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Chapter 2
Zhong-Zhi Xianyu∗
Institute of Modern Physics and Center for High Energy Physics,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084
1 Classical electromagnetism
In this problem we do some simple calculation on classical electrodynamics. The
action without source term is given by:
∫
1
S=− d4 x Fµν F µν , with Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ . (1)
4
(a) Maxwell’s equations We now derive the equations of motion from the action.
Note that
∂Fµν ∂Fµν
= δµλ δνκ − δνλ δµκ , = 0.
∂(∂λ Aκ ) ∂Aλ
This is sometimes called the “second pair” Maxwell’s equations. The so-called “first
pair” comes directly from the definition of Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ , and reads
The familiar electric and magnetic field strengths can be written as E i = −F 0i and
ϵijk B k = −F ij , respectively. From this we deduce the Maxwell’s equations in terms of
E i and B i :
1
Notes by Zhong-Zhi Xianyu Solution to P&S, Chapter 2 (draft version)
δ µ Aν = ∂ µ Aν . (5)
Thus
∂L 1
T̃ µν = ∂ ν Aλ − η µν L = −F µλ ∂ ν Aλ + η µν Fλκ F λκ . (6)
∂(∂µ Aλ ) 4
Obviously, this tensor is not symmetric. However, we can add an additional term ∂λ K λµν
to T̃ µν with K λµν being antisymmetric to its first two indices. It’s easy to see that this
term does not affect the conservation of T̃ µν . Thus if we choose K λµν = F µλ Aν , then:
1 µν
T µν = T̃ µν + ∂λ K λµν = F µλ Fλ ν + η Fλκ F λκ . (7)
4
Now this tensor is symmetric. It is called the Belinfante tensor in literature. We can
also rewrite it in terms of E i and B i :
1 i i
T 00 = (E E + B i B i ), T i0 = T 0i = ϵijk E j B k , etc. (8)
2
L = ∂µ ϕ∗ ∂ µ ϕ − m2 ϕ∗ ϕ. (9)
∂L ∂L
π= = ϕ̇∗ , π̃ = = ϕ̇ = π ∗ . (10)
∂ ϕ̇ ∂ ϕ̇∗
The canonical commutation relations:
thus: ∫
d3 p 1 ( −ip·x )
ϕ∗ (x) = 3
√ bp e + a†p eip·x . (14)
(2π) 2Ep
2
Notes by Zhong-Zhi Xianyu Solution to P&S, Chapter 2 (draft version)
Note that the last term contributes an infinite constant. It is normally explained as the
vacuum energy. We simply drop it:
∫
( )
H = d3 x Ep a†p ap + b†p bp . (16)
√
Where we have used the mass-shell condition: Ep = m2 + p2 . Hence we at once find
two sets of particles with the same mass m.
(c) The theory is invariant under the global transformation: ϕ → eiθ ϕ, ϕ∗ → e−iθ ϕ∗ .
The corresponding conserved charge is:
∫
( )
Q = i d3 x ϕ∗ ϕ̇ − ϕ̇∗ ϕ . (17)
3
Notes by Zhong-Zhi Xianyu Solution to P&S, Chapter 2 (draft version)
We see that the particle a carries one unit of positive charge, and b carries one unit of
negative charge.
(d) Now we consider the case with two complex scalars of same mass. In this case the
Lagrangian is given by
4
Notes by Zhong-Zhi Xianyu Solution to P&S, Chapter 2 (draft version)
The overall sign is chosen such that the particle carry positive charge, as will be seen in
the following. Then the corresponding Nöther charges are given by
∫
( )
Q = − i d3 x Φ̇∗i Φi − Φ∗i Φ̇i ,
∫
i [ ]
Qa = − d3 x Φ̇∗i (τ a )ij Φj − Φ∗i (τ a )ij Φ̇j . (22)
2
Repeating the derivations above, we can also rewrite these charges in terms of creation
and annihilation operators, as
∫
d3 p ( † †
)
Q= aip aip − bip bip ,
(2π)3
∫
1 d3 p ( † a † a
)
Qa = aip τ ij aip − b ip τ ij b ip . (23)
2 (2π)3
The generalization to n-component complex scalar is straightforward. In this case
we only need to replace the generators τ a /2 of SU (2) group to the generators ta in the
fundamental representation with commutation relation [ta , tb ] = if abc tc .
Then we are ready to calculate the commutators among all these Nöther charges and
the Hamiltonian. Firstly we show that all charges of the U (N ) group commute with the
Hamiltonian. For the U (1) generator, we have
∫ [(
d3 p d3 q † † ) ( † † )]
[Q, H] = Eq a a
ip ip − b b
ip ip , a a
jq jq + b b
jq jq
(2π)3 (2π)3
∫ ( )
d3 p d3 q
= 3 3
Eq a†ip [aip , a†jq ]ajq + a†jq [a†ip , ajq ]aip + (a → b)
(2π) (2π)
∫ ( )
d3 p d3 q
= 3 3
Eq a†ip aiq − a†iq aip + (a → b) (2π)3 δ (3) (p − q)
(2π) (2π)
= 0. (24)
Similar calculation gives [Qa , H] = 0. Then we consider the commutation among internal
U (N ) charges:
∫
d3 p d3 q [( † a † a ) ( † b † b )]
[Qa , Qb ] = a t
ip ij ajp − b t
ip ij b jp , a t
kq kℓ aℓq − b t
kq kℓ b ℓq
(2π)3 (2π)3
∫ 3 3 ( )
d p d q † a b † b a
= a t t aℓq − a t t ajp + (a → b) (2π)3 δ (3) (p − q)
(2π)3 (2π)3 ip ij jℓ kq kℓ ℓj
∫
d3 p ( † c † c
)
= if abc a t ajp − b t b jp
(2π)3 ip ij ip ij
= if abc Qc , (25)
5
Notes by Zhong-Zhi Xianyu Solution to P&S, Chapter 2 (draft version)
Now:
∫ ∫
d3 p 1 −ip·(x−y) d3 p 1
D(x − y) = 3
e = 3
√ eip·(x−y)
(2π) 2Ep (2π) 2 m2 + p2
∫ 2π ∫ 1 ∫ ∞
1 p2
= dφ d cos θ dp √ eipr cos θ
(2π)3 0 −1 0 2 m2 + p2
∫ ∞
−i peipr
= 2
dp √ (28)
2(2π) r −∞ m2 + p 2
Now we make the path deformation on p-complex plane, as is shown in Figure 2.3 in
Peskin & Schroeder. Then the integral becomes
∫ ∞
1 ρe−ρr m
D(x − y) = dρ √ = K (mr).
2r 1
(29)
4π 2 r m ρ −m
2 2 4π