69

ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY-1

VIVA-VOCE

OBJECT - To make a paper scale of given least

count (0.2 cm).

Q.1

Why is a slide callipers called a Vernier

Callipers?

APPARATUS - A thick white paper sheet, a half

metre rod.

Ans.

Because it was first designed by a French

mathematician, Pierre Vernier.

THEORY - Since, last count = 1 M.S.D. 1 V.S.D.

Q.2

What is the principle of a vernier scale?

We must have, 1 M.S.D. 1 V.S.D. = 0.2 cm

Ans.

The number of vernier scale divisions

coinciding with main scale divisions should
either be one less or one more.

Q.3

Define vernier constant.

Ans.

It is the difference between value of one main

scale division and one vernier scale division
of a vernier callipers.

Q.4

Define least count of a measuring instrument.

Ans.

It is the least quantity that the instrument can

measure accurately. (For a vernier callipers, its
least count is equal to vernier constant).

Q.5

Give least counts of a metre rod, vernier

callipers, screw gauge and a spherometer.

Ans.

Metre rod (1mm), vernier callipers (0.1mm),

screw gauge and spherometer (0.01mm).

PROCEDURE

Q.6

What is a zero error ?

1.

On the available thick white paper sheet, draw

main scale M of length 10 cm. Divided into
10 equal part. It makes 1 M.S.D. = 1.0cm.

Ans.

2.

By the lower edge of the main scale draw

vernier scale V having 5 divisions which
coincide with 4 divisions of main scale.

It is the error in the vernier callipers, if the

zeros of the main scale and vernier scale do
not coincide when the jaws (A and B) are in
contact.

Q.7

How does zero error arise in the instrument?

Ans.

It arises due to wear and tear of the instrument

caused by its long use.

Q.8

When zero error is positive and when

negative?

Ans.

Zero error is positive when vernier zero is to

the right of main scale zero and negative if it
is to the left.

Q.9

How is zero error applied?

Ans.

Zero error is a algebraically subtracted from

the observed reading.

For this we make

1 M.S.D. = 1.0 cm, 1 V.S.D. = 0.8cm
So that

5 V.S.D. = 4 M.S.D.

Vernier scale-least count 0.2 cm.

The scale reads 5.6 cm.

Use. The object whose length is to be measured

is clampet between the jaws of the main scale
and vernier scale (as usual)
In the situation shown in Fig. 2.15.
Main scale reading (M) = 5.0 cm.
Vernier division coinciding (n) =3.
Vernier scale value, n (V.S.) = 3 0.2cm =
0.6 cm.
Total reading l = 5.0 + 5.6cm.

70

Q.10 What is zero correction? How is it applied?

Ans.

Negative of zero error is zero correction. It is

algebraically added to the observed reading.

depth of a vessel.
Q.13 Can we measure thickness of a piece of paper
by vernier callipers?

Q.11 What is the utility of vernier scale?

Ans.

Ans.

Q.14 What is the least count of your laboratory

vernier callipers?

It increases the accuracy of measurement.

Q.12 What other measurement can be made by a

vernier callipers?
Ans.

The callipers jaws C and D are used for

measuring internal diameter of hollow cylinder
or calorimeter.
The thin metallic strip E attached to the back
side of the main scale is used for measuring

Ans.

No.

The least count is 0.01 cm.

Q.15 What is an angular vernier?

Ans.

An angular vernier is used for measuring

fraction of a degree of an angle. It is provided
in sextants and spectrometers, which measure
angular displacements.

71

ACTIVITY 2
OBJECT- To determine the mass of a given body
using a metre balance.

so adjusted that the metre scale becomes horizontal

again.

APPARATUS - A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge

with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of unknown
mass.

Position of thread of the loops and the amount of

weights in the pan are noted.

THEORY - Like a physical balance, a metre scale

can be used as a beam balance making use of the
same principle of moments.
Besides it has adjustable power arm and weight arm
whose length can be adjusted.

Mass of the body is calculated using following theory.

Theory : If m and M be the mass of the body and
mass of the weight used and a1 and a2 be the distances
of their loops from wedge. Then, power (mass) arm =
a1, weight arm = a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2

Diagram :
or

m=

Ma 2
a1

Two different methods,

Arm lengths fixed and equal, weight adjustable.

Metre-scale balance power and weight

arms of equal length

The thread loops are suspended at position forming

both arm of equal length weights in the paper pan are
adjusted till the metre scale becomes horizontal fig.
In this case

a1 = a2 = a

Hence,

mga1 = Mga2

or

m=M

A physical balance makes use of this method.

Masses and power arm fixed, weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1.
Metre-scale balance power and weight
arms of unequal length
Construction (Arrangement) : The metre scale is
balanced by putting its 50 cm mark over the sharp
edge of a heavy broad wedge which works as fulcrum.
In this position the weigth of the metre scale and
reaction of the wedge balance each other.
Working : The body is tied to a strong and light
thred loop and suspended on the left of the wedge on
some fixed mark. (Say 20 cm in diagram).
A light paper pan is suspended by a strong and light
thread on the right. Weights are put on the pan. The
position of the loop of the pan and weight in it are

Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight

loop thread in and out till the metre scale becomes
horizontal fig.
In this case a1 = a, a2 = A
Hence

mg a1 = Mg a2, becomes mg a = Mg A

or

m=M

A
a

PROCEDURE
(i)

First method.

1.

Arrange the metre scale horizontally by

supporting it at the sharp edge of the broad
heavy wedge at 50 cm mark.

72

2.

Suspend the body of unknown mass by a loop

thread at a fixed mark on the left of the
wedge.

3.

Suspend paper pan at same distance on the

right of the wedge with some weights in it.

4.

Adjust the weights till the metre scale becomes

horizontal.

5.

Note the mass of the weights in the pan.

6.

Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing

the length of the arms in equal steps keeping
the lengths equal.

7.

Record the observations as given below in

table.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

S.No.

4.

Adjust the distance of the paper pan till the

metre scale becomes horizontal.
5.
Note the position of the paper pan and thus
length of the weight arm.
6.
Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing
the mass of the weights by equal amount.
7.
Record the observations as given below in
table.
RESULT
The unknown mass of the body, m= .....g.
PRECUATIONS
1.
The wedge should be broad and heavy with
sharp edge.
2.
Metre scale should have uniform mass
distribution.

Length of weight
(or power) arm
a (cm)

Mass of Weight in the

paper pan
M(g)

Unknown mass
m(g)

30
35
40

M1 = ............
M2 =............
M3 =............

m1 = M1 =............
m2 = M2 =............
m3 = M3 =............

1.
2.
3.

m1 + m 2 + m 3
g = ..... g
3

Mean mass,

m=

It will be found that

M1 = M2 = M3 = m is all cases.

RESULT

3.

The unknown mass of the body, m=...g.

(ii)

Second method

1.

2, Step 1 and 2 of first method.

3.

Suspend the paper pan on the right of the

wedge with some known weight in it.

Threads used for loops should be thin, light

and strong.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1.
The edge may not be sharp.
2.
Metre scale may have faulty calibration.
3.
The threads used for loops may be thick and
heavy.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Fixed length of power arm = a
S.No.

Mass of weight
In the paper pan
M (g)

Length of the
Weight arm
A(cm)

1.

20

A1 = ........

m1 =

M1A1
a

2.

25

A2 = ........

m2 =

M2A2
a

3.

30

A3 = ........

m3 =

M 3A 3
a

Mean mass,

m=

It will be found that

m1 = m2 = m3 = m in all cases.

m1 + m 2 + m 3
g = ..... g
3

Unknown mass
m(g)

73

ACTIVITY 3
OBJECT - To study the variation in the range of
a jet of water with the angle of projection.
APPARATUS - A plyboard protector with radius of
about 30 cm and making 0 and 90 with an interval
of 15 each, a 10 metre long measuring tap, A constant
level reservior under pressure ( a tap connected to a
tank or water supply line), a water pipe with a metallic
nozzle (narrow opening).
THEORY - The horizontal distances between point
of projection and point of return, covered by the jet
during its flight, is called its horizontal range. It is
represented by the symbol R.
If the water jet leaves the nozzle with a velocity U
and an angle with horizontal, then the horizontal
U 2 sin 2
range (or range) R =
g

2.

Connect a water pipe with the tap of the

reservior and insert a metallic nozzle in the
other end of the pipe held in hand.

3.

Open the water tap and check that there is no

leakage of water (remove if it is there).

4.

Fix the protector in a slot in a horizontal base

to make its plane vertical and graduated surface
towards yourself.

5.

Place the nozzle at the centre O of the

protector and make the jet pass through 15
making on it.

6.

The jet moves along a parabola and falls back

on the slab at some distance.

7.

Set the water tap such that the distance is few

meters.

8.

Ask your laboratory bearer to make a mark B1

on the slab where the jet falls.

9.

Change the angle to 30, 45, 600 and 75 and

repeat step 8 to get marks B2, B3, B4 and B5.

Diagram
Protactor
Water jet
A

(Do not change setting of water tap, otherwise

it will change velocity U of the jet)

B
Nozzle
Water pipe

Horizontal
slab or table

10.

Measure distances OB1, OB2, OB3, OB4 and

OB5 by the measuring tap. These distances
give range R for different angles (and same
velocity).

11.

Record your observations in the table as given

below:

Range of a water jet

PROCEDURE (Stepwise)
1.

Arrange a constant level water reservior at one

end of a horizontal slab of the laboratory.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of measuring tap = 2 cm.
Table for angle and range.
Serial No.
(1)

Angle of projection of water

jet (degree)
(2)

Range of water
jet R(cm)
(3)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

15
30
45
60
75

OB1 =
OB2 =
OB3 =
OB4 =
OB5 =

74

CALCULATIONS - Plot a graph between angle

(column 2) and range R (column 3) taking along
X-axis and R along Y-axis. The graph comes as shown
in Fig. 10.16.
Graph between angle of inclination and range
Scale:
X-axis : 1 cm = 7.5 of
Y-axis : 1 cm = 2 m or R

motion is force of gravity.

Q.2

What is a trajectory?

Ans.

The path followed by a projectile, is called its

trajectory.

Q.3

What is a projectile motion?

Ans.

The motion of a projectile is called projectile

motion.

Q.4

What is the shape of trajectory of a

projectile?

Ans.

It is a parabola.

Q.5

Define time of flight.

Ans.

The time for which a body remains in motion

(from point of projection to point of return),
is called time of flight of the body. It is
represented by the symbol T.

RESULT - From graph, we find the following two

results:

Q.6

Give expression for time of flight.

1.

Range is same for two complimentary angles

(i.e., 15 and 75 or 30 and 60)

Ans.

The expression is, T =

2.

Range is maximum for angle of projection of

45

Q.7

Define horizontal range.

Ans.

The horizontal distance between point of

projection and point of return, covered by a
body during its flight, is called horizontal
range of the body. It is represented by the
symbol R.

Q.8

Give expression for horizontal range.

Ans.

The expression is, H =

Q.9

For what angle of projection, the range is

maximum?

Ans.

The range is maximum for angle of projection

of 45

Fig. 10.16 : Graph between angle of

inclination and range.

PRECAUTIONS (to be taken)

1.

Water level in reservior should remain constant

to keep velocity of projection constant.

2.

Jet should be thin to get a sharp point of

return.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1.
2.

Velocity of water jet may change during

experiment.
Point of return may not be sharp.

VIVA VOCE
Q.1

What is a projectile ?

Ans.

Projectile is the name given to a body moving

in space by itself, without being propelled by
any agent. The only force which affects its

2U sin
g

U2 sin 2
g

Q.10 How are the two angles of projection for

same range, related with each other?
Ans.

The angles are complimentary i.e., their sum

is 90.

75

ACTIVITY 4
OBJECT - To study the conservation of energy of
a ball rolling down on an inclined plane, using a
double inclined plane (track).
APPARATUS - A double inclined plane (track), a
steel ball of diameter about 20 cm, two wooden blocks
(2.5 cm length), two weights of one kg. each. Stop
clock/watch, plumb line, metre scale.
THEORY - A body (ball) at rest at the top of an
inclined track has only potential energy and zero
kinetic energy. When the body rolls down the track,
its potential energy decreases and kinetic energy
increases. At the bottom of the track, energy is all
kinetic and zero potential energy.
If the same hall rolls up the second inclined track, its
kinetic energy decreases and potential energy
increases. When the ball stops somewhere near the
top of the second inclined track, it has only potential
energy and zero kinetic energy.
The ball will roll back from this second track and
this will continue.
In the absence of any friction in the track, the sum
of the kinetic and the potential energy of the ball
will remain constant (conserved) throughout.

Double inclined track (plane)

top and make it stable by putting weights on

its wings.
3.
Insert the wooden block under each track to
make it inclined. The angle of inclination of
the two tracks may not be equal.
4.
Take the steel ball and put it on mark D on
inclined track I and leave it gently.
5.
Note the position of mark C on inclined plane
II upto which the ball rises.
6.
Measure the vertical heights DF and CE using
a plumb line and metre scale.
7.
Change the angles or position of mark D and
repeat 4, 5, 6 three more times.
8.
Record observations in a table as given below.
CALCULATION - Column 4 shows that the initial
and the final vertical heights are the same within
limits of the experimental error.
RESULT - From above, it is clear that the body
(rolling ball) has same initial and final potential
energy, though the energy changes into kinetic energy
during rolling motion of the ball. In other words, the
sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy
of the ball is constant within the limits of the
experimental error. This shows that the energy is
being transferred from potential to kinetic and vice
versa. It is neither being created nor destroyed. This
verifies the law of conservation of energy.
PRECAUTIONS
1.
Inclined tracks should be cleaned by cotton,
moistened in benzene.
2.
Both tracks should be in same vertical plane.
3.
Distance (AB) should be negligible as

OBSERVATIONS
Serial No.
(1)

Position of mark
D on track I
C on track II
(2a)
(2b)

Vertical height
DF
CE
(3a)
(3b)

Difference
DF-CE
(4)

1.
2.
3.
4.
PROCEDURE
1.
Set the laboratory table with its top horizontal
as tested by a spirit level.
2.
Keep the double inclined track on the table

compared to distance moved by the ball along

the track.
SOURCES OF ERROR - Plane may not be
frictionless.

76

ACTIVITY 5
Aim : To study dissipation of energy of a simple
pendulum by plotting a graph between square of
amplitude and time.
Apparatus : A metallic bob provided with a hook, a
piece of thread about 1.5 m long, a clamp stand, a
split cork, a stop watch, a transparent metre scale,
two blocks to hold the metre scale horizontally and
a piece of chalk.
Theory : A particle executing simple harmonic
motion possesses potential energy (U) on account of
its displacement from the mean position and kinetic
energy (T) on account of the motion it possesses. If
loss of energy in overcoming the frictional force is
neglected, them total energy at any instant (the sum
of these two types of energies) always remains
constant.
Potential energy : The acceleration in a simple
harmonic motions is proportional to the displacement
and is directed towards the mean position i.e.

Kinetic energy : If v is the velocity of the particle

executing simple harmonic motion, when its
displacement is y, then kinetic energy T of the particle
is given by
T=

1
m v2
2

Now, v =

r2 y2 ,

where r is the amplitude of the simple harmonic

motion.
Therefore,

T=

E=U+T=

a = y

F = m2y
If the particle undergoes a further infinitesimally small
displacement dy, the small work done against the
restoring force is given by
2y dy .....

dW = (F) dy = m

W=

m 2 ydy = m 2
o

y2 1
= m 2y 2
2
2

1
m r22
2

.... (4)

E=

1 2
mr (2v)2
2

E = 22 m r2v2

.... (5)

Thus, we find that the total energy of a particle

executing simple harmonic motion is always constant
(as it does not depend on displacement y) and is

(ii) directly proportional to the square of the frequency

v of the S.H.M. and

This work done is equal to the potential energy U of

the particle at displacement y i.e.
1
m2y2
2

E=

(i) directly proportional to the mass m of the particle,

U=

1
1
m 2y2 +
m 2 (r2 y2)
2
2

If v is the frequency of the vibrating particle, then

= 2v and we have

or

Therefore,

(1)

Hence, the total work done for displacing the particle

through y can be obtained by integrating R.H.S. of
the equation (1) between y = 0 to y = y, i.e.

...... (3)

Therefore, total energy E of the particle, when its

displacement is y, is given by

Let m be the mass of the particle executing simple

harmonic motion. Then, the restoring force acting on
the particle is given by

1
m 2 (r2 y2)
2

..... (2)

(iii) directly proportional to the square of the

amplitude r of the S.H.M.

77

Dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum

When a simple pendulum is made to oscillate, it
executes simple harmonic motion. The total energy
(E) of the bob of the pendulum remains constant
during its oscillatory motion. However, on account
of viscous drag due to air, the amplitude of the motion

vibrates, its energy goes on decreasing due to viscous

drag of air.
Formula used. The total energy of the bob of a
simple pendulum executing simple harmonic motion,
E = 22m r2v2,
Where the letters have their usual meanings.
Procedure :

Fig. 15.03 (a)

1.

Find the least count of the stop watch.

2.

Tie one end of the thread to the hook of the

bob. Pass the thread between the two halves of
the cork and clamp the cork in the clamp
stand.

3.

Adjust the height of the clamp stand, so that

the length of the pendulum is about 1 m and
the metallic bob suspends just above the
ground.

4.

Mark two straight lines perpendicular to each

other on the ground, so that one line is parallel
to the direction of the swing of the bob and
their point of intersection lies just below the
equilibrium position of the bob.

5.

Hold a transparent metre scale in front of the

metallic bob with the help of two blocks (or
clamp stands) as shown inFig. 15.03 (a).

6.

Displace the bob through a small angle (810) and release it. See that the bob moves
along the straight line.

7.

When the bob reaches the right extreme

position A, count zero and start the stop watch.
When the bob just reaches the extreme position
A again, count one and so on. Note the
amplitude of vibration of the bob and the
time with the help of a stop watch, when the
bob of the pendulum completes 10, 20, 30,
....vibrations. It will be found that with the
passage of time the amplitude of vibration
will go on decreasing, though slightly. Record
the observations in tabular form.

Fig. 15.03 (b)

goes on decreasing with time. Since total energy of
the bob of the pendulum is directly proportional to
square of the amplitude, the total energy of the bob
of the pendulum goes on decreasing with time, as the
pendulum executes oscillatory motion.
To study the dissipation of energy of a simple
pendulum, the experimental arrangement as shown
in fig. (a) is used. A transparent metre scale is held
before the vibrating pendulum.
As the bob of the pendulum reaches its right extreme
position A, its amplitude is noted. At the same time,
the stop-watch is started. After every five vibrations,
the amplitude of vibration of the bob and the time
elapsed is noted. If a graph is plotted between the
square of the amplitude (r2) of the bob and the time
(t) elapsed, the graph will be a straight line as shown
in fig. It follows that the emplitude of the bob goes
on decreasing with time. Hence, as the pendulum

Take care that split in the cork is at right

angle to the line along which the bob moves.
8.

Plot a graph between square of amplitude r2

(along X-axis) and the time t (along Y-axis). It
will be a straight line as shown in Fig. 15.03(b).

Result : As the amplitude of vibration of the bob of

78

Observations and calculations.

Least count of the stop watch = ....s
No.

The number of
vibrations completed

1.

10

2.

20

3.

30

4.

40

5.

50

6.

60

Amplitude of
vibration, r

Time,
t

Square of
amplitude, r2

the pendulum decreases with time, it follows that the

energy of the simple pendulum during its oscillatory
motion dissipates due to viscous drag of air.

6.

Precautions :

Sources of error :

1.

The amplitude of the vibrations should be

small.

1.

The point of suspension may not be rigid.

2.

2.

The bob should be suspended close to the

ground.

The amplitude of the vibrations may not be

small.

3.

There may be error in counting the number of

vibrations.

4.

There may be error in noting the amplitude of

the oscillatory motion of the pendulum.

5.

The time may not have been noted exactly at

the instant, the bob completes 10th, 20th,
30th,..... vibration.

3.

The string should be held firmly between the

two halves of the split cork.

4.

The motion of the bob should be along a

direction perpendicular to the split in the cork.

5.

The bob should move along reference line

without any jerky motion.

The amplitude of the vibrating pendulum and

the corresponding time should be noted
carefully.

79

ACTIVITY 6
OBJECT- To observe change of state and plot a
cooling curve for molten wax.
APPARATUS - Newtons law of cooling apparatus (a
thin-walled copper calorimeter suspended in a double
walled enclosure), two thermometers, clamp and stand,
stop clock/watch.
THEORY - (a) From Newtons law of cooling.

PROCEDURE
1.

Fill the space between double wall of the

enclosure with water and put the enclosure on
a laboratory table.

2.

Fill the calorimeter two-third with molten wax

to about 80C.

3.

Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure

along with a stirrer in it. Cover it with a
wooden lid having a hole in it.

4.

Suspend from clamp and stand, one

thermometer in enclosure water and the other
in calorimeter wax.

5.

Note least count of the thermometers.

6.

Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note, its

least count.

7.

Note temperature (o) of water in enclosure.

8.

Start stirring the wax in calorimeter to make

it cool uniformly.

9.

Just when calorimeter wax has some

convenient temperature reading (say 70C,
60C), note it and start the stop clock/watch.

10.

Continue stirring and note temperature after

every one minute. The temperature falls
quickly in the beginning.

11.

Note enclosure temperature after every five

minutes.

12.

When fall of temperature becomes slow, note

temperature at interval of two minutes. Stop
when fall of temperature becomes very slow.

13.

Record your observations as given below.

Rate of cooling Difference of temperature of body

and surroundings.
For a body of mass m, specific heat s temperature
kept in surrounding of temperature 0.
Rate of cooling,

d
dQ
= ms
dt
dt

Hence,

ms

or

d
( 0 )
dt

d
( 0 )
dt

As time increases, decreases, ( o) decreases,

hence rate of fall of temperature

d
must also decrease.
dt

(b) For change of state

When molten wax cools down to the ice point starts
converting into the solid state and its temperature
becomes constant and the graph of molten wax
becomes horizental and paralel to time axis.
Diagram

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of enclosure water thermometer
= .......C
Least count of calorimeter wax thermometer
= ......C
Least count of stop clock/watch
= .......s.
Newtons law of cooling apparatus.

80

Table for time and temperature

Serial No.
(1)

Time for
cooling t(s)
(2)

CALCULATIONS
1.

Plot a graph between time t (column 2) and

temperature (column 3), taking t along Xaxis and along Y-axis. The graph comes to
be as shown in Fig. It is called cooling curve
of the molten wax.

Graph between time (t) and temperature

()- cooling curve

Temperature of
water in calorimeter (C)
(3)

RESULT - (1) The temperature falls quickly in the

beginning and then slowly as difference of
temperature goes on decreasing.
(2) When wax converts in to solid state the
temperature does not change.
PRECAUTIONS
1.

Double-walled enclosure should be used to

maintain surrounding at a constant
temperature.

2.

Stirring should remain continuous for uniform

cooling.

81

ACTIVITY 7
OBJECT

have more length than the other rod.

(i)

To study the bending of a bimetallic strip on

heating and to find which of the two metals
has larger coefficient of linear expansion.

Diagram

(ii)

To observe and explain the effect of heating

on a bimetallic strip.

APPARATUS - A bimetallic strip (made of iron and

brass bars), a board with clamp screw on one side and
vertical scale on the other side, electric heating
arrangement, thermometer.
Short Description of a Bimetallic Strip
It is a strip made up of two bars of different metals
but same dimensions, put together lengthwise and
ripetted at their ends. The strip is straight at room
temperature.

Bending of a bimetallic strip.

PROCEDURE
1.

Clamp one end of the brass-iron bimetallic

strip, keeping brass bar on the lower side.

2.

Keep the strip horizontal resting on a vertical

support.

3.

Fix a vertical scale near the free end of the

bimetallic strip.

4.

Suspend a thermometer with its bulb touching

the strip in the middle.

5.

Note the initial temperature of the strip.

6.

Note the vertical scale division coinciding

with the upper edge of the strip.

7.

Heat the strip by passing electric current

through it. The thermometer will show a rise
of temperature.

8.

Watch the movement of the free end of the

strip. The strip bends upwards (towards iron
bar side) and position of upper edge of the
strip changes.

9.

Note the temperature after each rise of

temperature by 2C and also the position of
the upper edge at that temperature.

10.

Record your observations as given below.

Bimetallic strip
When the bimetallic strip is heated both bars expand
differently. Since they are ripetted at their ends, their
ends stay together. The bimetallic strip bends keeping
more expanding bar on its convex side. More is
heating, more is the bending.
In case of an iron-brass bimetallic strip, the bent strip
will have brass bar on its convex side.
THEORY - If L1 be the length of a rod (bar) at
temperature t1 C and L2 be the length at t2 C, then
L2 = L1 [1 + (t2 t1)]
Where is the coefficient of linear expansion of the
material of the rod (bar).
If two rods of different metals have same length L 1
at temperature t1 C, their length at higher temperature
t2 C will be different. The road of a metal having
more value of coefficient of linear expansion will

82

OBSERVATIONS
Room temperature

= 30C (say)

Least count of vertical scale

= 1 mm.

Table for temperature and vertical scale reading

Serial No.
of Obs.

Position of upper
edge of bimetallic
strip x (mm)
(3)

Amount of bending

(1)

Temperature of
bimetallic strip
t (C)
(2)

1.
2.
3.
4.

30C
32C
.........
50C

x1 =
x2 =
.......
x11 =

x1 x1 =
x2 x1 =
................
x11 x1 =

CALCULATIONS
1.

2.

Find the amount of bending by taking

difference of particular positionwith initial
position.
It is found that amount of bending increases
as temperature rises.

RESULT
(a)

upward (mm)
(4)

metals. It bends towards less expending

bar keeping more expanding bar in the
convex side.
PRECAUTIONS
1.

The two bars should be firmly ripetted near

their ends.

2.

Brass bear should be kept on the lower side.

1.

Bimetallic strip bends more and more

as its temperature rises.

3.

One end of the bimetallic strip should be screw

clamped.

2.

Since brass bar is on convex side and

iron bar on concave side of bent
bimetallic strip, brass bar expands more
than the iron bar. Hence brass has larger
linear expansion.

4.

Heating of whole bimetallic strip should be

uniform

1.

The repettes may be loosed.

The bimetallic strip, bends due to

unequal thermal expansion of its two

2.

Heating of strip may not be uniform.

(b)

SOURCES OF ERROR

83

ACTIVITY 8
OBJECT
(i)

To study the real and the apparent expansion

of a liquid.

(ii)

To note the change in level of liquid in a

container on heating and interpret the
observation.

APPARATUS - A round bottom glass flask with

volume graduations in the neck, liquid (having
boiling point above 100C), water bath, heating
arrangement, thermometer with hanging arrangement.
THEORY
1.

Real cubical expansion of a liquid = Apparent

cubical expansion of the liquid + Cubical
expansion of the vessel.

2.

r = a + g.

3.

Put the flask in water bath kept on a tripod

stand, under which some heating arrangement
(gas burner) is fitted.

4.

Suspend a thermometer in the liquid with its

bulb in the middle of the flask.

5.

Note and record least count of the thermometer.

6.

Note initial temperature (t1C) of the liquid.

7.

Start heating the liquid and keep your eye on

the mark A. You will find that liquid level
falls down.

8.

When water in water-bath starts boiling,

temperature of liquid inflask becomes steady
and liquid level falls to mark B.

9.

Note the liquid temperature (t2C) and position

of mark B. (Volume between marks A and B
gives cubical expansion of the glass flask).

10.

Continue heating the liquid through water

bath. Liquid level rises, because now liquid
starts expanding. The level reaches A and
continues moving up. The level becomes
steady at mark C.

11.

Note the position of mark C. (Volume between

B and C gives real cubical expansion of the
liquid).

12.

Record your observations as given below:

Diagram

OBSERVATONS

Real and apparent cubical expansion

of a liquid.
PROCEDURE
1.

Clean and dry the round bottom glass flask.

2.

Fill it with the experimental liquid upto a

known mark A (Fig.) to have a known volume
of liquid.

Least count of thermometer

=.....C

Initial (room) temperature of liquid (t1)

=....C

Final (bath)temperature liquid (t2)

=....C.

84

Table for position of marks

Serial

Position of mark
A
B
C
(ml)
(ml)
(ml)

(1)

(2a)

(2b)

Cubical expansion
of vessel
VAB (ml)

(2c)

CALCULATIONS - Difference of positions of

marks A and B gives cubical expansion (VAB) of
the vessel. It is recorded in column 3 of the table.
Find difference of positions of marks B and C. This
gives real cubical expansion (VBC) of the liquid.
Record it incolumn 4 of the table.
Find difference of positions of marks A and C. This
gives apparent cubical expansion of the liquid.
Record it in column 5 of the table.

(3)

2.

Real cubical expansion of the liquid is more

than the apparent cubical expansion. The
difference will be less if the vessel is made of
a material having very small coefficient of
cubical expansion.

Interpretation. The liquid level falls due to

initial thermal expansion of the container.

PRECAUTIONS
1.

Boiling point of liquid should be higher than

that of bath of bath liquid (water).

2.

Liquid heating should be uniform through a

bath.

3.

Observations should be taken when

temperature becomes steady.

RESULT
1.

Real cubical Apparent cubical

expansion of
expansion of
liquid (VBC)
liquid (VAC)
(Ml)
(ml)
(4)
(5)

SOURCES OF ERROR
1.

Heating of liquid may not be uniform.

2.

Temperature may not be steady.

85

ACTIVITY 9
OBJECT - To determine the surface tension of water
by capillary rise method.
APPARATUS - Three capillary tubes of different radii
and a tipped pointer clamped in a metallic plate with
a handle, travelling microscope, clamp and stand, a
fine motion adjustab le height stand, a flat bottom
open dish, clean water in a beaker, thermometer.
THEORY - Let a capillary tube be dipped in a liquid
which makes concave meniscus in the tube. Due to
surface tension, the tube molecules exert a force T on
the liquid molecules in the unit length of the circle
of contact of the liquid surface with the tube. This
force acts at an angle (angle of contact) with the
wall of the vessel Fig. Component T sin
perpendicular to the wall of the tube cancel for the
whole circle. Component T cos along the wall of
the tube gets added. For the tube of redius r, the
circle of contact has circumference 2r and the upward
force on all molecules becomes 2 r T cos .
It is this upward force that pulls the liquid upward in
the capillary tube. The liquid rises in the capillary
tube upto a height till the weight of the liquid risen
equals this force.
Let the liquid rise upto a height h (as measured for
the lower meniscus B) and let the meniscus ABC
have hemispherical shape fig.
Then, volume of the liquid risen upto lower meniscus
= p 2h.
Volume of liquid in meniscus above B Fig.
= Volume of cylinder of radius and height r Volume
of hemisphere of radius r = r2 . r

2
1 3
r
r3 =
3
3

Total volume of the liquid risen

= r2h +

1 3
r = r2 h
3

r
3

If liquid has a density .

r
Then, mass of liquid risen = r2 h + 3

and weight of the liuid risen = r2 h+

For equilibrium,
r
r2 h+ 3 g = 2r T cos

or

h+

r 2r T cos 2T cos
=
=
3
rg
r 2 g

or

h=

2T cos r

rg
3

1
, i.e., liquid rises
r
more in a capillary tube of small radius]

[From above we find that h

Also, T =

(h + r / 3)rg
2 cos

Measuring height h of liquid risen in capillary tube

and knowing other quantities, surface tension of
liquid (T), can be calculated.
[In practice,

T=

r
is neglected as compared to h, then
3

hr g
]
2 cos

Surface tension, T =
Water level rising in a glass capillary tube

r ( h + r 3 ) g
2 cos

86

PROCEDURE
(a) Setting the apparatus
1.

Place the adjustable height stand on the table

and make its base horizontal by levelling
screws.

2.

Take dirt and grease free water in an open dish

with flat bottom and put it on the top of the
stand.
Water meniscus through microscope.

Measurement of internal diameter

of capillary tube.

Measurement of surface
tension by capillary rise.
3.

Take three capillary tubes of different radii

(ranging from 0.05 mm to 0.15mm).

4.

Clean and dry them, clamp the capillary tubes

in a metallic plate in order of increasing radius.
Also clamp a pointer after third capillary tube.

5.

Clamp the horizontal handle of the metallic

plate in a vertical stand, so that the capillary
tubes and the pointer become vertical.

9.

Raise the microscope to a suitable height,

keeping its axis horizontal and pointed
towards the capillary tubes.

10.

Bring the microscope in front of first capillary

tube (which has maximum rise).

11.

Make the horizontal cross wife just touch the

central part of the concave meniscus (seen
convex in through microscope (Fig. 12.040.

12.

Note the reading of the position of the

microscope on the vertical scale.

13.

Now move the microscope horizontally and

bring it in front of the second capillary tube.

14.

Lower the microscope and repeat steps 11 and

12.

6.

So adjust the height of metallic plate that the

capillary tubes dip in water in open dish.

15.

Repeat steps 13 and 14 for third capillary

tube.

7.

Adjust the position of the pointer, such that

its tip just touches the water surface.

16.

Lower the stand so that pointer tip becomes

visible.

17.

Move the microscope horizontally and bring

it in front of the pointer.

18.

Lower the microscope and make the horizontal

cross wire touch the tip of the pointer. Repeat
step 12.

(b) Measurement of capillary rise

8.

Find the least count of the travelling

microscope for the horizontal and the vertical
scale. Record the same in the note-book.

87

Table for height of liquid rise

Serial
No. of
Capillary
tube
(1)

Reading of Meniscus
M.S.R.
V.S.R.
Total
N
n (L.C.)
Reading
(cm)
(cm)
N + n (L.C.)
h1 (cm)
(2a)
(2b)
(2c)

M.S.R.
N
(cm)
(3a)

Reading of Pointer Tip

V.S.R.
Total
n (L.C.)
Reading
(cm)
N + n (L.C.)
h2 (cm)
(3b)
(3c)

Height
h1 h2
= h (cm)

(4)

1.
2.
3.
(c)

Measurement of the internal diameter of the

capillary tube

19.

Place the first capillary tube horizontally on

the adjustable stand.

20.

21.

22.

23.

Move the microscope on horizontal scale and

make the vertical cross wire touch the inner
circle at C. Note microscope reading on
horizontal scale.

Focus the microscope on the end dipped in

water. A white circle (inner bore) surrounded
by a green circular strip (glass cross-section)
will be seen (Fig. 12.05).

24.

Move the microscope to the right to make the

vertical cross-wire touch the circle at D. Note
the reading (the difference gives the horizontal
inter diameter CD of the capillary tube).

Make horizontal cross-wire touch the inner

circle at A. Note microscope reading on
vertical scale.

25.

Repeat steps 19 to 24 for other two capillary

tubes.

26.

Note temperature of water in dish.

Raise the microscope to make the horizontal

cross-wire touch the circle at B. Note the
reading (the difference gives the vertical
internal diameter AB of the capillary tube).

27.

Record your observations as given below.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of travelling microscope (L.C.) = ....cm.

Table for internal diameter of the capillary tube

Serial
No. of
Capillary
tube

(1)

Microscope Reading for cross

Wire in Position
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)

(2a)

(2b)

(2c)

(2d)

Internal Diameter
Vertical
AB
(cm)

Horizontal
CD
(cm)

Mean
AB + CD
2
d (cm)

(3a)

(3b)

(3c)

1.
2.
3.

Temperature of water,

(t) = ........ C

Density of water at observed temperature,

= ........ gcm3

Angle of contact of water in glass,

= 8

i.e.,

Cos = 0.99027 taken as 1.

Internal
radii
d
2
= r (cm)
(4)

88

CALCULATIONS :

RESULT

From Formula,

The surface tension of water at tC = ..... dyes cm1.

T=

r ( h + r 3 ) g
2 cos

Put values of h (column 4- first table) and r (column

4- second table) for each capillary tube separately
and find the value of T (in dynes cm 1)
Find mean value,
T=

T1 + T2 + T3
3

PRECAUTIONS (to be taken)

1.

Capillary tube and water should be free from

grease.

2.

Capillary tube should be set vertical.

3.

Microscope should be moved in lower

direction only to avoid back lash error.

4.

Internal diameter of capillary tube should be

measured in two mutually perpendicular
directions.

5.

Temperature of water should be noted.

= ................ Dynes cm1.

T=

T1 + T2 + T3
3

= ........... dynes cm1.

SOURCES OF ERROR - Water and capillary tube

may not be free from grease.

89

ACTIVITY 10
Object : To study the factors affecting the rate of
loss of heat (rate of cooling) of a liquid.
Apparatus : Same as in Activity 6, plus calorimeters
of different materials, cross-section and nature of outer
surface (polished and back painted).
Theory : According to Newtons Law of cooling, rate
of cooling (i.e. heat lost per sec.) of a body is directly
proportional to the difference of temperature of the
body and the surrounding.
For same difference of temperature, rate of cooling
also depends upon:
(i)

Area of the surface of the body.

(ii)

Nature of the surface of the body.

(iii)

Material of the surface of the body (material

effects conductivity through walls of the body).

Diagram : Same as in Activity 6.

Procedure :
1.

Fill the space between double wall of the

enclosure with water and put the enclosure on
a laboratory table.

2.

Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated

to about 80C.

3.

Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure

along with a stirrer in it. Cover it with a
wooden lid having a hole in it.

4.

Suspend from clamp and stand, one

thermometer in enclosure water and the other
in calorimeter water.

least count.
7.

Note temperature (o) of water in enclosure.

8.

Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make

it cool uniformly.

9.

Just when calorimeter water has some

convenient temperature reading (say 70C,
60C), note it and start the stop clock/watch.

10.

Continue stirring and note temperature after

every one minute. The temperature falls
quickly in the beginning.

11.

Note enclosure water temperature after every

five minutes.

12.

When fall of temperature becomes slow, note

temperature at interval of two minutes. Stop
when fall of temperature becomes very slow.

Case 1. Take same volume of same liquid in

calorimeters of small and large cross-section (nature
and material of surface same).
Case 2. Take same volume of same liquid in
calorimeters having black painted and polished outer
surface (area and material of surface same).
Case 3. Take same volume of same liquid in
calorimeters of different materials (area and nature of
surface same).
Observations :
Least count of enclosure
water thermometer

= ..C
= ..C
= ..s

5.

Note least count of the thermometers.

Least count of calorimeter

water thermometer

6.

Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note, its

Least count of stop clock/watch

Table for time and temperature

Serial No.

(1)

Time for
cooling t(s)
(2)

Temperature of
water in calorimeter
(C)
(3)

Temperature of water Difference of

in enclosure
temperature
O (C)
O (C)
(4)
(5)

90

Calculations :
1.

Temperature of water in enclosure will be

found to remain same. If not then take its
mean as 0.

2.

Find temperature difference ( O) and record

it in column 5 of the table.

3.

Plot a graph between time t (column 2) and

temperature (column 3), taking t along Xaxis and along Y-axis. The graph comes to
be as shown in Fig. 17.02. It is called cooling
curve of the liquid.

Comparison of graphs

Cooling is slow from less surface area provided by

calorimeter of large cross-section.
Case 2. Cooling is fast from black painted surface
and slow from polished surface of the calorimeter.
Case 3. Cooling is fast from calorimeter having more
conducting material and slow from calorimeter having
less conducting material.
Result
Case 1. Rate of cooling depends upon the area of the
surface through which heat is lost. More area of
surface causes higher rate of cooling.
Case 2. Rate of cooling depends upon the nature of
the surface through which heat is lost. Black painted
surface causes higher rate of cooling.
Case 3. Rate of cooling depends upon the material
of the surface. More conducting surface causes higher
rate of cooling.
Precautions

Fig. 17.02
Case 1. Cooling is fast from more surface area
provided by calorimeter of small cross-section.

1.

Double-walled enclosure should be used to

maintain surrounding at a constant
temperature.

2.

Stirring should remain continuous for uniform

cooling.

3.

Same volume of same liquid should be taken

in all cases.

4.

Graphs of one case should be plotted on same

graph paper on same scale.