion that may pass through intermediate countries.
The actual route length between consecutive IGs (one or two for each
intermediate country) should be added in order to calculate the overall
length of the international portion. The air-route distance between
consecutive IGs should also be used and multiplied by an appropriate
routing factor specified as follows for each element between IGs:
If the air route distance between two IGs is shorter than 1000 km,
the routing factor is 1.5
If the air route distance is greater or equal 1000 km but shorter than
1200 km, the calculated route length is taken to be 1500 km
If the air route distance between two IGs is greater or equal 1200
km, the routing factor is 1.25
When both actual and calculated route lengths are known, the smaller
value is retained for each element between IGs. This distance should be
rounded up to the nearest 500 km, but shall not exceed 26 500 km.
In cases where the allocation to the international portion is less than
6%, then 6% shall be used as the allocation.
Independent of the distance spanned, any satellite hop in the
international portion receives a 35% allocation of the objectives Table
10. When allocating 35% to a satellite hop, employed in the
international portion, the distance spanned by the satellite is not
included in the distance-based allocation.
Distance based
allocation
1%/500 km
1%
1%
Block allowance
Terminating
country
Terminating
country
Intercountry
PEP
IG
IG
IG
IG
IG
PEP
National
portion
National
portion
Hypothetical Reference Path

27 500 km
Figure 15: The allocation in the international portion of the HRP.
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25
4.3

The allocation of end-to-end unavailability in the HRP is not defined in
Recommendation ITU-T G.826.
4.4

As mentioned before, the quality objectives for the national portion of
the HRP are assigned separately to the three portions.
Since there is one LE and one PC (alternatively one SC or one TC,
depending on the size of the country) between the PEP and the IG, the
national portion of the HRP (the portion between the PEP and the IG) is
further divided in three portions. These portions, digital sections, are
called Access, Short Haul and Long Haul and are illustrated in
Figure 16. The quality objectives for the national portion are therefore
assigned separately to the three portions.
27 500 km
PEP
National
portion
IG
Short Haul
National
portion
LE = Local Exchange
PC = Primary Center
SC = Secondary Center
TC = Tertiary Center
PC
SC
TC
LE
Access
Long Haul
Figure 16: The national portion of the HRP (the portion between the
PEP and the IG) is divided in three portions. PEP=Path End Point,
IG=International Gateway, LE=Local Exchange, PC=Primary Center,
SC=Secondary Center, TC=Tertiary Center.
The three portions are defined as follows:
26
Access is the section including the connections between the Path

End Point (PEP) and the Local Exchange (LE).
Short Haul is the section including the connections between the

Local Exchange (LE) and Primary Center (PC) - alternatively the
Secondary Center (SC) or Tertiary Center (TC), depending of the
network architecture.
Long haul is the section including the connections between the

Primary Center (PC) - alternatively Secondary Center (SC) or
Tertiary Center (TC) - and the International Gate (IG).
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4.4.1
4.4.1.1
Access section
For each transmission direction and for each of the different bit-rates,
the quality objectives related to the access section are to consist of a
block allocation as illustrated in Table 11.
ESR
SESR
BBER
Bit rate ( Mbit/s)

1.5-5
>5-15 >15-55 >55-160
>160-3500
0.04C 0.05C 0.075C
0.16C for further study
0.002C 0.002C 0.002C 0.002C
0.002C
-4
-4
-4
-4
2C10 2C10 2C10
2C10
1C10-4
Table 11: The allocation of the quality objectives in the access section.
The value of C has provisionally been agreed to be in the range of 7.5
to 8.5%.
4.4.1.2
Short-haul section
the quality objectives related to the short-haul section are to consist of a
block allocation as illustrated in Table 12.
ESR
SESR
BBER
Bit rate ( Mbit/s)

1.5-5
>5-15 >15-55 >55-160
0.04B
0.05B 0.075B
0.16B
0.002B 0.002B 0.002B 0.002B
2B10-4 2B10-4 2B10-4 2B10-4
>160-3500
for further study
0.002B
1B10-4
Table 12: The allocation of the quality objectives in the short-haul

section.
The value of B has provisionally been agreed to be in the range of 7.5 to
8.5%.
4.4.1.3
Long-haul section
the quality objectives related to the long-haul section are to consist of a
distance-based allocation and a block allocation as illustrated in
Table 13.
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27
ESR
SESR
BBER
Bit rate ( Mbit/s)

1.5-5
>5-15
>15-55 >55-160
0.04A 0.05A 0.075A
0.16A
0.002A 0.002A 0.002A 0.002A
2A10-4 2A10-4 2A10-4 2A10-4
>160-3500
for further study
0.002A
1A10-4
Table 13: The allocation of the quality objectives in the long-haul

section.
The parameter A in the table is calculated as follows:
L
A = ( A1 + 0.0002 ) link
100
for
50 km Llink 100 km
A = A1 + 2 10 5 Llink
for
Llinl > 100 km
(6)
(7)
where
A1=0.015
Llink is the nearest 500-km value rounded up from Llink.
4.4.2
Summary of quality objectives - national portion

A summary of the allocation of the quality parameters in the three
sections of the national portion of the HRP is illustrated in Table 14.
28
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Bit rate
(Mbit/s)
Quality
Long haul Short haul
parameter
ESR
0.04A
0.04B
1.5-5
SESR
0.002A
0.002B
-4
BBER
2A10
2B10-4
ESR
0.05A
0.05B
>5-15
SESR
0.002A
0.002B
-4
BBER
2A10
2B10-4
ESR
0.075A
0.075B
>15-55
SESR
0.002A
0.002B
-4
BBER
2A10
2B10-4
ESR
0.16A
0.16B
>55-160
SESR
0.002A
0.002B
-4
BBER
2A10
2B10-4
ESR
FFS
FFS
>160-3500
SESR
0.002A
0.002B
-4
BBER
1A10
1B10-4
Access
0.04C
0.002C
2C10-4
0.05C
0.002C
2C10-4
0.075C
0.002C
2C10-4
0.16C
0.002C
2C10-4
FFS
0.002C
1C10-4
Table 14: Summary of allocation of the quality parameters in the three

sections of the national portion of the HRP. In the table FFS = For
further study.
The following conditions are provisionally valid:
1) A% + B% + C% 17.5%
2) B% + C% are in the range 15.5 to 16.5%
3) The effects of interference and all other sources of performance
degradation are included in the above table.
4) The suggested evaluation period is one month for all of the
parameters, and the quality objectives apply only when the system is
considered to be available.
4.4.3
Allocation of quality in the international portion

The international portion of the HRP consists of the network between
the International Gateways (IG) of two countries. A connection in the
international portion may, however, pass through several countries.
The ITU has assumed that the connection passes through four countries
(each with two IGs) and that both terminating countries have one IG
each. This is illustrated in Figure 17.
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29
Intercountry
IG
IG
IG
IG
Terminating country
Terminating country
IG
J
Figure 17: The international portion of the HRP.

In the following sections, the quality objectives for different bit rates in
the international portion of the HRP are presented.
For allocation of the quality objectives structured in following tables
consider:
L
Y = link
LR
Block allowance factor: BR (0<BR1)
(8)
The following values are employed: LR=2 500 km, Lmin= 50 km, and BR
= 1.
NOTE: if the path length (or the chain, if more than 1 path) is shorter
than 50 km, then Lmin is set to 50 km.
4.4.3.1
Intermediate countries: Lmin L 1 000 km

Bit rate ( Mbit/s)
>5-15
>15-55
1.5-5
ESR 210-3(1+BR) Y 2.510-3(1+BR) Y
SESR
BBER
>55-160
>160-3500
-3
3.7510-3(1+BR) Y) 810 (1+BR) Y for further study
-4
10 (1+BR) Y
10-5(1+BR) Y
Table 15: Quality objectives for intermediate countries (Lmin L 1

000 km). The values are expressed as ratios.
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4.4.3.2
Intermediate countries: L > 1 000 km

Bit rate ( Mbit/s)
>5-15
>15-55
1.5-5
ESR
SESR
BBER
210-3Y+810-4 BR
2.510-3Y+10-3 BR
3.7510-3Y+1.510-3 BR
>55-160
>160-3500
810-3Y+3.210-3 BR
for further study
10-4Y+410-5BR
10-5Y+410-6BR
Table 16: Quality objectives for intermediate countries (L > 1 000 km).
The values are expressed as ratios.
4.4.3.3
Terminating countries: Lmin L 500 km

Bit rate ( Mbit/s)
>5-15
>15-55
1.5-5
ESR
SESR
BBER
210-3(1+BR) Y
2.510-3(1+BR) Y
>55-160
>160-3500
-3
3.7510 (1+BR) Y) 810 (1+BR) Y for further study
10-4(1+BR) Y
10-5(1+BR) Y
-3
Table 17: Quality objectives for terminating countries (Lmin L 500

km). The values are expressed as ratios.
4.4.3.4
Terminating countries: L > 500 km

Bit rate ( Mbit/s)
>5-15
>15-55
1.5-5
ESR
SESR
BBER
210-3Y+410-4 BR
2.510-3Y+510-4 BR
3.7510-3Y+7.510-4 BR
>55-160
>160-3500
810-3Y+1.610-3 BR
for further study
10-4Y+210-5BR
10-5Y+210-6BR
Table 18: Quality objectives for terminating countries (L > 500 km).
The values are expressed as ratios.
4.4.4
Notes
This recommendation should not be applied to connections, which

operate below the primary rate using equipment designed prior to
the adoption of Recommendation ITU-T G.826 in December 2002.
Connections employing equipment designed before this date should
employ the objectives given in Recommendation ITU-T G.821 for
quality events and objectives.
The quality and unavailability objectives for the all portions in the
HRP are to be accomplished concurrently.

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31
4.4.5
Block allocation is to be used in the access and short haul portions,

while in the long haul portion it is a combination block allocation
and length-related allocation.
The total apportionment to the national portion (17.5%, or 0.175 if

expressed as ratio) shall not be exceeded in any circumstance.
The quality objectives are applicable for digital paths at or above

the primary rate that may be based on PDH and SDH traffic.

consecutive days.

independently.

As in Recommendation ITU-T G.821, the Recommendation ITU-T
G.826 does not define unavailability objectives, nor in the national nor
in the international portion of the HRP. The allocation of unavailability
in the national and international portion of the HRP is accomplished by
Recommendation ITU-T G.827, see section 5.
Objective allocation based on ITU-T Rec. G.827

The purpose of this recommendation is to specify the availability
parameters and objectives for end-to-end international constant bit-rate
digital paths operating at or above the primary rate of the digital
hierarchy.
ITU-T G.827
Unavailability objectives (Path type b)
ITU-R F.1493
ITU-R F.1493 ! for national portion of the HRP

ITU-R F.1492 ! for international portion of the HRP
Figure 18: Two ITU-R recommendations are derived from Rec. ITU-T
G.827.
5.1
Basic definitions
5.1.1
Applicability
The quality objectives are applicable to a single direction.
32
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
5.1.2
Path type b and reference path for allocation

Path type b is the network model defined in Recommendation ITU-T
G.827 and most applicable for allocation purposes. There are, however,
some similarities with the network model HRP defined by the ITU-T
G.826. For instance, the National Path Element (NPE) in ITU-T G.827
is similar to National Portion in ITU-T G.826. The number of classes
(5) inside the NPE is however different.
IB
FS
TIC
PEP
IB
Transit
country 1
Terminating
country
FS
IB
Terminating
country
FS
FS
TIC
PEP
CP
CP
NPE
IPCE
ICPCE
IPCE
ICPCE
National portion
NPE
IPCE
National portion
International path between customer premises

Type b
PEP= Path End Point
TIC= Terminal International Center
FS= Frontier Station
IB= International Border
ICPCE= Inter-Country Path Core Element

IPCE= International Path Core Element
NPE= National Path Element
CP= Customer Premises
Figure 19: The National Path Element in Rec. ITU-T G.827 is

equivalent to the national portion defined in Rec. ITU-T G.826.
The reference model for unavailability allocation presented in Rec.
ITU-R F.1493 is a mix between Rec. ITU-T G.827 and Rec. ITU-T
G.826; see Figure 20.
PEP
PAE
LE
Access
portion
NPCE
PC
SC
TC
Short haul
portion
TIC
Long haul
portion
National portion
PEP - Path End Point
IG - International Gateway
LE - Local Exchange
PAE - Path Access Element
TIC - Terminal International Center
NPCE - Path Access Element
PC/SC/TC - Primary/Secondary/Tertiary Center
Figure 20: The network model currently employed by the ITU-R for
objective allocation purposes.
5.1.3
Objectives allocation
Only unavailability objectives are defined.
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33
5.1.3.1
National portion
Section
Access
Short haul
Allocation
0.0005 for Lmax 250 km
0.0004 for Lmax 250 km
Lmin Llink< 250 km
250 km Llink< 2500 km
Long Haul [1.9 10-3 (Llink / LR) ]+1.110-4
3 10-3 (Llink / LR)
Reference length: LR = 2500 km; Lower limit: Lmin= 50 km

Table 19: Unavailability objectives for national portion. The values are
expressed as ratios. Note that for Lmin Llink< 250 km the allocation is
composed of two parts: block allowance (1.110-4) and distance
dependence 1.9 10-3(Llink/LR).
5.1.3.2
Length (km)
Lmin Llink 250
250< Llink 2500
2500 < Llink 7500
Llink > 7500
Allocation
[1.9 10 (Llink / LR) ]+1.110-4
[3 10-3 (Llink / LR) ]
[3 10-3 (Llink / LR) ]
For further study
Reference length: LR = 2500 km; Lower limit: Lmin = 50 km
-3
Table 20: Unavailability objectives for international portion. The values

are expressed as ratios.
5.1.4
34
Notes
Path type b are to be accomplished concurrently.


The unavailability objectives are applicable to digital paths at or

above the primary rate that may be based on PDH, SDH or other
transport network such as cell-based.

consecutive days.

independently.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
Objective allocation based on ITU-T G.828

Recommendation ITU-T G.828 is used for the quality design of SDH
paths that employ equipment designed as of or after its adoption in
March 2000. It is applicable for international constant bit-rate digital
paths operating at bit rates at and above the primary rate of the digital
hierarchy. However, for equipment designed prior to the adoption of
ITU-T G.826 in December 2002, this recommendation (ITU-T G.828)
is not required to be applicable for paths with equipment operating with
bit rates below the primary rate. In this case it is recommended to apply
The parameters and objectives in Rec. ITU-T G.828 are independent of
the physical transport network (digital radio links, metallic cables,
optical fibers and satellite transmission) and are intended to comply
with former ITU-T recommendations, that is, both ITU-T G.821 and
ITU-T G.826.
The following is valid for Recommendation ITU-T G.828:
ITU-T G.828-based paths can carry ATM traffic.
SDH paths meeting the objectives given by ITU-T G.828 will

enable ATM traffic to meet Recommendation ITU-T I.356.
The performance of multiplex and cross-connect functions

employing ATM techniques is not included in the objective values
ITU-T G.828
End-to-end quality objectives (HRP)
ITU-R F.1491-1
ITU-R F.1491-1 ! for national portion of the HRP

ITU-R F.1397-1 ! for international portion of the HRP
Figure 21: Two ITU-R recommendations are derived from Rec. ITU-T
G.828.
The network model employed for objective allocation of SDH traffic is
the Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP) defined in Recommendation
ITU-T G.826. Both national and international portions are used. The
end-to-end objective values follows the values given in
Recommendation ITU-T G.826, see 4.2.
The parameter definitions for digital paths operating at or above the
primary rate are block-based, thus making possible in-service
measurements.
6.1
Basic definitions
6.1.1
Applicability
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35
The quality objectives are applicable to each direction of the path

independently.
6.1.2
Reference network model

The reference network model is the HRP (Hypothetic Reference Path)
as defined in 4.1.2 with national and international portion. The national
portion is divided in three classes: access, short haul and long haul.
6.1.3

Available and unavailable time for one single direction is defined as in
4.1.3.
6.1.4

Available and unavailable time for a bi-directional path is defined as in
4.1.4.
6.1.5
Definition of block
A block is defined as in 4.1.5. The characteristics of the block for
different path types are illustrated in Table 21.
Bit rate
(Kbit/s)
1 664
2 240
6 848
48 960
150 336
601 344
2 405 376
9 621 504
Block size
(bits)
832
1 120
3 424
6 120
18 792
75 168
300 672
1 202 688
Path type
VC-11, TC-11
VC-12, TC-12
VC-2, TC-2
VC-3, TC-3
VC-4, TC-4
VC-4-4c, TC-4-4c
VC-4-16c, TC-4-16c
VC-4-64c, TC-4-64c
Block rate
(blocks/s)
2 000
2 000
2 000
8 000
8 000
8 000
8 000
8 000
Table 21: Block size and block rate for different path types.
6.1.6
6.1.6.1
Errored Block (EB)

An Errored Block is defined as in 4.1.6.1.
6.1.6.2
Errored Second (ES)

An Errored Second is defined as in 4.1.6.2.
6.1.6.3

A Severely Errored Second is defined as in 4.1.6.3.
6.1.6.4

A Background Block Error is defined as in 4.1.6.4.
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
6.1.6.5
Severely Errored Period (SEP)

The Severely Errored Period is defined as a sequence of between 3 and
9 consecutive SES. The sequence is terminated by a second, which is
not a SES. A SEP event has therefore no significance over a time
interval of less than 3 seconds.
The SEP is not defined in Recommendation ITU-T G.826.
6.1.7
Quality parameters
The definition of quality objectives are based on the events defined
earlier. These events constitute the quality parameters and should only
be evaluated when the path is in the available state.
6.1.7.1

An Errored Second Ratio is defined as in 4.1.7.1.
6.1.7.2

A Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR is defined as in 4.1.7.2.
6.1.7.3

A Background Block Error Ratio is defined as in 4.1.7.3.
6.1.7.4
Severely Errored Period Intensity (SEPI)

The Severely Errored Period Intensity is defined as the number of SEP
events in available time, divided by the total available time in seconds.
Its unit is consequently s-1.
6.2

The end-to-end quality objectives are from Recommendation ITU-T
G.826 and given in Table 10.
6.2.1
National portion
The allocation of the end-to-end quality objectives in the national
portion is as given in 4.2.1.
6.2.2
The allocation of the end-to-end quality objectives in the international
portion is as given in 4.2.2.
6.3

The allocation of end-to-end unavailability in the HRP is not defined in
6.4

The basic portions of the HRP are discussed in 4.4.
6.4.1
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37
6.4.1.1
Access section
1 664
Bit rate ( Kbit/s)

2 240
6 848
(VC-11, TC11) (VC-12, TC12)
ESR
SESR
BBER
0.01C
0.002C
5C10-5
0.01C
0.002C
5C10-5
48 960
150 336
(VC-2, TC2)
(VC-3, TC3)
(VC-4, TC4)
0.01C
0.002C
5C10-5
0.02C
0.002C
5C10-5
0.04C
0.002C
1C10-4
Table 22: Quality objectives for access in the national portion of the
HRP. The values are expressed as ratios.
6.4.1.2
Short haul section

1 664
Bit rate ( Kbit/s)

2 240
6 848
(VC-11, TC11) (VC-12, TC12)
ESR
SESR
BBER
0.01B
0.002B
5B10-5
0.01B
0.002B
5B10-5
48 960
150 336
(VC-2, TC2)
(VC-3, TC3)
(VC-4, TC4)
0.01B
0.002B
5B10-5
0.02B
0.002B
5B10-5
0.04B
0.002B
1B10-4
Table 23: Quality objectives for short haul in the national portion of the
6.4.1.3
Long haul section

1 664
Bit rate ( Kbit/s)

2 240
6 848
(VC-11, TC11) (VC-12, TC12)
ESR
SESR
BBER
0.01A
0.002A
5A10-5
0.01A
0.002A
5A10-5
48 960
150 336
(VC-2, TC2)
(VC-3, TC3)
(VC-4, TC4)
0.01A
0.002A
5A10-5
0.02A
0.002A
5A10-5
0.04A
0.002A
1A10-4
Table 24: Quality objectives for long haul in the national portion of the
The parameter A in the table is calculated as follows:
L
A = ( A1 + 0.0002) link
100
for
50 km Llink 100 km
A = A1 + 2 10 5 Llink
for
Llinl > 100 km
(9)
(10)
where
A1= 0.015
38
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
Llink is the nearest 500-km value rounded up from Llink.
6.4.2
Allocation of quality objectives in the international

portion
6.4.2.1
Intermediate countries (Lmin Llink 1 000 km)
ESR
SESR
BBER
1 664
(VC-11, TC11)
510-4(1+ BR) Y
Bit rate ( Kbit/s)

2 240
6 848
(VC-12, TC12)
(VC-2, TC2)
510-4(1+ BR) Y 510-4(1+ BR) Y
10-4(1+ BR) Y
-6
2.510 (1+ BR) Y
48 960
(VC-3, TC3)
10-3(1+ BR) Y
150 336
(VC-4, TC4)
210-3(1+ BR) Y
510-6(1+ BR) Y
Table 25: Quality objectives for intermediate countries (Lmin Llink 1

000 km) in the international portion of the HRP. The values are
expressed as ratios.
For allocation of the quality objectives structured in following tables
consider:
L
Y = link
LR
Block allowance factor: BR (0<BR1)
(11)
The following values are employed: LR=2 500 km, Lmin= 50 km, and BR
= 1.
NOTE: if the path length (or the chain, if more than 1 path) is shorter
than 50 km, then Lmin is set to 50 km.
6.4.2.2
ESR
SESR
BBER
Intermediate countries (Llink > 1 000 km)
1 664
(VC-11, TC11)
510-4Y+210-4BR
Bit rate ( Kbit/s)

2 240
6 848
(VC-12, TC12)
(VC-2, TC2)
510-4Y+210-4BR 510-4Y+210-4BR
10-4Y+410-4BR
-6
2.510 Y+10-6BR
48 960
(VC-3, TC3)
10-3Y+410-4BR
150 336
(VC-4, TC4)
210-3Y+810-4BR
510-6Y+210-6BR
Table 26: Quality objectives for intermediate countries (Llink > 1 000
km) in the international portion of the HRP. The values are expressed
as ratios.
6.4.2.3
ESR
Terminating countries (Lmin Llink 500 km)
1 664
(VC-11, TC11)
510-4(1+ BR) Y
Bit rate ( Kbit/s)

2 240
6 848
(VC-12, TC12)
(VC-2, TC2)
510-4(1+ BR) Y
510-4(1+ BR) Y
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
48 960
(VC-3, TC3)
10-3(1+ BR) Y
150 336
(VC-4, TC4)
210-3(1+ BR) Y
39
10-4(1+ BR) Y
2.510 (1+ BR) Y
SESR
BBER
-6
510-6(1+ BR) Y
Table 27: Quality objectives for terminating countries (Lmin Llink 500
km) in the international portion of the HRP. The values are expressed
as ratios.
6.4.2.4
ESR
SESR
BBER
Terminating countries (Llink > 500 km)
1 664
(VC-11, TC11)
510-4Y+10-4BR
Bit rate ( Kbit/s)

2 240
6 848
48 960
(VC-12, TC12)
(VC-2, TC2)
(VC-3, TC3)
510-4Y+10-4BR 510-4Y+10-4BR 10-3Y+210-4BR
10-4Y+210-5BR
2.510-6Y+510-7BR
150 336
(VC-4, TC4)
210-3Y+410-4BR
510-6Y+10-6BR
Table 28: Quality objectives for terminating countries (Llink > 500 km)
in the international portion of the HRP. The values are expressed as
ratios.
6.4.3

As in Recommendation ITU-T G.821 and G.826, Recommendation
ITU-T G.828 does not define unavailability objectives, nor in the
national nor in the international portion of the HRP. The allocation of
unavailability in the national and international portion of the HRP is
accomplished according to Rec. ITU-T G.827, see section 5.
6.4.4
40
Notes
Quality objectives for SDH paths using equipment designed before

March 2000 shall follow the ITU-R objectives based on Rec. ITUT G.826.
HRP are to be accomplished concurrently.


The performance of multiplex and cross-connect functions

employing ATM technique is not included in the quality objectives
described above.

consecutive days.

independently.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
Allocation strategy
7.1
Mapping
It is remarkable that some of the new ITU-T recommendations
currently employed for objective allocation purposes are still referring
to old network scenarios. In order to apply the objective allocation
described in this chapter, a mapping of old ITU network definitions to
modern network scenario is illustrated in Figure 22.
MSC
BSC
OMC
RNC*
MGW*
BSC
RNC*
(MSC)
RBS
BTS
Node-B*
Access
Short haul
Long haul
National Portion
PEP
Access
RBS
BTS
Node-B*
PC
LE
Short haul
PC/SC/TC
BSC
RNC*
(MSC)
Long haul
MSC
BSC
OMC
RNC*
MGW*
TIC
MGW
POI
GMSC
National
Center
Regional
Center
Figure 22: Mapping between old ITU definitions with modern network
scenario. The symbol (*) means 3G-application.
In Figure 22 the following abbreviations are applied:
RBS = Radio Base Station (Ericsson standard)
BTS = Base Transceiver Station (ETSI Standard)
Node-B = Equivalent to RBS
PC = Point of Concentration
BSC = Base Station Controller
RNC = Radio Network Controller
MSC = Mobile Switching Center
OMC = Operational Maintenance Center
MGW = Media Gateway
POI = Point of Interconnect
GMSC = Gateway Mobile Switching Center
The PC and the POI can be considered as sites. The POI is commonly
connected to the PSTN. The RBS is an Ericsson standard while BTS
is an ETSI standard.
Leased lines might be present in the access portion, but not in the same
extension as in the short and long haul portions.
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41
7.2
Spare factor (Ericsson approach)

The ITU-R and the ITU-T do not provide any guidance concerning to
what extension the fraction of the objectives presented in the tables can
be directly portioned in the access, short haul and long haul sections of
the HRP. Since parts of a network can be extended in the future, a
spare fraction should be allowed along with the allocation of the
objectives presented in the tables. It is impossible, however, to provide
a general value for this parameter. The appropriate value for the spare
fraction has to be considered after careful analysis of the network. For
instance, spare fraction 0% means that the objectives presented in the
tables are fully allocated and nothing remains for future extensions.
Similarly, spare fraction equal to 20% means that 80% of the
objectives presented in the tables are allocated for the current network,
and 20% remains for future network expansion.
7.3
Allocation in parts of the network

For ITU-R recommendations based on G.826, G.827 and G.828, the
allocation shall be applied for individual arms (or path chains). Every
arm or path chain is assumed to converge into a higher order unity
(BSC, MSC or TIC) in the network, see Figure 23. Appropriate
objectives are then selected to fit different parts of the network, see
Figure 22. The spare factor is finally applied for obtaining the final
allocation values.
For ITU-R recommendations based on G.821, for instance when using
HRDS sections, the procedure is similar as that given in the previous
hint. In this case the length of the section (50 or 280 km) can be used as
reference for defining the appropriate values for objectives.
MSC
BSC
OMC
RNC*
MGW*
BSC
National
Center
RNC*
(MSC)
Long haul arm
Short haul arm

Access arm
RBS
BTS
Node-B*
RBS
BTS
Node-B*
MGW
POI
GMSC
BSC
RNC*
(MSC)
International
portion
RBS
BTS
Node-B*
Figure 23: Allocation in different portions of the network.

42
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
7.4
7.5
7.6
Fading versus quality and availability parameters
Rain and refraction-diffraction fading give UATR.
Multipath (flat and frequency selective) fading gives SESR and

ESR.
Frequency versus quality and availability parameters
Quality is normally the dimensioning aspect for lower frequencies

(roughly lower than 10 GHz).
Unavailability is normally the dimensioning aspect for higher

frequencies (roughly higher than 10 GHz).
Basically, there are four different manners to carry out allocation of
objectives: allocation per path, allocation per reference distance (km),
length-proportional allocation and block allocation. Figure 24 illustrates
a 40-km chain composed of three paths showing different degree of
accessibility (very difficult, easy and moderate). Unavailability
(UATR) is allocated according to HRDS, class 3 (reference distance =
50 km). The strategy is to accomplish the objective value as given by
the ITU-R (UATR=0.0005).
The only flexible alternative considering the accessibility of the 20km path is block allowance (the figures are assumed to be the most
reasonable for this specific setup). In fact, allocation in the HRDS, class
3, shall follow ITU-R recommendations, therefore performed as block
allowance.
During the tender phase of a project, however, terrain information and
other important details are normally not known. In this particular case
and if all paths of a chain are roughly comparable then the allocation
per path can be a reasonable approach.
Ericsson AB
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43
Very difficult
Easy
5 km
20 km
Moderate
15 km
Allocate UATR for HRDS, class 3 (50 km)
UATR = 0.00050
1. Per path
0.00017
0.00017
0.00017
? 0.00050
2. Per distance ( km)
0.00020
0.00005
0.00015
= 0.00040
3. Length-Proportional
0.00025
0.0000625 +
0.0001875
= 0.00050
4. Block allowance
0.00035
0.00005
0.00010
= 0.00050
Figure 24: Different alternatives for allocation of unavailability

objective in the HRDS, class 3.
The procedure is different for G.826-based allocation, as can be seen
Figure 25. There is no reference distance in the national portion of the
HRP, even in its sub-classes (access, short haul and long haul). The
strategy is to allocate a fraction of the objectives to the access arm,
thus leaving another fraction (spare factor) for future network
expansion. In Figure 25, 80% of the UATR-objective (0.0005) is used
for the arm while 20% (spare factor) is left for future network
expansion.
Very difficult
Easy
5 km
20 km
Moderate
15 km
Allocation of UATR in the access portion

of the national portion (HRP)
UATR = 0.0005
No reference path (no km!)

0.0005 allocates for the whole access arm
Objective x spare factor is left for the access arm
spare factor = 20% gives
UATR objective = 0.0005 0.8 = 0.0004
Figure 25: Different alternatives for allocation of unavailability

objectives in the HRP. The allocation is performed in the access part of
the national portion leaving a fraction for future network expansion.
44
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
7.7
Avoiding distance-based allocation

General aspects for not applying distance-based allocation are the
following:
7.8
Distance-based allocation in the access and short haul is not

supported by any ITU-R recommendation based on Rec. ITU-T
G.826, G.827 and G.828 (portions of the network model are not
length-defined).
Distance-based allocation distributes the objectives equally along a

radio link (chain of paths). This is not effective since difficult
paths normally require more objective apportionment than easy
paths.
Unavailability due to hardware failure is not length-related while

unavailability due to radiowave propagation (rain and refractiondiffraction fading) can be strongly length dependent.
If a portion of a network (for instance one HRDS section) is made

length-dependent for allocation purposes, incomplete sections will
leave unused objectives.
Final remarks
1) Networks that are better than good are a waste of money!
2) It is all about allocation of quality and availability objectives. The
rest is just planning a network...
Appendices
8.1
Summary of network models
8.1.1
HRX (based on ITU-T G.821)

27 500 km
1 250 km
Local
grade
8.1.2
Medium
grade
25 000 km
High
grade
1 250 km
Medium
grade
Local
grade
HRDS (based on ITU-T G.821 and ITU-R F.696-2)
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
45
27 500 km
1 250 km
Local
grade
Medium
grade
25 000 km
High
grade
1 250 km
HRX
Medium
grade
Local
grade
HRDS
50 and 280 km
Class 1 - 4
One or more repeaters may occur
8.1.3
46
HRDP (based on ITU-T G.821)
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
27 500 km
1 250 km
Local
grade
25 000 km
1 250 km
High
grade
Medium
grade
HRX
64 kbit/s
Local
grade
HRDP
2 500 km
Medium
grade
64 kbit/s
64 kbit/s
64 kbit/s
280 km sections
8.1.4
RDRL (based on ITU-T G.821)

27 500 km
1 250 km
Local
grade
Medium
grade
25 000 km
1 250 km
High
grade
HRX
Medium
grade
Local
grade
RDRL
280 km L 2 500 km
L = Path length
8.1.5
HRP (based on ITU-T G.826)
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
47
Terminating
country
IG
PEP
Intercountry
IG
IG
National
portion
IG
Terminating
country
IG
PEP
National
portion
27 500 km
8.1.6
HRP (based on ITU-T G.826 and ITU-R F.1491-1)

27 500 km
PEP
National
portion
IG
8.1.7
48
Short Haul
National
portion
LE = Local Exchange
PC = Primary Center
SC = Secondary Center
TC = Tertiary Center
PC
SC
TC
LE
Access
Long Haul
Path type b (based on ITU-T G.827)

Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
IB
FS
TIC
PEP
IB
Transit
country 1
Terminating
country
IB
Terminating
country
FS
FS
FS
TIC
PEP
CP
CP
NPE
IPCE
ICPCE
IPCE
ICPCE
National portion
NPE
IPCE
National portion
International path between customer premises

Type b
PEP= Path End Point
TIC= Terminal International Center
FS= Frontier Station
IB= International Border
8.1.8
ICPCE= Inter-Country Path Core Element

IPCE= International Path Core Element
NPE= National Path Element
CP= Customer Premises
Portion of the path type b (based on ITU-T G.827)
PEP
PAE
LE
Access
portion
NPCE
PC
SC
TC
Short haul
portion
TIC
Long haul
portion
National portion
PEP - Path End Point
IG - International Gateway
LE - Local Exchange
PAE - Path Access Element
TIC - Terminal International Center
NPCE - Path Access Element
PC/SC/TC - Primary/Secondary/Tertiary Center
8.2
Comparison of SESR
Assume equipment having block size of 2 000 bits/block and a block
rate of 1000 blocks/s. The number of transmitted/received bits during a
period of one second is the following:
1 000 blocks/s 2 000 bits/block = 2 106 bits/s
One SES contains at least 30% errored blocks, that is, 30% of 1 000
blocks yields a minimum of 300 errored blocks.
As a result of the fact that one errored block contains a minimum of
one bit error, then 300 errored blocks contain a minimum of 300 bit
errors. The bit-error ratio is therefore a minimum of
300
= 1.46 10 4
6
2.048 10
The comparison between G.821 and G.826 yields:
BER =
ITU-T G.821
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
SES
(12)
1.00 10-3
49
ITU-T G.826
1.46 10-4
SESR
The value of SESR is then about 7 times lower than the value of SES
provided that the above requirements are valid.
If 300 errored blocks contain more than 300 bit errors, e.g. 2 000 bit
errors, then BER= 10-3, which means that SESR and SES have the same
value.
Smaller block size also causes BER in Recommendation ITU-T G.826
to be comparable to BER in Recommendation ITU-T G.821. For
instance, a block size of 300 bits/block yields BER=10-3 if just one bit
error appears, thereby yielding the same value for both SESR and SES.
8.3
Quality and availability parameters versus fading

mechanisms
8.3.1
Fading occurrence
Figure 26 illustrates a fading occurrence. The received signal varies as a
function of time due to different types of fading mechanisms.
In this example, a simplified fading occurrence, the received signal
crosses the receivers threshold level for two different bit-error ratios,
10-6 and 10-3, and the errored events are registered as quality parameters
SESR and ESR.
POWER
Pr
BER=10-6 Ptr
3 dB
BER=10-3 Ptr
time<10 s
ESR
SESR
time>10 s
ESR
TIME
ESR
ESR
ESR
ATR
UATR
ATR
Figure 26: A simplified fading occurrence showing the received signal

varying as a function of time due to different types of fading
mechanisms.
The corresponding relationship between the quality and availability
parameters and the fading mechanisms is illustrated in Figure 27.
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY

PARAMETERS
UATR
ESR
SESR
FADING MECHANISMS
FADING EVENTS
RAIN
Slow fading
REFRACTION-DIFFRACTION
Slow fading
FLAT
MULTIPATH
PROPAGATION SELECTIVE
Rapid fading
HARDWARE FAILURE
Rapid fading
No fading
Figure 27: Correspondence between the quality and availability

parameters and the fading mechanisms.
The relationship between the quality and availability parameters and the
fading mechanisms is not described in any ITU recommendation or
report!
8.4
Calculation of the unavailability parameters - Rec. G.821
8.4.1
Unavailable time ratio (UATR)

UATR is the ratio of a measured period for which the bit-error ratio is
worse than 110-3 due to rain and refraction fading and hardware failure.
Unavailable time ratio is calculated as the probability P1 that BER

exceeds 10-3 due to rain and refraction-diffraction fading:
UATR = P1
(13)
Unavailability due to rain and refraction fading is obtained by using the
3-dB criterion, that is, assuming that the fade margin at the threshold,
BER = 10-3, is 3 dB greater than the fade margin used in the probability
calculation at the threshold for BER = 10-6.
Unavailability due to hardware failure causes interruption in the radio
connection and should therefore be included in the dimensioning of the
unavailable time.
8.4.2
Available time ratio (UATR)

ATR, expressed as a ratio, is calculated as
UATR = 1 UATR
Ericsson AB
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(14)
51
8.4.3
Severely errored second ratio (SESR)

SESR is the ratio of the total AT during a measured period for which
the bit-error ratio is worse than 110-3 due multipath propagation (flat
and frequency selective fading).
Severely errored second ratio is obtained by calculating the probability,

P2 that BER exceeds 10-3 due to multipath propagation (flat and
frequency selective fading).
SESR = P2
(15)
-3
The fade margin, at BER = 10 , is assumed to be 3 dB greater than that
at BER = 10-6.
8.4.4
Errored second ratio (ESR)

ESR is the ratio of the total AT in a measured period during which any
error occurs, regardless of the type of fading mechanism, but not
included in the unavailable time.
Seconds for which the BER is worse than 10-6 are included in both
available and unavailable time. Thus, error seconds are obtained as a
ratio, by calculating the probability, P3, that BER exceeds 10-6due to
multipath propagation (flat and frequency selective fading), rain and
refraction fading and then subtracting unavailable time, during which,
seconds having a BER worse than 10-3 are included, that is,
ESR = P3 - UATR
8.5
(16)
Planning for unavailable time

Unavailable time was discussed earlier and the conclusion was that its
primary constituents resulted from the occurrence of two fading
mechanisms (rain and refraction) and radio equipment failure. But other
eventual causes must be considered, such as,
8.6
Auxiliary equipment
Human activity
Interference
Power supplies
Some statistical evaluations

In what follows some statistical evaluations based on the fact that bit
errors that are considered independent can be approximated by a
statistical Gauss error distribution.
52
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6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
8.6.1

Lets estimate the probability of finding at least one bit error during
every studied second. This is the same as finding an errored second. For
this purpose, assume that during a studied period of time, a number of
similar and independent events n occur, where every event has the
probability of occurrence p. Then, the probability that at least one of the
events will occur is
P = 1 (1 p) n
(17)
An errored second (ES) is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the
total number of seconds in available time containing one or more bit
errors and the total number of seconds during the measured period. The
probability that at least one errored second will occur is therefore
PES = 1 (1 p ) n
(18)
The probability of finding a bit error among n bits can be expressed in

terms of the bit-error ratio (BER) and PES
PES = 1 (1 BER ) n
8.6.2
(19)
Application to a 64 kbit/s channel

The probability of finding at least one bit error (one errored second) in
a 64 kbit/s channel becomes
PES = 1 (1 BER ) 64000
(20)
-3
-8
For bit-error ratios in the range 10 to 10 , the probability of finding at

least one bit error (one errored second) is illustrated in Table 29.
Bit-error
ratio (BER)
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
PES
1
0.998
0.473
0.062
0.006
0.00064
Table 29: The probability of finding at least one bit error (one errored
second) for bit-error ratios in the range 10-3 to 10-8.
The probability of the occurrence of at least one errored second in a 64
kbit/s channel is negligible for BER higher (better than) 10-6.
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
53
8.6.3

Similarly to the application of the recommendation G.821, the
probability Pb of the occurrence of at least one errored block can be
expressed as
Pb = 1 (1 p ) m
(21)
where p is the probability of the occurrence of an errored block among

m blocks. Each block contains a number of bits and the occurrence of
one bit error will constitute a block error. The probability p of the
occurrence of an errored block among m blocks is obtained similarly to
the definition of BER.
One errored second (ES), for connections having constant bit rates
equal to or higher than the primary rate (2 Mbit/s), is defined as a
period of one second containing one or more errored blocks. In such
cases, the probability of the occurrence of one errored second can be
calculated as a function of the probability of the occurrence of an
errored block Pb,
PES = 1 (1 Pb ) n
(22)
where n is the number of blocks per time interval (one second).

The number of blocks per time interval n is the ratio between the
transmission capacity of the equipment C and the number of bits per
block (block size), m. For instance, for a capacity C = 2 Mbit/s (2106
bit/s) and block size m = 2000 bit/s gives n = 1000 block/s. This
relationship is expressed as
C
(23)
m
The probability of occurrence of one errored second is then obtained by
inserting expression (21) in (22) and employing (23), accordingly
n=
PES = 1 (1 p ) nm = 1 (1 BER ) C
8.6.4
(24)
Application at different capacities

The probability of occurrence of at least one errored second is
illustrated in Table 30 for different transmission capacities and bit-error
ratios.
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Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003
BER
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
Transmission capacity
(Mbit/s)
2
8
34
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.8647 0.9997
1
0.1813 0.5507
0.9666
0.0198 0.0769
0.2882
Table 30: The probability of the occurrence of at least one errored

second for different transmission capacities and bit-error ratios.
The table clearly shows that the probability of the occurrence of at least
one errored second is close to 100 % at high transmission capacities,
irrespective of the size of the bit-error ratio.
8.6.5
Critical bit errors

The probability Pb of the occurrence of one errored block is obtained by
expression (21)
Pb = 1 (1 p ) m = 1 (1 BER ) m
(25)
According to Recommendation ITU-T G.826, a severely errored second

is defined as one period (one second) containing 30% errored blocks,
that is, Pb 30 % or Pb 0.30. Then
(1 BER ) m < 0.70

Solving the above equation for BER, it is obtained
(26)
1
m
(27)
BER > 1 0.70
illustrates critical bit-error ratios for the recommended block sizes
given in recommendation ITU-T G.826, for equipment transmission
capacities in the range 1.5 to 55 Mbit/s.
8.6.6
Critical BER for SES evaluations

The critical bit-error ratio varies in the range of 210-4 to 210-5 for
block sizes ranging from 2 000 to 20 000 bits, respectively, which are
typical values for equipment having capacity in the range of 1.5 to 55
Mbit/s. The corresponding threshold difference is 1 dB (if the general
rule that gives 1 dB per decade is considered).
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev B, June 2003
55
For equipment in the range of 1.5 and 15 Mbit/s, the recommended

block sizes are in the range 2 000 and 8 000 bits, which is equivalent to
a critical BER in the range of 210-4 to 210-5, giving a threshold
difference of 0.4 dB. Thus, to arrive at a good approximation of SES,
the critical bit-error ratio may be set to 10-4 in SES calculations when
dealing with equipment having transmission capacities in the range 1.5
to 15 Mbit/s. This approximation may be considered acceptable for
equipment with higher transmission capacities than 15 Mbit/s.
The calculation of SES is, in fact, the calculation of the probability of a
signal fading beneath the threshold level at BER=10-4 due to the
occurrence of multipath fading (flat and frequency selective).
The calculation of the critical BER for an arbitrary C can be performed
as follows
4
10 4
C
where C is given in Mbit/s.
BER =
56
(28)
Ericsson AB
6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev B, June 2003

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QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY

Quality and availability predictions

HRDS (based on ITU-T G.821 and ITU-R F.696-2)

QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES

Quality and availability predictions

Quality and availability objectives

Why and at what price?

Quality and availability allocation for parts of a microwave network is

RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING

Digital transmission network models

Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX)

Figure 1: The Hypothetical Reference Connection and its portions.

QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES

Local-grade networks are defined as those operating between the

Medium-grade circuits are those operating between local

High-grade circuits are long-haul links, for example, satellite

Figure 2: Possible geographical location of grades.

Other digital transmission network models

RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING

Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS) is employed by the

Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP)

First-order digital multiplexer

Figure 3: The Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP).

Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS)

QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES

Figure 4: The Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS).

Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP)

Figure 5: The Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP).

Objective allocation based on Rec. ITU-T G.821

RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING

End-to-end quality objectives (HRX)

Figure 6: ITU-R recommendations derived from Rec. ITU-T G.821 and

Expressing the quality objectives

Bit-error ratio and time intervals

QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES

BER > 1 10-3 during T0 = 1 second

Zero bit errors under T0 = 1 second, which is equivalent to the

Available and unavailable time single direction

Available and unavailable time bi-direction path

Expressing available and unavailable time

Definitions of events occurring during available time

Available and unavailable time - example

RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING

Consider a measured period of 1 month divided into one-second

Unavailable Unavailable Unavailable

Figure 7: Available and unavailable time.

BER at bit rate 64 kbit/s

SES and UAT

Definition of quality parameters

3.1.14.1 Errored second ratio

3.1.14.2 Severely errored second ratio

QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES

3.1.14.3 Quality and availability parameters

PARAMETERS UNDER AVAILABLE TIME

10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100

Figure 8: Parameters under available and unavailable time.

Quality allocation in the HRX

Table 1: Quality parameters and end-to-end objective allocation.

RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING

Allocation of errored seconds and severely errored

Table 2: Objective allocation for the three circuit classes.

Figure 9: The end-to-end allocation of quality in the HRX network

The derivation of the quality parameters values