CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
What Is Meteorology?
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses
on weather processes and forecasting or its generally known as
the science of the atmosphere.
Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which
illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology. Those
events are bound by the variables that exist in Earth's
atmosphere. They are temperature, pressure, water vapor, and
the gradients and interactions of each variable, and how they
change in time. The majority of Earth's observed weather is
located in the troposphere.
Meteorologists are scientists who study meteorology. Although
meteorologists now rely heavily on computer models (numerical
weather prediction), it is still relatively common to use techniques
and conceptual models that were developed before computers
were powerful enough to make predictions accurately or
efficiently. The American Meteorological Society published and
continually updates an authoritative electronic Meteorology
Glossary. Meteorologists work in government agencies, private
consulting and research services, industrial enterprises, utilities,
radio and television stations, and in education.

1.1 DIVISION OF METEOROLOGY

Meteorology can be subdivided based on the method of approach
and application to human activities into a large number of
specialized sciences, this division includes,
a) On the basis of spatial scale
b) On the basis of metrological principles
c) On the basis of application

A) Meteorology Division Based On Spatial Scale

In the study of the atmosphere, meteorology can be divided
into distinct areas that depend on both time and spatial scales.
At one extreme of this scale is climatology. In the timescales of
hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-,
global and synoptic scale meteorology. Respectively,
the geospatial size of each of these three scales relates directly
with the appropriate timescale.
i)

Microscale

Microscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena

on a scale of about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) or less. Individual
thunderstorms, clouds, and local turbulence caused by buildings
and other obstacles (such as individual hills) are modeled on this
scale.
ii)

Mesoscale
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Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena

that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a
vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the
atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere, tropopause, and the
lower section of the stratosphere. Mesoscale timescales last from
less than a day to weeks. The events typically of interest are
thunderstorms, squall
lines, fronts, precipitation
bands in tropical and extratropical cyclones, and topographically
generated weather systems such as mountain waves and sea and
land breezes.

iii)

Synoptic scale

Synoptic scale meteorology predicts atmosperic changes at scales

up to 1000 km and 105 sec (28 days), in time and space. At the
synoptic scale, the Coriolis acceleration acting on moving air
masses (outside of the tropics), plays a dominant role in
predictions. The phenomena typically described by synoptic
meteorology include events such as extratropical cyclones,
baroclinic troughs and ridges, frontal zones, and to some
extent jet streams. All of these are typically given on weather
maps for a specific time. The minimum horizontal scale of
synoptic phenomena is limited to the spacing between surface
observation stations.
iv)

Global scale

Global scale meteorology is the study of weather patterns related

to the transport of heat from the tropics to the poles. Very large
scale oscillations are of importance at this scale. These
oscillations have time periods typically on the order of months,
such as the MaddenJulian oscillation, or years, such as the El
NioSouthern Oscillation and the Pacific decadal oscillation.
Global scale meteorology pushes into the range of climatology.
B) Division Based On The Meteorological Principles
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i)

Boundary layer meteorology

Boundary layer meteorology is the study of processes in the air

layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the atmospheric
boundary layer (ABL).The effects of the surface heating, cooling,
and friction cause turbulent mixing within the air layer.
Significant movement of heat, matter or momentum on time
scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent
motions. Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all
types of surfaceatmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake,
urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology.

ii)

Dynamic meteorology

This is meteorology which concerns itself with the forces

that create and maintain motion and the heat transformations
associated therewith. Within the field of dynamic meteorology,
distinction is often made between hydrodynamics which deals
with forces and motion and thermodynamics which deals with
heat. The word aerodynamics is usually reserved for the study
of the interaction between air currents and objects, such as
airfoils. Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the fluid
dynamics of the atmosphere. The idea of air parcel is used to
define the smallest element of the atmosphere, while ignoring
the discrete molecular and chemical nature of the atmosphere.
An air parcel is defined as a point in the fluid continuum of the
atmosphere. The fundamental laws of fluid dynamics,
thermodynamics, and motion are used to study the
atmosphere. The physical quantities that characterize the state
of the atmosphere are temperature, density, pressure, etc.
These variables have unique values in the continuum.

C) Division Based On The Application

i)

Aviation meteorology

Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on air

traffic management. It is important for air crews to understand
the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their
aircraft, as noted by the Aeronautical Information Manual
ii)

Agricultural meteorology

Meteorologists, soil
scientists,
agricultural
hydrologists,
and agronomists are persons concerned with studying the effects
of weather and climate on plant distribution, crop yield, water-use
efficiency, phenology of plant and animal development, and the
energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. Conversely,
they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and
weather.
iii)

Hydrometeorology

Hydrometeorology is the branch of meteorology that deals with

the hydrologic cycle, the water budget, and the rainfall statistics
of storms. A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of
accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow,
and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically
the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology,
mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.
iv) Nuclear meteorology
Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of radioactive
aerosols and gasses in the atmosphere

v)

Weather forecasting

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology

to predict the state of the atmosphere at a future time and given
location. Weather
forecasts
are
made
by
collecting
quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and
using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project
how the atmosphere will evolve.
There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather
warnings are important forecasts because they are used to
protect life and property. Forecasts based on temperature
and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to
commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts
are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming
days. On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to
determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities
are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and the wind chill,
forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and
to plan ahead and survive them.
vi)

Maritime meteorology

Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships
operating at sea. Organizations such as the Ocean Prediction
Center, Honolulu National Weather Service forecast office, United
Kingdom Met Office, and JMA prepare high seas forecasts for the
world's oceans.
vii) Military meteorology
Military meteorology is the research and application of
meteorology for military purposes. In the United States,
the United States Navy's Commander, Naval Meteorology and
Oceanography Command oversees meteorological efforts for the
Navy and Marine Corps while the United States Air Force's Air
Force Weather Agency is responsible for the Air Force and Army.

viii) Environmental meteorology

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Environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial pollution

dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological
parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind, and various
weather conditions.
ix)

Renewable energy

Meteorology applications in renewable energy include basic

research, "exploration", and potential mapping of wind power and
solar radiation for wind and solar energy.
x)

Medical meteorology

Medical meteorology has to do with the influence of weather and

climate on the human body.
xi)Aerology
Aerology is the branch of meteorology that is concerned with the
conditions of the free atmosphere on the basis of direct
observations.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 BASIC CONCEPTS OF METEOROLOGY

2.1 THE ATMOSPHERE
The word atmosphere derives from the Greek words "atmos"
which means vapor and "sphaira" which means sphere. It is now
used to denote the gaseous sphere surrounding the earth. The air,
or the material of which the atmosphere is composed, is a
mechanical mixture of a number of different gases. A sample of
dry and pure air contains about 78 per cent (by volume) nitrogen,
21 per cent oxygen, and almost 1 per cent argon. In addition, it
contains about 0.03 per cent carbon dioxide. Nitrogen, oxygen,
argon, and carbon dioxide constitute about 99.99 per cent of dry
and pure air. The remaining 0.01 per cent represents traces of
several other gases, such as neon, krypton, helium, ozone, xenon,
and hydrogen. The atmosphere consist of layers which includes:
the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the
thermosphere. With their pauses which represents areas of
changes in temperature.
2.2 CLOUDS
Cloud tpes associated with meotrology includes:
Cirrus (Ci) is the highest of all clouds. It has a typical
fibrous(threadlike) structure and a delicate silky appearance .
Cirro-stratus (Cs) is a thin, whitish sheet of cloud, sometimes
like a veil covering the whole sky and merely giving it a milky
appearaace, at other times showing signs of a fibrous structure
like a tangled web. Cirro-cumulus (Cc) consists usually of small,
white flakes of clouds without shadow, arranged in a regular
pattern. Cirro-cumulus develops from cirro-stratus. The pattern
is due to a single or a double undulation of the cloud sheet. Altostratus (As) is a dense sheet of gray or bluish color, frequently
showing a fibrous structure It often merges gradually into cirro8

stratus. Increasing alto-stratus is usually followed by precipitation

of a continuous and lasting type. Alto-cumulus (Ac) differs from
cirro-cumulus in consisting of larger globules, often with shadows,
whereas cirro-cumulus clouds show only indications of shadows or
none at all. Altocumulus
often develops from dissolving alto-stratus. An important variety
of alto-cumulus is called alto-cumulus castellatus. In appearance,
it resembles ordinary Ac; but, in places, turreted tops develop that
look like miniature cumulus. Alto-cumulus castellatus usually
indicates a change to a chaotic, thundery sky. Strato-cumulus
(Sc) is a cloud layer consisting of large lumpy masses or rolls of
dull gray color with brighter interstices.
The masses are often arranged in a regular way and resemble
alto-cumulus. Nimbo-stratus (Ns) is a dense, shapeless, and
ragged layer of low clouds from which steady precipitation usually
falls. It is usually connected with alto-stratus that is present above
the nimbus. Fragments of nimbus that drift under the rain clouds
are called fractonimbus or scud.
Cumulus (Cu) is a thick cloud whose upper surface is
domeshaped, often of a cauliflower structure, the base being
usually horizontal. Cumulus clouds may be divided into two
classes. Flat cumulus clouds without towers or protuberances are
called Cumulus humilis, or fair-weather cumulus, have no towera
or protuberances. cumulus humilis or fair-weather cumulus.
Towering cumulus clouds with typical cauliflower structure
showing internal
motion and turbulence are called cumulus congestus . They may
develop
into
cumulo-nimbus.
Cumulo-nimbus
(Cb)
thunderclouds or shower clouds are great masses of cloud rising
like mountains, towers, or anvils and having a base that looks like
a ragged mass of nimbo-stratus. The tops are often anvil-shaped
or surrounded by false cirrus. Stratus (St) is a uniform layer of low
fog like cloud, but not lying on the ground. Seen from above, the
stratus layers often show surges like a large swell on an ocean of
cloud
2.3 WIND SYSTEMS
As far as motion is concerned, the atmosphere may be regarded
as an engine that creates kinetic energy (wind) from heat energy,
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the difference in temperature between the poles and the equator

and between the upper and lower atmosphere being the
significant sources of energy. In the wind system different forces
such as the pressure gradients force, the coriolis force and the
centripetal forces combines to give rise to the gradient wind,
which is due to the balance of the pressure gradient force, the
coriolis force and the centripetal force, and geostrophic wind
occurs from the balance of the pressure gradient force and the
coriolis effect.
2.4 PRESSURE SYSTEMS.
If the atmospheric pressure is observed at a large number of
stations over a large area and if isobars are drawn, it will be found
that only a limited number of types of pressure distribution
occurs.
The principal types of pressure distribution are areas of high and
low pressure. The areas of low pressure are usually called
depressions, cyclones, or simply low. A depression, or cyclone,
may then be defined as an area within which the pressure is low
relative to the surroundings. the wind circulation around a cyclone
(low) is counterclockwise. An anticyclone may be defined as an
area within the high pressure system relative to the
surroundings. The wind circulation is clockwise around an
anticyclone, with a drift away from the center.
2.5 FRONTS
Front is simply the boundary between two air masses. They are
defined by the temperature profile of the air masses which is
moving over the area. This air mass could either be the cold air
mass or the warm air mass. The frontal characteristics applied
to all fronts whether colder air replaces warmer air, or vice versa,
or whether the front remains stationary.
These characteristics may, therefore, be called general front
characteristics. Depending on the movement of the front and the
stability conditions of the air masses, a number of additional
characteristics may be described. It is, therefore, appropriate to
classify the fronts in order to specify the special characteristics
that apply to the individual types.
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1. Cold front- is a front along which colder air replaces warmer

air.
2. Warm front- is a front along which warmer air replaces colder
air.
3. Stationary front- is a front along which one air mass does not
replace the other.
4. An Occluded front- is a front resulting when a cold front
overtakes a warm front.
Although the difference in temperature (or density) is the primary
factor, the most important characteristic is the cloud systems and
the weather phenomena associated with the types of front listed
above.
CONCLUSION
Meteorology generally involves all the processes in the
atmosphere,
from
the
formations
of
clouds,
rainfall,
thunderstorms, lightening, fronts, wind, hydrologic cycle etc., its
aspects and implications to man and the environment. The most
important aspect of meteorology for weather phenomenon
processes occurs in an altitude of about (35-40) km in the
stratosphere. The sun also plays a very important role in
meteorological processes.
REFERENCES
American Institute of Physics. Atmospheric
Modeling. Retrieved on 2008-01-13.

General

Circulation

Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Elsevier, ISSN 0168-1923

Encyclopdia Britannica, 2007.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.14778696.1999.tb03992.x/pdf

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Jump up^ Cox, John D. (2002). Storm Watchers. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. p. 208. ISBN 0-471-38108-X.
William Ferrel. An Essay on the Winds and the Currents of the
Ocean. Retrieved on 2009-01-01.

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